BASELINE STUDY OF THE FLORA IN OFFAKA SUB COUNTY, ARUA DISTRICT

PREPARED BY: Andama Edward LEAD CONSULTANT

For Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College

MARCH 2015

Cover page photographs the order appearance

Debarking (removal of the bark) of a A hunter with a dog during hunting expedition in a medicinal tree (Kanza) forest

Cattle being grazed inside a forest Tobacco crop, barn and pile of wood for curing the tobacco leaves

Bags of charcoal heaped along the Group of women at Ullepi trading centre selling road for collection Shea nut oil

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ii TABLE OF FIGURES ...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... v LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... vi FORWARD ...... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (ENGLISH VERSION) ...... x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 General background ...... 1 1.2 Problem statement ...... 1 1.3 Rationale of the study ...... 2 1.4 General Objective ...... 3 CHAPTER TWO: THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY AND SITE CHARACTERISTICS ...... 5 2.1. The Offaka Community- Historical background ...... 5 2.1.1 Cultural identity ...... 5 2.1.2 Historical background ...... 5 2.1.3. Traditional leadership structures in Madi Okollo community ...... 6 2.1.4 Traditional livelihood strategies ...... 7 2.2. The biophysical environment ...... 7 2.2.1. Location ...... 7 2.2.2. Climate ...... 8 2.2.3. Vegetation ...... 8 2.2.4. Soils and river system ...... 8 2.3. The population, settlement pattern and economy ...... 9 2.4. Health care system ...... 11 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 12 3.1. Planning and scope of the study ...... 12 3.3. Vegetation Surveys ...... 13 3.3.1. Sampling techniques and design ...... 13 3.3.2. Village transect walks ...... 15 3.4. Assessment of Land Use Cover and vegetation change analysis ...... 15 3.5. Mammal Surveys ...... 15 3.6. Threats to sustainable uses of the plant and animal resources ...... 15 3.7. Data analysis ...... 15 3.8. Challenges and limitations of the study ...... 15 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ...... 18 4.1 Socio economic background of the respondents ...... 18 4.2. Plant uses and ethno-botanical knowledge ...... 24 4.2.1. Plants used for domestic fuel ...... 24 4.2.2. Charcoal production and business ...... 25 4.2.3. Tobacco production ...... 27 4.2.4. Medicinal plants used by the community ...... 29

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4.2.5. Plant species used as food...... 31 4.2.5. The plants commonly used for constructing houses and crafts...... 33 4.3.1. Wildlife hunting ...... 34 4.4. Nature based enterprises ...... 38 4.4.1. Bee keeping, bee products and bee forage ...... 38 4.4.2. Shea nut oil processing industry ...... 39 4.5. Gender and participation in household and natural resource management ...... 41 4.6. Human threats to natural resource ...... 42 4.7. Environmental challenges affecting local community ...... 44 4.7.1. Human wildlife conflicts ...... 44 4.8. Community perception of the environmental degradation concerns ...... 45 4.9. Institutional structures and instruments for management of biodiversity ...... 46 4.10. Plant biodiversity ...... 47 4.10.1. Tree species diversity ...... 47 4.11. Land cover/vegetation changes in Offaka during the period 2000 to 2014...... 48 4.12. Land cover change analysis ...... 49 4.13. Vegetaion and agroecology of Offaka Sub County ...... 50 4.14. Herbage species cover and composition ...... 52 4.15. Mammal Diversity ...... 52 4.16. Complimentary stakeholder activities ...... 53 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ...... 54 5.1. Biodiversity uses and indigenous knowledge ...... 54 5.2. Unsustainable floral resource utilisation ...... 54 5.3. Challenges and opportunities for sustainable utilization of biodiversity ...... 56 5.4. Promoting strategies for the conservation of medicinal-plant genetic resources ...... 56 5.5. Potential for value addition to biodiversity ...... 57 5.5. Key gender issues ...... 59 5.6. Plant Biodiversity Monitoring ...... 59 5.6.1 Monitoring protocol ...... 60 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 62 6.1. Conclusions ...... 62 6.2. Recommendations ...... 63 REFERENCES ...... 66 APPENDICES ...... 69 Appendix 1. Research team composition ...... 69 Appendix 2. Household interview questionnaire ...... 70 Appendix 3 (a). List of groups /associations consulted during the Focus Group Discussions (FGD) ..... 81 Appendix 3 b Lists of persons consulted during informant interviews ...... 81 Appendix. 4. List of plants commonly used for medicinal purpose and their uses...... 83 Appendix 5. List of plants recorded during Offaka Sub County plant study ...... 85 Appendix 6. Common herbage plant species recorded in Offaka Sub County ...... 133 Appendix 7. The list of the mammals reported to occur in the study area by the hunters ...... 134 Appendix 8. List of key institutions /persons for collaborations ...... 138

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TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1. Location of Offaka Sub County in Arua District ...... 9 Figure 2. Typical settlement pattern in Offaka Sub County (Image on left from Google map November 2014)...... 10 Figure 3. Location of sampling sites in Offaka Sub County ...... 14 Figure 4. The land use types in the year 2000 (FAO 2000), indicating locations of the Central forest Reserves Managed by NFA ...... 17 Figure 5. The percentage age distribution of the respondents (N=154) ...... 18 Figure 6. The level of education reached by the respondents (N=154) ...... 19 Figure 7. Occupations of the respondents (N=154) ...... 19 Figure 8. Percentage of the respondents who owned communication and transportation facilities...... 20 Figure 9. Livestock species ownership by the respondents ...... 20 Figure 10. The annual income of the respondents...... 21 Figure 11. Land holding/ownership status by the respondents ...... 22 Figure 12. The categories of food availability at the homes of the respondents ...... 22 Figure 13. The type of house owned by the respondents (n=154) ...... 23 Figure 14. The common types of crops reported grown by the community (N= 154)...... 23 Figure 15. The choices of health facility attended by the respondents ...... 24 Figure 16. The four indigenous plant species most preferred for firewood based on the frequency of mention...... 24 Figure 17. The sacks of charcoal heaped in several locations ready for collection by the trucks...... 26 Figure 18. Bags of charcoal heaped along the road by the charcoal sellers ready for collection by the lorry trucks. 27 Figure 19. A lorry truck loaded with charcoal bags along Offaka to Anyiribu road ...... 27 Figure 20. Cussonia arborea (locally known as Cawu) and other tree species are left uncut because they do not produce good quality charcoal ...... 27 Figure 21. (left) An oven where wood is burnt to produce heat channelled through the pipe system to dry the tobacco leaves. (right) A simple tobacco burn (house)...... 28 Figure 22. A team of family members participating in tobacco work at their home...... 29 Figure 23. Plants commonly used for medicinal purpose...... 29 Figure 24. Some of the Medicinal plants recorded in the study ...... 30 Figure 25. The source of collecting medicinal plants ...... 30 Figure 26. The family members involved in collection of medicinal plants...... 31 Figure 27. The plant species most frequently used for food...... 32 Figure 28. Some of the common fruit plants recorded in the Sub County with potential for value addition ...... 32 Figure 29. Sclerocarya birrea (Amarula) locally called nungu tree with ripe fruits fallen underneath the tree and left rotting because no value was attached to it...... 33 Figure 30. Plants used for construction of houses ...... 33 Figure 31. Plant species used for making crafts ...... 33 Figure 32. Common types of crafts made by the community crafts person in Offaka Sub County ...... 34 Figure 33. The amount of annual revenue earned from the sale of crafts by the respondents ...... 34 Figure 34. One of the clan leaders for hunters (Mr. Geoffrey) showing his arrows and the plant (Miscanthus violaceus) used for making the handle of the arrows...... 35 Figure 35. An unidentified man in the bush on a hunting expedition with his dog within the woodland vegetation 35 Figure 36. The wild animal species reported to occur in the area ...... 35 Figure 37.The wild animal species hunted most by the community...... 36 Figure 38.Locations of hunting areas in the Sub County where the hunters normally go to hunt ...... 37 Figure 39. Fish species reported to occur in the rivers and streams ...... 37 Figure 40. Tefrosia vogeli shrub plant used for poisoning fish ...... 38 Figure 41. A traditional bee hive placed on the Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) tree...... 38

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Figure 42. Women only bee keeping association visited during the FGD...... 39 Figure 43. Plant species reported as forage for bees...... 39 Figure 44. The amount of income received from sale of honey in one season ...... 39 Figure 45. Shea nut seeds (left) roasted (right) ready for extracting the oil ...... 40 Figure 46. The Shea nut butter oil sellers along the Arua Gulu road at Ullepi trading centre Arua district… ...... 40 Figure 47. Women participation in household work ...... 41 Figure 48. Women involvement in control of cash from sale of crops at house hold level...... 42 Figure 49. Large herds of livestock (cattle, goats, and sheep) grazing the woodland vegetation...... 42 Figure 50.Soil erosion commonly observed in areas with livestock grazing...... 43 Figure 51. Area burnt by fire probably during charcoal making process or to enable regeneration of grass for livestock...... 43 Figure 52. Opening of land for agricultural production which damages plant diversity...... 44 Figure 53. Problem animal (crop raiding) species reported to occur in the area...... 44 Figure 54. Proposed solutions to combat crop raiding by the problem animals...... 45 Figure 55. Environmental problems reported within communities...... 45 Figure 56. Proposed solution to address Environmental degradation in the area ...... 46 Figure 57. Shea nut trees and Amarula tree (extreme right) cut for making charcoal ...... 46 Figure 58.Tree species accumulation curve for vegetation sampling ...... 47 Figure 59. Land use change between 2000 and 2014 for different land use categories...... 49 Figure 60. Land cover in the year 2000 (left) and the year 2014 (right) for Offaka Sub County ...... 50 Figure 61.The major vegetation/land cover types as of 2014...... 51 Figure 62. Close to open woodland on the north western part of the Sub County near Ajinia Hill Primary school .... 52 Figure 63. Typical Vitellaria paradox preserved in community farm land in the study area ...... 52 Figure 64. Vraious fruit palnt species being propagated at the Abii ZARDI at their experimental site in Abii, Manibe Sub County Ayivu County Arua Disstrict...... 53 Figure 65. Medicinal skin oil (left) and soap (right) are products in Ugandan market manufactured from Shea nut oil...... 58 Figure 66. Bottled beverages produced from Sclerecarya birrea tree fruit on the market in Southern Africa...... 58

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. The number of villages and households per parish for administering the questionnaire...... 13 Table 2.Commonly harvested plants ranked based on their importance and uses...... 25 Table 3. Plant species recorded with the IUCN (2011) status of endangered ...... 47 Table 4. FAO Land cover/use in 2000 ...... 48 Table 5. Land cover distribution for major land use types in Offaka Sub County in the year 2014 ...... 48 Table 6. Vegetation physiognomic and species composition ...... 50 Table 7. Proposed indicator species based on vegetation type ...... 60

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AAC: Adraa Agriculture College AP: Action Plan BSC Botanic Study Committee CA: Conservation Agriculture CFM: Collaborative Forest Management FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization FCT: Flue Cured Tobacco FGD: Focus Group Discussion FMNR: Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration GIS: Geographic Information System GoU: Government of Uganda HHI: House Hold Interview HQ: Head Quarter IR: Inception report IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LRA Lords Resistance Army MDG: Millennium Development Goals NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Services NFA National Forest Authority NTFP: Non-Timber Forest Products ODP: Offaka Development Programme OSLG: Offaka Sub County Local Government PA: Protected Area RS: Remote Sense SDG: Sustainable Development Goals THMPs Traditional Herbal Medicine Practitioners THPs: Traditional Health Practitioners ToR: Terms of Reference UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics UGX: Uganda Shillings WHO: World Health Organisation ZARDI: Abii Zonal Agricultural Research Development Institute

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AUTHOR

Dr. Andama Edward works as Senior Lecturer at Busitema University, Faculty of Science and Education. He is also the initiator and coordinator of Greater Eastern Uganda Regional Centre of Expertise. His study interests have for long focused on indigenous plants knowledge utilization, management for sustainable development of the local community.

DISCLAIMER

This research, commissioned by Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College, was undertaken and written by Dr. Andama Edward, Mr. Robert Ocatre and Constance Alezuyo.

The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the author (s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College unless otherwise stated.

The report is property of Trócaire Uganda and copyright for material in this report is held by Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College

All photographs in this report are courtesy of Andama Edward and the research team unless otherwise stated.

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FORWARD

Trócaire is very pleased to have been associated with this study, done with ADRAA and Dr. Andama and his team, given its global interest in environmental justice and climate change. As far as we are aware this is the first comprehensive botanical study of a Sub County carried out in Uganda. Given that the Sub County is the lowest autonomous Government system – which functions socially, economically and politically as independent unit - it is the crucial level at which planning, implementation and management must and does take place.

Genetically modified food is one route to trying to meet the ever growing food needs of the world but it hardly looks a sustainable one. There seem to be significant dangers of focusing on a narrow range of crops – maize, banana, cassava, potatoes or rice. A couple of bad seasons or a resistant disease can have devastating effects as we in Ireland know all too well from the Great Potato Famine of the 1840s.

This study shows that there is still great diversity of flora in Offaka and that we neglect this rich biodiversity at our peril.

However, there have been dramatic, not to say drastic, changes in land use patterns in Offaka Sub County in the last 14 years. An 87% reduction in closed woodland, a 77% increase in use of land for agriculture, communal lands that are not being actively managed, a doubling of the human population in the Sub County every 23 years, massive exports of charcoal (made from communal precious trees) from the Sub County, growing tobacco which demands large amounts of fuel wood for curing leaves, bush burning and practically no replacement by tree planting – it all looks like a “perfect storm” for biodiversity destruction in Offaka. Don’t say you weren’t warned. One wonders to what extent Offaka is replicated in other Sub Counties in Uganda. From anecdotal evidence many other Sub Counties are already further down the route of environmental destruction. From my rough conservative calculations, Offaka Sub County is exporting 300 bags of charcoal a day which is equivalent to about 75 trees every day!

It seems like there is a very short window to try and turn this juggernaut around and get back to sustainable management. This report gives recommendations that can help get us back on track and reverse this biodiversity destruction before it is too late. This report highlights the great need for sustainable land use planning as well as environmental management. I hope that planners, agriculturalists, educationalists, medical people, administrators, and researchers in every Sub County and district in Uganda will study this report and relate the outcome of the study to their own ethno-botanical ecosystems.

I hope that this reflection will lead our administrators, planners and leaders at all levels of Government system to debate and come up with development approaches, processes and strategies that will ensure we manage our biodiversity holistically and that the multifunctional role of ethno botanical plants be highlighted in government development policies, development and action plans.

Ian Dolan, Trócaire Uganda country Director

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On behalf of the research team I want to thank the community of Offaka Sub County termed “Madi Okollo” with whom and for whom this project was carried out. Their hospitality and keen interest in the proceedings was an inspiration during field work and training sessions. This report owes much to the dedicated work of the Offaka Botanic Study committee, clan leaders, traditional herbalists, bee keeping associations, Shea nut oil processors, and others far too many to name individually here. The documentation of biological knowledge of Offaka Sub County and its presentation in accessible form has been one of the objectives formulated by the Offaka Botanic Study Team. Adraa Agriculture College supported the project by providing logistic support and availing its staff for training to support the research activity. In this regard we are indebted to the College Principal Bro. Tony Dolan, Ag. Deputy Principal Ms. Sarah Oates and the field team from Adraa Agriculture College particularly Mr. Dan Dunia and Mr. Bayua Richard. The project was funded by Trócaire Uganda country office and we are grateful to the Country Director Mr. Ian Dolan, Trócaire Livelihoods technical advisor Ms. Rose Hogan and Programme Officer Ms. Mary Baganizi for entrusting my team with the opportunity to do the work. Our thanks also go to Trócaire driver Mr. Geoffrey Naluwayiro who ensured safe travelling to various parts of the study area during data collection. The volunteer team at Adraa Agriculture College worked with dedication. These include Mr. Adaku Kennedy, Ms. Oturu Peace, Ms. Driciru Hellen, Mr. Asiku Robert, Mr. Aliama Godwin, Mr. Olea Primus, Mr. Acidri Gilbert, Mr. Oyella Adamic, and Mr. Atabua Geoffrey. We thank the Offaka Sub County administration, clan elders in Offaka and many other stakeholders for their vigilance and cooperation.

We are very grateful for the useful comments from key institutional stakeholders which shaped the report. These include Trócaire Uganda, Adraa Agriculture College, Uganda Wildlife Authority, National Forest Authority, Abii ZARDI, Arua District Local Government Departments of Environment and Forestry among others. At individual level Trócaire Uganda country Director Mr. Ian Dolan, Principal Adraa Agriculture College Bro. Tony Dolan, and Programme Officer Ms. Mary Baganizi are among many persons who contributed many valuable suggestions which shaped the presentation of the content and design of the report. To you all I say awadifo!

The research team was led by Dr. Andama Edward, and supported by Mr. Ocatre Robert, Ms. Constance Alezuyo, Mr. Rwaburindore Protase, and Mr. Amandu Benard as technical/expert persons in their various fields of expertise.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (ENGLISH VERSION)

Savannah woodlands have rich biodiversity of both plants and animals which support local community livelihood. The plants in particular have been exploited over a long time by the ancestral communities for food, as materials for house building, crafts, as a source of household energy and medicine. The plants also provide shade, control soil erosion and are used for performing cultural functions. Products derived from plants are also traded for generating money for the families. The destruction of indigenous flora by bush burning, charcoal-making and poor farming practices is degrading the ecosystem services provided by the indigenous plants towards community livelihoods. Greater understanding and awareness of the species and their values can stimulate renewed interest in improving their conservation and sustainable utilisation. This study in Offaka Sub County focused on documenting the plant species and some animal species in the area and identified pressure on biodiversity and described the economic, social and cultural uses of this biodiversity by local communities. This information is to be used to develop strategies for sustainable use of these resources.

General objectives

The general objective of the study was to identify and draw up an inventory of the flora of Offaka Sub County, indicate the economic, medicinal and environmental importance to the Offaka community of this flora and to make recommendations on how stakeholders working in the Sub County can conserve, propagate and promote such flora for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in the Sub County.

Specific objectives of the study were to:

(i) Describe and document the general agro-ecology of Offaka Sub County. (ii) Identify and document vegetation types, mosaics and plant species which make up the flora of the Sub County. (iii)Document flora which have economic, nutritional, medicinal and social potential to make a contribution to the achievement of sustainable livelihoods of the women and the men of Offaka Sub County. (iv) Describe current female and male dominated human practices that are affecting either positively or negatively the maintenance of a rich bio-diverse flora. (v) Describe the responsibilities of all levels of governance and of households and individuals in relation to indigenous plant and habitat protection outside of the officially protected areas in Uganda. (vi) Make recommendations on the management, rehabilitation and propagation of economical, nutritional, medicinal and socially (differentiating between women’s and men’s roles) important flora.

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(vii) Make recommendations on the promotion of economical, nutritional, medicinal and socially important flora. (viii) Make recommendations to stakeholders working in the Sub County on development approaches, processes and strategies for the promotion of identified flora to ensure improved livelihoods and environmental conservation.

Research method

The study was undertaken in Offaka Sub County in Arua district. Plants were sampled in plots located in representative vegetation category sites. Land use and cover was assessed from Landsat and Google Spot images and compared with those of the Food Agricultural Organization (FAO) vegetation map of the year 2000). The change analysis was conducted between the 2000 FAO land cover map and the 2014 land cover map analyzed from Landsat and Google image. During field study the team undertook visual rechecking (ground truthing) of the vegetation during village/parish transect walks and this was compared with aerial photography to generate current land and vegetation change over the past 14 year period. The household surveys were conducted and a total of 154 questionnaires were administered to respondents. Seven Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and 22 individual informant interviews were carried out. These targeted collection of specific information in relation to group activities, their expert knowledge and the individuals specialized areas of work. Information on occurrence of mammal species was obtained through interview with the hunters and this was complimented by observations during plant surveys.

Key Results

Tree species diversity and vegetation cover

A total of 703 individual plant species were enumerated resulting in a total of 193 individual species recorded during the study, belonging to 57 families. Of the plants recorded in the area, four species Afzelia Africana (Lokoko), Dalbergia melanoxylon (Poyi), Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and Khaya anthotheca (Eri/Mario) are grouped in the IUCN (2011) category of endangered plant species in Uganda. Record of similar plant study approach in other sub counties was not available for comparison of the plant biodiversity nevertheless this report indicates that Offaka Sub County has high diversity of plant species, ranging from trees to shrubs and herbaceous/grass layers. The most dominant tree species were Combretum (Adu), Acacia (Oli) in non-farm lands while the farmlands were dominated by Vitellaria, Tamarindus and Ficus (Laru) tree species. The shrub layer was dominated by Grewia (Inzu) and Annona senegalense (Lipa) species. Whereas the grass cover was dominated by Hyperthermia dissolute (Embetia), Branchiaria (Licoo) and Enteropogan (Ta-ngu) species. These findings indicate that Offaka Sub County contains nationally and internationally very important wildlife species which need to be conserved for the benefit of humanity.

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Vegetation cover change analysis The overall area covered by Offaka Sub County is 20,452.36 hectares. Land vegetation cover change analysis between 2000 and 2014 shows that land for agriculture increased to 11,249.51 ha in 2014 from 6,374.68 ha in 2000. Closed woodland vegetation type reduced from 11,912.88 ha. to 1,582.78 ha. with most of it (4,856.85 ha.) going for use in agriculture and 2,186.87 to wooded grass lands. Therefore, the land cover pattern for the year 2014 indicate that agriculture was the dominant land use with 11,249.50 ha, followed by wooded grassland with 3,309 ha, closed woodland vegetation 1.582.50 ha, close to open woodland vegetation with 2,598.60 ha. In general 86.71% of the closed woodland was lost during the last 14 year period!

Mammal species A total of 24 mammal species were reported to occur in the area according to the hunters’ knowledge supplemented by the field observations. The most commonly reported were Baboon, Black and White Colobus Monkey, Vervet Monkey, Patas Monkey, Uganda Kob, Waterbuck, Bushbuck, Bushpig, Bush Duiker, Wild Rabbit, Warthog, Aardvark, Serval Cat, Civet Cat and, banded Mongoose. The continued existence of these mammal species in the area suggests that environmental conditions may still be favourable in the study area to support their existence. However, the recent change in land use patterns in Offaka Sub County which resulted in substantial loss of natural habitats, is likely to lead to wild mammal species extinction in the area,

Use of biodiversity This study has shown Offaka Sub County still has reasonably high plant biodiversity which the community depend on for livelihood. The food plants considered of importance to the community included Shea nut Tree (Awa), Mangoes (Mango), Oranges (Ndima), Avocado (avocado), Tamarind (Iti) and Brother Heart, Ego, Jackfruit (Fene), Ecifi, Esisi, Passion Fruit (Enzu), Cashew Nut (Kasu nut), Nungu, Okoro and Zabibu (Elo). 88% of respondents reported that they used herbal medicine in their family. Various plants both indigenous and non- indigenous (exotic) were used for treatment of various ailments and they included Mangifera indica (Mango), Tabernaemontana ventricosa (Kanza), Vernonia sp. (eciro) among others. Other uses of plants included; making crafts and construction. Other biodiversity resources harvested from the wild included honey (77% participated in harvesting honey) and fisheries resources. The communities in the Sub County also hunt wild mammals for bush meat and 66.4% of the respondents reported that their family members participated in annual wild mammal hunting event aimed at providing sources of protein for their families.

Key environmental challenges Offaka Sub County natural vegetation is under intense human pressure due to high demand for fuel wood, expansion of agricultural lands and overgrazing. The key environmental challenges identified in the Sub County include tree cutting for charcoal making, poor agricultural methods exposing soils to erosion, overgrazing of vegetation by livestock and bush burning.

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Conclusions

1. This study has shown that Offaka Sub County has reasonably high terrestrial plant biodiversity which the community depend on for their livelihood. The wide portfolio of plant species provides crucial opportunity to adapt and develop sustainable mechanisms to support community needs, production systems and for regulating local ecosystems to meet the needs of future generations. 2. The most dominant tree species were Combretum (Adu), Acacia (Oli) in non-farm lands while the farm land was dominated by Vitellaria-formerly Butyrospermum (Awa) and Ficus (Laro) tree species. The shrub layer was dominated by Grewia (Inzu) and Annona senegalense (Lipa) species. Whereas the grass cover was dominated by Hyperthermia dissolute (embetia), Branchiaria (Licoo) and Enteropogan (Ta-ngu) species. 3. This study demonstrates the potential of indigenous plants to provide various local community needs in terms of health, nutrition and other commercial demands which would generally improve family livelihoods. Thus the floral resources in the natural vegetation and the agroforestry ecosystem recorded in this study offer the rural community an opportunity to develop sustainable utilisation programmes to diversify their income, increase farm production, provide fodder for livestock and acquire nutrient and anti-pathogen ingredients to mitigate diseases. 4. Within Offaka community many plant species have been identified for use as firewood, craft, and building among others. The community acknowledges that the quantity of tree species is declining which is attributed to charcoal production, firewood for tobacco curing and land clearance for expanding area under agriculture. This imposes challenges in sustainable use of the plant resources in the Sub County. 5. Over the last 14 years from the year 2000, the natural ecosystem in Offaka Sub County has changed very rapidly. For example there was a net loss of over 80% of closed woodland vegetation cover, largely because of the need to meet rapidly growing demands for agriculture, charcoal, firewood for tobacco curing, timber, and fuel wood for domestic use. 6. The traditional herbal medicine practitioners (THMP) were recorded to play important responsibility of providing primary health care service within the community. Unfortunately, there are no efforts to propagate the medicinal plant species through promotion of herbal gardens. The study shows that in Offaka Sub County women were key stakeholders in natural resource use and management through collection of wild food plants that provide nutrients for the families during food shortages. They are also responsible for collection of household firewood. The reduction in the availability of fuel wood is already posing a constraint to their livelihood. The implication of this requires understanding and addressing the gender-specific challenges, roles and relationships to natural resource use and management.

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Recommendations

Based on this study the following are recommended for sustainable use and management of the floral resources.

1. Conservation and livelihood enhancement strategies.

(i) Promote value addition to the non-timber forest products (NTFP) which offer financial incentive to the community. Example through initiating enterprises for processing and value addition of NTFPs such as Shea nut butter fruit (Vitellaria paradoxa), Amarula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) and other fruit plants. (ii) Promote conservation compatible enterprises such as bee keeping which would encourage the community to keep some of their land with vegetation cover while receiving benefits of bee keeping through honey production for sale. (iii)Promoting domestication and planting of some plant species such as Saba comorensis and Annona maricata that may provide financial incentives to the community. (iv) Promote home herbal gardens to help revive local knowledge on medicinal plants and conserve the plants of medicinal value within the community. (v) Promote establishment of household woodlots for providing domestic biomass for energy supply. (vi) Promote energy saving stoves to save large quantities of wood used as biomass energy source.

2. Promote sustainable agricultural methods. a. Promote Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) as a strategy for promoting rapid, low cost and easily replicated approach to restoring and improving agriculture, forested and pasture lands. FMNR facilitates environmental sustainability due to the fact that it promotes natural regeneration of the indigenous plant species. b. Promote sustainable agriculture (SA) which is based on three principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotations. Its aim is to achieve sustainable and profitable agriculture which will improve farmers’ livelihoods. c. Substitute tobacco growing with alternative crops and activities. Farmers need to be educated on the harmful aspects of tobacco growing and be provided with justification to take on ‘Transition crops’ which will provide alternative sources of income to them. The long term crops or activities which will substitute tobacco need more land use planning for the area as a long term measure. d. Promote sustainable management and production of charcoal. (i) Through promoting improved or modern kiln for charcoal production and by ensuring that charcoal producers start growing their own trees for charcoal production. This system when streamlined will lead to sustainable charcoal production and business processes. (ii) To sustain household firewood production it is important to deliberately promote household woodlots using species most favoured by the community and to adopt fuel wood saving stoves.

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3. Community ownership and management of the floral resources

(i) Initiate community conservation areas for some of the less utilized communal land based on the interest of the clans and families who own the land. (ii) Develop enterprise development capacity through training in the formulation of processing, marketing and promotion strategies, business planning, technical capacities, efficient production technologies, for the non-timber tree products etc. (iii) Develop mechanisms for socio-economic monitoring so as to measure social and economic benefits accruing from various proposed interventions.

4. Additional research (a) The present study concentrated on the terrestrial plant species. The status of other biodiversity of the Sub County still remains largely unknown. Key taxa recommended for research include bird species, mammals and insects (e.g. butterflies). (b) Link up with key stakeholders to build partnership for promoting further research in areas that need additional information. Key stakeholders identified to partner with include universities (MUNI University, Makerere University, Busitema University, Gulu University), research organisations (NARO), Non Gorvernmental Organizations (NGOs) such as Nature Uganda.

5. Monitoring of resources use. It is important to regularly undertake monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity status and land cover pattern in the Sub County. The information documented on plant biodiversity and land cover during this study provides the baseline for monitoring changes in biodiversity and land use in the Sub County. A five to ten year time interval is proposed for monitoring/evaluating plant resource use patterns in the Sub County.

6. Development of nature based tourism in the Sub County Identify areas of cultural and scenic importance that could be developed into tourism attractions. There is a vast variety of natural sceneries within the Sub County and the neigbouring sites. This coupled with the rich diversity of terrestrial plants and other biodiversity could be key sources of tourism attraction. This could be linked to the traditional clan based hunting, dancing which is still being practiced during the dry season and is an opportunity to develop cultural tourism sites in the area.

7. Education It is through education that a better and stronger future can be achieved. Therefore it is recommended to; a) Promote education on the floral and other resources of the area among the youth and adults at primary and secondary schools, vocational training institutions and community based associations. b) Establish a botanical garden and herbarium as a tool for promoting education of the various stakeholders specifically focusing on medicinal, fruit and indigenous fodder plants.

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8. Initiate Collaborative Forest Management

a) Initiate Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) with communities for managing the central forest reserves under the jurisdiction of NFA. During this study it was noted that three central forest reserves namely Ajupane, Laura and Iyi were partly within Offaka Sub County.

9. Byelaws

a) Support implementation of the enacted by-laws at lower levels e.g. at Sub County, Parish, or Local Council I (village) to regulate activities that are detrimental to the flora/vegetation e.g. tree cutting for charcoal production, wood fuel, bushfires. b) Enact new bye-laws that help in enriching or increasing vegetation cover through tree planting incentives at household levels such as mandatory establishment of woodlots for every household.

10. Sub County environmental action plan. Based on the findings of this study, the Sub County should develop and implement an Environment Management action plan to sustainably manage the biological resources and seek support and collaboration of other partners.

11. Land evaluation. In order to make best use of available land, it is important to evaluate its potential. This can be done through land evaluation and land use planning to develop appropriate land use systems for communities to adopt so as to promote sustainable practices on the available land and realize maximum output.

12. Promote agroforestry. Using various indigenous species to improve agricultural productivity while diversifying sources of food and income through their utilization.

13. Build regional/landscape level alliance for promoting sustainable development. Building alliance at regional/landscape level (with the neigbouring sub counties, districts) to promote sustainable livelihood strategies. This comes from the fact that any intervention needs to be adopted by the neigbouring communities, parishes, sub counties, districts in order to realize economy of scale impact/benefits. Such alliances can help in meeting the production needs/quantities, marketing of products, establishing chains of enterprises for increased visibility of the region among others.

