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Heads vs. Dependents

 : head of the phrase and dependents to that head  เดินเร็วมาก &  สวยมากๆ  ในกล่อง ใบไม้ทีเปลียนเป็นสีแดง Heads & Dependents 

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Head Head

 Bears the crucial semantic information  Can dependents be omitted?  Determines the word class of the whole phrase  He [died slowly].  Has the same distribution as the whole phrase  He [killed her slowly].  Is the obligatory item in the phrase (can’t be omitted)  Dependents can be obligatory or optional.

 Discuss the examples in slide 2 using these  A head is required for a phrase; there may be criteria. dependents (obligatory or optional). 5 6

Generalizations Heads and dependents

 The subject of a clause is normally a phrase of one  Heads select dependents of a particular word class. word or more which is headed by a noun.  beautiful girl, *beautifully girl  The is normally a VP, which may contain  Heads require their dependents to agree with just a head verb or a head verb and its dependents. grammatical features of the heads.  un livre vert a:MASC book green:MASC ‘a green book’  Une pomme verte a:FEM apple green:FEM ‘a green apple’

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Heads and dependents Complement and adjunct

 Heads require their NP dependents to occur in a  Complement : dependent that is selected by the particular case. head and has a close relationship with the head  Kodomo-ga hon-o yon-da  Complements can be obligatory or optional. child-NOM book-ACC read-PAST  Adjunct : dependent that carries additional ‘The child read the book.’ information and does not have a close relationship with the head  Adjuncts are optional. 9 10

Complement and adjunct Complement and adjunct

 Discuss the following examples.  sings in the bath  We killed!  in the car, at school, before dinner  He dashed across the field.  The form of the PP is not constrained by the verb.  relies on her parents  *in the car, *at school, *before dinner

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Complement and adjunct Verbs and complements

 A complement occurs closer to head than an  Verbs can be categorized according to what adjunct. complements they select.  We sang Christmas carols yesterday.  Complements are contained within the VP which  *We sang yesterday Christmas carols. the verb heads. She [saw her friends].  Adverb  Kim practices carefully.  You should treat sensitive people carefully. 13 14

Verbs and complements Verbs and complements

Intransitive verbs: no complement Verbs with an NP and a PP complement Transitive verbs: an NP complement Prepositional verbs: a PP complement Verbs with transitive/intransitive alternation Verbs with an object NP and a clausal  I broke the window. / The window broke. complement  I phoned him. / I phoned. Ditransitive verbs  I sent Jack a flower. / I sent a flower to Jack.

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Prepositions and complements Adjectives and complements

 Intransitive prepositions  Optional complements  nearby  I’m [sorry for your loss].  Transitive prepositions  I’m [glad that you can come ].  in, under, after  Obligatory complements  She is [fond of fruit]. 17 18

Nouns and complements Complementizers and complements

 Optional complements  A complementizer (C) selects a clause and forms a  a student of Physics, a manufacturer of tyres complementizer phrase (CP).  John said [that Mary cried].  [For John to be a teacher] is impossible.

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Complement and adjunct and nouns

Complement Adjunct  Specifier  Selected by the head  Not selected by the  as head of an NP, forming a  Close relationship with head (DP) the head  No close relationship  An NP is a complement of the head D. This box of dates  Obligatory or optional, with the head depending on the head  Optional  Has the same distribution as the entire phrase  Limited number  Potentially unlimited  Is obligatory part of the phrase  PP dependents selected  PP dependents of  Requires their dependents to agree with by the head different kinds grammatical features of the heads 21 22

Head placement Head-initial

 A head tends to have a fixed position in all phrases eats apples within a language. behind the door  Head-initial languages: the head precedes its happy for you complement students with long hair  Head-final languages: the head follows its complement

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Head-marking and dependent- Head-final marking Taroo-ga [Hanako-ni hana-o ageta]  Marking head or dependent to indicate syntactic Taro-NOM Hanako-DAT flower-ACC gave ‘Taro gave Hanako flowers.’ relationship between them  Head-marking: agreement, cross-referencing [tomodaji-to]  Dependent-marking: case friend-with ‘with a friend’  In some languages, the relationship between the head and dependent is not marked. [sono tesuto e no zisin] that test to POSSESSIVE confidence ‘confidence in that test’ 25 26

Adposition and object Verb and arguments German Southern Tiwa mit mein-em Freund bey-mu-ban with my-DAT friend 2SG:SU/1SG:OBJ-see-PAST ‘with my friend’ ‘You saw me.’

Welsh Japanese arna i Taroo-ga [Hanako-ni hana-o ageta] On:1SG me Taro-NOM Hanako-DAT flower-ACC gave ‘on me’ ‘Taro gave Hanako flowers.’

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Noun and possessor NP Noun and AP Mary’s sister Chadian Arabic mara tawila Saliba sine natu-na woman tall:FEM woman child-3SG ‘a tall woman’ ‘the woman’s child’ Hawrami Ayacucho aesp-I zil runa-pa wasi-n man-GEN house-3POSSESSIVE horse-SUFFIX big ‘a person’s house’ ‘big horse’ 29 30

Head-marking and dependent- marking Exercises

 English has both head-marking and dependent-  1 (p. 118) marking.  3 (pp. 119-120)  Possessive NPs  4 (pp. 120-121)  Subject-verb agreement