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The Edge of Physics WWW.SCIAM.COM Display until May 31, 2003 $5.95 U.S. $6.50 CAN. COPYRIGHT 2003 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Volume 13 Number 1 contents2003 the edge of physics 3 Letter from the Editor übertheory 4 A Unified Physics by 2050? By Steven Weinberg harnessingquanta Experiments at CERN and elsewhere should 24 Simple Rules for a Complex let us complete the Standard Model of particle Quantum World physics, but a unified theory of all forces will By Michael A. Nielsen probably require radically new ideas. An exciting new fundamental discipline of research combines information science 12 The Theory Formerly Known and quantum mechanics. as Strings By Michael J. Duff 34 Quantum Teleportation The Theory of Everything is emerging as one By Anton Zeilinger in which not only strings but also membranes The science-fiction dream of “beaming” and black holes play a role. objects from place to place is now a reality— at least for particles of light. 18 Black Holes and the Information Paradox 44 Frozen Light By Leonard Susskind By Lene Vestergaard Hau What happens to the information in matter Slowing a beam of light to a halt may destroyed by a black hole? Searching for that pave the way for new optical communications answer, physicists are groping toward a technology, tabletop black holes and quantum theory of gravity. quantum computers. Cover illustration by Tom Draper Design; Tom Draper Design (left); Chip Simons (right); page 2: William Pelletier/Photo Services, Inc., courtesy of the University of Michigan (left); Tom Draper Design (inset and right) www.sciam.com THE EDGE OF PHYSICS 1 COPYRIGHT 2003 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. extremeexperiments 52 The Large Hadron Collider By Chris Llewellyn Smith The Large Hadron Collider, a global collaboration exoticspaces to uncover an exotic new layer of reality, will Negative Energy, Wormholes be a particle accelerator of unprecedented 84 energy and complexity. and Warp Drive By Lawrence H. Ford and Thomas A. Roman The construction of wormholes and warp 60 TheAsymmetry between drive would require a very unusual form of Matter and Antimatter energy. But the same laws of physics that By Helen R. Quinn and Michael S. Witherell allow this “negative energy” also appear to New accelerators will search for violations in a limit its behavior. fundamental symmetry of nature, throwing open a window to physics beyond the known. 92 Nanophysics: Detecting Massive Neutrinos Plenty of Room, Indeed 68 By Michael Roukes By Edward Kearns, Takaaki Kajita and Yoji Totsuka There is plenty of room for practical A giant detector in the heart of Mount Ikenoyama innovation at the nanoscale. But first, in Japan has demonstrated that neutrinos scientists have to understand the unique metamorphose in flight, strongly suggesting physics that governs matter there. that these ghostly particles have mass. Extreme Light Scientific American Special (ISSN 1048-0943), Volume 13, Number 1, 2003, 76 published by Scientific American, Inc., 415 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10017-1111. Copyright © 2003 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights By Gérard A. Mourou and Donald Umstadter reserved. No part of this issue may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic or electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic Focusing light with the power of 1,000 Hoover recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or otherwise copied for public or private use without written permission of the Dams onto a point the size of a cell nucleus publisher. Canadian BN No. 127387652RT; QST No. Q1015332537. To purchase additional quantities: 1 to 9 copies: U.S. $5.95 each plus $2.00 per copy for accelerates electrons to the speed of light postage and handling (outside U.S. $5.00 P&H). Send payment to Scientific American, Dept. PHY, 415 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10017-1111. in a femtosecond. Inquiries: Fax 212-355-0408 or telephone 212-451-8890. Printed in U.S.A. 2 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN THE EDGE OF PHYSICS COPYRIGHT 2003 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. letterfromtheeditor ® Established 1845 The Edge of Physics is published by the staff of Scientific American, with project management by: Postcards EDITOR IN CHIEF: John Rennie EXECUTIVE EDITOR: Mariette DiChristina ISSUE EDITOR: Mark Fischetti ISSUE CONSULTANT: Graham P. Collins from the Edge ART DIRECTOR: Edward Bell ISSUE DESIGNER: Jessie Nathans PHOTOGRAPHY EDITOR: Bridget Gerety Anyone who understands science knows that it is often a messy, complex PRODUCTION EDITOR: Richard Hunt business that can’t be conveniently packaged into neat “breakthroughs,” de- COPY DIRECTOR: Maria-Christina Keller spite what may appear in the daily headlines. Yet the striving of scientists to COPY CHIEF: Molly K. Frances COPY AND RESEARCH: Daniel C. Schlenoff, reach beyond the current limits of human learning is constant and unyielding, Rina