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RAPOTI ESILE ALIA-VI (MADI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY)

Jere pati dru alo ase dru Offaka’a vi, alia ori kile pati le, alo anyafa orodri dru ama aza kole edri ama yo vi ba ju aladru vi ovuku nga tree. Afa Asedru nosiku pati dru vi eni ba ebi ayu edoju ba drio amo yo vi eni yi; nyaka dru, azi pati dru jo siria, afa edele giyi vi eni edeju, dika aci feju nyaka adiju alo aro dru. Pati divi fe paba amayi endri alo ko ama aza nyoo osabe vi wutaa ogaju dika ba ayu eni eyo abini ooju, lonyi esuju afa divi eni ozitaa yi aku ama yo vi aza koju. Afa asedru nosiku Pati dru vi omvataa leti ebi fe afa vi eniyi ba azako tuku ongulumu ama yo vi eni alia. Amani orodri afa ase dru nosiku patidru vi niju vi eco amayi ava odi amani ecoju eni ta mbaju vi fe amani eni ayuju ewule ewule beni.Onita ba ni ebile esule afa vi enidria Offaka sub- countia dika bale sizadru pati alo anyafa esile angu divia vi eni esile, afa mungu ni obale vi eni yo koa avia avi vi eningo eni iya vi esuju beni.Eyo oniza divi baba siza dru orodri afa mungu ni obale vi eni ayuta ni vi eni; kile lonyi esuju, ovuta kilili baeselia vi ni dika eyo abini vi ooju ‘ba eselea ongulumua beni. Eyo otita divi ba eco nga ayu leti ecoju afa divi ini ayuju ewule ewule vi otiria.

ASISILE EMGBELE EYO ONITAA VIO VI Asisile emgbele eyo oniza divio vi eri afa amabe Pati dru alo asedru paba anyafa dru ovule Offakaa ci vi eni ngo eni iya vi esuju, dika orodri yoo leti lonyi feju amayi vi, leti bani ecoju eni ayu ju aro dru vi ini be aloo leti eni ecoju angu ama angaa vi taa mba ju vi ibe paba Leti amuti mgbimgbi azinga le Offakaa vi eni ecoju angu ama angaa vi taa mbaju, eni ezuju alo ndreju ba obi ni eni ayu ecoju edri onyibe esuju ewuleewule beni.

ASISILE ONITA VI –O NYIRIA VI ENI 1) Onitaa dria Ori, pati dika asebe Offaka sub-countia vi dria vi siju dika taa mbaju ci. 2) Obi patini alo ase-ebe vi otiju, wura buyi alo obi mgbimgbi pati ni asebe Offaka sub-countia vi esuju dika otiju ci. 3) Leti afa pati dru nosiku asedru vi eni ayuju ecoju lonyi esuju,nyaka onyibe feju, aro esuju dika ovuta ba eselea vi wura otuju ba zidru alo agudru Offakaa vi eni ecoju edri onyibe ewule-ewule vi otiju ci. 4) Eyo zini alo aguni oole afa amayoo asedru alo pati dru vi eni baju onyibe nosiku eni ezaju kuvi eni otiju ci. 5) Azi driceza mgbimgbi vi eni oole, alo aku tile alu alu dika ba alu aluni oole leti afa pati dru alo asedru vi eni tambaju eco ju angu gamete Ugandaa vi ni agapia otele ku vi agaa teju vi eni otiju ci. 6) Caju leti amani ecoju afa asedru alo patidru ecole lonyi esuju, nyaka onyibe feju, aro esuju alo ovutaa ba eselia vi wura otuju ba zidru alo agudru vi eniyi vi eni tambaju, otuju aloo kole avi le avi vi ini engaju dika aloo odi vivi eni saju avitaa ogaju. 7) Caju egata amani ecoju afa asedru alo pati dru dika anyafadru ecoa amayi lonyi fea, nyaka onyibe fea, aro fea alo ovutaa amaeselia vi wuraa otua vi eni ta mbaju. 8) Egataa feju amuti mgbimgbi azi ngaa Offaka sub-countia eyo leti angu ecotaa ni via vi eniyi, eni ecoju afa asedru, pati dru alo anyafadru bani esule Offaka sub-countia vi eni tambaju ecoju edri ba feju dika angu ama agaa vi eni ta mbaju beni.

LETI AYULE ONITAA VIA VI. Eyo oniza divi dukara Offaka sub-countia district Arua ni via. Afa pati dru alo asedru bani eyo onile dria eyo oniza divia vi eni ‘ba esu engaju kara opeza dru mgbimgbi esile enini mgbimgbi vi ni ovuju vi alia.

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Leti nyo ayuju alo dria arinia vi esuju, ba ayu eda (Land set and google sport) ni eniyi obiza dru eda dule engaju oruledru anguni amuti (FAO) ni epule eli 2000 vi be.Ojata bani bale rapoti via vi eni ba esu engaju, eli 2000 FAO-awo eda dule engaju oruledru vi alia alo eli 2014 –awo eda afa angu dria vi ni, dule engaju urule dru bani esule engaju wura (Landsat dika google) ni via vi be. Eyo oniza divia, ‘ba eyo vi onia vi mu afa asedru alo pati dru vi eni oneju eyo ada angu naa vi esuju sawa eni ni aciju vileji alo parisi a vi alea. Ba obi eyo esule acitaa vilegi alo parisia vi eni eda nyoni dule engaju orule dru vi be ecoju ojataa nyoni alo afa nyodria vi ini ani ojaju eli 14 egatia vi eni alia vi esuju. Ba esu eyo engaju akutile 154 vi enibu.Ba ezi ongulumu azini mgbimgbi vi eni (Focus group discussion-FGD)alo ba eyo onia eyo eni ni ole vi dria vi eni eyo ni ju eyo yoo o’za, ondua alo kala yoo azinin vi ibe. Leti diviyi, ba esu eyo anyafa esile mgbimgbi esule Offaka civi eni dria, engaju ba doro ni vi eni bu.

EYO ESULE ONITAA DIVI ALIA VI ENI Pati obi mgbimgbi dika leti enini nyodri aseju vi Onitaa divia ba esu pati rube mgbimgbi 703 bani otile wura buyi vi eni 193 engaju ongulumu patini 57 alia. Eyo bani esule kara onita divi ni via vi ecekini ba eco nga pati esele mgbimbgi vivi eni esu nga dika ra. Bani esule vi eni eselea ; Lokoko ni, Poyi ni, Awani alo bani Omvele Khaya anthotheca druvi eni ba esu esile kole drija leja Uganda a vi eni eselia.Pati esile mgbimgbi vi eni onetaa ecekini angu onitaa ni vi alia pati orodridru kile pati nyiria dika pati emgbele alo arodru vi eni nga ci. Pati obi esule tutu vi eni, Aduu ni Oli ni, esule engaju angu aa le nga dru vi alia. Angu aa le ngadru vi eni alia ba tutua pati Awa dru, vi eni esu pati aloo ba ni eni eki nyalenya kile; Enzu, Lipa ebe. Ase dru vi eni eselia ba ni esule tutu vi eni Embetia ni, Licoo ni alo Taa-ngu ini yi. Eyo esule divi ecekini, Offaka sub-county alia anya fa asia orodri dru Kari Uganda ni vi yi alia wudrikuru yi orodri dru lele i mba eni taa ci vi eni ngaci.

Ojataa afa nyodria vi yoo vi eni adritaa Ojataa afa nyodria vi adritaa onitaa di via vi edoju eli 2000 eni eselia 2014 be vi ecekini, nga a za omgbo tu hectare 11249.51 eli 2014 engaju 6374.68 bani ndra esule eli 2000 yi via vi yi. Angu endi dru vi omvini engaju hectare 11,912.88 caju hectares 1582.78. Omgbo (4856.85) vi ba ayu ngani eli 2014 yi. Aniyi, eyo esule onitaa divia vi ecekini, nga-a a za du angu ayuza vi tuani, butia angu patidru alo asedru vi i, alo angu indi dru vi i. Ama te du dria vi yi, esele 86.71% angu indidru vi ba avi eli ebile alile 14 vi alia ra.

Wura anyafani ‘ba ni esule vi eni Eyo esule ba doro bia vi eni tia, butia adrole eyo oneza sawa bani eyo divi aniju vi yi vi, ecekini anyafa wura mgbimgbi 24 vi ovuku nga ci kara onitaa divi ni vi alia. Anyafa eni eselia endi vi eni; Tili ni, Yere ni, Eba ni, Ngili ni, Ova ni, Etoo ni, Ezoo ni, Aruu ni, Dulu ni, Oya ni, Aroo ni, Oji ni, Esesea ni, Apino ni, nyandilia ni, alo Kori ni.

Ayu taa afa nyodria vi eni ni Onitaa di vi eda kini, Offaka sub-countia, nga kiri ase nosiku pati ba Offakaa vi eni ecoju ani idri ta mbaju vi eni nga kiri mgbimgbi tre. Alia amayi ta fea bani esule opko dru vi eni; Awani, Mengo ni , Ndima ni, Avuga Ni, Iti ni, Lipa ni, Feneni, Ecifi ni, Esisi ni, Matunda ni, Enzu ni, Mavuru ni, Nuungu ni, Okoroo ni, Zabibu ni. Kalafe bani ezile vi eni esilea 88% vi yo kini ani pati vi eni ayu Arodru aku ani yo vi eni alia. Esile mgbimgbi pati ni alo aseni Mungu ni obale ni alo bani sale sasa vi eni ba ebi ayu aro dru azo mgbimgbi vi eni atiju; eni esilea indi vi eni,

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Mengu ni, Kanza ni, Eciro ni, alo ebe. Azi alo pati divi yo ase ibe vi afa edele giyi vi ini edeju alo jo si ju. ‘Ba 77 Turu aludria vi ece kini Afa alo azi ni ba ni isule angu onitaa di vio vi alia vi ini anyu pati telea vi eni i. Onitaa vi esu paba kini akutile 66.4 turu alu dria vi yo, ‘ba alo ani yo vi alo i anyafa asia vi eni ibi za dru ecoju nyaka rua siju vi feju ba aku yo vi alia vi eni yi indi.

Eyo ewadru angu ama aga vi ni esule vi ini (Key environmental challenges) Offaka Sub Countia afa Mungu ni‘obale asedru alo pati dru vi eni avi opkoyi, leti ba ‘obi ni eni ayuju eja dru vi yi, nga ale ederia vi yi alo anyafa ta mbaju vi yi. Eyo alo opko onitaa divi ni esule eyo ewadru dru afa Mungu ni obale divi ini be vi eni; pati gazani maka dru, nga aaza leti drio vi yi vi- fe nyo osa be vi wuu ra vi i, anyafa yi feju ase nyaju erueru vi i, alo angu ti obaza be. Asiju, eyo emgbele esule onita di vi alia vi eni;(conclusion)

(i) Eyo onitaa via vi eda ba offakaa vi eni yi kini afa Munguni o’ba le kile pati le, asele alo anyafa le orodri dru vi ovunga kirici. Eni esele ni ovuju tre vi, i drileba fe leti angu ezoza ecoo ba azako ewuleewule vi eni duju ecoju; ongulumu yo eyo eni ni lele vi eni aza koju, nga aa za leti otuju alo dika leti amani ecoju afa Mungu ni obale vi ini tambaju amani ecoju eyo Ongulumu ni lele vi ini o ju ewu dru vi alia beni. (ii) Pati esile ba ni isule tutu onitaa di via vi eni, Aduu ni, Oli ni, vi kara nga dru kuvia vi en ii, Kara nga dru via vi eni pati kile awa le alo Elu ibe. Pati coa were nyo dri asea ci vi eni esilea vi eni; Inzu eni Lipa ibe. Ase dru onitaa vi ni esule tutu vi eni; Embetia ni, licoo ni alo ta-ngu ni. (iii)Onitaa divi eda kini afa asedru alo pati dru Offakaa vi eni nga opkodru ecoju ongulumu azakoju eyo enini lele leti alataa ni vi yi, nyaka nyaza ala vi yi, alo leti lonyi isuju vi otuju eco ju i’dri bani vi otuju akutile alu alu alia beni. Ekia kini, afa Mungu ni obale pati dru, ase dru aloo jere dru bani otile onitaa divi alia vi eco obiyi drileba fe ojataa jiju ewule ewule, lonyi ezuju ,nyaka omgbo otuju, eribi omgbo edriju anyafayi dika nyaka onyibe esuju ani muju azo ogaju beni. (iv) Ongulumu offakaa vi alia, ‘ba esu pati ayule ejadru, afa edele giyi vi ini vi ini aloo joo siju vi ini, aloo ibe.Ongulumu ati kini, kalafe pati ni vi ini si ilee ariyiku ba pati ga tu,maka dru,ejaa dru taba eveju aloo nga alee ederia. (v) Eli ebile egatile 14 edoju eli 2000 yi vi alia, afa Mungu ni obale vi ebi ani Oja tu. Ecetaa yi, esile kali aro (80) turu alu dria angu ndraa ebi ovu pati dru alo ase dru vi ebi avira tutua yi ‘ba kalafe afa nde i ni lele nga dru, ayuju eja dru, bawu dru alo makaa dru sende esuju, dika ejadru vi ni tuletutu vi yi. (vi) Onitaa divi esu oni kini ba aroo abini fea vi ini azi okpo dru nga leti aloo mgbi mgbi azo atriju ongulumu mgbimgbia vi eni feju eniyi.Candidru vi,eyoo aloo o le ecoju pati aroo dru divi eni ta mbaju leti nga pati aroo dru vi yoo vi baju eniyi viyi vi ni ovuju yu vi i. (vii) Onitaa divi ece kini afaa Munguni o’bale vi eni tambaza tua zi i o ni, tuatua letu enini nyaka dru vi eni ti trale vi yi nyaka ala feju aku yoo vi eni alia sawa nyaka ni ovuju yu via. I Paba lonyi esu afa divi eni bu indi tutua leti eni ni eni ti traju alo wura ojaju enini ecoju lonyi isuju angiri beni. Eri paba azi zi divi yoo ni eja akuni lele vi Okuju. Te raa eja ako ni eda

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sawa divi a vi eri obetaa imgbele ni zi divi iniyi. Leti ecoju eyo afa mungu ni obale vi eni ta mbaju vi le eri du eyo agu yoo alo zii ibe vi ini indi.

Egataa Leti eyo aza koju vi Onitaa divi ega kini leti ele dono eco fe amayi afa Munguni obale vi eni ayu ewule ewule ra. 1) Leti edri nyaza yee vi ni alo eni ta mbataa. (i) ‘Ba ekaju eni ni ecoju afa pati rua orodridru bawu dr te ecoa lonyi jia ra vi eni wura ojaju eni ani ecoju lonyi angiri esuju beni. Divi eni esilea endi vi eni kile Awa le, Nuungu le alo I be. (ii) ‘Obi ekaju leti anyu tambaza le’ vi eni duju eco ju afa Mungu ni obale vi eni tambaju be ni de eni riria lonyi esuria leti anyu Osa oziataa yi vi yi. (iii)Akutile alualu ekaju pati esile orodri druvi eni saju ecoju drileba feju ongulumu yi lonyi isu ju beni. (iv) ‘Ba ekaju pati aro dru vi eni saju ci aku yoo vi eni alia ecoju ondua pati divi eni ayuju arodru vi taambaju ci beni. (v) Aku tile alu alu ekaju enini ecoju pati ezoju aku yoo vi eni alia ayuju eja dru beni. (vi) ‘Ba ekaju kindo eja ayule were vi ayuju ecoju eja nosiku makaa ayuju were beni.

2). Nga a za leti eri ni ama aza koju ewule-ewule vi yivi. (i) ‘Ba ekaju pati Munguni obale ni vi eni tambaju leti aje were ni vi yi, enini ecoju nga a za wura otuju, pati alo eribi tambaju beni. Divi ni nga angu ama angaa vi taamba ewule ewule alo eringa kalefe afa Munguni obale divi yoo vi otu’. (ii) ‘Ba ekaju leti nga a za ni eco nyoo ta mbara kaso eyo otiza na eleledru divi eni dria vi; nyoo tambataa dria, ndreju nyoo ovu dribe wemgbe druku alo Ori aa ju ojaza dru nga alu via. Asisilea imgbele vi ecoju nga aa za eco ba aza ko ewule ewule edri ‘ba nga aa vi yo vi otuju beni.

3). Ongulumu ni ovuju afa asedru alo pati dru vi ini apia eni i. (i) Enyati alo akutile mgbimbi vi eni ekaju kara ongulumu ni afa asedru, patidru alo anyafa dru vi eni tambaju vi edoju kara bani ebile ayule ga vi eni alia. (ii) Ondua feju ba yi eyo ‘o-za tungu kile leti afa oziju alo feju obiyi eyo eni oniju vi eni dria, tendere/tujara/biasara otitaa eni be, ondua eyo o ju vi eni be, alo leti afa bawu dru ku vi eni epuju aje were yi. (iii)Caju otita kilili dru bani ecoju edri afa Mungu ni o’ba le vi yo vi butia ndreju tualu ongulumu be. (iv) Caju leti bani ecoju omgbo orodri eyo mgbimgbi otile edri alani ongulumua vi butia dreju vi i be. Divi ni nga ovutaa ba esilea dika lonyi omgbo otuza leti azakoza dru vi yi vi eni ngo eni i a vi ece.

Eyo oniza onitaa divi butia Eyo bani ebile onile divi ba asisile tutua afa asedru alo pati dru bani ecole esule ewakoko dru vi eni dria. Te vi de afa alo bani awile eni dria eyo onile ku ama yo sub-countia vi eni awi obi.

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(i) Obaju divi dria, lete i oni eyo afa alo asedru, pati dru alo anyafa dru kile aria le, alo Osasa ini le vi eni dria. (ii) Nyaka nyaza ba ongulumua vi yoo vi otuju, eri ovu orodridru bani ecoju ori asia orodri dru vi eni esuju, eni obiju, eni tambaju dika eni edoju aa ju nga amayoo vi eni alia.

Otitaa bani ecoju afa Munguni ‘obale vi eni ayuju ecoju ba aja vi eni siju Offaka sub- countia. (i) Le te i esu kara abini orondridru bani ecole eni sile ba ajavi eniyi drezadru lonyi jiju vi eni. Ariiku afa ecole ba aja drisile ecole lonyi jia vi eni ovunga ci ecetaayi ariale, elepupu le, dika afa aloo vi ibe. Divi eco ovu tualu leti enyati eni doro biju vi ibe, ongo abini bani nga kiri kale kakaka sawa angu ni ovuju etu dru vi alia vi ibe. Onitaa (ii) Eri trayi letikoro onitaa bu viyi ka, ama eco amayoo ewu dru vi baju kilili alo okpo dru ndo. (iii)I otu onitaa afa pati dru alo asedru dika afa alo azini vi ibe vi anzi ode alo, ba mbaza eni eselia sukulua (primary alo sinia), kara afa edeju gi vi alia alo amuti nyirinyiri abini vi eni alia letikoro; a) Kara alo eni esuju bani ecoju ori mgbimgbi vivi enisaju eyo oniju dria beni-okovi alia asibaju esile aro dru dika eribi dru vi eni sataa dria. b) Ba eco nga divi ayu eco ju obi imbaju eyo leti yee afa azini vi eni ayutaa ni vi dria.

I’ edo kara bani afa Munguni Obale vi eni tambaju vi (i) I eka ongulumu kara bani ecoju afa munguni obale vi eni tambaju vi eni edoju ci. Divi tutua yee kara ‘ba kalafe ni nga podi ovuju tuku vi eni alia. Giruza amuti alo mgbimgbi vi ibe (ii) ‘i rugi amuti bani ecoju azingaju I be nakanaka vi ibe tualu ecoju eyo oni za odu adro via vi eni ‘oju alo leti eyo azakoju vi ibe. Amuti divi eni esilia indi vi eni; Gamete, sukulu kile univasiti, NARO i, amuti gamete kelea yu vi eni, NFA, UWA alo ibe. Amuti esile urule vi sitaa ejocu angu ezoza jiju (i) Le i si amuti esile uruledru vi sub-county ejelea vi ibe, alo district be ecoju leti edri baju onyi be vi i be caju beni. Divi vi ni arikuyi, le eyo bani oole eyo azakoju vi eri o ni sub-counti alo Offaka ejelea vi enia indi. Leti pati tambaju tualu vi edoju (i) I edo pati tambaza tualu vi ongulumu be angu pati dru gamete kelea leti NFA bu yi vi eni alia. Eyo oniza divia ba esu oni kini, pati angu gamete kelea Offaka rua eloa indi vi ini n’a (3) ci ecetaayi Ajupani, Laura, alo Iyi i. (ii) Pati tambaju tualu Ongulumu be vi ni nga fe pati kalafe otu angu divi enia ra.

Azitaa obaju (i) I si dika i’ ayu azitaa edoju ase sotia parisia alo sub-countia, ecoju eyo o za ecoa afa asedru nosiku patidru vi eni drijaja vi eni ogaju beni ecetaa yi pati gaju makaa dru vi i, alo ase eveza be.

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(ii) I si dika i ayu azitaa ecoju pati kalafe otu ju leti bani pati saju akuti le alu alua vi yi.

Otitaa angu tambaju sub-countia vi (i) Eyo oniza divi ni esule vi yi, le sub-counti eri oti otitaa ecoju angu ama agaa vi ta mbaju vi eni ci ecoju afa orodridru munguni obale vi eni tambaju beni. Nyoo oro dri neju (i) Ecoju nyoo ama be vi ayuju kilili, eri orodri dru amani oniju nyoo eco ama aza ko ngopia. Divi ama eco o leti ecoju nyoo orodri neju, dika azia otiju vi yi amani ani ecoju caju otita kilili ecoju nyo ayuju vi be beni ongulumu amayoo vi eni ni ecole duju azingaju ani beni, eni ni ecoju ani idri baa esuju indi. Gi ruza Tualo Amuti mgbi mgbi vi ini eselia vi. (i) Gi ruju tualo ba aloo ecoa fia afa mungu ni obale azini vi ini ayuju kilili vi beni. (ii) Ba eco nga kara ba ni afa mungu ni obale nivi ini taa mbaju kilili dru vi ini ici amuti ecetaa yi carbon credit initiative ecoa ongulumu ekaa leti sende bu vi yi vi ibe. (iii)Ba onitaa di vi o a vi opari opko bale ba atitaa fele vi yoo leti ecoju etaju i be vi ba ju ci. 2. Giruju alo Azingaza tualu vi edoju alo feju eriyi coju. (iv) Gi ruju ci alo azingaju tualu amuti atita fea angu ezoa vi ibe ecoju afa mungu ni obale vi taa mbaju dika a eni ni ani orodri feju ongulumu yi beni. Ongulumu divi ini eselea indi vi ini; sukulu en i, Amuti gamete kelea ku vi en i, Gamete ni, NFA, UWA, NARO Alo ibe. (v) Obi ekaju pati sataa Oribe tualu vi duju orika taa alo nyaka omgbo otuju ecoju orodri lonyi nivi esuju leti ini ayu ju vi ini yi beni. (vi) Esile aloo pati Munguni bale ni vi vi eni saju nga yoo vi eni alia awa be tualu. Eri ovu orodridru bani ori mgbimgbi divi yo mbataa tualu vi orodria neju eni ani ecoju caju azitaa baniecoju ori nde eni ezoju tualu vii be beni. (vii) Gi ruju ecoju azingaju tualu amuti okpo atita fele angu ecotaa vi ibe ecoju eyo bani awile eyo onile driaku vi eni dria eyo oniju beni, dika ecoju caju leti bani ecoju eyo ewadru afa Mungu ni obale vi eni tambaza alia vi ibe beni eri riaria amayi orodri feria pa. Amuti divi eni alia endi vi eni, Makerere univasiti i, Muni Univassiti i, Gulu Univasiti i, NARO i, amuti gamete kelea ku vi en i, gomete elevi i, NFA i, UWA eni alo vi ini eselea. 3. Ecoju orodri tambaza afa munguni odale divi yo vi ndreju, le amuti mgbimgbi engaju ongulumu, mukungu, subcounti alo districti ejelea vi i ici ti tualu. Asisilea kini, eyo oole afa divi eni tambaju offakaa vi eri o ni angu ama ejelea vi eni alia endi amani ani ecoju orodri angiri vi esuju tualu beni. Ti ecita divi vi eco ama azaco afa amani lele vi eni omgbo otuju, cua esuju dika ecoju feju amani ju afa alo mgbimgbi amani epule angu ti ecita divi ni via vi yi beni. 4. Ecoju eja alo makaa ayuju odu adro vi alea ra! Eri orodri dru akutile alu alu vi eni ni pati esile ba ni lele ejadru alo makaa dru tu vi eni saju aku yoo vi eni tilea ci alo eni ni ecoju kindo eja nosiku makaa ayu le were vi ayuju i.

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BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE REPORT

Initiation of the study Trócaire is an International development agency that partners with different organisations to rebuild the livelihoods of targeted households. In Uganda Trócaire supports vulnerable communities in the northern region to re-establish asset and income base and protect access to productive resources especially land, under Sustainable Livelihoods and Environmental Justice Programme. Among other partners in northern Uganda, Trócaire works with Adraa Agriculture College (AAC), based in Offaka Sub County, Arua District. The college was established by Franciscan Brothers to contribute to sustainable agricultural education, training and community development. In order to provide baseline information on plant resources for promoting sustainable utilisation and development of indigenous plant resources, Trócaire Uganda and AAC formulated a study on floral resources (Botanic Study) of the Offaka Sub County where AAC is located. This study focusing on the flora will be of immense value to the college, the Offaka communities (women and men), local government and other stakeholders working to promote sustainable development in the area. This project provides information which will be used for planning sustainable use and management of the floral resources of the Sub County.

This is the first detailed botanic resources study in West Nile Region at Sub County level which was based on collective participation of the key stakeholders. The project was characterized by formation of the local Offaka Botanic Study Committee (BSC) consisting of the key stakeholders to provide input into the project initiation and direction. Due to this unique approach, it is expected that the project will become a role model for similar initiatives in the district and Uganda as a whole. The key outputs of the project will be used to help develop action plan for sustainable management, utilisation and commercialization of the floral and other resources of the Sub County.

Organisation of the report chapters Chapter one provides general background information, summary of the problem statements, the rationale and objectives of the study. Chapter two provides the background to the cultural setting and the history of the Offaka community which is very relevant because most communities have developed their cultural identity over a very long time period which is weaved into the system of exploitation of the natural resources, a strategy developed to cope in a given environment over time. Chapter two describes the biophysical environment, population, settlement patterns, economic and health care systems of the Sub County. Chapter three describes the methods used to undertake the study. Chapter four covers the results of the study. Chapter five covers discussion of the study findings. Chapter six covers conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General background One of the great challenges of the 21st century is to meet human needs without threatening the integrity of the ecosystems that form the basis of human survival. Many ecosystems in Uganda such as savannah woodland ecosystems contain rich biodiversity of both flora and fauna which form part of the productive resources to sustain local community livelihoods. These resources are of subsistence, economic and social value and provide food, medicine or wood for energy, and resources for performing cultural rights (Schreckenberg, 1999). Despite the significance of these plant resources, limited attention has been paid to the documentation, conservation and promotion of these resources. Neither have their nutritive, energy, economic, social, environmental or cultural values and contributions to the achievement of sustainable livelihoods been documented and developed.

Biodiversity loss is more rapid in areas of the world with the most sensitive biodiversity, such as the tropics, where often the poorest and most underserved human communities are located. Uganda lost 27 percent (1,329,570 hectares in total or 88,638 hectares per year) of its original forest cover between 1990 and 2005 (NFA, 2009). At this rate, forest resources are likely to be exhausted by 2050 (Moyini. et al, 2007). The destruction of indigenous flora and fauna by bush burning, charcoal making and unsustainable farming practices has made it urgent to study the current and future contributions that the indigenous flora and fauna can make to achievement of sustainable livelihoods. Greater understanding and awareness of the species and their values can stimulate renewed interest in improving the management of the species and their habitats. In turn better management systems should increase productivity and stimulate the development of more profitable, but less destructive enterprises from them.

1.2 Problem statement Deforestation and other forms of habitat degradation, shifts in agriculture practices (from long fallow period to more permanent usage), development activities and urbanization are causing changes in land use patterns, which have important consequences for conservation of biodiversity, agricultural productivity, regulation of the water cycle, climate, retention of soil fertility and for the general well being of the human societies. Offaka Sub County still has many of the important species of flora and fauna which are being used by the community. However, this environment is changing rapidly, with removal of woody and herbaceous vegetation for energy and agricultural farming purposes. The New Vision (July 8th 2014) reported that forests in West Nile region are headed for extinction because the tree vegetation cover in the region was disappearing at the alarming rate of 32.6% per annum and yet the national rate of vegetation cover loss varies from 1 to 3 % per annum. Although exaggerated, this is aimed at sending out message that there is a problem on the ground. And that “the once lush forest cover in the region is headed for extinction, unless drastic measures are taken to reverse the trend”. At the current rate of resource degradation, in ten years the native plant species and the habitats they provide may be irretrievably degraded and it will be impossible to recover them. Most of the Central Forest Reserves are being encroached on for cultivation, grazing and for charcoal production. Charcoal production by locals is rampant in Arua district. For the case of Madi and Terego counties, charcoal burning threatens to wipe out the local Shea nut butter industry. According to the Offaka Sub County

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five year development plan (2010/2011- 2014/2015), about 95% of the community depend on natural resources for their livelihood and 99% are employed in agriculture and 100% depend on wood fuel for their domestic needs. The Sub County development plan reports that almost all natural trees have been cut for charcoal and timber without replacement and the communities are now trespassing into central forest reserves. The diminishing natural vegetation once included natural savannah woodlands, plantations, riverine forests and shrubs that held significant biodiversity and ecological importance. Even the hilly and mountainous areas in Offaka Sub County, which were gazetted as Central Forest Reserves to protect the fragile ecosystems, are currently being encroached upon, rendering some of these prone to erosion. The above description demonstrates the current state of the plant resources of the Sub County which is alarming and needs to be addressed urgently.

1.3 Rationale of the study The Government of Uganda (GoU) has set 17 post-Millennium Development Goals (MDG) termed sustainable development goals (SDG) to be attained by 2030. Some of the goals which are relevant to this botanic study include eradicating poverty everywhere, ending hunger, improving nutrition, promoting sustainable agriculture, attaining healthy lives for all, ensuring sustainable energy for all, promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, protecting and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems to halt desertification, land degradation and biodiversity loss. The contribution of the plants to the national economy in Uganda is exemplified by the fact that the livelihoods of many Ugandans are intimately linked to the environment both as a resource of subsistence household requirement, including food and fuel and as a basis for production (IUCN 2002). The high dependence of Uganda’s economy on the environment and natural resource base implies that degradation of the environment undermines the potential for the economy to grow on a sustainable basis.

UBOS and ILRI (2004) reported that Arua district where Offaka Sub County is located has persistently featured among the poorest districts in Uganda. Some of the reasons included the previous isolation of West Nile region from the rest of Uganda during the over 20 year (1985 to 2007) Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict, coupled with several insurgencies that occurred within West Nile Region example the West Nile Bank Front (WNBF). The resulting insecurity meant that the region missed out on key donor support and other social service deliveries which would have resulted in development opportunities. As a result West Nile region lags behind the rest of Uganda in terms of development progress and indicators. According to Arua District Development Plan (2010/2011 – 2014/2015) there is widespread poverty in the district due to the narrow export base which remains a huge economic problem. And of the sub counties in Arua district, Offaka is among those with high level of poverty which according to the Sub County strategic plan (2010-2015) is a result of the low crop production because of the poor soil and unreliable rainfall pattern that affects the region. According to the AAC report (2012) 79% of the children enrolled in primary schools in Offaka Sub County drop out before completing their sixth year of basic primary education. One of the main reasons given for this is lack of sufficient food. And yet one of the most valuable resources the Sub County still exhibits is its abundantly rich flora. Within this resource base there is a huge potential for commercial exploitation by agricultural, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. However, largely due to lack of information and effective innovation research strategy most of these potentials lie untapped. Planned sustainable development and exploitation of these resources will in the long run (i) impact positively on poverty

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alleviation (ii) contribute to capital inflows into the Sub County, and (iii) broaden the Sub County's export base and ultimately lead to improved livelihoods of the local community.

An assessment of the impact of Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict in northern Uganda on the environment and natural resource management undertaken by Simon et al. (2005) indicates that during the LRA war period of 1985 to 2005 small-scale woodland cover increased in the north and for the district of Arua there was a an increase in wood vegetation cover of between 1-11%. Since 2005 when northern Uganda region became more peaceful, the communities took the advantage of this opportunity to exploit the woodland plant resources to gain cash because markets for commodities such as food crops and charcoal opened up in the far urban centres and neigbouring countries such as Sudan, leading to rapid exploitation of the resource base. However, the magnitude of the land use change, including deforestation as well as other land change drivers and consequences of the changes in the Offaka Sub County are not known. For example Offaka Sub County is one of the sites of the occurrence of Vitellaria-Hyparrhenia habitat which is only restricted to the northern Uganda region (Kalema and Beetje, 2012) and are the femoaus Butyrospermum Savanna are not represented in the Ugandas Protected Area (PA) system. This means that efforts to maintain such habitats outside the PA system should be accelerated before the habitats are totally degraded. This ethno-botanical study is the first attempt to provide information that will be used for developing strategies for rehabilitation of degraded resources and for promoting sustainable utilization of the floral and other natural resources of the area.

Effective planning for sustainable utilisation of resources requires knowledge of the availability, quantity and distribution of the resources, the threats to species and ecosystems and the knowledge on the level of dependence of local communities on goods and services provided by local ecosystems. Ethno-botanical studies such as this one are vital to identify strategies for managing ecosystems for promoting sustainable utilization, while at the same time providing information on local environmental management practices that could be used to design culturally appropriate conservation strategies (Casas et al., 2000). There have been no such studies carried out in Offaka Sub County and Arua district to date. This is the first study of its kind in the district which can act as a model for initiating sustainable development founded on the biological resources base. This study was designed to focus on ascertaining the existence of terrestrial plant species in the area, to identify the economic, social and cultural uses of the biodiversity by local communities and identify challenges facing sustainable of the biodiversity. This information can be used to develop sustainable modules of natural resource use that link conservation goals with the economic well-being of the people depending upon ecosystem goods for their livelihoods. This can in turn be used to build an appropriate policy and institutional framework for conservation and alleviation of poverty among communities that subsist on biological resources.

1.4 General Objective A major objective of this study was to identify the “useful” plant species of Offaka Sub County and describe how they are used. The study focused on terrestrial plants used as food, medicine (by man), as fuel wood, for building and for cultural values. The focus was to identify the plants of economic, medicinal, cultural and environmental importance to women and men and to make recommendations on how the stakeholders working in the Sub County can conserve, propagate and promote such flora for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in the target area. Because plants co-exist with animals,

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additional effort was undertaken to identify medium to large mammal species that still occur in the area. Specifically the study addressed the following objectives:

1.4.1. Specific Objectives: (i) Identify and document vegetation types, mosaics and plant species which make up the flora of the Sub County. (ii) Document flora which have economic, nutritional, medicinal and social potential to make a contribution to the achievement of sustainable livelihoods of the women and the men of Offaka Sub County. (iii)Identify medium sized to large mammal species occurring in the area. (iv) Determine modes of use of medicinal plants, their preparation, and administration. (v) Describe current female and male dominated human practices that are affecting either positively or negatively the maintenance of a rich bio-diverse flora. (vi) Identify key challenges facing conservation and sustainable use of the plant resources. (vii) Determine vegetation cover change over the last ten year period in the Sub County. (viii) Describe the responsibilities of all levels of governance and of households and individuals in relation to indigenous plant and habitat protection outside of the officially protected areas in Uganda. (ix) Make recommendations on the management, rehabilitation and propagation of economical, nutritional, medicinal and socially (differentiating between women’s and men’s roles) important flora. (x) Make recommendations on the promotion of economical, nutritional, medicinal and socially important flora. (xi) Make recommendations to stakeholders working in the Sub County on development approaches, processes and strategies for the promotion of identified flora to ensure improved livelihoods and environmental conservation.

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CHAPTER TWO: THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY AND SITE CHARACTERISTICS

2.1. The Offaka Community- Historical background 2.1.1 Cultural identity The indigenous communities who live in Offaka Sub County are referred to as “Madi”. However, the word “Madi” historically refers to various tribes that settled within West Nile region along river Nile. Many of these “Madi” communities do not share common languages for example “Madi who live in Moyo”, “Rigbo” and “Madi Okollo”. To distinguish them, these Madi communities have been identified using their location of settlement. Therefore to differentiate the Madi who live in Offaka from the rest of the Madi ethnic groups and for the purpose of this report we adopted to refer to them as “Madi Okollo” which refers to the whole area (country level) occupied by this ethnic group in the West Nile region. It is also a common practice to identify the Madi’s who specifically occupy Offaka area as the “Madi Offaka”. The “Madi Okollo” is boarded by ethnic or tribal communities such as Lugbara, Kebu, Alur, Rigbo and Jonam. It is very interesting to note that the small West Nile region of Uganda has such a very high ethnic and cultural diversity.

2.1.2 Historical background Accordingly to the oral history as narrated by the elders, Madi Okollo and Lugbara communities had a common ancestor who migrated from Sudan southwards and as a result they are referred to as Sudanic people (Katende et. al., 1999). According to the tales, the Lugbara and Madi were the offspring of a lady called Opunyaru and a man called Dribidu. Opunyaru was a leper. The culture by then considered persons suffering from leprosy as outcasts and were isolated by sending them to live alone in the wilderness to avoid spreading of leprosy disease since it was regarded as a contagious disease. Opunyaru was sent to stay alone on the Mountain Wati in the current Terego County and she was skilled in making local salt (aitipa). Dribidu on his part was said to have been the son of Otera from “Acholi” land who initially came from Sudan found his way through Moyo area to the current Terego. It is believed that he was chased away after being suspected of killing children to eat human liver and was thus on the run. On his way he hunted wild animals but could not find fire to roast the meat. As he wondered in the wilderness he spotted smoke rising to the sky at a distance and this was the point where he met Opunyaru who had set the fire for preparation of the local salt. Dribidu and Opunyaru ended up living together as wife and husband. The couple was blessed with five boys, named Logbo, Rigbo, Seri, Oyi and Ogani. It is from the names of these five sons that the names for some tribes in the West Nile were derived. Logbo gave rise to the Lugbara, Rigbo to the current people in Madi Rigbo, Seri to the Madi of Okollo, Oyi to the Oyibu who are settled near Pawor and Ogani to the Ogoko near Ajai Wildlife Reserve. Seri and Oyi travelled farther and for Seri he migrated along the path the Okebo tribes followed and initially settled neighbouring the Alur tribe however because of hostilities from the Alur, his group migrated backwards and settled at Indriba Adabu (Roli- small hill). Frequent engagement in fierce conflict with neigbouring tribal groups as well as within their own sections influenced to a great extent the present day distribution of each of the sub-groups or clans in the region. Seri was the founder of Madi Okollo and he had a son called Faa and it is from Faa that the name Offaka was derived. Faa had five sons namely; Oria, Oce, Aii, Ombaci and Adra. It is from these sons that the following clans who

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currently occupy Offaka Sub County area were derived; Oribu, Ocebu, Aiibu, Ombaci and Adraa. While still at Indri Adabu, Oce and Oria who shared the same mother left the rest and migrated to other places. For Oria he settled with his team at Nyaomva while Oce settled at Ovi, the area where the current Buzu Foundation Primary school is located. Oria is said to have had five sons who also became the grandfathers of five other clans and these were Imvu, Yidra, Chiyia, Wupele and Onyole. These gave rise the Omvulo, Alibu, Ojiro/Patru, Oribu/Indu and Nyanyabu clans respectively. In the foregoing narrative, it can clearly be seen that like most tribes in West Nile region, the clans in Offaka were organised in patrilineal system.

2.1.3. Traditional leadership structures in Madi Okollo community As is in the Lugbara cultural community, Madi traditional administrative structures from the smallest unit to the largest were formed based on the following system: “aku” (home), “enyati” (sub-clan) and “suru” (clan or tribe). “Ori'ba” are people related by blood and they also shared communal “angu” (land). Clans are headed by leaders called `ba rukuza” (people of status), or `ba `wara” (elders) or “onduou” (the wise) (Obetia 2008). The “elders” are usually elected from the community and chaired by one of the senior leaders, with age and experience being the indicator of seniority. Similar parallel structures existed for clan “women” and clan “daughters” within different clans in the community. Many of the structures serve the purpose of uniting and organising the communities during periods of performance of cultural marriages, burial ceremonies/rituals and conflict settlements. There were also specialized clan leaders for organizing and management of specific activities for example traditional hunting. The clan elders traditionally played important role of land resource allocation, land conflict resolution and resolving inter clan conflicts.

2.1.4. Land tenure system

In Arua district (ADLG, 2004), there are four land tenure systems namely; customary, communal, freehold and rent land tenure systems According to the baseline survey report (Caritas Nebbi, 2013) customary land ownership dominates Offaka Sub County community (with 66%) while freehold ownership accounts for 29%, and the remaining is either borrowed land or rented land. The four land tenure systems are outlined as follows: (i) Customary land tenure. Land acquisition under customary tenure is usually through inheritance. A father allocates land to his sons who in turn assign it to their wives to cultivate. According to the law, women can inherit property (and thus also land), although in the patriarchal societies this is virtually never the case. As a result women tend to be excluded from control over this basic resource. (ii) Communal land tenure system. This land tenure system is still very common in many parts of the Sub County with low human population but may gradually disappear due to increase in population size, leading to land fragmentation. Communal land is mainly used for grazing livestock and hunting wild animals and its use is controlled by the clan leaders who apportions it to its members as the demand increases. (iii) Rent. This is still new and it is found in parts where Tobacco growing is common. Under this arrangement, land is rented to people who would like to cultivate more land than they have. The size of the land and the prices offered are negotiable. After the expiry date of the rent, the land reverts to the previous owner. (iv) Leasehold system. Land can be leased (to a maximum of 500 acres) from the state and this currently is done by very few individuals and institutions. For this to happen the previous owners with customary land ownership are compensated before it is leased to the new owner.

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2.1.5 Traditional livelihood strategies Before the advent of colonization, the Madi who lived in Offaka Sub County were farmers and hunters, the habits which are still promoted up today. They also grew traditional crops and their main livestock were “goats” and they initially had no cows. According to the elders this was the reason why the Madi of the Okollo were at times referred to as “Madi Ndri”, literally meaning “Madi goat” meaning the Madi’s who keep large herds of goats. Because “Ndri” means “goat” in the Lugbara language. The very large herds of goats were kept in large kraals and fire was set to provide warmth and protection at night. The kraals were guarded against attacks from leopards, lions and hyenas which were the main predators of that time. Apart from these chores, they were also preoccupied with inter-clan wars and dry season hunting. Hunting was one of the key sources of livelihood as a way to obtain wild animal protein. The community hunted using bows, arrows, spears, accompanied by dogs, the practice which continues up today. They also trapped animals using wire and rope snares during the rainy season. Some of the common hunting grounds which continue to be used up to today include Oletia, Ayi and areas in Ocanyara bordering Okollo Sub County. According to the oral history, there existed several wildlife animal species such as elephants, buffaloes, warthog, wild pigs, hare, duiker, cane rats, squirrels, bush and water buck and other species of antelopes. The youth were trained on hunting skills and groomed to become expert hunters. Hunting was organized by designated “hunting ground” clan leaders selected on the basis of expertise, experience and leadership skills. To organize hunting expedition, the lead hunter brewed local beer, some of which was sprinkled on stones arranged and named after forefathers and was then consumed by the elders. To announce the impending expedition, the leaders send messengers who drop tree twigs/branches from one clan to another. Each clan in turn mobilized their people to take part in the hunting. At the hunting ground the hunters lined up in an extended line from one clan to another as they moved. One important piece of historical information which was reported to have negatively affected hunting was the outbreak of the epidemic disease rinderpest locally termed “vuvu”, meaning “killing in large numbers”. Accordingly, the “epidemic” significantly reduced the population of buffaloes which disappeared from the area by the early 1960s. In general the community used to eat wild plant fruits during famine when food supply was low. The families referred to the wild fruits as “food for the children”. The above story illustrates the continued dependence of the Offaka community on natural resource base for their livelihood.

2.2. The biophysical environment 2.2.1. Location Offaka Sub County is located at the southern end of Arua district (figure 1.) and about 56 kms from Arua district headquarters along Arua to Packwach road (Offaka Sub County Development Plan 2010- 2015). It is bordered by Logiri Sub County to the north-western side, Ullepi and Arivu sub counties to the north, Okollo Sub County to the east, Anyiribu Sub County to the south and Zombo district to the south west. The Sub County has a total land area of approximately 204.5km2. Some of the areas are hilly and not suitable for cultivation, especially along the western parts. The uncultivated areas that are left to regenerate are used as hunting grounds. The Sub County lies within the transition zone of rising altitude termed “Madi Plateau” which is located between altitudes of 800 to 1060 meters above sea level. Several broad valleys cut across the area to enter River Nile, thereby dissecting the plateau. The whole Sub County lies within the gradually increasing altitude from east to west, with occasional hills rising abruptly from it termed as zone of tors and inselburgs.

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2.2.2. Climate: Offaka Sub County, like other parts of Arua district experiences a bi-modal rainfall pattern, with the first season starting in March-April and ending in May. The second rains start in July and go up to November and are usually more reliable. The wettest months are normally August and September which receive on average 120mm/month. The three year rainfall pattern recorded at Adraa Agriculture College indicates that rainfall in the area averaged to 1275 mm per annum. The mean monthly evaporation ranges from 130mm - 180mm. In the dry season (December-March) temperatures are usually high, ranging between 28 to 30 degrees Centigrade. However, these recorded climatic patterns have currently become unpredictable due to climate change impacts in the region.

2.2.3. Vegetation The dominant vegetation consists of savannah woodland and the common tree species are Shea nut butter tree, locally called “awa” in Madi Language or “Kumura” in Lugbara (Vitellaria paradoxa- formerly Butyrospermum paradoxum), Oli (Acacia species), Adu/Emeku (Combretum species), among others. The vegetation has not been fully described before however, the western higher altitude areas have higher tree vegetation cover than the eastern and is where the National Forest Authority (NFA) Central Forest Reserves (CFR) are located. The common grass species include spear grass (Imperata cylindrica) and elephant grass (Napier grass, Uganda grass) (Pannisetum purpureum).

2.2.4. Soils and river system The soils are generally ferralitic and sandy loams with rather loose structure, which are easily eroded and leached. Most soils are acidic and the texture varies from place to place. For example Oribu parish has sandy soils while other parishes have brown loamy soils.

The Sub County is endowed with many rivers and streams (Figure 1) many of which pass through the area providing great potential for harvesting water for irrigation. Major rivers that pass through or originate from the area include; Nyagak, Nyara, Aji and Ajugi.

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Figure 1. Location of Offaka Sub County in Arua District

2.3. The population, settlement pattern and economy According to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS 2012) sub national projections report (2008-2012), the population of Offaka Sub County was estimated at 16,500 people in 2009, with 8,800 females and 7,700 males, distributed in four parishes of Oribu, Ocebu, Elibu and Adraa. It is however noted that the Arua district average annual population growth rate has been 3.3% which was slightly higher than the national growth rate of 3.2 %. The recent population census provisional result (UBOS 2014) provides clearer status of Offaka Sub County population which stands at 18,934 within 3,991 households, distributed as 9,041 males and 9,893 females. With the national growth rate of 3.03 percent and district growth rates of 2.83 during 2002 to 2014 periods. The increase in population against fixed land resource results in the increased population density as reflected in the progressive increase in population density overtime from 95 persons /km2 in 1980, to 118.29 in 1991 persons /km2 to 179.60 persons /km2 in 2002. In latest provisional population census report (UBOS 2014) indicate that most of the neigbouring Sub Counties have comparably similar or higher human population to that of Offaka Sub County with exception of Anyiribu Sub County which has much lower population of 7,947. It is noted that in the recent national population and housing census (UBOS, 2014) provisional results, Arua district stands as the fourth most populated district (at 785,189 persons) in Uganda. This has implications for human migrations into less populated areas of the district and Offaka Sub County is one of such sites to provide land for settlement of migrants.

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Settlement in the Sub County is mainly distributed along rural infrastructure and social service centres such as roads, schools, churches and trading centres (figure 2), with highest density settlements along the road which dissects the Sub County in the centre, running from south to the north. Immigration in Offaka Sub County has recently been increasing due to outside people searching for land for farming especially to grow tobacco and to keep large herds of livestock.

Figure 2. Typical settlement pattern in Offaka Sub County (Image on left from Google map November 2014).

Like in many sub counties of Arua district, the people of Offaka live in rural peasant communities whose main source of income is crop agriculture and livestock rearing which employs over 98% of the population. They practice fallow and permanent cultivation farming systems. The average household size based on the provisional population census result of 2014 (UBOS 2014) for Offaka Sub County is 4.7 persons per household. The permanent cultivation system consists of homestead gardens, mixed– cropped fields, and small plots adjacent to homes. The land has been producing good yields of cereals, pulses and root crops. The common food crops grown include: cassava, simsim, ground nuts, sweet potatoes, finger millet, sorghum, maize, beans, and pigeon pea. Before the 1980s cotton was reported to be the main cash crop grown in the Sub County but was replaced by tobacco due to the drop in the prices of cotton on the world market and the collapse of the cooperative societies/union. Livestock husbandry is very important to the community and traditionally wealth has been estimated by the number of livestock, especially goats and cattle, owned by the household. Indeed many community members still keep livestock such as goats, pigs, sheep, poultry and cattle although food and cash crops are increasingly forming a larger portion of income. According to the Arua District development plan (2011-2015) the livestock population in the district doubled between 2001 and 2008 (with 117,157 cattle 273,012 goats and 45,922 sheep) due to political stability and increased accessibility to knowledge and skills provided to selected farmers under the NAADS program. Although these figures are not specific to Offaka Sub County the current land fragmentation and use for agriculture in the neigbouring Sub Counties mean many farmers are more likely to move with their livestock to Offaka Sub County thus contributing to significant increase in the number of these livestock species in the Sub County as was observed during the study.

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Charcoal burning has become an important source of income to many families in the Sub County. This income generation activity has become widespread in the Sub County with most areas consequently being depleted of large trees in Adraa parish (Pamachi village), Oribu in Ndu and Pajo villages among others (Offaka Sub County development plan 2011-2015). The charcoal business has become very lucrative due to: i.) The high demand for charcoal and the readily available market, ii.) The prevailing peace in the northern region after 2005. iii.) Improved transportation networks. iv.) Increased trading opportunities with the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Sudan and linkages to the urban centres especially Kampala, where trucks ferry the charcoal.

Bee keeping is being promoted within communities as a source of income for families by various stakeholders such as NAADS, AAC and individuals (AAC, 2013).

2.4. Health care system Health care in Offaka is provided by both orthodox and traditional health care delivery systems. The orthodox health care system consists of one health centre IV (the Offaka health centre which serves the whole population) being supplemented by private practitioners in clinics. According to the Offaka Sub County Local Government Five year development plan (2011 to 2015) (OSCLG, 2011) the three top most common diseases in the area are malaria, pneumonia and diarrheal. Other ailments recorded at Offaka Health Centre IV include respiratory tract infections, intestinal worms, diseases of the eye, anaemia, fungal infections, tonsillitis, gastroenteritis and pymyostitis. Although there are no definitive figures, according to the Offaka Sub County development plan (OSCLG, 2011), the HIV/AIDS infection (and the associated disease such as Tuberculosis (TB) infections) rate in the Sub County is on the rise. In 2011 officially only 76 people had come out openly to seek for HIV/AIDS support. Therefore efforts to address the challenge need to be stepped up. At the moment there are no supplies of Anti retroviral (ARV) drugs at Offaka Health Centre IV and the persons living with HIV/AIDS have to travel to Kuluva or Arua Referral hospitals to get ARV drugs.

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CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Planning and scope of the study Field work for this study was carried out between June and July 2014 in Offaka Sub County. The study team leaders (see appendix 1) undertook pre-field work visit to come up with an inception report (IR) in order to: (i) introduce the project to the key stakeholders, (ii) understand issues on the ground (study site) for planning of the field activities, (iii) gather information to better address the needs and expectations of the beneficiaries and stakeholders, (iv) ensure the establishment of proper cooperation and management mechanisms to facilitate smooth implementation of the study and (v) ascertain the long-term collaboration, ownership and sustainability of the project’s outcomes. The focus of the study was on the wildlife and in particularly plants (trees, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation cover) of the Sub County. Plants were selected because they are one of the key indicators of environmental conditions as they are primary producers and their abundance and diversity is likely to influence overall species richness of the area. Plants are also relatively easy to identify and map through fieldwork and remote sensing techniques. Information was collected and computed on plant composition, distribution, conservation status and vegetative cover. Information on mammal species was collected mainly from the hunters in the area. Additional information was collected on destructive activities within the study area which have potential to influence land vegetation cover. This study provides baseline information on the current status of the plant resources prior to development of any comprehensive intervention strategies for sustainable use and management of the biodiversity. The study further gives recommendations for developing sustainable use and management of the biological resource.

Prior to commencement of the field work, the research team undertook series of orientation visits, meeting with community leaders (Botanic study committee), and local community members. Later the team leaders organised a training workshop for the volunteers/field assistants (see list in appendix 1). This was aimed at equipping them with research methods, approaches on collaborative rural resource mapping/surveys, ethno botanical methods, quantitative resource assessments and questionnaire administration skills.

3.2. Socio economic and cultural knowledge The importance of socio-economic and cultural information in the context of livelihood practices and sustainability was investigated using household questionnaire (see copy of the questionnaire in appendix 2). The household questionnaire targeted senior family members (household heads i.e. male or female). The household (HH) survey covered among others information on the biophysical, social, cultural and economic linkages. In order to develop an integrated approach towards meeting the overall project objectives, additional investigation of the values of non-market goods such as medicinal, food, or cultural plants, and other non-timber forest products was undertaken. The villages were selected randomly (based on the random number selection system) for administering the household questionnaire. In each village the questionnaire was administered to every 5th household along the village Community Transect route covering total of 18 villages (see table 1). Out of the 175 questionnaires administered, 154 were correctly completed which formed about 3.85% of the total Sub County house hold population of 3,991 (based on the provisional census report of November 2014 - UBOS 2014) Female respondents constituted 48.7% and males 51.3% of the sample. Focus Group

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Discussion (FGD) research methods targeted traditional medicine practitioners (TMP)/herbalists, hunters, charcoal sellers, Shea nut oil sellers, clan leaders (see detailed participant list in appendix 3a). The selection for FGD was based on the willingness of the target groups to voluntarily give information and interact with the researchers. These meetings were participatory in nature with acquaintance from the local community field assistants as facilitators. Targeted informant interviews were undertaken for selected respondents from the following stakeholders; National Forestry Authority (NFA), District Forest Department, NARO staff at Abii ZARDI, Sub County health unit, parish chief, and health unit workers to collect specific information in relation to their specialized areas of work ( see detailed list of participation in appendix 3b).

Table 1. The number of villages and households per parish for administering the questionnaire. Parish Number of villages selected Number of households Adraa 4 44 Elibu 4 32 Ocebu 4 22 Oribu 6 56 18 154

3.3. Vegetation Surveys 3.3.1. Sampling techniques and design Due to the relatively short time period available for the research a reconnaissance (RECCE) approach (Earth Watch Institute Europe, 2002), where transects are made with minimum cutting to allow passage through the vegetation following the compass bearing and avoid disturbance was adopted. This allowed for targeting of representative sites for sampling and for doing a rapid inventory. Detailed plant sampling was done in nine sites as indicated in figure 3.

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Figure 3. Location of sampling sites in Offaka Sub County

All plants in the plots were either identified on site or samples were collected for further identification. The specimens collected from the field were pressed for further confirmation and identification at Makerere University herbarium or by using the plant identification guide of Eggling (1951) and Katende et al. (1995) and herbarium samples. Vascular plant species lists were compiled from field records. The nine transects that were used targeted different habitats and vegetation types in the Sub County, ranging from more open grassland to woody shrubs, riverine and forest type vegetations. The transect length ranged from 800 to 1,200 meters long and was laid in an east to west direction. Global Positioning System (GPS) set was used to record locations of the various points of each transect. Quadrants or plots of 20x20m were laid alternately along transects at intervals of 200m. For recording trees a quadrant of 20x20m was used, a 10x10m quadrant was used for recording shrubs in woodland. Quadrants of 5x5m were laid, nested within the larger quadrant for recording saplings and seedlings. All plant species present in the quadrants were identified and their frequency recorded. Tree diameters at breast height

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(dbh) were measured and recorded in diameter classes of 1-10cm, 10-30cm, 30-50cm and 50cm. GPS readings were taken at every sampling point and these were then stored for future tracking and monitoring purposes.

3.3.2. Village transect walks Village transect walks were conducted along village paths in various parishes and was used to get a general picture of the vegetation resources, land use patterns, and settlement in the Sub County. These walks enabled the survey team to do visual rechecking and assessment (ground truthing) of the vegetation for comparison with up to date aerial photography from remote sensing technology. This multi-pronged approach enabled collection of the relevant information within a short period.

3.4. Assessment of Land Use Cover and vegetation change analysis Data for the assessment of the land use/cover change was obtained from satellite images downloaded from the internet path. Landsat and Google Spot images were used to get the recent (2014) land cover and this was compared with the Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) vegetation map for the year 2000. A change analysis was conducted between the 2000 FAO land cover map and the 2014 land cover map analyzed from Landsat8 and Google images. The FAO vegetation type descriptors were adopted and redefined or classified for the study site. Importantly, pasture, tree land, exotic forest and shrub lands, track/road and river forest habitats were all mapped. Efforts were made to capture major indigenous vegetation community types and human modified vegetations within the study area in conjunction with opportunistic searches for rare but important plant species.

3.5. Mammal Surveys Mammal species diversity was investigated through interview with the traditional hunters from the clans within the Sub County during focus group discussion. Additional information on mammal diversity was obtained using the HH questionnaire. Apart from listing the mammals which hunters encountered during their hunting expeditions, identification of the mammal species was enhanced by presenting selected coloured plates or illustrations (drawings and photographs) from zoological and field guide books by Chris and Tilde (2001) and Martin and Hosking (2008) to the hunters who were assisting in identifying the mammals. During the vegetation survey information was also collected on the occurrence of mammals using direct sightings, vocalizations, tracks, dung/droppings, diggings, carcasses and the skeletal remains of mammal species where possible.

3.6. Threats to sustainable uses of the plant and animal resources The threat to flora and fauna was documented through opportunistic observations and taking photos and recording them and by making time lapse observations.

3.7. Data analysis Data obtained was organized in excel sheets. Excel was used to compute species totals and abundances, and graphs generated to illustrate trends of the different variables considered in the different habitats. A species accumulation graph was generated from the combined data from all the vegetation sampling sites.

3.8. Challenges and limitations of the study Challenges that are considered likely to influence the result were encountered during the study and must be taken into account when interpreting the results of this study. Among the most important are the

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following: (i) The field work was conducted in July 2014, a period with high rainfall which results in dense ground vegetation cover. The dense vegetation provided an impediment to collection of census data of mammal species because their spoors (foot marks) could not be easily traced for proper identification. Direct observation of animals was often not possible due to the dense ground cover which meant the animals could easily move away undetected. Due to the above conditions the field team depended on the information provided mainly by traditional hunters in Offaka to determine the occurrence of the mammal species in the area. (ii) Identification of some plant species was limited by their stage of growth during the period of data collection. Plants are best identified using their flower and fruit stages and during this period some of the plants had already completed these stages. (iii) In some of the areas surveyed it was difficult to ascertain the exact/correct boundary of Offaka Sub County particularly the areas around Ayii primary school where conflict was reported in the past. (iv) The mapped area during this study indicates that three of the central forest reserves (Laura, Iyi and Ajupane), managed by NFA, is partly located within the boundaries of Offaka Sub County (figure 4). No attempt was made to survey within the forests reserves due to lack of permission from NFA. It is believed that the forest reserves contain more species than the settled areas due to lesser degradation.

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Figure 4. The land use types in the year 2000 (FAO 2000), indicating locations of the Central forest Reserves Managed by NFA

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

4.1 Socio economic background of the respondents The respondents consisted of 51.3% males and 48.7% females. The demographic age range of the respondents is indicated in the figure 5. The majority (over 50.6%) of the respondents were in the category of the adult group and those in youth category (based on Uganda definition of persons of 35 years falling within youth category) were 48.1% and only 2% were in the category of teenage (i.e. below 18 years of age). The last category was expected because early marriages were observed to be common in the Sub County. Similar pattern of population composition was obtained in earlier study in the same area (Peter, 2012). The demographic status of the respondents reported in this study generally corresponds closely with the findings of the baseline survey by Caritas Nebbi (2013). The level of education of the respondents is indicated in figure 6. The result indicates that the majority (49%) dropped out at lower primary education level, followed by the 25% who stopped or dropped out at the upper primary education level. Only 21% of the respondents managed to reach secondary school education level and 3% reached tertiary level education. The trend obtained in this study reflects the endemic pattern of school dropout commonly recorded in rural areas across Uganda. This finding is also consistent with the baseline study established by Caritas Nebbi which concluded that the bulk of the household heads (i.e. 60%) in the same area only managed to reach primary education (Caritas Nebbi 2013).

90 78 80 70 60 50 40 40 34 30 20

10 2 0 below 18 yrs 18-25 yrs 26-35yrs 36yrs and above

Figure 5. The percentage age distribution of the respondents (N=154)

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Terary; 3% No formal Secondary ; educaon ; 2% 21%

No formal educaon Lower primary (1-4yrs) Upper primary (5-7yrs) Lower Upper primary Secondary primary (1-4yrs); 49% (5-7yrs); Terary 25%

Figure 6. The level of education reached by the respondents (N=154)

The average household family size was about seven (6.7) persons per home, ranging from 1 to 17 persons. A similar trend was reported by Caritas Nebbi (2013) and Offaka Development Programme (ODP) (ODP, 2013) among the bee keeping group (of 6.07 persons per home) in the Sub County. The provisional national census result (UBS, 2014) indicates household size to be in the range of 4-7 members per household for Offaka Sub County. The occupation of the majority of the respondents (80%) was farming (farmers) (figure 7) which is consistent with statistic information at Arua district (ADLG, 2010) which indicate that subsistence agriculture (80%) was the main stay of the community and it mainly takes place on smallholdings of approximately two acres of land using mainly traditional simple farming tools (hoes, panga knifes and harrowing sticks).