Bander, Shea Dean, Emily Harrison, a persistent tap, tap, tapping away at the obscuring shield that lies at the edge David Labrador, Myles McDonnell of the unknown. EDITORIAL ADMINISTRATOR: Jacob Lasky Physics, frequently called the most fundamental of sciences, quests vigor- SENIOR SECRETARY: Maya Harty ously to solve great puzzles at least as much as any other discipline. In recent ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER, PRODUCTION: William Sherman years, researchers have made strides to- MANUFACTURING MANAGER: Janet Cermak ward a Theory of Everything, one that ADVERTISING PRODUCTION MANAGER: Carl Cherebin could someday wrap together the clas- PREPRESS AND QUALITY MANAGER: Silvia Di Placido sical physics inspired by Isaac Newton PRINT PRODUCTION MANAGER: Georgina Franco with the rules that govern events on PRODUCTION MANAGER: Christina Hippeli CUSTOM PUBLISHING MANAGER: quantum scales. Scientists have begun Madelyn Keyes-Milch to forge a quantum theory of gravity, ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER/VICE PRESIDENT, found ways to “beam” particles of CIRCULATION: Lorraine Leib Terlecki light from one place to another, and CIRCULATION DIRECTOR: Katherine Corvino CIRCULATION PROMOTION MANAGER: even stopped light cold, the better to Joanne Guralnick scrutinize its nature. They have learned FULFILLMENT AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGER: that the laws of physics don’t preclude Rosa Davis an unusual form of energy—negative PUBLISHER: Bruce Brandfon ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER: Gail Delott energy—that could be used in the con- SALES DEVELOPMENT MANAGER: David Tirpack struction of even more fantastic phenomena, such as shortcuts through space SALES REPRESENTATIVES: Stephen Dudley, called wormholes and faster-than-light warp drives. Hunter Millington, Stan Schmidt, Debra Silver Clearly, much work remains. Giant experiments that are now under way ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER, STRATEGIC PLANNING: Laura Salant or soon becoming active will let researchers probe an exotic new layer of real- PROMOTION MANAGER: Diane Schube ity, delve into the reasons behind the puzzling asymmetry between antimatter RESEARCH MANAGER: Aida Dadurian PROMOTION DESIGN MANAGER: Nancy Mongelli and matter in the universe, and detect “massive” neutrinos as the ghostly par- ticles speed through the planet. GENERAL MANAGER: Michael Florek BUSINESS MANAGER: Marie Maher The latest developments in all these areas, and more, appear in this special MANAGER, ADVERTISING ACCOUNTING AND edition from Scientific American. We invite you to explore these reports— COORDINATION: Constance Holmes postcards from those who are laboring in the field to push back the boundaries DIRECTOR, SPECIAL PROJECTS: Barth David Schwartz of knowledge, a little at a time. MANAGING DIRECTOR, SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM: Mina C. Lux DIRECTOR, ANCILLARY PRODUCTS: Diane McGarvey PERMISSIONS MANAGER: Linda Hertz MANAGER OF CUSTOM PUBLISHING: John Rennie Jeremy A. Abbate Editor in Chief CHAIRMAN EMERITUS: John J. Hanley Scientific American CHAIRMAN: Rolf Grisebach PRESIDENT AND CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER: [email protected] Gretchen G. Teichgraeber VICE PRESIDENT AND MANAGING DIRECTOR, INTERNATIONAL: Charles McCullagh VICE PRESIDENT: Frances Newburg TOM DRAPER DESIGN www.sciam.com THE EDGE OF PHYSICS 3 COPYRIGHT 2003 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. übertheory a unifiedphysics By Steven Weinberg by 2050? he primary goal of physics is to understand el of particle physics, has achieved a unification of elec- the wonderful variety of nature in a unified tromagnetism with the weak interactions, the forces re- way. The greatest advances of the past have sponsible for the change of neutrons and protons into each been steps toward this goal: The unification other in radioactive processes and in the stars. The Stan- of terrestrial and celestial mechanics by dard Model also gives a separate but similar description of Isaac Newton in the 17th century. The the- the strong interactions, the forces that hold quarks together ories of electricity and magnetism by James Clerk Maxwell inside protons and neutrons and hold protons and neu- Tin the 19th century. Spacetime geometry and the theory of trons together inside atomic nuclei. gravitation by Albert Einstein from 1905 to 1916. And the We have ideas about how the theory of strong interac- unraveling of chemistry and atomic physics through the tions can be unified with the theory of weak and electro- advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s. magnetic interactions (often called Grand Unification), but Einstein devoted the last 30 years of his life to an un- this may only work if gravity is included, which presents successful search for a “unified field theory,” which would grave difficulties. We suspect that the apparent differences unite general relativity—his own theory of spacetime and
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