Mixed Government (business and worker farming) 4% 6% Business 10%

Farmer 80%

Figure 7. Occupations of the respondents (N=154)

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Proxy household wealth as measured by ownership of communication and transport means as shown in figure 8. The result indicates that the largest percentage had the key communication equipments and also owned transport facility. Only 13.6% had none of the items such as bicycle, radio, phone and motorcycle as a means of transport and communication. A moderate percentage of the respondents (37.6 %) had some of the key items i.e. bicycle, radio and phone. This result is consistent with the earlier findings of baseline report (Caritas Nebbi 2013) which showed a similar trend in house hold property ownership.

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 Percentage 5 0

Figure 8. Percentage of the respondents who owned communication and transportation facilities.

Figure 9 shows the ownership of livestock by the respondents. The majority of the respondents owned the following types of livestock; goats (91.6%), and chickens (77.3%). Only 9.1% of the respondents did not livestock at their homes.

100.00%

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

Percentage 20.00%

0.00% Goat Chicken Cale Pig Sheep Guinea None of fowl the these

Figure 9. Livestock species ownership by the respondents

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The level of estimated annual income of the respondents is indicated in figure 10. The majority (74%) of the respondents had annual income of below 500,000 UGX per annum. This finding is consistent with what was reported in the base line study by Caritas Nebbi (2013) in Offaka Sub County which revealed that annual income for majority of the households was less than 500,000 UGX per annum. A small percentage (19%) earned more than one million UGX per year.

Abve 1,000,0000 500,000 to 19% 1,000,000 Below 100,000 7% 34%

200,000 to 500,000 18% 100,000 to 200,000 Income level in Uganda shillings 22%

Figure 10. The annual income of the respondents.

The size of land holding by the respondents is indicated in figure 11. The average land size owned by the respondents was 3.5 acres. This result is consistent with the baseline survey by Caritas Nebbi which showed that the percentage of the community that own land between 1 to 9 acres was 95% (Caritas 2013). This trend suggests increased in land fragmentation in the area as the limited land resource continues to be sub divided due to population increase. And according to Caritas Nebbi (2013) most of the households (constituting 72%) have fragmented land and only 28% do not fragment their land. Fewer (13%) owned more than 10 acres which indicates increased land shortage in the community for undertaking the agricultural activities.

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20 acres and above 11 - 20 acres 5% 8%

6-10 acres 25% 0.5 - 5 acres, 62%

Figure 11. Land holding/ownership status by the respondents

The household (self declared) food security status of the respondents is shown in the figure 12. The result indicates that about 50% had insufficient food for the year. This agrees with the earlier baseline information which indicates that for most households (93%) they experience food shortages from April to July and between January to March. This is of concern to healthy living of the community as food availability affects normal growth and development of children and other aspects of livelihood.

47.5 50 45.6 45 40 35 30 25 20 Percentage 15 10 4.6 5 2.3 0 Very lile Lile Sufficient More than sufficient Food availability status

Figure 12. The categories of food availability at the homes of the respondents

The nature and types of shelter owned by the respondents are indicated in figure 13. A temporary house was defined as a house with walls made of mud and poles/un-burnt brick walls with a roof made of grass, semi-permanent house was defined as a house made of burnt brick walls with either iron-sheet

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roofs or grass roof. While a permanent house was defined as a house constructed with burnt brick with cement and a roof made of iron sheets. In general the majority of the respondents had semi permanent houses. Being in a rural setting almost all the respondents stayed in their own houses. Of the respondents 50.6% stayed in semi permanent house, followed by 37% who had temporary houses and only 10.4% used permanent house.

Permanent 11%

Temporary 38%

Semi permanent 51%

Figure 13. The type of house owned by the respondents (n=154)

The crops commonly grown in the area are indicated in figure 14. The list consisted of both cash crops such as tobacco and cotton and food crops such as simsim, cassava, ground nuts, cassava, beans, and pigeon pea among others. Based on the high frequency of the food crops recorded in during this study, there is high diversity of crops which could provide food security in the area if produced in sufficient quantity and stored very well.

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Crops grown in the aeas

Figure 14. The common types of crops reported grown by the community (N= 154).

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Types of medical units or facilities where the community access health care services are indicated in figure 15. The majority come to the Offaka health centre IV, followed by private clinics for orthodox health services.

140 120 100 128 Frequency 80 60 40 20 12 8 6 0 Health centre IV Private clinic Hospital Pharmacy/drug shops

health facility

Figure 15. The choices of health facility attended by the respondents

4.2. Plant uses and ethno-botanical knowledge 4.2.1. Plants use for domestic fuel The respondents indicated that they harvested many tree species which were both indigenous and exotic (introduced), to provide sources of fuel in the form of wood for domestic use. The four most commonly favoured plant species for firewood are indicated in figure 16. The respondents also reported that the plants which provide the main source of fuel for domestic cooking in homes were mainly collected from the nearby bushes but not from woodlots. Female respondents as reflected in the focus discussion group noted that plants that provide wood fuel had become scarce especially from the places nearby the homes as a result they travel farther away than previously e.g. up to one kilometre or more to collect wood.

160 140 120 100 80 60 Frequency 40 20 0 Adu Oli Enzu Nyarangila

Frequency

Figure 16. The four indigenous plant species most preferred for firewood based on the frequency of mention.

During Focus Group Discussions (FGD) the women’s groups listed the plant species shown in table 2 as the most important to them in order of preference indicating the reasons for ranking them. These were

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Shea butter tree, Mangoes, Avocado, Oranges, Eucalyptus, Lira, Acacia, Cassia, Tamarind, and brother heart.

Table 2.Commonly harvested plants ranked based on their importance and uses. s/n Plant species Uses 1 Shea Butter Tree Oil for food, fruits eaten, for smearing the body and oil/seed sold to earn money 2 Mangoes Eaten as food, fruits sold to earn money and planted for shade. The seeds are sold for production of root stock for grafting, for production of juice and used as medicine for treatment of diarrhea and ringworm 3 Avocado Fruits eaten as food, sold to earn cash, used for treatment of allergies 4 Orange They believed lemon when mixed with soap is used as medicine for treating patients poisoned with tongotongo (local poison). Also used as food 5 Eucalyptus Used for poles, timber, fuel wood and leaves when boiled are used for treating cough 6 Lira (Melia Used for treating flu; leaves boiled and left for 3 days and sprayed for azadarach) controlling pests in beans, other uses include poles for building, fuel wood. The roots are roasted and applied for treatment of tooth ache. 7 Acacia species Fuel wood, fences, hand crafts such as hoe handle and is forage for bees 8 Cassia (Sambia) Used as poles, bee forage, crafts such as chairs, and the leaves boiled and inhaled for treating fever. 9 Tamarind (Iti) Fruits chewed and juice from the fruit is applied in porridge. The juice mixed with honey for treating typhoid. The flowers are nectar for bees. Branches used as fuel wood. Provides shade when in compound 10 Brother heart Eaten as fruit, sold for cash and leaves can act as substitute for tea leaves.

4.2.2. Charcoal production and business Charcoal was produced by individuals or families for subsistence purpose and then sold to the buyers mainly outside the Sub County. This is because the majority of people use firewood as source of fuel and not charcoal. Charcoal was mainly sold for gaining cash while at home the households used firewood. Charcoal production is a labour-intensive process, employing a large number of people at different phases of the process and distribution. The exact number of persons involved in the charcoal production was not established. The production phase was mainly undertaken by male members. Charcoal production is very common as many households visited (figure 17) had packed bags of charcoal ready for sale. Indeed an earlier baseline study (Caritas Nebbi, 2013) reported 28% of the population depend on charcoal sale to survive during food shortages. Transportation from production site to the nearest selling or storage point was undertaken by both male and female members of household. Most of the charcoal producers were not organised into an association and were paying the mandatory permit fee to the authorities, at the District (Forest Department), for charcoal production. However, charcoal sellers along the road side were organised into an association and they pay a monthly permit fee of 36,000 UGX to the District Forest Department. A typical charcoal seller group consisted of 5 to 8 persons and was composed of both male and female members, based at the main road side (figure

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18) where they sell bags of charcoal to travellers and truck drivers. Each member buys bags of charcoal from the producers in the villages with each bag of charcoal costing about 11,000 at the production site and is transported to the road side and then repackaged and sold at prices ranging from 18,000 to 20,000 UgX. Each member may store between 2 to 15 bags of charcoal and on average each member sells between 1 to 3 bags a day. In some instances the producers make large number of bags of charcoal which they arrange to sell directly to the truck drivers who travel with the vehicles to the nearest collection site (see figure 19). Most families engaged in small scale charcoal production in order to get cash for buying other household items in the markets. As such it was common to see bags of charcoal in many homesteads in the Sub County (figure 17). According to the chief of Adraa parish (Mr. Onzima Sunday), for every truck that collects bags of charcoal from the parish the contractor pays 2000UGx produce fee to the Sub County account. At the time of this study about 3- 4 trucks collect bags of charcoal from the parish on a daily basis and each truck carries about 80 to 100 bags of charcoal. Charcoal is sold using a standard bag which is used for packaging 50 kg of sugar and this has a volume of about 0.1 De (FAO 1983). Normal tropical hardwoods with a volume of approximately 1.4 m3/tonne (15 percent moisture content -m.c.) will weigh about 33 kg per bag whereas preferred charcoal species (Combretum species) will give an average weight of 36 kg per bag. This is equivalent to wood volume of about 1.3 m3/tonne (at 15 percent moisture content (m.c.). In simple terms mostly trees of about 10 cm diameter at breast height and above are used for charcoal production. A study in Tanzania (Malimbwi et al. 2008) reported that on average, 7 trees are used for every 22 bags of about 50 kg of charcoal produced from the area. Nduwamungu (1996) estimated about 12 stems per ha removed for charcoal making at Kitulangalo at a time. Under his situation about 0.5 hectare of the woodland is needed if one intends to produce 22 bags of charcoal. This estimate provides the picture of the rate at which woodland resources can be depleted as the business of charcoal production continues. In the places where charcoal production is very intense tree species that do not produce good charcoal such as Cawu (Cussonia arborea) (figure 20) are the only large tree species left standing in the area.

Figure 17. The sacks of charcoal heaped in several locations ready for collection by the trucks.

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Figure 18. Bags of charcoal heaped along the road by the charcoal sellers ready for collection by the lorry trucks.

Figure 19. A lorry truck loaded with charcoal bags along Offaka to Anyiribu road

Figure 20. Cussonia arborea (locally known as Cawu) and other tree species are left uncut because they do not produce good quality charcoal 4.2.3. Tobacco production The common variety of tobacco crop introduced in Arua district by tobacco companies was the Flue Cured Tobacco (FCT) and is also the variety promoted in Offaka Sub County. The FCT tobacco is dried in burns (houses) using wood (that is burnt) to produce heat channelled through a metallic pipe system within the burn house to distribute heat for drying the leaves (figure 21). Three tobacco leaf buying companies operate in Offaka Sub County. British American Tobacco (BAT), Leaf Tobacco Company (LTC) and Continental Tobacco Company. The field team selected BAT Company and managed to

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interact with Mr. Salvadore Leonard who was the LCI chair in Adraa parish and also the Sub County representative at the council of West Nile tobacco farmers association for BAT. According to Mr. Salvadore, BAT Company contracts farmers to grow and supply tobacco leaf every year and the company only deals with the registered farmers from whom the tobacco is bought. Tobacco production is labour intensive, with the work starting from seed bed preparation through planting, weeding, harvesting and curing and to cut costs famers mainly depend on family labour, consisting of both the mother and father including children (figure 22) and this was also reported in earlier investigation (Farmers forum in Newvision February 13th 2013). The company provides each farmer with tree seedlings to establish woodlots as a source of wood fuel for drying tobacco. However, most farmers do not fulfil their part by planting the seedlings and as such most do not have woodlots and they instead obtain fuel wood from the wild sources. Mr. Salvadore indicated that some farmers strongly believed that there were sufficient trees in the wild to supply the demand for fuel wood. It was indeed reported in Newvision (Farmers Forum February 2013) that 98% of the farmers in Arua district depend on indigenous trees to cure tobacco. In the Sub County there were about 100 registered farmers with BAT Company during the time of this study. Each farmer has at least one tobacco burn (a house for drying tobacco) which requires at least 20 cubic meters of wood every year for curing tobacco leaf. This means total of about 2000 cubic meters of wood fuel is used by the BAT farmers alone every year. According to Mr. Salvadore the other two Tobacco buying companies have slightly less number of tobacco growers in the Sub County. As part of her social corporate responsibility BAT company was reported to supply free tree seedlings of various types ranging from those for timber, wood fuel and for fruit trees. BAT also provides scholarships to 2 to 3 children of a tobacco farmer who has passed in grade one at primary leaving examination (PLE) to go to private secondary schools as a benefit to the academically promising children of the tobacco farmers in the Sub County. According to Mr. Salvador one acre of tobacco farm yields about 600 kilograms of tobacco leaf which is sold at various grade prices to the company. And in a year a famer may get on average about 3 million Uganda shillings after the deduction of the loans by the company.

Figure 21. (left) An oven where wood is burnt to produce heat channelled through the pipe system to dry the tobacco leaves. (right) A simple tobacco burn (house).

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Figure 22. A team of family members participating in tobacco work at their home.

4.2.4. Medicinal plant use by the community The percentage of respondents who reported that they used herbal medicine in their family was 88%. Only 12% mentioned that they were not using herbal medicine and this was attributed to religious beliefs especially the converts e.g. “the charismatic community” who believe herbal medication to be an evil act. The list of plant species commonly used for medicinal purposes are indicated in the figure 23. Some of which are captured in the pictures in figure 24.

70 60 50 40 30 20 Frequency 10 0 Ii Oli Aza Aza Eyifi Inzu Inzu Lara Lara Awa Awa Eluu Etoo ecici Enzu Enzu Guta Guta Mala Aduu Ecero Elinga Elinga Neem Roroo Leppe Leppe Cassia Ndima Ndima Maruu Mango Mango Oduodu Pawpaw Moringa Moringa Ajinguru Avocado Avocado Frequency Ti-logmboro Ti-logmboro

Figure 23. Plants commonly used for medicinal purpose.

Tabernaemontana ventricosa (Kanza) Solanum sp. (Elianga) Ricinnus cummunis (Olu) Aloe lateritia

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Tamarindus indica (Iti) Mangifera indica Kigelia africana Aloe sp. (Mango)

Melia azadarach Datura stramonium Euphobia hirta Vernonia amygadalia (Lira) (Ulu) (Eciro)

Moringa oliefera Kalanchoe pinnata Capsicum fruitescens Eucalyptus globulus (Pilpili) (Kalatusi)

(Ojoo) Azadirachta indica Citrus lemoni (Ndima) Cassia alata (Cassia) (Neem)

Figure 24. Some of the Medicinal plants recorded in the study

The different sources of collection of medicinal plants are shown in figure 25. This shows that the majority (71%) obtain their herbal medications from the wild.

Any other locaon 3% Planted at home 19% Garden 7%

Wild 71%

Site for collecon of medicinal plants

Figure 25. The source of collecting medicinal plants

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The category of persons involved in collection and administering medicinal plants is indicated in the figure 26. Usually the collector of the plant first prepares it for treating the patients. Based on the report from the community there were more men practicing traditional medicine than women. The majority of female practitioners were traditional birth attendants.

children 5%

women 37% Men 58%

Figure 26. The family members involved in collection of medicinal plants.

The commonly reported plant species harvested by the herbalists, their growth habits, status, parts used, preparation and mode of administration are shown in appendix 4. 65% of the respondents indicated that the medicinal plants had become rare, while 24% suggest that they were still common and 11% reported that some of the plants had disappeared. When asked if the traditional medicine practitioners propagated the medicinal plants within their gardens only 19% reported propagating them. This reinforces the report from TMP that they were not deliberately propagating the medicinal herbs and mostly relay on raw materials obtained from the wild.

4.2.5. Plant species used as food. Various plant species harvested as food are indicated in the figure 27. The parts of the plants consumed were mainly the fruits or the seeds, depending on the species. However the commonly mentioned plants were the fruit plants and those that provide oil and consisted of both exotic and indigenous plant species. Some of these plants are captured in the pictures (figure 28). Most adults considered wild fruits as “children’s food” and in the process neglecting and undermining their use by adults and the community. For example during this study the fruits of Sclerocarya birrea were left rotting on the ground (figure 29) because it was dismissed by adults and considered “children’s food”.

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140 120 100 80 60 40 Frequency 20 0 Iti Etu Ego Awa Lipa Etoo Ecifi Esisi Enzu Okee Oyiri okoro Mutee Guava Nungu Zabibu Orange Dulumu pawpaw Logboro Jackfruit Avocado Avocado Mangoes Cashew nut passion fruit

Brother heart Plant species

Figure 27. The plant species most frequently used for food.

Saba comorense (Ogo) Carisa edulis (Esisi) Ximenia caffra (Ecifi) Vitex doniana (Awa)

Jack fruit Psidium guava Annona maricata Balanities aegyptiaca (Artocarpus (Brother heart) (Eto) heterophyllus)

Aframomum angustifolium Persea americana Carica papaya (pepei) Annona senegalensis Avocado (Lipa)

African ebony tree Vitex doniana (Odo) Sclerocarya birrea Syzygium gueneese (Dulumu) (Nungu/Marula )

Strychnos spinosa (Ndri- S.innucua (Ti Ziziphus abyssinica Borassus aethipium lomgboro) lomgboro) (Liria) (Itu)

Figure 28. Some of the common fruit plants recorded in the Sub County with potential for value addition

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Figure 29. Sclerocarya birrea (Amarula) locally called nungu tree with ripe fruits fallen underneath the tree and left rotting because no value was attached to it.

4.2.5. The plants commonly used for constructing house and crafts. The plants commonly used for construction are indicated in the figure 30 and those commonly used for making crafts are indicated in the figure 31. It is noted that both lists of plants also include exotic species.

150

100

50

Frequency 0 Oli Lira Lira Ozu Oke Oke Ruta Ruta Odia Aduu Okpo Okpo Ecero Elewa Elewa Neem Wawa Wawa Etewu Cyprus Cyprus Kalatusi Kalatusi Mahogany Mahogany Nyarangala Nyarangala Plant species Spear grass

Figure 30. Plants used for construction of houses

100 80 60 40 Frequency 20 0 Oli Etu Etu Ore Ore Lipa Ario Poyi Awa Awa oliro oliro Ruta Ruta Adiri Enzu Enzu Lepe Lepe Oree Oree Mala Laala Erew Erew Atew Maru Maru Ekara Ekara Kaltusi Kaltusi Cyprus Cyprus Sambia Ajawua Ajawua Ndende Kpepkere

Plant species Yeremada

Figure 31. Plant species used for making crafts

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Figure 32 shows the type of crafts commonly made by the community craft persons while figure 33 shows the range of revenue earned from sale of the crafts on seasonal basis. The finding indicates that wood resource use for craft contributes to the income of the family’s involved in the business as markets for these products exist within the area or in the neigbouring areas.

Loto (chicken house) Bench Frequen Axe handle cy Konyi (local chair) Table Mingling stcik (lipere) Chair Stool Kongoro/Harrow Hoe handle 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Frequency

Figure 32. Common types of crafts made by the community crafts person in Offaka Sub County

51,000 - 100,000 31,00- - 50,000 11,000 - 30,000 5-10,000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Frequency

Figure 33. The amount of annual revenue earned from the sale of crafts by the respondents

4.3.1. Wildlife hunting

4.3.1.1. Hunting In Offaka Sub County the tradition of annual hunting expeditions of wild animals for meat, locally termed “Dori”, still continues up to the present day. The hunting is a well organized activity headed by the leaders at each clan level (figure 34) and is exclusively adult male activity accompanied by talented teenagers. The large group hunting expeditions take place during the dry season when there is less garden work and when the grass has been burnt and the hunting areas are more open. The hunters use traditional weapons, consisting of bows/arrows, spears and are accompanied by dogs (figure 35) when hunting the animals. During the wet season, hunting is mostly done using metallic traps and wire snares. 66% of respondents reported that at least one of their family members go to hunt every year.

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Figure 34. One of the clan leaders for hunters (Mr. Geoffrey) showing his arrows and the plant (Miscanthus violaceus) used for making the handle of the arrows.

Figure 35. An unidentified man in the bush on a hunting expedition with his dog within the woodland vegetation

Wild animal species reported to occur in the study area by the hunters and from evidence are shown in the figure 36.

140 120 100 80 60 40 Frequency 20 0

Animal species

Figure 36. The wild animal species reported to occur in the area

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Of the wild animal species reported to occur the most commonly hunted ones by the community are shown in figure 37. These included; wild pigs (Ngiri), warthogs (Ezo), bush duiker (Ova), Oribi (Oce), Bush back (Eba),Waterbuck (Yere), Uganda Kob (Tili), Aardvark (Apino), African hare (Eto) and cane rat (Alu). Other animal species hunted included guinea fowl (Ope), and Francolins (Alibo) and doves (Alua). The carcasses of captured animals from the expeditions are distributed among the hunters and are mainly used as a source of household meat protein. The hunting expedition may last from three to five days depending on the distance from home. Only excess of the wild meat is sold to the trading centres and neighbours. There was no evidence of “bush meat “trade in the area and it seems what is captured is mainly for subsistence /family use. In some cases wild animals are captured live and these live animals, especially birds, are sold in the trading centres to travellers. One live adult guinea fowl was reported to cost 25,000 UGX.

140 120 100 80 60 40 frequency 20 0

Animal species

Figure 37.The wild animal species hunted most by the community.

Hunting grounds were said to be located in various communal sites as shown in figure 38. The favourite hunting areas reported were “Ocanyara” and “Alingi”. The hunting grounds are owned by clan and usually left to regenerate after use and also to increase the number of the wild animals in the area. Hunting is regulated by very strong controls and taboos which were established in the hunting culture of the past which each participating hunter must obey otherwise they would be stopped from participating and also would be obliged to pay a heavy fine.

36

20

15

10

5 Frequency 0

Frequency

Figure 38.Locations of hunting areas in the Sub County where the hunters normally go to hunt

4.3.1.2. Water based wildife reosurces (fish) Fisheries resources within the Sub County are rivers and streams and they included the fish species shown in the figure 39. Community fishing was reported to be an annual activity taking place during dry season when the water levels in the valleys were very low and many of the seasonal rivers stop flowing. All categories of gender are involved ranging from children of both sexes and the adults (male and female) family heads as a communal activity. The community members used herbal plant termed “fish poison” (figure 40) to poison the fish in stagnant waters for easy collection. This is a rather unsustainable method of fishing since the poison does not discriminate between mature and fries and is likely to reduce fish stocks in the waters. Individual fishing using hooks and traps takes place throughout the year when water levels are normal.

60 50 40 30 20 10 frequency 0 Oyi Oyi Odi Ase Aso Opa Uziri Oyee Oyee Kawu Akara Akara Aboyi Aboyi Oluku Oluku alama Muziri Mumu Tilapia Mbuta Mbuta Kukere Angara Angara Mad fish angalaba angalaba

Fish species Obokocer Ongalama Ongalama

Figure 39. Fish species reported to occur in the rivers and streams

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Figure 40. Tefrosia vogeli shrub plant used for poisoning fish

4.4. Nature based enterprises 4.4.1. Bee keeping, bee products and bee forage 77% of the respondents mentioned that they harvest honey from the wild. 60.8 % of the respondents mentioned that they keep bees in their home area and the majority use traditional bee hives placed in the trees (figure 41). Bee keeping is also undertaken by individual households or groups/associations in the area as a source of family income. There were more male bee farmers than female farmers probably because traditionally male famers participate in bee hive construction than females. Similar trend was recorded in a study by Offaka Development Programme in the same area (ODP, 2013). One group of bee keeping associations visited comprised of mainly women who were the only members (figure 42). The members of the association owned the hives collectively and the harvested honey was previously sold locally but by the time of this study the honey was sold directly to Adraa Agriculture College honey processing unit. The money from honey is shared among the members. A key challenge faced by the group was the low level of colonization of the hives by the bees which was partly attributed to the insect bee predators that visit the hives. Plant species reported visited by bees as forage are indicated in figure 43. Accordingly the members identified the most favourable bee forage plants as; Awa (Shea nut tree), Mango, Oli (Acacia sp.), Iti (Tamarindus), Chawo, Oliro, Sweet potatoes, Simsim, Pumpkin, Ijiribi, Osunyiriki, Maize, Cassava among others.

Figure 41. A traditional bee hive placed on the Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) tree.

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Figure 42. Women only bee keeping association visited during the FGD.

80 60 40 Frequency 20 0 I Ilu Oli oto oto Lira Lira Edu Iluu Ndu Odu Kafe Eluu Eluu Gala Awu Erau Erau Aliro Aliro Oyiri Oyiri Oyiri Enea kasia kasia Ejero Ejero Kawa Kawa Cawu Cawu Ototo Ototo Wawa Wawa Nungu Ongoo Ongoo Ongoo Kaltusi Kaltusi orange orange Mango Mango sambia Pawpaw Moringa Moringa Jacaranda Jacaranda sunflower sunflower Jacaranda Jacaranda Nyarangala Nyarangala Plant species

Figure 43. Plant species reported as forage for bees.

The amount of money obtained from the sale of honey in one season is indicated as in the figure 44. The majority of the respondents received between 10,000 to 50,000 UgX. In general the majority of farmers harvest honey three times in a year. This amount of income received from the sell of honey in this study is slightly lower compared to that previously reported in a study undertaken by Offaka Development Programme (2013).

40

30

Frequency 20

10

0 1000-10,000 11,000 - 30,000 31,000 - 51,000 50,000-100,000 101,000 and above Frequency

Figure 44. The amount of income received from sale of honey in one season

4.4.2. Shea nut oil processing industry The Shea nut tree produces fruits with hard cover seeds. The soft fleshy part of the fresh fruit is sweet and consumed. The Shea nut tree is regarded as a public good and traditionally no one owns the tree and thus cannot restrict any community member from collecting the fruits even if it is a personal garden. The

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seeds in their cover are preserved, dried and used for processing oil, the famous “Shea nut oil”. All family members of all ages are engaged in collection of Shea nut fruits during the fruiting season (regardless of gender) from March to May. All the work of processing, marketing of the Shea nut oil is exclusively done by women (figure 45). Although every home processes the oil for home consumption any excess is sold in the market. A few organised groups of women participate in commercial Shea nut oil production. One group was located at Ullepi Trading centre along the main Arua Gulu tarmac road (figure 46). This group of women formed a loose association for marketing their oil, chaired by Ms. Nyaku Ventorina. The oil is processed individually using crude methods of roasting the seeds and crushing them into a mortar which is then heated to separate the oil from the waste. The Shea nut women association members buy dry Shea nut seeds from the market and according to them one basin of dry seeds costs 20,000 UGX. This is then processed and on average produces 5 to 6 litres of the Shea nut oil. The processed oil ½ litters is sold at 5,000 UGX during the time of this study. The processed oil is packed in used water bottles of various capacities and sold at the road side to the travellers. The seeds are supplied from the villages throughout the year but the prices increase as the supply diminishes and consequently the price of the oil increases proportionately to the price of the seeds. The main costs of producing the Shea nut oil included firewood and labour. Apart from the Shea nut oil producers, there were no other natural tree fruit/seed products processed locally by the community and sold in the area.

Figure 45. Shea nut seeds (left) roasted (right) ready for extracting the oil

Figure 46. The Shea nut butter oil sellers along the Arua Gulu road at Ullepi trading centre Arua district venting the

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In summary there are various types of income generation being practiced within the community which requires different levels or amounts of labour. It was not possible to compare the various inputs required to determine the most efficient and therefore most attractive in terms of income generation. However, it is clear that in terms of time taken, for example, charcoal production may only take few days before sale while tobacco growing may take at least nine months before sales can bring cash and is more labour intensive.

4.5. Gender and participation in household and natural resource management Rural women and men usually perform different tasks and responsibilities in food production and provision which results in different needs, priorities, and concerns. Although rural women’s and men’s roles and responsibilities vary across regions and cultures, they often follow similar gender divisions of labour. In most cases men tend to invest in activities which will result in commercial production while women tend to undertake activities on a subsistence basis. For example, in crop production men tend to focus on production of market-oriented or cash crops such as tobacco, whereas women often grow a wider diversity of food crops of subsistence nature and they also cultivate vegetables in their gardens. In most cases men and women perform complementary roles. In this study women’s involvement in decision making at household level is shown in figure 47. This suggests that the majority of women contribute and participate fairly equal to men (40.3%) or dominate (18.2%) in decision making at household level. For example in Offaka men clear land and dig while women plant and tend crops, and they also harvest and market crops. In most cases both sexes undertake all duties together and fairly equally. Respondents reported that women were predominant in relation to the weeding, processing of farm products and transporting farm produce to the market. Figure 48 shows women involvement in control of house hold cash. In this case the majority (50.7%) of the respondents regardless of gender concurred that women had fairly equal involvement in decision making and control of household cash received from sale of agricultural or any other produce.

50 40.3 40

30 20.8 18.2 20 16.9

10 3.8 Percentage Percentage 0 Equal to men Not involved Dominant Less than undecided equal to men

Figure 47. Women participation in household work

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60 50.7 50

40

30 17.5 20 13 Percentage Percentage 10.4 8.4 10

0 Equal to men Less than Dominant Undecided Not involved equal

Figure 48. Women involvement in control of cash from sale of crops at household level.

Women dominated household chores including wood fuel and water supply collection and management. When collection of firewood and water points are in a distant place, this is a constraint in terms of time and labour used for obtaining the resources and is a major concern raised by the women during this study.

4.6. Human threats to natural resource There were several human impacts recorded that resulted in degradation of the woodland-savanna mosaic ecosystem and the general erosion of the natural resources of the area. For example uncontrolled livestock grazing activities (cattle herds) were observed in several areas (figure 49). Livestock grazing is a major factor driving degradation and sometimes leading to soil erosion as the vegetation is trampled on, leaving soil bare and vulnerable to agents of erosion as was commonly observed in the areas, resulting in large gullies (figure 50).

Figure 49. Large herds of livestock (cattle, goats, and sheep) grazing the woodland vegetation.

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Figure 50.Soil erosion commonly observed in areas with livestock grazing.

Setting fires to burn dry vegetation is very common in the Sub County. According to the community it is a normal practice especially during the dry season in preparation for hunting expeditions. Indeed bush burning was observed to cover almost the whole area during the dry season as was seen from the satellite images. Some wild fires result from charcoal burning processes where fire may spread accidentally. Livestock grazers also set fire deliberately to promote regeneration of grass for their livestock. The unplanned and uncontrolled fires cover large areas and have had a detrimental effect on soil, it exposes the bare soils surface to agents of erosion (figure 51). The selective removal of wood biomass for charcoal production is a common subsistence activity which results in exposure of the soil to agents of soil erosion.

Figure 51. Area burnt by fire probably during charcoal making process or to enable regeneration of grass for livestock.

There is also extensive conversion of natural woody vegetation for agricultural production especially the areas which are easily accessible to the community (figure 52). Other activities such as collection of firewood and the production of vegetables and fruits for nutritive and medicinal purposes are of minor importance for their impact on the environment to be felt directly. Hunting activities may increase vulnerability of the existing wild mammal population to local extinction because of the already strongly reduced densities due to the extensive opening of the land for agriculture which reduces habitat available for wild mammals to forage and hide from predators.

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Figure 52. Opening of land for agricultural production which damages plant diversity.

4.7. Environmental challenges affecting local community 4.7.1. Human wildlife conflicts Of the respondents 94.2% mentioned that they experience the problem of animal (both wild and livestock) raiding in their village and that the wild animal species came from the nearby bushes, valleys, rivers, streams and bushy hills. The species that were recorded to raid crop are indicated in the figure 53. It is noted that the level of complaint may reflect the abundance level of the species within the community. The animal of particular interest which is normally reported to cause severe damage to crops is Bushpig and was ranked least in this study, suggesting that its population within Offaka Sub County habitat is likely to be very low. When asked for possible solutions to crop raiding by problem animal species, the respondents prescribed the various strategies indicated in figure 54.

140 120 100 80 60 40 20

Frequency Frequency 0

Figure 53. Problem animal (crop raiding) species reported to occur in the area.

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100 80 60 40 Frequency 20 0 Guarding Hunng Report to LC1 Tie them with Use dogs to scare rope Soluon

Figure 54. Proposed solutions to combat crop raiding by the problem animals.

4.8. Community perception of the environmental degradation concerns 71.7 % of the respondents indicated that their place was environmentally degraded and 77.3% of these reported that the government was conducting environmental education to address the problems affecting them. They outlined the main environmental problems as shown in figure 55. The respondents proposed solutions to address environmental challenges which face them and these are outlined in the figure 56.

Poverty Brick making Bye laws not effecve Poor agricultural pracces Strong wind Drought

concerns Not known

Environmental Environmental Bush burning Tree cung for tobacco curing Soil erosion Overgrazing by livestock tree cung for charcoal producon 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Frequency

Figure 55. Environmental problems reported within communities.

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LCs to control tree cung Control farming/culvaon of land Leave land fallow Punish tree cuers Control/stop bush burning Set up bye laws to stop bad acvies Stop tree cung for charcoal producon Not sure Pracce good farming methods acons Sensize the community to avoid bad pracces Control grazing

Proposed migaon migaon Proposed Tree planng 0 20 40 60

Frequency

Figure 56. Proposed solution to address Environmental degradation in the area

4.9. Institutional structures and instruments for management of biodiversity There exists both traditional and local government as responsible agents for regulating use of natural resources in the Sub County. The traditional structures operate on a clan system where elders are paramount in providing guidance in the exploitation and allocation of the resources. For example some of the resources such as Shea nut tree are communally owned and no individual is allowed to cut the tree unless permitted by the clan elders. The harvesting or collection of Shea nut fruits is not restricted by the person who owns the garden where the plant has grown. The cultural norm/belief is that Shea nut tree is a “communal or common property” and grows naturally and no one owns it and thus fruit collection is not restricted to the owner of the land where Shea nut tree has grown. Accordingly, at Offaka Sub County local government a bye-law was enacted to prevent cutting of the Shea nut trees. Traditionally, cutting of other tree species was only permitted for construction and for craft production and not for commercial or selfish gain. Despite community’s strong social and cultural attachment to Shea nut tree and the existence of the elaborate cultural and government institutional structures, degradation of the habitat continues and in most cases the existing measures are ignored. For example indiscriminate cutting of trees including Shea nut tree and Amarula for charcoal production was observed (figure 57). Shea nut tree is believed to provide the best charcoal which is sold more expensively.

Figure 57. Shea nut trees and Amarula tree (extreme right) cut for making charcoal

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4.10. Plant biodiversity

4.10.1. Tree species diversity A total of 703 individual plants were enumerated resulting in total of 193 different species recorded during the study, belonging to 57 families. The shape of the species accumulation curve in figure 58 suggests that the curve was still continuing to rise, suggesting that there was still opportunity to record more new plant species in the area if the number of sampling plots continued to increase. The complete list of plant species recorded during this study is shown in appendix 5.

180 160 140 120 100 Number of species 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Number of plots sampled

Figure 58.Tree species accumulation curve for vegetation sampling

Of the plants recorded in the area, four species Afzelia Africana (Lokoko), Dalbergia melanoxylon (Poyi), Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and Khaya anthotheca (table 3) are categorized in the IUCN category of endangered plant species in Uganda. Plant species analysis indicates that the area has diverse plant communities ranging from trees to shrubs and herbaceous/grass layers. The most dominant tree species were Combretum (Adu), Acacia (Oli) in non-farm lands while the tree species in the farm land was dominated by Vitellaria and Ficus tree species. The shrub layer was dominated by Grewia (Inzu) and Annona senegalense (Lipa) species. Whereas the grass cover was dominated by Hyperthermia dissolute (embetia), Branchiaria (Licoo) and Enteropogan (Tangu) species. These findings indicate that Offaka Sub County contains nationally and internationally very important wildlife species which need to be conserved for the benefit of humanity.

Table 3. Plant species recorded with the IUCN (2011) status of endangered s/n Scientific name Madi name Status Picture

1 Afzelia africana Pers. lokoko Threatened

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Poyi 2 Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. Perr. Threatened

3 Vitellaria paradoxa G.Don Awa Threatened

4 Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC. - Threatened

4.11. Land cover/vegetation changes in Offaka during the period 2000 to 2014. The land cover pattern recorded in the year 2000 indicates that close to open herbaceous and sparse trees was dominant (table 4). In 2014 the land cover pattern shows that agriculture was the dominant land use with 11249.50 ha (55%), followed by wooded grassland of 3309 ha (16.2%), closed woodland 1582.50 ha (7.7%), close to open woodland with 2598.60 ha (12.7). (see table 5).

Table 4. FAO Land cover/use in 2000 FAO Codes Description Area ha. % 2WP67 Close to Open herbaceous and sparse trees 11,912.16 58.2 2S0J67 2T08 Open shrubs with close to open herbaceous and sparse trees 2,165.7 10.6 2SVJ67 HR3HQ47-x Small fields with one additional crop and Sparse tree crops 6,374.5 31.2 HR3HQ47-xSR3H47

Total area 20,452.36 100.0

Table 5. Land cover distribution for major land use types in Offaka Sub County in the year 2014 Code Land use/cover type Area_ha_2014 % 1 Agriculture 11,249.5 55.0 2 Wooded grassland 3,309 16.2 3 Closed woodland 1,582.5 7.7 4 Close to open woodland 2,598.6 12.7 5 Kraal 0.45 0.0 6 Riverine vegetation 211.8 1.0 7 Grasslands with scattered shrubs 1463 7.2 8 Settlements/centres 31.48 0.2 9 Orchard 5.8 0.0 Total 20452.13 100.0

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4.12. Land cover change analysis The land cover change analysis between 2000 and 2014 shows that land converted to agriculture use increased to 11,249.51 ha in 2014 from 6,374.68 ha in 2000. Closed woodland vegetation area reduced from 11,912.88 (58.2%) ha to 1,582.78 ha (7.7%) with most of it (4,856.85ha) going to agricultural land and 2,186.87 to wooded grass land vegetation and the remaining spread to other forms of degraded land use. The changes are mainly due to the rapid clearing of the natural vegetation to open up land for agricultural production as explained in land use change map in figure 59. Therefore, the land cover pattern for the year 2014 indicates that agriculture was the dominant land use in 2014 with 11,249.50 ha, followed by wooded grassland vegetation covering 3,309 ha, closed woodland vegetation covering 1,582.50 ha, close to open woodland vegetation covering 2,598.60 ha. 86.71% of the closed woodland was transformed to other uses and in general 23.8% of the natural vegetation was lost during the last 14 year period. These results indicate that agricultural land use is expanding more rapidly than any other land uses in the Sub County. This trend is depicted in the comparison of land cover maps of the year 2000 and 2014 for Offaka Sub County are shown in figure 60.

Figure 59. Land use change between 2000 and 2014 for different land use categories.

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Figure 60. Land cover in the year 2000 (left) and the year 2014 (right) for Offaka Sub County

4.13. Vegetaion and agroecology of Offaka Sub County Offaka vegetation is dominated by woodland-savanna mosaic. Vegetation cover and height plant data resulted in four major vegetation classes based on land uses (table 6 and figure 61). Closed woodland and closed to open woodland (figure 62) were dominated by Combretum and Acacia species, wooded grassland and grassland with scattered trees habitats were dominated by Combretum sp., Pseudocedrella kotschyi, Gardenia ternifolia and Acacia species. In the study area it was noted that the local community purposely preserved certain plant species in their gardens which they considered as very important to them. Many of the plant species preserved included fruit plants such as Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Balanities eagyptiaca, Carssa edulis, Tamarindus indica, Cordia sinensi, and Zizyphus mauritiana among others (figure 63). Abandoned agricultural land was dominated by grass species such as Panicum maximum, Setaria kagerensis and Sporobolus pyramidalis.

Table 6. Vegetation physiognomic and species composition Code Vegetation type Woody species Herbaceous vegetation Wooded Acacia hockii, Combretum Hyperthelia dissolute, Panicum deustum 1 grassland adenogonium Brachiaria brizantha Setaria sphacelata, Sporobolus 2 Closed woodland Acacia sp., C. collinum , C. molle pyramidalis Close to open Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia 3 Combretum sp. Acacia amythethophylla woodland filipendula Grasslands with Pseudocedrella Bridelia scleroneura Indigofera emerginella 4 scattered shrubs kotschll, Indigofera Hyperthelia dissoluta Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, 5 Agriculture Tamarindus indica Various mixed crops

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Figure 61.The major vegetation/land cover types as of 2014.

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Figure 62. Close to open woodland on the north western part of the Sub County near Ajinia Hill Primary school

Figure 63. Typical Vitellaria paradox preserved in community farm land in the study area

4.14. Herbage species cover and composition The herbaceous plants, especially grass or similar vegetation used for pasturage was enumerated randomly in human modified and natural vegetation categories. Plants species were identified using the Flora of East Tropical Africa (Kalema and Beentje, 2012) and at the Makerere University Herbarium. A total of 24 herbage plant species were recorded (appendix 6). Poaceae had the largest number of species followed by Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae. The commonest species found in the study areas was Hyperthelia dissolute. Other common species were Brachiaria brizantha, Enteropogon macrostachyus, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Phyllanthus amarus, and Digitaria diagonalis. Plant species have been reported to be important fodder plants elsewhere (Kabirizi, 2014). Among others they include grasses such as Elephant (Napier) grass (Pannisetum purpureum, P. clandestunum), Cailver desmodium), Clitori ternatea, Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass), Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Setaria sphacelata, Brachiara species (signal grass) Pannisetum clandestunum (kikuyu grass), Hyperhenia rufa (thatching grass). Fodder trees recorded included were, Calliandra calathysus (Calliandra), Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium (Glicidia) species. Macroptilium atropurpureum (Sirato), Desmodium intortum, Desmodium ancinatum. According to Kabirizi et al. (2014) these are the very important fodder plant species that provide complete diet for rearing healthy livestock. In order to feed livestock during the prolonged long dry season in the sub county it is important to promote hay and silage making within the community during the rainy season when the leaf are tender with a lot of nutrients. Usually in wet season herbage availability exceeds the quantity required by livestock which could be used to make hay and sledge within the community.

4.15. Mammal Diversity During this study total of 24 mammal species were reported to occur in the area according to the hunters (appendix 7). We were able to observe or identify some of the species using signs such as spoors, vocalization, faecal remains or direct observation during the survey. These included, Uganda Kob, Waterbuck, Bushbuck, Bushpig, Bush duiker, Wild rabbit, Warthog, Aardvark, Serval cat, Genet cat, Civet cat, banded mongoose, Baboon, Black and White Colobus Monkey, Vervet monkey, Patas monkey and Tree Squirrel. Some species such as Sitatunga, Side stripped Jackal, Hyrax among others could not be confirmed due to their secretive and nocturnal foraging behaviour.

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4.16. Complimentary stakeholder activities The team visited NFA, NARO and DFO to question them about the specialized activities they undertake in relation to supporting communities in their plant product development. At the time of this study the NFA was responsible for the management of the central forest reserves that are partly within Offaka S/C namely: Ajupane, Iyi and Laura central forest reserves. However, the NFA at the moment had limited activity in the area due to the unclear boundaries and many illegal activities within the forest reserves which bring them into conflict with local community. The district manages forest products in all areas not under the jurisdiction of NFA. Previously there was a project of afforestation in Arua district on the Farm Income Enhancement and Forest Conservation (FIEFOC) Project. However, Offaka S/C was not a key beneficiary during the first phase but is expected to benefit in the second phase of the project which was reported to be underway (Mr. Adiribo- Arua District Forest Officer DFO). One of the partners, World Vision Uganda Offaka Programme recently completed the implementation of the Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) which is a rapid, low cost approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pasture lands. Abii Zonal Agricultural Research Development Institute (ZARDI) has experimental plant nursery sites (figure 64) at their station near Oludri trading centre in Manibe Sub County, Ayivu County for testing the possibility of domesticating indigenous fruit plants such as Dulu (Saba comorensis), Iti (Tamarindus indica), Awa (Vitellaria paradoxa formerly Butyrospermun paradoxum), Eto (Balanities aegytiaca). Other trials were for Apples, Mangoes, Avocadoes, Oranges, Avocado and other exotic fruit tree species. Identified fruit plants could then be promoted in the Sub County since Abii ZARDI can provide technical support for such projects.

Saba Comorensis (Dulu) (b) Tamarindus indica (Iti) (c) Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa)

(d) Mango (e) Apple ( f) Oranges Figure 64. Vraious fruit palnt species being propagated at the Abii ZARDI at their experimental site in Abii, Manibe Sub County Ayivu County Arua Disstrict.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.1. Biodiversity uses and indigenous knowledge This study has shown Offaka Sub County still has reasonably high biodiversity which the community depend on for their livelihood. The savanna woodlands are rich with fruit trees and shrubs which are vital for food and nutritional security as well as being a source of medicine for the rural communities in the region. The study indicated that the local communities have valuable knowledge on the plant resources management. The community members maintained a traditional land use system where they left some of the plants which are of use to them such as Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and Tamarindus indica. These are normally termed as “Agroforestry parkland” system as described by Raison (1988). They are characterized by the deliberate retention of some tree and shrub species on cultivated, recently fallowed land or nearby wild land. In the Offaka Sub County Shea nut tree has always been preserved for the fruits which it produces.

In the less disturbed areas the species diversity was recorded to be very high (over193 species) moreover over a very short period and minimal small sample size. The recording of plant species such as Afzelia Africana (Lokoko), Dalbergia melanoxylon (Poyi), Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and Khaya anthotheca which are categorized as endangered internationally (IUCN 2011) suggests the relative importance of the Sub County as a store of biodiversity. These findings indicate that Offaka Sub County contains very important wildlife species which need to be conserved for the benefit of humanity.

The plants considered of importance to the community are many and some of these such as fruit plants conserved by the community in their gardens (parklands) included Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex domain, Borussus aethiopium, Balanities eagyptiaca, Carssa edulis, Cordia sinensi, Vitex payos and Zizyphus mauritiana. This provides an important resource for exploitation to improve household income and food diversity. Estimates in other areas such as Zimbabwe indicate that fruit trees represent about 20% of total woodland resource use by the rural community households. In South Africa the indigenous fruits contribute on average about 42% of the natural food basket that rural households rely on (Campell et al., 1997). The home consumption and marketing of these fruits can contribute substantially to household livelihoods and cash income and enable the households to live above the poverty line during critical famine periods.

5.2. Unsustainable floral resource utilisation The baseline information on the social-economic survey indicates that Offaka Sub County still had low annual earning levels. Apart from tobacco farmers, the majority of the households were engaged in peasant farming, mainly for subsistence home consumption with the excess sold to acquire other home requirements. To supplement household income many have resorted to exploitation of the tree resources, especially charcoal burning which was observed to be rampant in the area to fulfil the nationally high demand for charcoal in the country. It is recognized that commercial demands may cause over harvesting of native plants (IUCN-SSC, 2000) leading to native plant species extinction. Exploitation of wood resources for fuel wood to satisfy markets elsewhere is currently one of the main driving forces on unsustainable utilisation of plant resources. From the year 2000 to 2014 the natural ecosystem in Offaka Sub County has changed very rapidly. A net loss of over 80% of closed woodland vegetation cover in a 14 year period indicates unsustainable use of floral resources in the Sub County. A comparable loss of vegetation cover has been reported in Nakasongola district which lost over 50 per cent of its forest cover

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to charcoal production (NEMA 2008). The study further showed a net financial income loss for the households that were engaged in charcoal production leading to degraded natural resources base. The challenge currently faced in Offaka Sub County is how to reverse the high rate of degradation of natural resources while meeting increasing demands for them. Considering that efforts by the tobacco companies and other stakeholders to promote planting of trees is not yielding success, this trend is very likely to pose a constraint on the resource availability for the future generations. Unfortunately, the traditional taboos that once governed the collection and management of wild plants are no longer an effective safeguard against over-harvesting. Fading of traditional taboos as safe guards against over exploitation of natural resources was also recorded across East Africa by Dharani and Yenesew (2010). For example important tree species including V. paradoxa are felled and burnt for charcoal production in Northern Uganda (Kalema and Beentje, 2012) and this was also recorded in Offaka Sub County. This presents a big challenge to sustainable utilisation of plant species in the area and thus requires urgent attention by all stakeholders including cultural and the local government leaders.

This study indicated that tobacco cultivation contributes negatively to the environment due to the fact that tobacco is grown in a monoculture and requires open canopy to grow well and thus trees are felled to leave way for the crop to grow. Additionally, large quantities of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used for tobacco production. Tobacco requires wood for curing the leaves that are got from cutting trees from the wild without replacement. Similar vegetation depletion impacts have been reported by Hossain and Mahabubur (2013) in Bangladesh. The proposal is to orient farmers to grow food and other crops to enable the farmers shifting from tobacco growing. In Bangladesh (Hossain and Mahabubur 2013) it has been proved experimentally that the net return from cultivation of substitute crops like potato, maize, spices and pulses was higher than what was obtained from tobacco growing. The tragedy is however that the farmers have been trapped into tobacco and caught in the vicious network of the tobacco companies because many tobacco farmers, rather than growing rich from the crop, often find themselves in debt to tobacco companies. Furthermore, with no protection, the exposure of skin to wet tobacco leaf, coupled with smoking can cause serious damage to human health which is costly to treat and may lead to premature death and loss of family human capital necessary for generating income. Concentrating on tobacco growing is probably one of the contributing factors to the food insecurity which was reported in Offaka Sub County since family labour and land are all engaged in tobacco production for most of the year. The labour intensive nature of the crop consequently results in the use of child labour during the peach period of tobacco leaf harvesting which is another challenge that interrupts childrens education. These are numerous long-term challenges associated with introduction of tobacco growing in the area.

NEMA (2009) in the report titled “Uganda: Atlas of Our Changing Environment” pointed out that Uganda will continue to rely on wood fuel to meet her energy needs in the foreseeable future. Sites such as Offaka Sub County will continue to be the main areas to supply charcoal. It is consequently wise to accept that for the supply to be sustainable there must be deliberate efforts towards organizing the industry with economic incentives provided to promote sustainable practices. In this study charcoal was noted to be an alternative source of livelihood for many families. This suggests that a total ban may be too prohibitive but it would be reasonable to restrict production to enable plant species regeneration while promoting sustainable management and production of charcoal, through providing appropriate technology for charcoal production such as using improved kilns. At the same time it is important to promote planting of some tree species for charcoal production by the community. By streamlining the

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charcoal production and business processes, we shall achieve the aims of not only environmental stability but also empowering the very vulnerable societies to prepare for and address disasters.

5.3. Challenges and opportunities for sustainable utilization of biodiversity As revealed in this study 86.71% of the closed woodland within the Sub County was lost over the last 14 year period. The widespread vegetation loss was probably a result of expansion of agricultural land, the rampant felling of the trees for wood-fuel (mainly charcoal) and tobacco curing. The Sub County is located along the route to supply charcoal to distant places such as Kampala. Unfortunately, the afforestation programs such as those promoted by the tobacco companies in the Sub County are not adequate to compensate the rate of deforestation. Therefore there is a need to take urgent action to combat the situation. Examples of activities which point in the right direction include restricting charcoal production from indigenous trees, the promotion of increased tree planting efforts – including their protection, as well as a holistic adoption of fuel wood saving stoves. All these have to go along with adequate efforts and resources devoted to law enforcement. It is important to design and implement a programme that will balance utilisation of biodiversity for wealth creation with poverty reduction and sustainability. In Uganda hunting was banned in 1980 and the ban has never been lifted since. However, some limited level of hunting takes place with the understanding of UWA and sometimes outside the control of UWA or the National Forestry Authority (NFA). As noted in this study the communities of Offaka have historical and long-term attachment to hunting practices which are embedded in their cultural norms. While in other parts of Arua district most of the wild mammal population has totally disappeared, Offaka Sub County still has some reasonable population of the mammal species. The way forward is not to ban the traditional hunting as such but instead to institute and promote community based management, production and harvesting of the mammal species with the aim of ensuring long-term sustainability.

5.4. Promoting strategies for the conservation of medicinal-plant genetic resources The use of plants and plant derivatives for preventing and treating human diseases and afflictions is as old as civilization itself (Dharani and Yenesew 2010). History shows that every culture on earth has benefited from the medicinal virtues of plants. Indeed, plants are still the backbone of most medical and health care systems in places around the world including Offaka Sub County. Across much of Africa and elsewhere in the developing world, where access to clinics dispensing modern medicine is either limited or prohibitively costly, traditional herbal remedies are still the primary means of meeting the health and medical needs of most rural communities (Kipkore et al. 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 80% of the population in some developing countries use traditional medicine (WHO 2008). Modern science has validated many of the healing attributes for which individual plant species have long been used traditionally. Natural products and their derivatives currently provide the basis for more than half of all the drugs currently in clinical use globally and higher plants contribute no less than 25% of the active ingredients (Dharani and Yenesew 2010). There is a thriving global health care market extending to many hundreds of plant-based formulations, which are sold as health foods, herbal teas and nutritional and health supplements. Despite the thriving traditional herbal medicine being an important component of health care system in sub-Saharan Africa, most of the ethno botanical information on herbal medicine and healing methods largely remain undocumented (Kipkore et al. 2014). By far the most pressing conservation concern is the alarming rate

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at which the natural habitats of medicinal plants such as forests and woodlands of Sub-Saharan Africa are being destroyed to make way for agricultural cultivation, charcoal production and settlement as is also taking place in Offaka area. Elsewhere catastrophic habitat loss, coupled with the wholesale plunder of what forests remain is threatening the survival of many plants, including such medicinally important endemic species as Camphor Wood (Ocotea usambarensis) and Prunus africana, along with several Aloe species (Dharani and Yenesew 2010). It is noted that the disappearance and depletion of medicinal plants from their natural habitats across East Africa is impacting severely on the livelihoods of traditional herbalists, curtailing their ability, not only to administer to the health needs of their own local communities, but also to trade among themselves, as has long been their custom. The traditional taboos that once governed the collection and storage of wild plants are no longer an effective safe guard against over harvesting. This scenario portray the situation in Offaka Sub County where natural vegetation is currently being lost at alarming rate to agricultural land expansion, charcoal production among others. Therefore the need to develop strategies to save not only medicinal plants but also other natural vegetations has become very urgent for all stakeholders at different levels to consider. An initiative to promote use of herbal medication is already underway at Kuluva Hospital and as part of the herbal or identified plants with medicinal values is grown in the gardens. With the current high rate of loss of the vegetation the only strategy to save some of the plants of medicinal value is to promote growing of these plants by the TMPs and households. This can also be promoted at the training institutions such as schools at various levels and colleges as a strategy to make the younger generation to learn, appreciate and value the plants and then be able to pass the knowledge to the next generation before it is lost.

5.5. Potential for value addition to biodiversity This study demonstrated that the local community possessed diverse knowledge on uses of plant resources. The key uses included; for building, craft, food, medicinal and fuel. While fruit collection by the families was only limited to few plants such as Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and Tamarindus indica (Iti), exotic or introduced species and the rest of the indigenous fruits was mainly regarded by the general community as “children’s food” and thus neglected. And yet these neglected edible fruit plants are often useful during the famine season to supplement meagre or insufficient staple food supply at such times. Indigenous fruit plants have enormous potential in contributing to the nutritional and cash economy of small scale farmers in rural areas (Andama 2009). Elsewhere the analysis of chemical composition shows many indigenous fruits to be rich in sugars, essential vitamins, minerals, oils and proteins (Kwesiga and Mwanza, 1994) which can be processed into useful commercial products. In spite of this, indigenous fruit trees in tropical rural settings have not been domesticated and therefore remain largely unexploited. This is because there is no deliberate effort through policy to promote them as a source of income. This has significantly marginalized their utility and commercial value and consequently, a narrow range of exotic species such as Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) and Moringa (Moringa oliefera Lam.) have been over promoted by government and development agencies resulting in further neglect on domestication, exploitation and market development possibilities of indigenous fruit plants. The value attached to indigenous fruits may be low because most of these are still easily available in the wild. As noted in this study the only fruit tree product that benefited from value addition was Shea nut fruit. The rest of the species are neglected by the community as “children’s food” and thus no effort made to process any products out of the plants. Even for Shea nut fruit the technology being used to process is traditional and very rudimentary. There has been no introduction of improved technology for large scale processing and value addition of Shea nut oil in the area as yet. There was

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also no deliberate effort to improve post harvest handling, preservation and value addition by the private sector in the area although this is already taking place in other parts of the northern Uganda such in Lango sub region. Many products have been developed from Shea nut oil in Uganda and are now available in the Ugandan market such as medicinal skin oil and soap (figure 65). There is need to take advantage of the existing Shea nut tree population in the Sub County through promoting commercial exploitation. This could be through introducing improved technology for extracting Shea nut oil and adding value to the oil as a strategy to empower the women of the area and also save the trees from being cut for charcoal production. Opportunities also exist in the processing and value addition for other fruit tree products such as for Sclerocarya birrea, Saba comorensis and Tamarindus indica among others. For example in Namibia and South Africa the author observed beverage products (figure 66) processed from S. birrea fruit (the famous Amarula wine and liquor and fruit drink Vigo. Appendix 8 gives the list and contacts of key institutions /persons for developing collaborations, linkages, partnerships and collaborations to initiate action plans for sustainable development of Offaka Sub County natural resources.

Figure 65. Medicinal skin oil (left) and soap (right) are products in Ugandan market manufactured from Shea nut oil.

Figure 66. Bottled beverages produced from Sclerecarya birrea tree fruit on the market in Southern Africa.

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5.6. Key gender issues In Offaka Sub County both women and men play important roles in biodiversity management, use, and conservation through their different tasks and responsibilities in food production and provision. Consequently they have different needs, priorities, and knowledge about diverse crops, plants, and animals. Because women (and sometimes girls) are often responsible for providing their households with the basic necessities of life; food, fuel, and water, they rely heavily on natural resources. While men participate in hunting during the dry season the women are key players in the collection of firewood and water. Environmental degradation increases women’s time for labour-intensive household tasks, such as having to walk longer distances for the collection of fuel wood and water. Decreases in agricultural production and household food security create additional health problems related to their increasing workload. This highlights the important roles of gender in any attempt to develop programmes for sustainable use of the resources equality and equity in gender participation in programmes is a must for its success.

This study has demonstrated that biodiversity provides the basis for ecosystems and ecosystem services upon which all people of Offaka depend. Indeed Biodiversity in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries underpins agricultural and bio-energy production (FAO 2007a). Sustainable use and management of biodiversity can result in local food security, environmental conservation, and viable livelihoods for these rural poor communities. Offaka Sub County exhibits a rich floral and faunal resource within which lies a huge potential for commercial exploitation by agriculture, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. However, largely due to the lack of professionals and an effective innovative research strategy in the country, these potentials are still largely un-exploited. There is thus a unique opportunity to focus on this unexploited potential in the drive towards realization of transforming the economy of the Sub County and subsequent improvement of the livelihood of the community since where these natural resources are, there occurs predominant and severe poverty.

5.7. Plant Biodiversity Monitoring

As already noted in this study Offaka Sub County has very rich terrestrial plant biodiversity that provides the basis for livelihood of the community in terms of fuel, food, cultural attachments, biodiversity based enterprises such as bee keeping, tourism, among others. Therefore, to ensure continuation of these livelihood opportunities there is need to develop strategies to rehabilitate and sustain the ecological processes and this can only be effective through monitoring programme. Plant biodiversity Monitoring in relation to Offaka Sub County Botanic baseline study was proposed to assess recovery success of the degraded ecosystem and maintenance of level of the status of the resource base. The success of managing complex ecological systems for sustaining significant services to the communities depend largely on the strength of monitoring approaches and the implementation of adaptive strategies to mitigate potential regime shifts (Druce eta l. 2008). The ecological monitoring helps to check if the proposed mitigation measures stated in the baseline are being implemented and are working to achieve the intended outcomes. As already shown in this report in the last ten years there has been increased degradation of ecosystem in Offaka Sub County for which immediate adaptive strategies are needed for its recovery. The baseline report provides the status of terrestrial plant species in the Sub County. The proposed monitoring may target (i) maintaining the existing (baseline) ecological system and conditions, or (ii) improving biodiversity status through increased vegetation cover for wildlife.

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The key issue is to ensure that monitoring produces an early warning system with regard to potential losses of biodiversity as a result of drivers. In order to determine when these levels are being approached or exceeded, monitoring programs have to be developed which can reliably document environmental variation over time. For this study some key indicator species are proposed, based on the guidelines given by Carignan and Villard (2002) which states that valuable indicators may have some or all of the following characters: (i) Provide early warning of natural response to environmental impacts (ii) Directly indicate the cause of change rather than simply the existence of change (e.g. measuring fecundity and survival rather, than simple measures of abundance). (iii) Provide continuous assessment over a wide range and intensity of stress (iv) Be cost effective to measure and be accurately estimated by all personnel (even non specialists) involved in monitoring.

Being aware that Offaka Sub County study focused on terrestrial plant species, thus plant species are selected to act as indicators, focusing on high probability of detection and species listing in the IUCN (2001) Red List category.

5.7.1 Monitoring protocol

Plants are one of the most important indicators of environmental conditions because they reflect the overall state of life conditions in an area and the status of all other species in an ecosystem normally depend on them. Plants are also relatively easy to identify and map through fieldwork and remote sensing technique. Any changes in vegetation, due to perturbations, affect taxonomic groups with similar habitat requirements and those whose distribution may approximate that of plant biodiversity as a whole (Pearson & Cassola 1992, Coppolillo et al. 2004). Therefore, plant species that are sensitive to ecological and environmental changes can be used to detect changes in the physical, chemical or biological conditions in a site.

Key aspects of monitoring protocol for the Sub County vegetation are; (i) the location of the monitoring points (ii) How frequent the monitoring will take place (data to be collected) and (iii) Different types of vegetation (plant species) indicators that can be used. The proposed overall design is to use the existing transects and the plots that were established during this study for data collection (Global Positioning points) (see appendix 5). In this case at least four plots can be selected from the vegetation categories in section 3.3.1 (i.e. open grassland to woody shrubs, riverine and forest type vegetations). The plant species with high probability of detection (> 80percentage chance of being detected when present) are hereby proposed to be considered for incorporation into a monitoring program to serve as potential indicators of ecosystem integrity. Keep the basic design used in plant sampling to retain consistency for comparison of analysis in future surveys. Utilize measurements of plant frequency (e.g., number of different species and individuals occupied by quadrats and their life history i.e. regeneration status) in lieu of estimates of cover at individual sites as the primary monitoring metric. Additional information for monitoring should include vegetative cover, threatened and vulnerable species, as well as invasive plant species and the noticeable effects of human encroachment in the ecosystem. Fire is a major threat affecting habitats and systems critical to Offaka Sub County habitats, which also requires to be monitored. Some of the key species for use as indicators are shown in the table 7.

Table 7. Proposed indicator species based on vegetation type Vegetation type Woody species Herbaceous vegetation

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Acacia hockii, Combretum Wooded adenogonium Vitex doniana grassland Vitellaria paradoxa Hyperthelia dissolute, Panicum amythethophylla deustum Brachiaria brizantha Acacia sp., Combretum collinum, C. molle, Dalbergia melanoxylon Closed woodland (Poyi), Khaya anthotheca Setaria sphacelata, Sporobolus adenogonium. pyramidalis Close to open Combretum sp. Acacia Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia woodland amythethophylla filipendula Grasslands with Pseudocedrella Bridelia Indigofera emerginella scattered shrubs scleroneura kotschll, Indigofera Hyperthelia dissoluta Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex Agriculture doniana, Tamarindus indica Various mixed crops

A minimum of five years frequency of vegetation monitoring is proposed to realize any significant changes. This should be done in conjunction with remote sensing images for comparison purposes as was set up in this study.

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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. Conclusions This study has shown that Offaka Sub County still has reasonably high plant biodiversity which are being used for food, biomass energy, source of medicine etc. The wide portfolio of biodiversity resources provides a crucial opportunity to adapt and develop sustainable mechanisms to support community needs, production systems and for regulating local ecosystems to meet the needs of future generations.

The most dominant tree species found were Combretum (Adu), and Acacia (Oli) in non-farm lands while the tree species in the farm land were dominated by Vitellaria (formerly Butyrospermum) and Ficus. The shrub layer was dominated by Grewia (Inzu) and Annona Senegalese (Lipa) species. Whereas the grass cover was dominated by Hyperthermia dissolute (Embetia), Branchiaria (Licoo) and Enteropogan (Tangu) species.

This study demonstrated the potential of indigenous plants to provide for various local community needs in terms of health, nutrition and other commercial demands which would generally improve family livelihoods. Thus the floral resources in the natural vegetation and the agroforestry ecosystem recorded in this study offers the rural community an opportunity to develop sustainable utilisation programmes to diversify their income, increase farm production, provide fodder for livestock and acquire nutrient and anti-pathogen ingredients to mitigate diseases.

Over the last 14 years from the year 2000 up to date the natural ecosystem in Offaka Sub County has changed very rapidly. For example there was a net loss of over 80% of closed woodland vegetation cover, largely because of the need to meet rapidly growing demands for agriculture, charcoal for sale, timber and fuel.

The traditional herbal medicine practioners (THMP) were recorded to contribute to the provision of primary health care in the community. Unfortunately, there are no recorded efforts to propagate the medicinal plant species through herbal medicine gardens.

There still exist reasonable numbers of species of wild mammals and fish in the area which is supporting the hunting and fishing culture which is still strongly imbedded in the local community. For these cultural practices to continue there is need to promote sustainable use of these resources without depleting the resource base.

The study indicates that in Offaka Sub County women are key players in natural resource management through collection of wild foods that provide important micronutrients in diets that are vital for the survival of their households during food shortages, and may also provide income. They are also responsible for collection of household firewood. The reduction in the availability of fuel

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wood for example is already posing a constraint to their livelihood. There is need to address gender- specific challenges and relationships in natural resource use and management.

6.2. Recommendations (a) The following recommendations are proposed for developing sustainable use and management of the floral and faunal resource of Offaka Sub County. (i) Promote value addition to the Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) which offer financial incentive to the community. Example through initiating enterprises for processing and value addition of NTFPs such as Shea nut butter fruit, (Vitellaria paradoxa), Amarula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) fruit processing and other fruit plants. (ii) Promote conservation compatible enterprises such as bee keeping which would encourage the community to keep some of their land with vegetation cover while receiving benefits of bee keeping through honey production for sell. (iii) Promoting domestication and planting of plant species that will provide financial incentives to the community. Such Annona senegalensis, Saba comorense, Carisa edulis among others. (iv) Promote home herbal gardens to help revive local knowledge on medicinal plants and conserve the plants of medicinal value within the community. (b) Promote sustainable agricultural methods. (i) Promote Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) as a strategy for promoting rapid, low cost and easily replicated approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pasture lands. FMNR facilitates environmental sustainability due to the fact that it promotes regeneration of the indigenous plant species. (ii) Promote Sustainable Agriculture (SA) which is based on three principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotations. Its aim is to achieve sustainable and profitable agriculture which will improve farmers’ livelihoods. (iii) Substitute tobacco growing with alternative crops and activities. Farmers need to be educated on the harmful effects of growing tobacco and be provided with justification to take on ‘Transition crops’ which will provide alternative source of income to them. Transition crops can be identified with the help of the district agriculture service as short term measure. The long term crops or activities which will substitute tobacco industry need more land use planning for the area as a long term measure. (c) Promote sustainable management and production of biomass fuel. (i) Through promoting improved technologies for charcoal production such as Casamance kiln, half orange kiln and drum kiln among others. Secondly, by ensuring that the charcoal producers establish their own tree plantations from which to produce charcoal. This system when streamlined will lead to more sustainable charcoal production and business processes, it will be possible to achieve the aims of not only environmental stability but also empowering the very vulnerable societies to prepare for and address disasters. (ii) To sustain firewood and charcoal production, it is important to deliberately promote household woodlots. (iii) Promote energy saving stoves to save quantity of wood used for biomass energy source.

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(d) Community ownership and management of the floral resources (i) Initiate community conservation area for some of the less utilized land based on the interest of the clans, families who own the land. (e) Promote additional research on other biodiversity of the Sub County which remains largely unknown. Key taxa recommended for study include the bird species and insects. (f) Monitoring of resource use. It is important to regularly undertake monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity status and land cover pattern in the Sub County. The information documented on plant biodiversity and land cover during this study provides the baseline for monitoring changes in biodiversity and land use in the Sub County. Five to ten year time interval is proposed for evaluation and monitoring resource use pattern in the Sub County. (g) Development of nature based tourism in the Sub County. Identify areas of cultural and scenic importance that could be developed into tourism attractions. There are vast variety of natural sceneries within the Sub County and the neigbouring sites. This coupled with the biodiversity especially birds, butterflies and other biodiversity are key sources of tourism attraction. This could be linked to the traditional clan based hunting, dancing which is still being practiced during the dry season in the area to be used as a unique opportunity to attract tourists to the area and is an opportunity to develop cultural tourism sites in the area. (h) Education: It is through education that a better and stronger future can: (i) Promote education on the floral and other resources of the area within the youth and adults at primary, secondary and schools, vocational training institutions and community based associations units through. (ii) Establishing a botanical garden and herbarium as a tool for promoting education of the stakeholders targeting medicinal, fruit and indigenous fodder plants. (i) Establish and promote strategic stakeholders for promoting further studies and to develop and test pilot projects for promoting biodiversity enabling projects that are sustainable with economic returns to the local community. Strategic stakeholders include universities research organisations (e.g. NARO), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local governments (LGs), government parastatal (NFA, UWA) among others. (j) Build regional/landscape level alliance for promoting sustainable development. Build alliances at regional/landscape level (with the neigbouring sub counties, districts) to promote sustainable livelihood strategies. This comes from the fact that any intervention needs to be adopted by the neigbouring communities, parishes, sub counties, districts in order to realize economy of scale impact/benefits. (k) Initiate Collaborative Forest Management (a) Initiate Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) with communities for the forest reserves under the jurisdiction of NFA. During this study it was noted that three central forest reserves namely Ajupane, Laura and Iyi were partly within Offaka S/C. Opportunities to initiate CFM will help to improve and maintain forest cover in the area. (l) Develop and enact bye-laws at lower levels e.g. at S/C or parish levels to regulate activities that are detrimental to the flora/vegetation e.g. charcoal burning, tree harvesting from the wild sources, bushfires, compulsory tree planting.

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(m) Sub County environmental action plan; Based on the findings of this study the Sub County should develop and implement an Environment Management action plan to sustainably manage the biological resources. (n) Land evaluation; In order to make best use of available land, it is important to evaluate its potential. This can be done through land evaluation and land use planning to develop appropriate land use systems for communities to adopt so as to promote sustainable practices on the available land and realize maximum output.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Research team composition

Lead consultant: 1. Dr. Edward Andama - Ethno-Botanist/GIS Senior Team members: 2. Mr. Ocatre Robert - Land use specialist 3. Mr. Rwabarondore Protase - Systematic Botanist 4. Ms. Constance Alezuyo - Development Scientist Research Field assistants

1. Mr. Amandu Benard 2. Mr. Dan Dunia 3. Mr. Bayua Richard 4. Mr. Adaku Kennedy 5. Ms. Oturu Peace 6. Ms. Driciru Hellen 7. Mr. Asiku Robert 8. Mr. Aliama Godwin 9. Mr. Olea Primus 10. Mr. Acidri Gilbert 11. Mr. Oyella Adamic 12. Mr. Atabua Geoffrey

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Appendix 2. Household interview questionnaire

GUIDE TO THE INTERVIEW TEAM: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

CONSENT FORM: Dear Sir/Madam. My name is ______, I am involved a study for Adraa Agriculture College, Offaka sub county. We are conducting a research on plants, their types, how they are used here and how you are preserving them. I wish to request for your participation. I would like to ask you some questions concerning the plants and trees in your area, what you use them for and the nature of your work. These questions will help us to have an understanding of the plant resources of the sub-county. This interview usually lasts about 20 minutes. All that you share with us will be kept with utmost confidentiality. We will only use the information for study purposes and will not share your details and what you tell us with any other person. You do not need to tell us your names.

Is there anything you would like to ask me about this request?

If you accept we can proceed with the questions please.

Note to Interviewer: Please select every 5th household along the village Community Transect route for Questionnaire administration.

GENERAL INFORMATION HH ID #: I___I___I___I___I

INTERVIEWER’S NUMBER: I___I___I___I___I

Date (for the Research) (day/month/yr):_____/____/_____ Parish Number 1 = Adraa 2 = Elibu 3 = Ocebu 4 = Oribu Village Number 1. Ayibu/Osabu 2. Ayuu 3. Drajibu/Ocoonyara 4. Pamachi 5. Abali/Angesi 6. Alibu/Nyanyabu 7. Oliba/Muni/Ojiba 8. Pajia/Paceni 9. Aguru 10. Ndabu 11. Ombabu/Igaa 12. Ombaci 13. Alibu 14. Ndu 15. Nyanyabu 16. Okubu 17. Pamura 18. Patru

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A. Personal Details of Household Head/ Representative 1. Gender 1 = Male  2 = Female  2. Age 1 = Below 18 , 2 = 18-25 , 3 = 26-35 , 4 = 36 above , Or (I___I___I ) years old  3 Number of people in the HH (State no). 4 What is your highest level 1. = (a) lower Primary , (b) upper primary , of Education? 2. = Secondary , 3. = Tertiary , 4. = Others (specify) ……………………. 5 What is your Occupation? 1 = Farmer , 2 = Govt. worker , 3 = Business (specify: e.g. Produce, Charcoal, Vendor) , 4. Others (state)…………………………………………..  6. Do you have the following 1 = Bicycle , 2 = Radio , 3 = Phone  items at your home? 4= Motorcycle , 6 = Others 7 Which of the following 1 Chick 3 Sheep4 Cattle (No) 5 others animals do you have and in en (No) (e.g. what numbers? (No) guinea 2 .Goats fowl) (No) 8. What is your estimated 1. Below 100,000 2. 100,000 - 200,000/- annual income? 3. 2000,000 – 500,000 4. 500,000 - 1000,000 5. above 1000,0000

LAND SIZE, USE, OWNERSHIP AND AVAILABILITY 1. What is the size of your land?...... acres

2. Do you use land that you do not own?

1 Yes 2 No

3. If yes, on what terms and how much?

1 Lease………….acres 2 Sharecropping…………acres

3 Rent……………acres 4 Free use……………acres

FOOD AVAILABILITY 4. What ranking would you give the following in regard to your household: a. Availability of food for the whole year:

1 2 71

More than enough

3 Little 4 Very little

SHELTER/HOUSING 5. Indicate the type of shelter you own:

1 Permanent 2 Semi permanent

3 Temporary/makeshift 4 Others………………

6. Which crops do you grow to earn money? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

HEALTH CARE 7. Which of the health facilities can you afford regularly?

1 Dispensary 2 Health Centre

3 Hospital 4 Over the Counter/kiosk medication

5 Clinic 6 Drug Shop

T. healer/ herbalist Self medication 7 8

8. Are you a member of any group or association?

1 Yes 2 No

9. If yes, name the group(s)/association(s) and respective purposes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10. What is the composition/membership of the group/association by gender? Name of Group/Association………………………………………

No. of male No. of female

11. Are you a member of any group or association?

1 Yes 2 No

12. Name of Group/Association………………………………………

No. of male No. of female

13. Name of Group/Association………………………………………

No. of male No. of female

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14. Name of Group/Association………………………………………

No. of male No. of female

15. How do you rank the involvement of women at the household level in the following? A. Decision making:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

B. Control of household cash

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

C. Community work:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

D. Opening up land for agriculture:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

Less than equal to men Not involved 3 4 E. Ploughing:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

F. Planting:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Not involved 4 Less than equal to men

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G. Weeding:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

H. Harvesting:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

I. Processing the farm produce:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

Less than equal to men Not involved 3 4

J. Transportation of agricultural produce to market:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

K. Marketing:

1 Dominant 2 Equal to men

3 Less than equal to men 4 Not involved

16. Do you own a fruit or medicinal trees? (e.g. tamarind, Shea nut butter tree etc)

1 Yes 2 No

17. If yes, which species do you own?......

18. Did you plant them?

1 Yes 2 No

19. Why do people conserve the plants?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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20. Which category owns more of the plants? 1 Men 2 Women

3 Boys 4 Girls 21. Which category has more control over the tree products? (E.g. Shea nut butter)

1 Men 2 Women

3 Boys 4 Girls

22. Who takes care of these plants?

1 Men 2 Women

3 Boys 4 Girls

No one 5

23. Are the fruit plants used today as much as in the past 10-15 years ago?

1 Yes 2 No

24. If no or yes, why do you think there is less/more use?

…………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..

25. Do you think these plants are very important to the community?

1 Yes 2 No 3 don’t know.

26. Are there any regulations against cutting down these trees?

1 Yes 2 No

27. If yes what is (are) the regulation(s)?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

28. Describe the different methods of harvesting/gathering fruit plants

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

29. According to you what is the abundance of the trees 20 to 30 year ago? (a) More than today (b) the same as today (c) has reduced very much today (d) don’t know

30. According to you what are the key threats to the survival plants in this area?

......

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31. What practices were there long time ago to preserve plants and animals which are not being done these days? E.g.by the young generation!

......

32. How do you think the community can best conserve/preserve these trees?

......

TREE SPECIES KNOWLEDGE AND USES 33. a) Which tree species do you often harvest?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… b) Which tree species do you occasionally harvest and why?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34. List the tree species you often use for firewood?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

35. List the species you use for medicinal purposes…………………………………..…………………...

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

36. List the species you use for food (mention part that are consumed e.g. roots, stem, fruits or leaves)

……………...……………………………………………………………………………………………….

37. When are the commonly eaten fruits in season?

......

38. List the species you use for performing cultural rites……………….………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

39. List the species you use for constructing house

…………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………..

(Observe the house: what materials are used for roofing, walls, and beds/furniture)

40. List the species you use for shade………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………..

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41. Would you make money from the above listed plant species? 1 = Yes 2 = No

42. What other fuel sources are used for cooking? (List)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

43. Do you have any other use for firewood (e.g. brick making)? 1 = Yes 2 = No

44. Do you plant trees for firewood or timber? Yes No

45. If yes, list the species planted……...…………………………………………...………………………

46. a) What is the number of trees in your woodlot?......

b) How much would each tree cost if you needed to sell it? ……………………………..……………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CRAFT WORK AND BASKETRY RESOURCES 47. a) Do you make crafts (stools, hoe handle, etc) from the plants). Yes No

b) If yes which crafts do you make ………………………………………......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

48. Is it an important business in the parish? Yes No

Can you please estimate the amount of money this brings you in a month? 49. Which is the main plant species used for this purpose? (List)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

MEDICINAL PLANTS 50. Do you use herbal medicine when sick? Yes No

51. Do you know any herbal plant species? (List) ……………….………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 52. Where do the communities do collect the plants from? 1. The wild 2. From garden 3. Planted at home 4. Any other place (mention)……….

53. Which groups participate in collecting these plants? (men, women, children). Use of the plant species in your area, for instance human and livestock health problem management. (Please specify which diseases are treated).

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54. Which other uses do you have for plants in your area? (E.g. ornamental, trading cultural (state)

…………………………….…………………………………………………………………………...

55. Which part of the plants is used for the 31 above? 1. Leaf 2. Bark 3. Roots 4. Fruits/seeds 5. Other parts (specify which

part for which plant)……………………………………………………………………………………………..

56. How are the above parts processed by the users for treatment? 1. Pounded 2. Used without processing 3. Other ways (state)……..…………

57. Compared to ten to twenty years ago, are the above plants currently still 1 = Common as before 2 = Rare 3 = Have disappeared

58. Do the community members propagate/grow the above plants within their gardens? 1= Yes 2 = No

59. Is there any unique information on the use of plants that are important to the community?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

60. Do you know of any traditional healers in the Parish? (Name them).

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

61. Do the traditional healers grow some plant species at home?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

WILD FOOD PLANTS 62. List the edible food plants collected from the forests and state the specific parts, which are used:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i. Fish

63. Which fish are commonly consumed in your area and what are the sources?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

64. a) Does your family go to fish in the rivers and stream? Yes No b) If yes what are the common species of fish caught?

……………………………………...……………………………………………………………………….

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j. Hunting Practices 65. List the wild animals found in your area ………………….....……………..…………………………

66. Which animals are hunted most by the community?

……………………………………..………………………………………………………………………..

67. Where do they go for hunting? 1. Nearby place (1-4 km) 2. Distant place (6 km and above)

……………………………………………………………..………………………………………………..

69. Does your family go hunting wild animals? Yes No

k. Beekeeping Practices 70. a) Do you harvest any honey from the wild? Yes No

b) Please estimate the amount of money you get could from sale of honey 71. Do you keep bees in your area or land?

72. List the tree species most favoured as sources of pollen and nectar by bees.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PROBLEM ANIMALS 73. Do you experience crop raids by wild animals? 1= Yes 2 = No

74. Where do the animals come from? ……………………...……......

75. List the names of the problem animals in the village.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

76. How do you deal with crop raiding by wild animals?

…………………………...………………………………………………………………………………..

CONCLUSION 77. Have the District or sub-county/parish management conducted any environmental conservation education in the parish? 1 = Yes 2= No

78. a) Are there seriously degraded areas in the village? 1 = Yes 2 = No

b) If yes, what are the main causes?

…………………………...………………………………………………………………………………….

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79. List those areas of serious degradation……………...... ……………………………………………….

………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

80. What do you think can be done about this degradation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

THANK YOU VERY MUCH

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Appendix 3 (a). List of groups /associations consulted during the Focus Group Discussions (FGD) s/n/ Groups/association Group Chair person Telephone 1 Ullepi trading Centre Charcoal - sellers /vendors association 2 Ullepi Trading Centre Shea nut oil Ms. Nyaku Ventorina sellers/Vendors Women Association 3 Ma-ecora women group bee Ms. Abiria Felix Harriet 0783421673 keeping association 4 Clan leaders of Ocebu Parish Omiama Ciro 5 Traditional medicine practitioners - 6 Traditional hunters group Atabua Geoffrey 7 Offaka Botanic Study Team Odaa Anthony 0782828502

Appendix 3 b Lists of persons consulted during informant interviews S/n Names designation Tel no. E-mail address 1 Odaa Anthony Offaka Sub County Chief 0782828502 [email protected] 2 Sarah Oates Adraa Agricultural college 0775581589 [email protected] 3 Tony Dolan Adraa Agriculture College Adraa 0784444910 [email protected] Agriculture College 4 Dunia Dan Adraa Agricultural College 0791398444 [email protected] 0777711750 5 Bayua Richard Adraa Agriculture College Adraa 0782868084 - Agriculture College 6 Oloya Ryerino Agriculture Officer Offaka S/C 0772303143 [email protected] Local Government 7 Adiribo Edison Forest Officer Arua DLG 0772567190 [email protected] 8 Eyotaru CAFRON 0782541515 - Josephine 9 Adutia Nick Ocebu Youth Action Fr 0793376507 [email protected] Nathaniel Development (OYAD) Elibu 10 Andiandu Environment officer Arua 0774926267 [email protected] Jackson District Local government 11 Afaru Ferdinand Offaka S/C Local Government 0781555777 [email protected] 12 Nyolonga Offaka S/C Local Government 0774139568 [email protected] Colbert 13 ABAU Francis Ocebu Parish 0759849844 [email protected] 14 Drama Primo Adraa Parish 0793424722 [email protected] 15 Onzima Sunday World Visions Offaka 0755002365 [email protected]

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Development Programme 16 Olal Joel Forest Supervisor NFA 0772675027/ [email protected] 0750675027 17 Atabua Geoffrey Traditional Medicine practitioner - - 18 Onzima Sunday Adraa Parish Chief Offaka S/C 19 Mundua Samuel Head of department Natural 0782834603 [email protected] medicine – Kuluva Hospital 0793834603 20 Asiku Baron Agroforestry Technician Abii 0782072590 [email protected] ZARDI 0752072590 21 Salvatore LC1 and Council Representative - - Leonard of Offaka S/C to BAT west Nile farmers Council 22 Ms. Anna Traditional Medicine practioner

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Appendix. 4. List of plants commonly used for medicinal purpose and their uses. s/n Plant Local Growth Status (Cu= Disease Part of Preparation Administration names name habit (H= cultivated, treated plant used /dosage

(scientific), (Madi) herb, T= SW- semi (Fr=fruit=

Common tree, S= wild, W= leaf, R= English shrub etc) wild) root, B=bark, S=stem, etc)

1 Mangifera muyembe T Cu Diarrhea B.R Crushed into Half cup drunk indica, decoction twice daily Mango,

2 Tabernaemo kanza T SW Worms/ B Crushed or Half litter taken ntana head ache chewed once a day for 4 ventricosa days A. DC.

3 Vernonia ociro H W malaria B.R Crushed into Half litter taken sp. decoction daily for one week

4 Azadirachta need T Cu Malaria, L,B Boiling fresh Quarter litter indica skin leaves ,dry four times a day treatment leaves and the bark are crushed

5 Combretum Aduu T W Protect L,R Bark is used sawn in the molle against cloth of child G.Don illness

6 Tamarindus Iti T W Syphilis R Crushed into Drink half litter indica decoction three times four L.(JRST) times a day

7 Fresh leaves Fresh leaves are rubbed over applied three

the affected times a day on

area on the the affected skin, fresh skin, Ricinnus Skin

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cummunis: Eluu S W diseases S,L seeds are castor oil pounded plant

8 Diarrhea, Dry leaves Spoonful of dry gout, added to leaves added to

malnutritio food and food and mixed

Moringa Moringa T Cu n L,S,B,R mixed with with water and oliefera tree water and given three drink times a day

9 Cassia cassia T W Fungal L,R Grind fresh 2-3 times a day spetabilis infections leaves and apply on skin

10 Pseudocedre Mala T W Liver R Crushed into Drunk as tea 3 lla kotschyi cirrhosis powder times a day

11 Balanities Eto T W Measles R Crushed into Bath with it 3 aegyptiaca powder and times a day dissolved

12 Aloe vera Aloe h Cu Haemorrho L Crushed Taken once in a ids, burns, and mixed day for five days constipatio with water n, conductivit ies, herpes zoster,

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Appendix 5. List of plant recorded during Offaka Sub County plant study IUC N - Life Vern. Stat Plot Tra Coordinat Species Name Family Name form Name Uses us No. No. es Combretum 36N adenogonium Aduu 028836/UT Steud, Combretaceae tree eka N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 36N Combretum aduu 028836/UT molle G. Don Combretaceae tree ini N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 Acacia 36N drepanolobium 028836/UT Sjostedt Mimosaceae tree ahuiyi N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 Maytenus 36N senegalensis 028836/UT Pers. Celestraceae tree ototo N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 36N Grewia mollis 028836/UT Juss. Tiliaceae tree enzu N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 Faidhrebia 36N albida (Delile) ewatu 028836/UT A.Chev. Mimosaceae tree pa N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 36N Rhus natalensis kpekp 028836/UT Krauss Anacardiaceae shrub ere N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 Pseudocedrella 36N kotschyi (A. 028836/UT Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree mala N/A LC 1 1 M 0293295 Faidhrebia 36N albida (Delile) ewatu 028836/ut A. Chev. Mimosaceae sapling pa N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Maytenus 36N senegalensis 028836/ut Pers. Celestraceae sapling ototo N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Pseudocedrella 36N kotschyi (A. 028836/ut Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae sapling mala N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. Subsp jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Verdc. 36N var. Jovis- 028836/ut tonantis Rubiaceae sapling erawu N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Enteropogon macrostachyus 36N (A. Rich.) 028836/ut Benth. Poaceae grass tangu N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295

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Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N (Steud.) W. D. embeti 028836/ut Clayton Poaceae grass a N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Brachiaria 36N brizantha (A. 028836/ut Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass licoo N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 36N Chloris gayana opileb 028836/ut Kunth Poaceae grass e N/A LC 1 1 m 0293295 Pseudocedrella 36N kotschyi (A. 028836/UT Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Bridelia 36N scleroneura 028836/UT Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Maytenus 36N senegalensis 028836/UT Pers. Celestraceae tree N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Acacia hockii 028836/UT De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Philenoptera laxiflora ( Guill. 36N & Perr. ) 028836/UT Roberty Papilionaceae tree wawa N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Cussonia idrool 028836/UT arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree u N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Combretum 36N adenogonium 028836/UT Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N 028836/UT unknown tree Mimosaceae oyoro N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N 028836/UT Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree oyiri N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Pterygota 36N mildbraedii 028836/UT Engl. Sterculiaceae tree mbopi N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Acacia 36N amythethophylla odumb 028836/UT A. Rich. Mimosaceae stragger uru N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Acacia hockii 028836/UT De Wild. Mimosaceae tree oli N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Pseudocedrella 36N kotschyi (A. 028836/UT Chev.) Pellegr Mimosaceae tree mala N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295

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Philenoptera laxiflora (Guill. 36N & Perr. ) 028836/UT Roberty Papilionaceae tree wawa N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Maytenus 36N senegalensis 028836/UT Pers. Celestraceae tree ototo N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Gladiolus 36N dalenii Van Geel 028836/UT subsp. Dalenii Iridaceae herb N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Sporobolus 028836/UT festivus A. Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N (Steud.) W. D. 028836/UT Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Enteropogon macrostachyus 36N (A. Rich.) Oce 028836/UT Benth. Poaceae grass osobi N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 Tephrosia 36N linearis (Wild.) oriawu 028836/UT Pers. Papilionaceae herb bi ago LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Cyanotis barbata Commelinacea 028836/UT D. Don. e herb aseojo N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Cassia kirkii 028836/UT Oliv. Caesalpinaceae herb N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Tephrosia nana 028836/UT Schweinf. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 2 M 0293295 36N Ureria picta 028836/UT (Jacq.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 1 M 0293295 36N Combretum 0287947/U adenogonium TM029315 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Pseudocedrella 0287947/U kotschyi (A. TM029315 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 3 1 2 Philenoptera 36N laxiflora (Guill. 0287947/U & Perr. ) TM029315 Roberty Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 3 1 0287947/U

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TM029315 2 36N 0287947/U Lepidagathis TM029315 diversa C. B. Cl. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 3 1 2 Hyperthelia 36N dissoluta 0287947/U (Steud.) W. D. TM029315 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 1 2 Enteropogon 36N macrostachyus 0287947/U (A. Rich.) TM029315 Benth. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Brachiaria 0287947/U decumbens TM029315 Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 1 2 36N 0287947/U Tephrosia nana TM029315 Schweinf. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Astripomoea 0287947/U grantii (Rendle) Convolvulacea TM029315 Verdc. e herb N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Gladiolus 0287947/U dalenii Van Geel aluyeb TM029315 subsp. dalenii Iridaceae herb i N/A LC 3 1 2 36N Pseudocedrella 0287789/U kotschyi (A. TM029299 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 1 6 36N Dalbergia 0287789/U melanoxylum TM029299 Guill. & Perr. Papilionaceae tree poyi N/A LC 4 1 6 36N 0287789/U Combretum TM029299 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 1 6 36N 0287789/U Grewia mollis TM029299 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 4 1 6 36N 0287789/U Lannea barteri TM029299 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree odudu N/A LC 4 1 6

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Cassia alata Caesalpinaceae herb N/A LC 1 1 - Eucalyptus Kalatu species Myrtaceae Tree si Flu LC 1 1 - Pseudocedrella 36N kotschyi 0287789/U (A.Chev.) TM029299 Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 1 6 36N 0287789/U Entada TM029299 wahlbergii Harv. Mimosaceae climber N/A LC 4 1 6 Stylochiton sp. 36N aff. fancifolius 0287789/ut Kotschy & Peyr. Araceae herb aseojo N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N (Steud.) W. D. 0287789/ut Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 36N Sporobolus 0287789/ut festivus A. Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 36N Aristides 0287789/ut adscensionis L. Poaceae grass opilibe N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 Tephrosia 36N pumila (Lam.) itiabi 0287789/ut Pers. Papilionaceae herb ago N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 36N Asparagus 0287789/ut africanus Lam. Asparagaceae herb aanya N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 Conyza 36N floribunda H. B. 0287789/ut K. Asteraceae herb kaakaa N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 Sporobolus 36N pyramidalis 0287789/ut Beauv. Poaceae grass kolo N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 Crossandra 36N subacaulis C. B. 0287789/ut Cl. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 36N Lepidagathis 0287789/ut diversa C. B. Cl. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 4 1 m0292996 36N Pterygota 0286398/U mildbreadii TM028865 Engl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Combretum 0286398/U adenogonium TM028865 Steu. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 5

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36N Thre 0286398/U Afzelia africana aten TM028865 Pers. Caesalpinaceae tree lokoko N/A ed 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Pavetta crassipes ariegb TM028865 K. Schum. Rubiaceae shrub e N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Indogofera 0286398/U emerginella A. TM028865 Rich. Papilionaceae hjerb ario N/A LC 1 2 5 Piliostigma 36N thonnongii 0286398/U (Schumach.) TM028865 Milne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae tree aza N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Annona 0286398/U senegalensis TM028865 Pers. Annonnnaceae tree lipa N/A LC 1 2 5 Hyperthelia 36N dissoluta 0286398/U (Steud.) W. D. TM028865 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Brachiaria 0286398/U brizantha (A. TM028865 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass Licoo N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Bridelia 0286398/U scleroeura TM028865 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Parkia filicoidea TM028865 Welw. Mimosaceae tree oyoro N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Digitaria 0286398/U diagonalis ( yikicir TM028865 Nees ) Stapf Poaceae grass i N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Pseudocedrella 0286398/U kotschyi (A. TM028865 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U medici TM028865 Rhynchosia sp. Papilionaceae climber asiaro ne LC 1 2 5 Grewia mollis 36N Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 0286398/U

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TM028865 5 36N 0286398/U Acacia hockii TM028865 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 5 Philenoptera 36N laxiflora (Guill. 0286398/U & Perr. ) TM028865 Roberty Papilionaceae tree wawa N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Stereospermum 0286398/U kunthianum TM028865 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree heppe N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Cussonia adrool TM028865 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree u N/A LC 1 2 5 Setaria 36N sphacelata 0286398/U (Schumach.) TM028865 Moss Poaceae grass omee N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Terminalia TM028865 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae sapling N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Combretum TM028865 molle G. Don Combretaceae sapling N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Bridelia 0286398/U scleroneura TM028865 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Pseudocedrella 0286398/U kotschyi (A. TM028865 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae sapling N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Lannea barteri TM028865 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae sapling N/A LC 1 2 5 36N 0286398/U Solenostemon TM028865 latifolius Lamiaceae herb N/A LC 1 2 5 36N Maytenus 0286398/U senegalensis TM028865 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae sapling N/A LC 1 2 5

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Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028639 (Steud.) W. D. 8/UTM028 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 2 8655 Hyparrhenia 36N028639 filipendula 8/UTM028 (Hochst.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 2 8655 Brachiaria 36N028639 brizantha (A. 8/UTM028 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 2 8655 Indigofera 36N028639 emerginella A. 8/UTM028 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 2 8655 36N028639 Ruellia patula 8/UTM028 Jacq. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 1 2 8655 Indigofera trita 36N028639 L.f. var. scabra ( 8/UTM028 Roth ) Meikle Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 2 8655 Ipomoea 36N028639 blepharophylla Convolvulacea 8/UTM028 Hall.f. e climber N/A LC 1 2 8655 36N028639 Commelina Commelinacea 8/UTM028 latifolia Hochst. e herb N/A LC 1 2 8655 opportunistic species 36N028639 Terminalia 8/UTM028 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree ongo N/A LC 1 2 8655 Leptadenia hestata (Schum. 36N028639 & Thonn. ) 8/UTM028 Decne Apocynaceae climber oyalee N/A LC 1 2 8655 aro 36N028639 Hoslundia onyale 8/UTM028 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub bi LC 1 2 8655 Pterocarpus 36N028639 luscens Guill. & nyaran 8/UTM028 Perr. Fabaceae tree gila N/A LC 1 2 8655 36N028639 Clausena aniseta 8/UTM028 (Wild.) Benth. Rutaceae shrub N/A LC 1 2 8655 36N028639 Strychnos 8/UTM028 innocua Del. Loginaceae tree N/A LC 1 2 8655 Mussaenda erythrophylla 36N028639 Schum. & 8/UTM028 Thonn. Rubiaceae shrub N/A lC 1 2 8655

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Piliostigma 36N thonnongii 0286211/U (Schumach.)Mil TM028858 ne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 0 Annona 36N028621 senegalensis 1/UTM028 Pers. Annonnnaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 8580 Pterygota 36N028621 mildbraedii 1/UTM028 Engl. Sterculariaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Cussonia 1/UTM028 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 8580 Combretum 36N028621 adenogonium 1/UTM028 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 8580 Bridelia 36N028621 scleroneura 1/UTM028 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree n/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Combretum aduu 1/UTM028 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae sappling eka N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Grewia mollis 1/UTM028 Juss. Tiliaceae sappling inzu N/A LC 2 2 8580 Maytenus 36N028621 senegalensis 1/UTM028 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae sappling ibimua N/A LC 2 2 8580 Digitaria 36N028621 diagonalis ( 1/UTM028 Nees ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 2 8580 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028621 (Steud.) W. D. 1/UTM028 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 2 8580 Enteropogon macrostachyus 36N028621 (A. Rich.) 1/UTM028 Benth. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Tephrosia nana 1/UTM028 Schweinf. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 2 8580 Indigofera 36N028621 emerginella A. 1/UTM028 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 2 8580 Opportunistic species 36N028621 Clausena aniseta mbaini 1/UTM028 (Wild.) Benth. Rutaceae shrub i N/A LC 2 2 8580

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36N028621 Carissa 1/UTM028 spinarum L. Apocynaceae shrub isisi N/A LC 2 2 8580 Mussaenda erythrophylla 36N028621 Schum. & anyuru 1/UTM028 Thonn. Rubiaceae shrub a N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Strychnos lomgb 1/UTM028 innocua Del. Loginaceae tree oro N/A LC 2 2 8580 Desmodium 36N028621 velutinum 1/UTM028 (Wild.) DC. Papilionaceae herb ndala N/A LC 2 2 8580 Cyphostemma adenocaule (A. Rich.) Wild. & 36N028621 1/UTM028 Drummond Vitaceae climber N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Sopubia ramosa Scrophulariace 1/UTM028 Hochst. ae herb N/A LC 2 2 8580 Cyphostemma heterotrichum 36N028621 (Gilg. &Fr.) 1/UTM028 Desc. Vitaceae herb N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Vernonia 1/UTM028 amygdalina Del. Asteraceae tree eciro N/A LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 Cissus petiolata whaw 1/UTM028 Hook.f. Vitaceae climber hara N/A LC 2 2 8580 Pachystela 36N028621 brevipes (Bak.) 1/UTM028 Engl. Sapotaceae tree N/A LC 2 2 8580 Amorphophallus 36N028621 abyssinica (A. 1/UTM028 Rich.) N.E.Br. Araceae herb N/A LC 2 2 8580 Securidaca 36N028621 longipenduculat 1/UTM028 a Fresen. Polygalaceae tree eyifi N/A LC 2 2 8580 Zanthoxylum 36N028621 gilletii (De medici 1/UTM028 Wild.) Waterm. Rutaceae tree rooro ne LC 2 2 8580 36N028621 1/UTM028 Toddalia asiatica Rutaceae ocifi N/A LC 2 2 8580 Balanites 36N028621 aegyptica (L.) 1/UTM028 Del. Balanitaceae tree eto N/A LC 2 2 8580

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36N028599 Acacia hockii 2/utm0288 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Grewia mollis 2/utm0288 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 3 544 Stereospermum 36N028599 kunthianum 2/utm0288 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 Philenoptera 36N028599 laxiflora (Guill. 2/utm0288 Perr. ) Roberty Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Acacia 2/utm0288 sieberiana DC. Mimosaceae tree asaru N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Combretum 2/utm0288 aculeatum Vent Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 Combretum 36N028599 adenogonium 2/utm0288 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 Bridelia 36N028599 scleroneura 2/utm0288 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Cussonia 2/utm0288 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Harrisonia 2/utm0288 abyssinica Oliv. Simourabaceae shrub poyi N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 ebugb 2/utm0288 Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree ele N/A LC 3 2 544 Dichrostachyus 36N028599 cinerea (L.) 2/utm0288 Wight & Arn. Mimosaceae tree oli N/A LC 3 2 544 36N028599 Lannea barteri 2/utm0288 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 Thre 36N028599 Afzelia africana aten 2/utm0288 Pers. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A ed 3 2 544 Pterygota 36N028599 mildbreadii 2/utm0288 Engl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 544 Dalbergia Thre 36N028599 melanoxylon aten 2/utm0288 Guill. Perr. Papilionaceae tree N/A ed 3 2 544 Commiphora 36N028599 africana (A. Burseraceae shrub gapi N/A LC 3 2 2/UTM028

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Rich.) Engl. 8544 36N028599 Grewia mollis 2/UTM028 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 8544 36N028599 Harrisonia 2/UTM028 abyssinica Oliv. Simourabaceae shrub oliro N/A LC 3 2 8544 36N028599 Entada 2/UTM028 wahlbergii Harv. Mimosaceae straggler N/A LC 3 2 8544 36N028599 Acacia hockii 2/UTM028 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 3 2 8544 Desmodium 36N028599 velutinum 2/UTM028 (Wild.) DC. Papilionaceae shrub N/A LC 3 2 8544 Jasminium 36N028599 dichotomum 2/UTM028 Vahl Oleaceae shrub N/A LC 3 2 8544 Dalbergia Thre 36N028599 melanoxylon aten 2/UTM028 Guill. & Perr. Papilionaceae shrub N/A ed 3 2 8544 Indigofera trita 36N028599 L.f. var. scabra 2/UTM028 (Roth ) Meikle Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 2 8544 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028599 (Steud.) W. D. 2/UTM028 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 2 8544 Indigofera 36N028599 emerginella A. 2/UTM028 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 2 8544 Brachiaria 36N028599 brizantha (A. 2/UTM028 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 2 8544 Cyphostemma adenocaule (A. Rich.) Wild. & 36N028599 2/UTM028 Drummond Vitaceae climber N/A LC 3 2 8544 Entada 36N028599 wahlbergia 2/UTM028 Harv. Mimosaceae straggler N/A LC 3 2 8544 Stylochiton sp. 36N028599 aff. fancifolius 2/UTM028 Kotschy &Peyr. Araceae herb N/A LC 3 2 8544 Indigofera trita 36N028599 L.f. var. scabra ( 2/UTM028 Roth) Meikle Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 2 8544

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Hyparrhenia 36N028599 filipendula 2/UTM028 (Hochst.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 2 8544 36N028580 Strychnos lomgb 1/utm0288 innocua Del. Loginaceae tree oro N/A LC 4 2 482 Acacia 36N028580 amythethophylla 1/utm0288 A. Rich. Mimosaceae liana N/A LC 4 2 482 Combretum 36N028580 adenogonium 1/utm0288 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Bridelia 36N028580 scleroneura 1/utm0288 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Maytenus 36N028580 senegalensis 1/utm0288 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Stereospermum 36N028580 kunthianum 1/utm0288 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Pseudocedrella 36N028580 kotschyi (A. 1/utm0288 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Annona 36N028580 senegalensis 1/utm0288 Pers. Annonnnaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 36N028580 Combretum 1/utm0288 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 36N028580 Lannea barteri 1/utm0288 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Thre 36N028580 Afzelia africana aten 1/utm0288 Pers. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A ed 4 2 482 36N028580 Acacia hockii 1/utm0288 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 36N028580 Strychnos 1/utm0288 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Maytenus 36N028580 senegalensis 1/utm0288 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Pseudocedrella kotschyi 36N028580 (A.Chev.) 1/utm0288 Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 2 482 Rhus natalensis Anacardiaceae shrub N/A LC 4 2 36N028580

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Krauss 1/utm0288 482 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028580 (Steud.) 1/utm0288 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 2 482 Enteropogon macrostachyus 36N028580 (A. Rich.) 1/utm0288 Benth. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 2 482 36N028580 Tephrosia 1/utm0288 villosa (L.) Pers. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 2 482 Opportunistic species 36N028580 Grewia similis enzu 1/utm0288 K. Schum. Tiliaceae tree adiri N/A LC 4 2 482 36N028209 Acacia hockii 3/utm0295 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 Terminalia 3/utm0295 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 Combretum 3/utm0295 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 Combretum 36N028209 adenogonium 3/utm0295 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 Bridelia 36N028209 scleroneura 3/utm0295 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 Grewia mollis 3/utm0295 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 Lannea schweinfurthii ( Engl. ) Engl. var. 36N028209 Stuhlmanii nyiran 3/utm0295 (Engl.) Kokwaro Anacardiaceae tree gila N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 Onzora insignis aukolo 3/utm0295 Del. Anacardiaceae tree ro N/A LC 1 3 579 Combretum 36N028209 adenogonium 3/utm0295 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 579 Acacia hockii Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 3 36N028209

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De Wild. 3/utm0295 579 Wissadula ampllissima (L.) R. E. Fr. var. rostrata ( 36N028209 Schum. ) R. E. 3/utm0295 Fr. Malvaceae shrub N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 Lantana trifolia 3/utm0295 L. Verbenaceae shrub N/A LC 1 3 579 Neonotonia wightii (Arnott) A. Lackey wightii var. longicauda 36N028209 (Schweinf.) 3/utm0295 A.A.Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 3/utm0295 Vernonia sp Asteraceae scandent N/A LC 1 3 579 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028209 (Steud.) 3/utm0295 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028209 3/utm0295 Senecio sp. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 3 579 Setaria sphacelata 36N028209 (Schumach.) 3/utm0295 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 3 579 Conyza 36N028209 floribuna H. B. 3/utm0295 K. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 3 579 Brachiaria 36N028209 brizantha (A. 3/utm0295 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 3 579 36N028187 Acacia hockii 1/utm0295 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Combretum 1/utm0295 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 Vitellaria Thre 36N028187 paradoxa aten 1/utm0295 Gaertn.f. Sapotaceae tree Food ed 2 3 572 36N028187 Cussonia 1/utm0295 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572

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36N028187 Grewia mollis 1/utm0295 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 Pterocarpus 36N028187 laxiflora Guill. 1/utm0295 & Perr. Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Strychnos 1/utm0295 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Combretum 1/utm0295 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Rhus natalensis 1/utm0295 Krauss Anacardiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 3 572 Pseudocedrella 36N028187 kotschyi (A. 1/utm0295 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae sappling N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Combretum 1/utm0295 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Acacia hockii 1/utm0295 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 1/utm0295 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae scandent N/A LC 2 3 572 36N028187 Hoslundia 1/utm0295 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 3 572 Vitellaria Thre 36N028187 paradoxa aten 1/utm0295 Gaertn.f. Sapotaceae sappling Food ed 2 3 572 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028187 (Steud.) 1/utm0295 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 3 572 Astipomoea 36N028187 grantii (Rendle) Convolvulacea 1/utm0295 Verdc. e herb N/A LC 2 3 572 Brachiaria 36N028187 brizantha (A. 1/utm0295 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 3 572 Clerodendrum 36N028187 myricoides 1/utm0295 (Hochst.) Vatke Verbenaceae herb N/A LC 2 3 572 Setaria sphacelata 36N028187 (Schumach.) 1/utm0295 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 3 572

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Pseudocedrella 36N027771 kotschyi (A. 9/utm0287 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 9/utm0287 Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 Combretum 36N027771 adenogonium 9/utm0287 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Combretum 9/utm0287 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 Vitellaria Thre 36N027771 paradoxa aten 9/utm0287 Gaertn.f. Sapotaceae tree Food ed 1 4 791 36N027771 aduu 9/utm0287 Combretum sp. Combretaceae tree nzoo N/A LC 1 4 791 Acacia 36N027771 amythethophylla 9/utm0287 A. Rich. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 Maytenus 36N027771 senegalensis 9/utm0287 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Grewia mollis 9/utm0287 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Acacia hockii 9/utm0287 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 9/utm0287 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae scandent N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Combretum 9/utm0287 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 791 Philenoptera 36N027771 laxiflora (Guill. 9/utm0287 & Perr.) Roberty Papilionaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Parkia filicoidea 9/utm0287 Welw. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 791 Combretum 36N027771 adenogonium 9/utm0287 Steud. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Acacia hockii 9/utm0287 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 791 Strychnos 36N027771 spinosa Lam. Loganiaceae sappling N/A LC 1 4 9/utm0287

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791 36N027771 Flueggea virosa 9/utm0287 (Wild.) Voigt Euphorbiaceae sappling oree N/A LC 1 4 791 Brachiaria 36N027771 brizantha (A. 9/utm0287 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 4 791 Sporobolus 36N027771 pyramidalis 9/utm0287 Beauv. Poaceae grass kolo N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 9/utm0287 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae herb ofaa N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Paspalum kokon 9/utm0287 scrobiculatum L. Poaceae grass yara N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Cassia kirkii 9/utm0287 Oliv. Caesalpinaceae herb N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Sida ovata 9/utm0287 Forssk. Malvaceae herb oroabi N/A LC 1 4 791 Senna 36N027771 occidentalis (L.) osobi- 9/utm0287 Link Caesalpinaceae herb Acholi n/a LC 1 4 791 Phyllanthus 36N027771 amarus Schum. 9/utm0287 & Thonn. Euphorbiaceae herb N/A LC 1 4 791 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N027771 (Steud.) 9/utm0287 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 Convolvulacea 9/utm0287 Evolvulus sp. e herb N/A LC 1 4 791 36N027771 9/utm0287 Heliconia sp. Heliconiaceae herb N/A LC 1 4 791 Pterygota 36N027794 mildbreadii 3/utm0782 Engl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 2 4 777 Combretum 36N027794 adenogonium 3/utm0782 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 4 777 Annona 36N027794 senegalensis 3/utm0782 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 2 4 777 Vitellaria Thre 36N027794 paradoxa G. aten 3/utm0782 Don Sapotaceae tree Food ed 2 4 777

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Philenoptera 36N027794 laxiflora (Guill. 3/utm0762 & Perr. )Roberty Papilionaceae sappling N/A LC 2 4 777 Desmodium 36N027794 velutinum 3/utm0762 (Wild.) DC. Papilionaceae shrub N/A LC 2 4 777 Piliostigma thonnongii 36N027794 (Schumach.)Mil 3/utm0762 ne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae sappling N/A LC 2 4 777 Tephrosia 36N027794 linearis (Wild.) 3/utm0762 Pers. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 4 777 Ampelocissus 36N027794 africana (Lour.) 3/utm0762 Merr. Vitaceae climber N/A LC 2 4 777 36N027794 Strychnos 3/utm0762 spinosa Lam, Loganiaceae sappling N/A LC 2 4 777 36N027794 Hoslundia 3/utm0762 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 4 777 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. var. africana ( 36N027794 Andersson ) C. 3/utm0762 E. Hubbard Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 4 777 Brachiaria 36N027794 brizantha (A. 3/utm0762 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 4 777 Setaria sphacelata 36N027794 (Schumach.) 3/utm0762 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 4 777 Tephrosia 36N027794 linearis (Willd.) 3/utm0762 Pers. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 4 777 36N027794 Paspalum 3/utm0762 scrobiculatum L. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 4 777 Rhynchosia hirta 36N027794 (Andr.)Meikle 3/utm0762 & Verdc. Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 2 4 777 Astripomoea 36N027794 grantii (Rendle) Convolvulacea 3/utm0762 Verdc. e herb N/A LC 2 4 777 36N027820 3/utm0287 Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833

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Combretum 36N027820 adenogonium 3/utm0287 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027820 Terminalia 3/utm0287 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Annona 36N027820 senegalensis 3/utm0287 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027820 Grewia mollis 3/utm0287 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Pterocarpus 36N027820 luscens Guill. & 3/utm0287 Perr. Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Combretum collinum Fresen. subsp. binderanum ( 36N027820 Kotschy ) 3/utm0287 Okafor Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Vitellaria Thre 36N027820 paradoxa aten 3/utm0287 Gaert.f. Sapotaceae tree Food ed 3 4 833 36N027820 Pavetta crassipes 3/utm0287 K. Schum. Rubiaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Philenoptera 36N027820 laxiflora (Guill. 3/utm0287 & Perr.) Roberty Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027820 Cussons arborea 3/utm0287 A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 3 4 833 Maytenus 36N027820 senegalensis 3/utm0287 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae sappling N/A LC 3 4 833 Pterygota 36N027820 mildbraedii 3/utm0287 Engl. Sterculiaceae sappling N/A LC 3 4 833 Vernonia 36N027820 lasiopus O. 3/utm0287 Hoffm. Asteraceae seedling N/A LC 3 4 833 Stereospermum 36N027820 kunthianum 3/utm0287 Cham. Bignoniaceae sappling N/A LC 3 4 833 Bridelia 36N027820 micrantha ( 3/utm0287 Hochst. ) Baill. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 3 4 833 Pseudarthria 36N027820 hookeri Wright Papilionaceae seedling N/A LC 3 4 3/utm0287

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& Arn. 833 36N027820 Terminalia 3/utm0287 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 3 4 833 Setaria sphacelata 36N027820 (Schumach.) 3/utm0287 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027820 Setaria aria 3/utm0287 kagerensis Mez Poaceae grass anya N/A LC 3 4 833 Acalypha 36N027820 vallicaulis A. 3/utm0287 Rich. Euphorbiaceae herb N/A LC 3 4 833 Neonotonia wightii (Arnott) J. A. Lackey subsp. wightii var. longicauda 36N027820 (Schweinf.)A.A. 3/utm0287 Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 3 4 833 Cyphostemma adenocaule (A. Rich.) Willd. & N/A 36N027820 3/utm0287 Drummond Vitaceae climber N/A LC 3 4 833 Desmodium 36N027820 tortuosum (Sw.) 3/utm0287 DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027820 Entada 3/utm0287 wahlbergii Harv. Mimosaceae straggler N/A LC 3 4 833 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N027820 (Steud.)W.D.Cla 3/utm0287 yton Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 4 833 36N027842 Acacia hockii 0/utm0287 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 4 4 753 36N027842 Grewia mollis 0/utm0287 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 4 4 753 Bridelia 36N027842 scleroneura 0/utm0287 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 4 4 753 Ziziphus 36N027842 abyssinica A. 0/utm0287 Rich. Rhamnaceae shrub N/A LC 4 4 753 Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 4 36N027842

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0/utm0287 753 Bridelia 36N027842 scleroneura 0/utm0287 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 4 4 753 36N027842 Acacia hockii 0/utm0287 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 4 4 753 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. var. africana ( 36N027842 Andersson ) C. 0/utm0287 E. Hubbard Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 4 753 Hyparrhenia 36N027842 rufa ( Nees ) 0/utm0287 Stapf Poaceae grass okulu N/A LC 4 4 753 Cyperus cyperiodes ( L. ) 36N027842 Kuntze ssp. 0/utm0287 cyperiodes Cyperaceae sedge N/A LC 4 4 753 Brachiaria 36N027842 brizantha (A. 0/utm0287 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 4 753 Striga 36N027842 hermonthica Scrophulariace 0/utm0287 Benth. ae herb N/A LC 4 4 753 Opportunistic species 36N027842 Pavetta crassipes 0/utm0287 K. Schum. Rubiaceae shrub N/A LC 4 4 753 36N027842 Rhynchosia 0/utm0287 resinosa Papilionaceae scandent N/A LC 4 4 753 Striga 36N027842 hermonthica Scrophulariace 0/utm0287 Benth. ae herb N/A LC 4 4 753 Pterygota 36N027667 mildbraedii 5/utm0293 Sngl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 119 Annona 36N027667 senegalensis 5/utm0293 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 119 Piliostigma thonnongii 36N027667 (Schumach.)Mil 5/utm0293 ne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 119 Combretum 36N027667 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 5/utm0293

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119 Bridelia 36N027667 scleronuera 5/utm0293 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 119 36N027667 Cussonia 5/utm0293 arborea A. rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 1 5 119 Hyparrhenia 36N027667 filipendula 5/utm0293 (Hochst.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 5 119 Cymbopogon 36N027667 caesius (Hook. 5/utm0293 & Arn. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 5 119 36N027667 Scleria bulbifera 5/utm0293 A. Rich. Cyperaceae sedge N/A LC 1 5 119 36N027667 5/utm0293 Loudetia sp. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 5 119 Vernonia 36N027667 duemmeri S. 5/utm0293 Moore Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 5 119 Arundinaria 36N027667 alpina K. 5/utm0293 Schum Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 5 119 Combretum 36N027624 adenogonium 0/utm0293 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 5 231 Piliostigma thonnongii 36N027624 (Schumach.)Mil 0/utm0293 ne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 2 5 231 Pterygota 36N027624 mildbraedii 0/utm0293 Engl. Sterculariaceae tree N/A LC 2 5 231 36N027624 Grewia mollis 0/utm0293 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231 Pterygota 36N027624 mildbraedii 0/utm0293 Engl. Sterculariaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231 Annona 36N027624 senegalensis 0/utm0293 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231 Arundinaria 36N027624 alpina K. 0/utm0293 Schum. Poaceae bamboo N/A LC 3 5 231 36N027624 Combretum 0/utm0293 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231

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Bridelia 36N027624 scleroneura 0/utm0293 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231 Sclerocarya 36N027624 birrea (A. Rich.) 0/utm0293 Hochst. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 3 5 231 36N027704 Combretum 6/utm0301 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 Annona 36N027704 senegalensis 6/utm0301 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 Ficus 36N027704 amadiensis De 6/utm0301 Wild. Moraceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 Grewia mollis 6/utm0301 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 Canarium 36N027704 schweinfurthii lubani 6/utm0301 Engl. Burseraceae tree tree N/A LC 1 6 234 Vitellaria Thre 36N027704 paradoxa G. aten 6/utm0301 Don Sapotaceae tree Food food ed 1 6 234 Stereospermum 36N027704 kunthianum 6/utm0301 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 Strychnos 6/utm0301 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 Terminalia 6/utm0301 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 Diplolophium 36N027704 africanum 6/utm0301 Turcz. Apiaceae shrub N/A LC 1 6 234 Psorospermum 36N027704 febrifugum 6/utm0301 Spach Clusiaceae shrub ruta N/A LC 1 6 234 Uvariopsis congensis 36N027704 Robyns & 6/utm0301 Ghesq. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 Lannea barteri 6/utm0301 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae sappling N/A LC 1 6 234 Pterocarpus 36N027704 luscens Guill. & 6/utm0301 Perr. Papilionaceae sappling N/A LC 1 6 234 Strychnos Loganiaceae sappling N/A LC 1 6 36N027704

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spinosa Lam. 6/utm0301 234 Neonotonia wightii (Arnott) A.A.Lackey subsp. Wightii var. longicauda 36N027704 (Schweinf.)A.A. 6/utm0301 Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 1 6 234 Acalypha 36N027704 vallicaulis A. 6/utm0301 Rich. Euphorbiaceae herb N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 6/utm0301 Loudetia sp. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 6 234 Ampelocissus 36N027704 africana (Lour.) 6/utm0301 Merr. Vitaceae climber N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 Clematis hirsuta 6/utm0301 Perr. & Guill. Ranunculaceae climber N/A LC 1 6 234 Vernonia 36N027704 lasiopus O. 6/utm0301 Hoffm. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 6 234 Cissampelos 36N027704 mucronata A. Menispermacea 6/utm0301 Rich. e climber N/A LC 1 6 234 Acalypha psilostachya 36N027704 Hochst var. 6/utm0301 psilostachya Euphorbiaceae shrub ayuyu N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027704 6/utm0301 Adenia sp. Passifloraceae climber N/A LC 1 6 234 Setaria sphacelata 36N027704 (Schumach.) 6/utm0301 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 6 234 36N027681 Combretum 2/utm0301 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 Strychnos 2/utm0301 innocua Del Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Vitellaria Thre 36N027681 paradoxa G. aten 2/utm0301 Don Sapotaceae tree Food ed 2 6 261 36N027681 Hymenocardia Hymenocardiac 2/utm0301 acida Tul. Acida eae tree N/A LC 2 6 261

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36N027681 Strychnos 2/utm0301 spinosa Lam. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Sclerocarya 36N027681 birrea (A. Rich.) 2/utm0301 Hochst. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 Acacia hockii 2/utm0301 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Vangueria 36N027681 apiculata K. 2/utm0301 Schum. Rubiaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Annona 36N027681 senegalensis 2/utm0301 Pers. Annonaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 Combretum 2/utm0301 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 Cussonia 2/utm0301 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Pterocarpus 36N027681 luscens Guill. & 2/utm0301 Perr. Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Loudetia 36N027681 arundanaceum 2/utm0301 (A. Rich.) Steud. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 2/utm0301 Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 2 6 261 Desmodium 36N027681 velutinum 2/utm0301 (Willd.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 6 261 36N027681 2/utm0301 Plectranthus sp. Lamiaceae herb N/A LC 2 6 261 Indigofera 36N027681 emerginella A. 2/utm0301 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 6 261 Rhynchosia 36N027681 resinosa (A. 2/utm0301 Rich.) Bak. Papilionaceae scandent N/A LC 2 6 261 36N028043 Lannea barteri 6/utm0297 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree LC 1 7 058 Albizia 36N028043 grandibracteata 6/utm0297 Taub. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 Acacia hockii 36N028043 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 6/utm0297

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058 36N028043 Combretum 6/utm0297 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Flacourtia indica 6/utm0297 ( Burm.f. ) Merr. Flacourtiaceae tree medre N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Strychnos 6/utm0297 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Cussonia 6/utm0297 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree Cawu N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Combretum 6/utm0297 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Grewia mollis 6/utm0297 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 Khaya Thre 36N028043 anthotheca Timbe aten 6/utm0297 (Welw.) C. DC. Meliaceae tree r ed 1 7 058 36N028043 Terminalia 6/utm0297 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Strychnos 6/utm0297 spinosa Lam. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Carissa scrambl 6/utm0297 spinarum L. Apocynaceae er N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Rhus natalensis 6/utm0297 Krauss Anacardiaceae shrub N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 scrambl 6/utm0297 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 1 7 058 Ziziphus 36N028043 abyssinica A. 6/utm0297 Rich. Rhamnaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Harrisonia 6/utm0297 abyssinica Oliv. Simaroubaceae shrub N/A LC 1 7 058 Mussaenda erythrophylla 36N028043 Schum. & 6/utm0297 Thonn. Rubiaceae shrub N/A LC 1 7 058 Commiphora 36N028043 africana (A. 6/utm0297 Rich.) Engl. Burseraceae shrub N/A LC 1 7 058

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Hyperthelia dissoluta ( 36N028043 Steud. ) W. D. 6/utm0297 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 7 058 Desmodium 36N028043 gangeticum (L.) 6/utm0297 Less. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 6/utm0297 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Justicia 6/utm0297 ladanoides Lam. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 Desmodium 36N028043 velutinum 6/utm0297 (Willd.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 Brachiaria 36N028043 brizantha (A. 6/utm0297 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 7 058

Opportunistic species Psydrax parviflora (Afzel.) Bridson subsp. mosqu ito 36N028043 repelle 6/utm0297 parviflora Rubiaceae shrub nt LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Hoslundia 6/utm0297 oppoaita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 1 7 058 Tinnae 36N028043 aethiopica anyuru 6/utm0297 Kotschy & Peyr. Lamiaceae shrub a N/A LC 1 7 058 Phyllanthus 36N028043 muellerianus (O. jere 6/utm0297 Ktze.) Exell Euphorbiaceae shrub pati N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Saba comorensis 6/utm0297 ( Bojer ) Pichon Apocynaceae liana ogo N/A LC 1 7 058 Maytenus 36N028043 undata (Thunb.) 6/utm0297 Blakelock Clestraceae tree adru N/A LC 1 7 058 Rhynchosia hirta 36N028043 (Andrews) idiang medici 6/utm0297 Meikle & Verdc. Papilionaceae climber ara ne LC 1 7 058 Stereospermum 36N028043 kunthianum 6/utm0297 Cha. Bignoniaceae tree lepe N/A LC 1 7 058

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Dalbergia Thre 36N028043 melanoxylum aten 6/utm0297 Guill. & Perr. Papilionaceae tree yipati N/A ed 1 7 058 Sclerocarya 36N028043 birrea (A. Rich.) 6/utm0297 Hochst. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 Echinops 36N028043 longifolius A. 6/utm0297 Rich. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Tamarindus 6/utm0297 indica L. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 1 7 058 36N028043 Sida acuta 6/utm0297 Burm.f. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 1 7 058 Sapium 36N028024 ellipticum ( 4/utm0296 Krauss ) Pax Euphorbiaceae tree ozuu N/A LC 2 7 958 Dioscorea 36N028024 schimperiana 4/utm0296 Kunth Dioscoreaceae climber tuluu N/A LC 2 7 958 Anchomanes 36N028024 difformis ( 4/utm0296 Blume ) Engl. Araceae herb N/A LC 2 7 958 Rhynchosia hirta 36N028024 (Andrews) 4/utm0296 Meikle & Verdc. Papilionaceae climber oka N/A LC 2 7 958 Maytenus 36N028024 undata (Thunb.) 4/utm0296 Blakelock Celestraceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Vitex doniana 4/utm0296 Sweet Verbenaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Acalypha ornata 4/utm0296 A. Rich. Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Combretum 4/utm0296 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Ziziphus 4/utm0296 abyssinica Oliv. Rhamnaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 Steganotaenia yerem 36N028024 araliacea adaany 4/utm0296 Hochst. Apiaceae tree a N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Terminalia 4/utm0296 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 Acacia hockii 36N028024 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 4/utm0296

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958 36N028024 medici 4/utm0296 Aloe sp. Aloeceae herb odraa ne LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Harrisonia 4/utm0296 abyssinica Oliv. Simourabaceae shrub N/A LC 2 7 958 Bridelia 36N028024 micantha ( 4/utm0296 Hochst. ) Baill. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Asparagus 4/utm0296 africanus Lam. Asparagaceae herb N/A LC 2 7 958 Sporobolus 36N028024 pyramidalis 4/utm0296 Beauv. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 7 958 Desmodium 36N028024 velutinum 4/utm0296 (Willd.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 7 958 Desmodium 36N028024 tortuosum (Sw.) 4/utm0296 DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 7 958 Brachiaria 36N028024 brizantha (A. 4/utm0296 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 7 958 Setaria sphacelata 36N028024 (Schumach.) 4/utm0296 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 4/utm0296 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Commelina Commelinacea 4/utm0296 diffusa Burm.f. e herb N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028024 Hoslundia 4/utm0296 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 7 958 36N028009 Vepris nobilis ( 6/utm0296 Delile ) Mziray Rutaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 Thre 36N028009 Afzelia africana aten 6/utm0296 Pers. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A ed 3 7 844 36N028009 Vitex doniana 6/utm0296 Sweet Verbenaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Terminalia 6/utm0296 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844

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Opilia 36N028009 amentacea 6/utm0296 Roxb. Opiliaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 6/utm0296 Millettia sp. Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 Stereospermum 36N028009 kunthianum 6/utm0296 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Strychnos 6/utm0296 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. Subsp. Jovis-tonantis (Welw.)Verdc. 36N028009 var.jovis- 6/utm0296 tonantis Rubiaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Grewia mollis 6/utm0296 Juss. Sterculariaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 Syzygium 36N028009 guineense 6/utm0296 (Willd.) DC. Myrtaceae tree N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Carissa 6/utm0296 spinarum L. Apocynaceae shrub N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Acalypha ornata 6/utm0296 A. Rich. Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 3 7 844 Allophyllus 36N028009 macrobotrys 6/utm0296 Gilg. Sapindaceae shrub N/A LC 3 7 844 Tinnae 36N028009 aethiopica 6/utm0296 (Kotschy) Peyr. Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Pavetta crissipes 6/utm0296 K. Schum. Rubiaceae shrub N/A LC 3 7 844 Desmodium 36N028009 velutinum 6/utm0296 (Willd.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 7 844 Indigofera 36N028009 emerginella A. 6/utm0296 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Panicum 6/utm0296 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 7 844

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Desmodium 36N028009 adscendens 6/utm0296 (Sw.) DC. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 7 844 Crotalaria pallida Ait. var. 36N028009 obovata ( G. 6/utm0296 Don ) Polhill Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 7 844 Cyperus cyperiodes (L.) 36N028009 Kuntze ssp. 6/utm0296 cyperiodes Cyperaceae sedge N/A LC 3 7 844 Pseudochinolean 36N028009 a polystachya 6/utm0296 (Kunth ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 7 844 36N028009 Panicum 6/utm0296 deustum Thunb. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 7 844 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028009 (Steud.) 6/utm0296 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 7 844 Neonotonia wightii (Arnott)J.A.Lac key subsp. longicauda ( 36N028009 Schweinf. ) A. 6/utm0296 A. Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 3 7 844 Khaya Thre 36N027993 anthotheca aten 7/utm0296 (Welw.) C. DC. Meliaceae tree timber ed 4 7 686 Psydrax parviflora 36N027993 (Afzel.) Bridson 7/utm0296 subsp. parviflora Rubiaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Lannea barteri 7/utm0296 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Strychnos 7/utm0296 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686 Pterygota 36N027993 mildbraedii 7/utm0296 Engl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Combretum 7/utm0296 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Terminalia 7/utm0296 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 7 686

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Bridelia 36N027993 scleroneura 7/utm0296 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Grewia mollis 7/utm0296 Juss. Tiliaceae sappling N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 scrambl 7/utm0296 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Acacia hockii 7/utm0296 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Hoslundia 7/utm0296 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 4 7 686 Ziziphus 36N027993 abyssinica A. 7/utm0296 Rich. Rhamnaceae sappling N/A LC 4 7 686 Acalypha psilostachya 36N027993 Hochst. var. 7/utm0296 psilostachya Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Harrisonia 7/utm0296 abyssinica Oliv. Simaroubaceae sappling N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Carissa scrambl 7/utm0296 spinarum L. Apocynaceae er N/A LC 4 7 686 Indigofera 36N027993 emerginella A. 7/utm0296 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 7 686 Ampelocissus 36N027993 africana (Lour.) 7/utm0296 Merr. Vitaceae climber N/A LC 4 7 686 Desmodium 36N027993 velutinum 7/utm0296 (Willd.) DC Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 7 686 Aframomum alboviolaceum 36N027993 (Ridl.) 7/utm0296 K.Schum. Zingiberaceae herb N/A LC 4 7 686 Neonotonia wightii (Arnott) var. longicauda 36N027993 (Schweinf.)A.A. 7/utm0296 Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Panicum 7/utm0296 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 7 686 Setaria Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 7 36N027993

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kagerensis Mez 7/utm0296 686 36N027993 Panicum 7/utm0296 deustum Thunb. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 7 686 Brachiaria 36N027993 brizantha (A. 7/utm0296 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 7 686 36N027993 Thunbergia alata 7/utm0296 Sims Acanthaceae climber N/A LC 4 7 686 Clerodendrum 36N027993 umbellatum 7/utm0296 Poir. Verbenaceae straggler N/A LC 4 7 686 Asystasia 36N027993 gangetica (L.) T. 7/utm0296 Andersson Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 4 7 686 36N028157 Combretum 0/utm0299 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 8 754 Maytenus 36N028157 senegalensis 0/utm0299 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 8 754 Combretum 36N028157 adenogonium 0/utm0299 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 Acacia hockii 0/utm0299 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 8 754 Philenoptera laxiflora (Guill. 36N028157 & Perr. ) 0/utm0299 Roberty Papilionaceae tree N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 Lannea barteri 0/utm0299 (Oliv.) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 1 8 754 Dalbergia Thre 36N028157 melanoxylon aten 0/utm0299 Guill. & Perr. Papilionaceae seedling N/A ed 1 8 754 Boophone 36N028157 disticha ( L.f.) 0/utm0299 Herb. Amaryllidaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 Indigofera 0/utm0299 spicata Forssk. Papilionaceae creeper N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 Cassia 0/utm0299 obtusiflora L. Caesalpinaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 754 Asparagus 36N028157 africanus Lam. Asparagaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 0/utm0299

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754 Indigofera trita 36N028157 L.f. var. scabra 0/utm0299 (Roth) Verdc. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 754 Indigofera 36N028157 emerginella A. 0/utm0299 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 754 Sporobolus 36N028157 pyramidalis 0/utm0299 Beauv. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 Sporobolus 0/utm0299 festivus A. Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 8 754 Astripomoea 36N028157 grantii (Rendle) Convolvulacea 0/utm0299 Verdc. e herb N/A LC 1 8 754 Brachiaria 36N028157 brizantha (A. 0/utm0299 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028157 0/utm0299 Sida alba L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 1 8 754 36N028137 Acacia hockii 9/utm0298 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Grewia mollis 9/utm0298 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 2 8 628 Bridelia 36N028137 scleroneura 9/utm0298 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae tree N/A LC 2 8 628 Stereospermum 36N028137 kunthianum 9/utm0298 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Ficus mucuso 9/utm0298 Ficalho Moraceae tree N/A LC 2 8 628 Acalypha psiliostachya 36N028137 Hochst. var. 9/utm0298 psilostachya Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 8 628 Balanites 36N028137 aegyptica (L.) 9/utm0298 Del. Balanitaceae sappling N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Harrisonia 9/utm0298 abyssinica Oliv. Simaroubaceae sappling N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Rhus natalensis 9/utm0298 Krauss Anacardiaceae sappling N/A LC 2 8 628

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Allophyllus 36N028137 macrobotrys 9/utm0298 Gilg. Sapindaceae shrub N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Panicum 9/utm0298 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Panicum 9/utm0298 deustum Thunb. Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028137 Sansevieria 9/utm0298 dawei Stapf Agavaceae herb N/A LC 2 8 628 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028137 (Steud.) 9/utm0298 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 8 628 Clerodendrum 36N028137 umbellatum 9/utm0298 Poir. Verbenaceae straggler N/A LC 2 8 628 Ampelocisssus 36N028137 africana (Lour.) 9/utm0298 Merr. Vitaceae climber N/A LC 2 8 628 36N028115 Acacia hockii 7/utm0298 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 3 8 599 Maytenus 36N028115 senegalensis 7/utm0298 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 3 8 599 Combretum 36N028115 adenogonium 7/utm0298 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 8 599 Vitellaria Thre 36N028115 paradoxa G. aten 7/utm0298 Don Sapotaceae tree Food ed 3 8 599 Pseudocedrella 36N028115 kotschyi (A. 7/utm0298 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 3 8 599 Acacia 36N028115 amythethophylla 7/utm0298 A. Rich. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 3 8 599 36N028115 Acacia hockii 7/utm0298 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 3 8 599 Pseudocedrella 36N028115 kotschyi (A. 7/utm0298 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae sappling N/A LC 3 8 599 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N028115 (Steud.) 7/utm0298 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 8 599

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36N028115 Tephrosia nana 7/utm0298 Schweinf. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 8 599 Hyparrhenia 36N028115 filipendula 7/utm0298 (Hochst.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 8 599 36N028115 Vigna sp. 7/utm0298 katendei. Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 3 8 599 Acacia 36N028093 amythethophylla 7/utm0298 A. Rich. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 Maytenus 36N028093 senegalensis 7/utm0298 (Lam.) Exell Celestraceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 36N028093 Combretum 7/utm0298 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 Pseudocedrella 36N028093 kotschyi (A. 7/utm0298 Chev.) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 Combretum 36N028093 adenogonium 7/utm0298 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 Pterygota 36N028093 mildbraedii 7/utm0298 Engl. Sterculariaceae tree N/A LC 4 8 588 Vernonia 36N028093 lasiopus O. 7/utm0298 Hoffm. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 4 8 588 36N028093 scrambl 7/utm0298 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 4 8 588 Conyza 36N028093 floribunda H. B. 7/utm0298 K. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 4 8 588 36N028093 Tridax 7/utm0298 procumbens L. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 4 8 588 Tephrosia 36N028093 linearis (Willd.) 7/utm0298 Pers. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 8 588 Andropogon 36N028093 schirensis A. 7/utm0298 Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Digitaria 36N028093 diagonalis ( 7/utm0298 Nees ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Vigna kirkii 36N028093 (Bak.) Gillett Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 4 8 7/utm0298

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588 36N028093 Panicum 7/utm0298 deustum Thunb. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 36N028093 Panicum 7/utm0298 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Brachiaria 36N028093 brizantha (A. 7/utm0298 Rich.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Indigofera 36N028093 emerginella A. 7/utm0298 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 8 588 36N028093 7/utm0298 Loudetia sp. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Hyperthelia 36N028093 dissoluta (Steud. 7/utm0298 ) W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Hyparrhenia 36N028093 filipendula ( 7/utm0298 Hochst. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 8 588 Astripomoea 36N028093 grantii ( Rendle Convolvulacea 7/utm0298 ) Verdc. e herb N/A LC 4 8 588 36N027668 Cussonia 9/utm0304 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Combretum 9/utm0304 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 Combretum 36N027668 adenogonium 9/utm0304 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 9/utm0304 Trichilia sp. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Combretum 9/utm0304 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Acacia hockii 9/utm0304 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Grewia mollis 9/utm0304 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 Pseudocedrella 36N027668 kotschyi ( A. 9/utm0304 Chev. ) Pellegr. Meliaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 Maytenus Celestraceae tree N/A LC 1 9 36N027668

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senegalensis ( 9/utm0304 Lam. ) Exell 212 36N027668 Scrambl 9/utm0304 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 1 9 212 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. 36N027668 subsp.jovis- 9/utm0304 tonantis (Welw) Rubiaceae sappling N/A LC 1 9 212 Acacia 36N027668 amythethophylla 9/utm0304 A. Rich. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 1 9 212 Vernonia 36N027668 duemmeri S. 9/utm0304 Moore Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Vernonia 36N027668 lasiopus O. 9/utm0304 Hoffm. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Indigofera 36N027668 emerginella A. 9/utm0304 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Hypoxis 36N027668 angustifolia ayaru 9/utm0304 Lam. Hypoxidaceae herb fulu N/A LC 1 9 212 Setaria sphacelata ( 36N027668 Schumach. ) 9/utm0304 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 9 212 Tephrosia 36N027668 linearis ( Willd. 9/utm0304 ) Pers. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Tephrosia nana 9/utm0304 Schweinf. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Digitaria 36N027668 diagonalis A. 9/utm0304 Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 9 212 Hyperthelia dissoluta ( 36N027668 Steud. ) 9/utm0304 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 9 212 Enteropogon macrostachyus 36N027668 (A. Rich.) 9/utm0304 Benth. Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 9 212 Brachiaria 36N027668 brizantha ( A. 9/utm0304 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 1 9 212

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36N027668 Ruellia patula 9/utm0304 Jacq. Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Opportunistic species Dalbergia Thre 36N027668 melanoxylon aten 9/utm0304 Guill. & Perr. Papilionaceae tree N/A ed 1 9 212 Securidaca 36N027668 longipenduculat 9/utm0304 a Fres. Polygalaceae tree eyifi N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 9/utm0304 Annona sp. Annonaceae tree ruta N/A LC 1 9 212 Tylossema fassoglensis 36N027668 (Schweinf.)Torr 9/utm0304 e&Hillc. Caesalpinaceae liana kpoo N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Vepris nobilis ( 9/utm0304 Delile ) Mziray Rutaceae tree N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Ocimum 9/utm0304 basilicum L. Lamiaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Corchorus 9/utm0304 trilocularis L. Tiliaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 36N027668 Hibiscus 9/utm0304 cannabinus L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 1 9 212 Acacia 36N027648 amythethophylla 6/utm0304 A. Rich. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 Combretum 36N027648 adenogonium 6/utm0304 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 Cussons arborea 6/utm0304 A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 Ficus mucuso 6/utm0304 Ficalho Moraceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 Grewia mollis 6/utm0304 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 Strychnos 6/utm0304 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 Pterygota 36N027648 mildbraedii Sterculiaceae tree LC 2 9 6/utm0304

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Engl. 120 36N027648 Rhus natalensis 6/utm0304 Krauss Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 2 9 120 Mussaenda erythrophylla 36N027648 Schum. & 6/utm0304 Thonn. Rubiaceae shrub N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 scrambl 6/utm0304 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 2 9 120 Clerodendrum 36N027648 umbellatum 6/utm0304 Poir. Verbenaceae straggler N/A LC 2 9 120 Stereospermum 36N027648 kunthianum 6/utm0304 Cham. Bignoniaceae sappling N/A LC 2 9 120 Ziziphus 36N027648 abyssinica A. 6/utm0304 Rich. Rhamnaceae sappling N/A LC 2 9 120 Annona 36N027648 senegalensis 6/utm0304 Pers. Annonaceae sappling N/A LC 2 9 120 36N027648 Onzora insignis 6/utm0304 Del. Anacardiaceae sappling N/A LC 2 9 120 Indigofera 36N027648 emerginella A. 6/utm0304 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 2 9 120 Hyparrhenia 36N027648 filipendula 6/utm0304 (Hochst.) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 9 120 Hyperthelia dissoluta ( 36N027648 Steud. )W.D. 6/utm0304 Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 9 120 Neonotonia wightii var. longicauda 36N027648 (Schweinf. ) 6/utm0304 A.A.Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 2 9 120 Brachiaria 36N027648 brizantha ( A. 6/utm0304 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 2 9 120 Acalypha 36N027648 villicaulis A. 6/utm0304 Rich. Euphorbiaceae herb N/A LC 2 9 120 Piliostigma 36N027645 thonnongii 7/utm0303 (Schumach.)Mil Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926

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ne-Redh. 36N027645 Lannea barteri ( 7/utm0303 Oliv. ) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926 Combretum 36N027645 adenogonium 7/utm0303 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 Combretum 7/utm0303 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926 Acacia 36N027645 amythethophylla 7/utm0303 A. Rich. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926 Pseudocedrella kotschyi 36N027645 (A.Chev. ) 7/utm0303 Pellegr. Meliaceae tree n/a LC 3 9 926 36N027645 Combretum 7/utm0303 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 3 9 926 Tinnae 36N027645 aethiopica 7/utm0303 Kotschy & Peyr. Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 scrambl 7/utm0303 Vernonia sp. Asteraceae er N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 Terminalia 7/utm0303 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 3 9 926 Dalbergia Thre 36N027645 melanoxylon aten 7/utm0303 Guill. & Merr. Papilionaceae sappling N/A ed 3 9 926 36N027645 7/utm0303 Annona sp. Annonaceae sappling N/A LC 3 9 926 Microglossa 36N027645 pyrifolia ( Lam. 7/utm0303 ) O. Ktze. Asteraceae shrub N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 7/utm0303 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Indigofera 36N027645 emerginella A. 7/utm0303 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Dioscorea 36N027645 schimperiana anjayi 7/utm0303 Kunth Dioscoreaceae climber a N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 Cassia kirkii 7/utm0303 Oliv. Caesalpinaceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926

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Mitracarpus 36N027645 villosus ( Sw. ) 7/utm0303 DC. Rubiaceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Vernonia 36N027645 duemmeri S. 7/utm0303 Moore Asteraceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Asparagus 36N027645 racemosus 7/utm0303 Willd. Asparagaceae herb aanya N/A LC 3 9 926 Asystasia 36N027645 gangetica ( L. ) 7/utm0303 T. Andersson Acanthaceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Sporobolus 36N027645 pyramidalis 7/utm0303 Beauv. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 Setaria sphacelata ( 36N027645 Schumach. ) 7/utm0303 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 Andropogon 36N027645 schirensis A. 7/utm0303 Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 Conyza 36N027645 floribunda H. B. 7/utm0303 K. Asteraceae herb N/A LC 3 9 926 Brachiaria 36N027645 comata ( A. 7/utm0303 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 Brachiaria 36N027645 brizantha ( A. 7/utm0303 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 36N027645 Panicum 7/utm0303 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 3 9 926 Combretum 36N027641 adenogonium 5/utm0303 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Combretum 5/utm0303 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 Stereospermum 36N027641 kunthianum 5/utm0303 Cham. Bignoniaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Ziziphus 5/utm0303 pubescens Oliv. Rhamnaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Combretum 5/utm0303 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 Annona Annonaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 36N027641

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senegalensis 5/utm0303 Pers. 731 Piliostigma thonnongii ( 36N027641 Schumach.) 5/utm0303 Milne-Redh. Caesalpinaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Acacia hockii 5/utm0303 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 Steganotaenia 36N027641 araliacea 5/utm0303 Hochst. Apiaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Cussonia 5/utm0303 arborea A. Rich. Araliaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 Acacia 36N027641 amythethophylla 5/utm0303 A. Rich. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Strychnos 5/utm0303 innocua Del. Loganiaceae tree N/A LC 4 9 731 Pterygota 36N027641 mildbraedii 5/utm0303 Engl. Sterculiaceae sappling N/A LC 4 9 731 Philenoptera laxiflora (Guill. 36N027641 & Perr. ) 5/utm0303 Roberty Papilionaceae sappling N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Hoslundia 5/utm0303 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 4 9 731 Stereospermum 36N027641 kunthianum 5/utm0303 Cham. Bignoniaceae sappling N/A LC 4 9 731 Bridelia 36N027641 scleroneura 5/utm0303 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Grewia mollis 5/utm0303 Juss. Tiliaceae sappling N/A LC 4 9 731 Indigofera 36N027641 emerginella A. 5/utm0303 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 4 9 731 Asparagus 36N027641 racemosus 5/utm0303 Willd. Asparagaceae herb N/A LC 4 9 731 Sporobolus 36N027641 pyramidalis 5/utm0303 Beauv. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 9 731 Hypoxis Hypoxidaceae herb N/A LC 4 9 36N027641

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angustifolia 5/utm0303 Lam. 731 36N027641 5/utm0303 Dioscorea sp. Dioscoreaceae climber N/A LC 4 9 731 Hyperthelia dissoluta ( 36N027641 Steud. ) 5/utm0303 W.D.Clayton Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 9 731 Brachiaria 36N027641 brizantha ( A. 5/utm0303 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 odrejol 5/utm0303 Dioscorea sp. Dioscoreaceae climber o okaa LC 4 9 731 Setaria sphacelata ( 36N027641 Schumach. ) 5/utm0303 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 9 731 36N027641 Sporobolus 5/utm0303 festivus A. Rich. Poaceae grass N/A LC 4 9 731 Steganotaenia 36N027630 araliacea 1/utm0303 Hochst. Apiaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Ziziphus 1/utm0303 pubescens Oliv. Rhamnaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Acacia hockii 1/utm0303 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 Combretum 36N027630 adenogonium 1/utm0303 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Grewia mollis 1/utm0303 Juss. Tiliaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 Pterygota 36N027630 mildbraedii 1/utm0303 Engl. Sterculiaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Lannea barteri ( 1/utm0303 Oliv. ) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 Dichrostachyus 36N027630 cinerea ( L. ) 1/utm0303 Wright & Arn. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 Rhiocissus tridentata ( L.f. ) 36N027630 Wild. & scrambl 1/utm0303 Drumm. Vitaceae er N/A LC 5 9 482

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36N027630 Combretum 1/utm0303 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Combretum 1/utm0303 molle G. Don Combretaceae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 Hymenocardia 36N027630 acida Tul. var. Hymenocardiac 1/utm0303 acida eae tree N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Flueggea virosa 1/utm0303 ( Willd. ) Voigt Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 5 9 482 Ziziphus mucronata 36N027630 Willd. subsp. 1/utm0303 mucronata Rhamnaceae sappling N/A LC 5 9 482 Terminalia 36N027630 glaucescens 1/utm0303 Benth. Combretaceae sappling LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Acacia hockii 1/utm0303 De Wild. Mimosaceae sappling N/A LC 5 9 482 Acalypha psilostachya 36N027630 Hochst. var. 1/utm0303 psilostachya Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 5 9 482 Bridelia 36N027630 scleroneura 1/utm0303 Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae sappling N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 Ziziphus 1/utm0303 pubescens Oliv. Rhamnaceae sappling N/A LC 5 9 482 36N027630 1/utm0303 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae herb N/A LC 5 9 462 Indigofera 36N027630 emerginella A. 1/utm0303 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 5 9 462 Pseudarthria 36N027630 hookeri Wright 1/utm0303 & Arn. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 5 9 462 36N027630 Hoslundia 1/utm0303 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 5 9 462 Hyperthelia dissoluta 36N027630 (Steud.)W.D.Cla 1/utm0303 yton Poaceae grass N/A LC 5 9 462 Sporobolus 36N027630 pyramidalis Poaceae grass N/A LC 5 9 1/utm0303

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Beauv. 462 Setaria sphacelata 36N027630 (Schumach. ) 1/utm0303 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 5 9 462 Neonotonia wightii var. longicauda 36N027630 (Schweinf.)A.A. 1/utm0303 Lackey Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 5 9 462 Brachiaria 36N027630 brizantha ( A. 1/utm0303 Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 5 9 462 Rhynchosia hirta 36N027630 (Andrews) 1/utm0303 Meikle & Verdc. Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 5 9 462 Mitracarpus 36N027630 villosus ( Sw. ) 1/utm0303 DC. Rubiaceae herb N/A LC 5 9 462 Steganotaenia 36N027624 araliacea 6/utm0304 Hochst. Apiaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 Combretum 36N027624 adenogonium 6/utm0304 Steud. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Ziziphus 6/utm0304 pubescens Oliv. Rhamnaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Acacia hockii 6/utm0304 De Wild. Mimosaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Combretum 6/utm0304 collinum Fresen. Combretaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Lannea barteri ( 6/utm0304 Oliv. ) Engl. Anacardiaceae tree N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Hoslundia 6/utm0304 opposita Vahl Lamiaceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 351 Microglossa 36N027624 pyrifolia ( Lam. 6/utm0304 ) O.Ktze. Asteraceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 351 36n027624 Terminalia 6/utm0304 brownii Fresen. Combretaceae sappling N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Rhus vulgaris 6/utm0304 Meikle Anacardiaceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 351 Triumfetta Tiliaceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 36N027624

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rhomboidea 6/utm0304 Jacq. 351 36N027624 Flueggea virosa 6/utm0304 ( Willd. ) Voigt Euphorbiaceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 351 Rhynchosia hirta 36N027624 ( Andrews) 6/utm0304 Meikle & Verdc. Papilionaceae climber N/A LC 6 9 351 Allophyllus 36N027624 macrobotrys 6/utm0304 Gilg. Sapindaceae shrub N/A LC 6 9 351 Opilia 36N027624 amentacea 6/utm0304 Roxb. Opiliaceae sappling N/A LC 6 9 351 Monanthotaxis 36N027624 buchananii ( 6/utm0304 Engl. ) Verdc. Annonaceae sappling N/A LC 6 9 351 Setaria sphacelata ( 36N027624 Schumach. ) 6/utm0304 Moss Poaceae grass N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Setaria 6/utm0304 kagerensis Mez Poaceae grass N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Panicum 6/utm0304 maximum Jacq. Poaceae grass N/A LC 6 9 351 Pseudechinolaen 36N027624 a polystachya 6/utm0304 (Kunth) Stapf Poaceae grass N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Entada 6/utm0304 walhbergii Harv. Mimosaceae straggler N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Clematis hirsuta 6/utm0304 Perr. & Guill. Ranunculaceae climber N/A LC 6 9 351 Indigofera 36N027624 emerginella A. 6/utm0304 Rich. Papilionaceae herb N/A LC 6 9 351 36N027624 Mondia whitei ( 6/utm0304 Hook.f. ) Skeels Apocynaceae climber N/A LC 6 9 351

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Appendix 6. Common herbage plant species recorded in Offaka Sub County s/n Grass species Family Common name

1 Setaria sphacelata ( Schumach.) Moss Poaceae Golden bristle-grass

2 Pennisetum polystachion ( L. ) Schult. Poaceae mission grass

3 Imperata cylindrica ( L. ) Beauv. var. Gramineae spear grass

4 Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae. Guinea grass

5 Hyparrhenia filipendula (Hochst.)Stapf Poaceae thatching grass

6 Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv. Poaceae English rat's tail grass

7 Brachiaria brizantha ( A. Rich. ) Stapf Poaceae Signal grass

8 Hyparrhenia rufa ( Nees ) Stapf Poaceae geranium

9 Sorghum arundanaceum ( Desv. ) Stapf Poaceae wild sorghum

10 Cynodon dactylon ( L. ) Pers. Poaceae star /bermuda grass

11 Paspalum notatum Fluegge Poaceae lawn grass

12 Cyperus cyperiodes ( L.) Kuntze subsp. Cyperaceae umbrella sedge

13 cyperiodes Cyperaceae Sedge

14 Perotis patens Gand. Poaceae Bottle-brush grass (

15 Melinis repens ( Willd. ) Zizka Poaceae Red Top grass

16 Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Poaceae Kodo millet,

17 Brachiaria comata ( A. Rich. ) Stapf Graminae Brachiaria comata

18 Chloris pycnothrix Trin. Poaceae spiderweb chloris.

19 Urochloa panicoides ( A. Rich.) Stapf Poaceae Tanner/palisade grass

20 Aristida adscensionis L. Poaceae common needle grass

21 Eragrostis tenuifolia A. Rich. Poaceae Love grass

22 Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. Poaceae Napier grass

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Appendix 7. The list of the mammals reported to occur in the study area by the hunters S/N Common name Scientific name Local name Representative image (in Madi)

1 Olive Baboons Papio cynocephalus Oji

2 Vervet Monkey Cercopithecus Aro pygerythrus

3 Patas Monkey Erythrocebus patas Oya

4 Guereza Black and Colobus Guereza Dulu white colobus monkey

5 Serval cat Leptailuras serval Kori

6 African Civet Civettictis civetta Fumbe

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7 Side stripped jackal Canis adustus Sun- Oba devall

8 Large spotted genet Genetta tagrina Nyandilia/ ezoleamaku

9 Banded mongoose Mungos mungo Aruu

10 Bush pig Potamochoerus Ngili larvatus F. Cuvier,

11 Warthog Phacochoerus Ezo africanus

12 Common/bush duiker Sylivicarpra grimmia Ova

13 Oribi Ourebia ourebi Oce

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14 Dikdik Madoqua Ombii damarensis

15 Bush buck Tragelaphus scriptus Eba

16 Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei Nzobe

17 Common Waterbuck Kobus Yere/Magara ellipsiprymnus

18 Uganda Kob Kobus kob Tili

19 Aardavark Orycteropus afer Apino

20 Porcupine Hystrix Ozu africaeaustralis

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21 Tree squirrel Paraxerus cepapi Esesea/Ayaro

22 Scrub Hare Lepus saxatilis Eto

23 Hyrax Procovia capensis Ondo

24 Mash/Cane rat Thryonomys Alu swinderianus

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Appendix 8. List of key institutions /persons for collaborations S/N Contact Institution Address (telephone/e- Potential areas of person (s) mail support/collaboration

1. Gaster Tree talk/Straight 0704930212/07724481 School based Kiyingi talk foundation 10 environmental education [email protected] 2. Francis Shea nut butter 0772517045 Value addition on the Ogwal project in Northern sheanut oil and products Uganda 3. Olal Joel National Forestry 0772675027/ Collaborative forest authority (NFA) 0750675027 management initiatives Forest supervisor [email protected], West Nile range [email protected] 4. Clement Country 0772391311 Agroforestry based Okia representative [email protected] technology development World Agro- forestry Center. 5. Mundua Kuluva Hospital 0782834603/07938346 Samuel Head of Natural 03 Medicine and munduasamuel@yaho National trainer o.com 6 Mr. Jagdeep Plot 26, Industrial Tel : +256 772 704 E- Singh Area, Station 545/6, mail: [email protected] Road, Lira, Tel : +256 772 604545 [email protected] Shea nut Uganda, East Fax: +256 47 320 922 website: www.sheabutterug product Africa. anda.com manufacturin g. P.O..Box Guru Nanak 11198,Lira Uganda Oil Mills

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Plot 1812 Mitala Road Kasanga, Kampala P.O.Box 72721 Clock Tower Kampala, Uganda Tel/Fax +256 414 347260 www.trocaire.org