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Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials This page intentionally left blank Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials Second Edition Yoshiki Oshida, MS, PhD Professor Emeritus, School of Dentistry, Indiana University, IUPUI, Indianapolis, IN, USA Adjunct Professor, School of Dentistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA AMSTERDAM G BOSTON G HEIDELBERG G LONDON G NEW YORK G OXFORD PARIS G SAN DIEGO G SAN FRANCISCO G SINGAPORE G SYDNEY G TOKYO Elsevier 32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA Second edition Copyright © 2013, 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangement with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-444-62625-7 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com This book has been manufactured using Print On Demand technology. Each copy is produced to order and is limited to black ink. The online version of this book will show color figures where appropriate. Dedicated To my wife for putting up with me & To my parents for their love, support, and encouragement This page intentionally left blank Contents Prologue xiii Preface for the Second Edition xv 1 Introduction 1 References 6 2 Materials Classification 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 General Classification 10 2.3 Medical/Dental Titanium Materials 15 2.3.1 Commercially Pure Titanium 15 2.3.2 TiÀ6AlÀ4V 16 2.3.3 TiÀ6AlÀ7Nb 17 2.3.4 TiÀ3AlÀ2.5V 17 2.3.5 TiÀ5AlÀ3MoÀ4Zr 17 2.3.6 TiÀ5AlÀ2.5Fe 17 2.3.7 TiÀ5AlÀ2MoÀ2Fe (SP700) 18 2.3.8 TiÀNi 18 2.3.9 Ni-Free Ti-Based Alloys, and TiÀNb Alloys 21 2.3.10 TiÀCu 22 2.3.11 TiÀMo 23 2.3.12 TiÀAl Alloys 24 2.3.13 Other Ti-Based Alloys 25 References 28 3 Chemical and Electrochemical Reactions 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Discoloration 36 3.3 Corrosion in Media Containing Fluorine Ion and Bleaching Agents 38 3.4 Corrosion under Influences of Environmental and Mechanical Actions 42 3.5 Metal Ion Release and Dissolution 52 3.6 Galvanic Corrosion 61 3.7 Microbiology-Induced Corrosion 63 3.8 Reaction with Hydrogen 70 References 73 viii Contents 4 Oxidation and Oxides 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Formation of Titanium Oxides 88 4.2.1 Air-Formed Oxide 89 4.2.2 Passivation 90 4.2.3 Oxidation at Elevated Temperatures 92 4.3 Influences on Biological Processes 94 4.4 Crystal Structures of Titanium Oxides 95 4.5 Characterization of Oxides 98 4.6 Unique Applications of Titanium Oxide 99 4.7 Oxide Growth, Stability, and Breakdown 99 4.8 Reaction with Hydrogen Peroxide 102 4.9 Applications of Advanced Technologies 104 4.9.1 Nanotube Fabrication 104 4.9.2 Hybrid Oxides Formation 105 4.9.3 Nano Titania Film Formation 106 4.9.4 UV Treatment 106 References 107 5 Mechanical and Tribological Behaviors 117 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Fatigue 117 5.3 Fretting 121 5.4 Fracture and Fracture Toughness 122 5.5 Biotribological Actions 124 5.5.1 In General 124 5.5.2 Friction 125 5.5.3 Wear and Wear Debris Toxicity 127 5.6 Improvement for Antitribological Deterioration 131 References 132 6 Biological Reactions 139 6.1 Introduction 139 6.2 Toxicity 139 6.3 Cytocompatibility (Toxicity to Cells) 142 6.4 Allergic Reaction 146 6.5 Metabolism 149 6.6 Biocompatibility 150 6.7 Biomechanical Compatibility 156 References 161 7 Implant-Related Biological Reactions 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Bone Healing 172 7.3 Bone Grafting 174 7.4 Hemocompatibility 175 Contents ix 7.5 Cell Adhesion, Adsorption, Spreading, and Proliferation 177 7.6 Roughness and Cellular Response to Biomaterials 190 7.7 Cell Growth 193 7.8 Tissue Reaction and Bone Ingrowth 195 7.9 Osteointegration and BoneÀImplant Interface 203 7.10 Some Adverse Factors for Loosening Implants 209 7.11 Nonmetallic Implants 210 References 210 8 Implant Application 225 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Intraoral Implants Versus Extraoral Implants 229 8.3 Clinical Reports 230 8.4 Surface and Interface Characterizations 237 8.5 Reactions in Chemical and Mechanical Environments 242 8.6 Reaction in Biological Environment 248 8.7 Surface Modification Effects 258 References 260 9 Other Applications 269 9.1 Introduction 269 9.2 Denture Bases 269 9.3 Crowns and Bridges, and Abutment 271 9.4 Clasps 281 9.5 Posts and Cores 281 9.6 Titanium Fiber and Oxide Powder as Reinforcement for Bone Cement 283 9.7 Sealer Material 283 9.8 Shape Memory Effect Dental Implant 284 9.9 Orthodontic Appliances 284 9.10 Endodontic Files and Reamers 287 9.11 Clamps and Staples 290 9.12 Stents 290 9.13 MRI Safety and Image Compatibility 293 References 294 10 Fabrication Technologies 303 10.1 Introduction 303 10.2 Casting 303 10.3 Machining 307 10.4 Electro-discharge Machining 308 10.5 CAD/CAM 309 10.6 Isothermal Forging 310 10.7 Superplastic Forming 310 10.8 DB and SPF/DB 313 10.9 Powder Metallurgy 314 x Contents 10.10 Metal Injection Molding 317 10.11 Mechanical Alloying 318 10.12 Laser Processing 318 10.12.1 Welding 319 10.12.2 Forming 322 10.12.3 Machining 323 10.12.4 Surface Treatments 324 10.13 Friction Stir Welding 326 10.14 Soldering 327 10.15 Heat Treatment 327 10.16 Coating 328 10.17 Electrospinning 329 10.18 Electron Beam Melting 330 10.19 Additive Manufacturing 331 References 332 11 Surface Modifications 341 11.1 Introduction 341 11.2 Mechanical Modification 343 11.2.1 Sandblasting and Surface Texturing 343 11.2.2 Shot-Peening and Laser-Peening 352 11.3 Chemical, Electrochemical, Thermal, and Physical Modifications 353 11.3.1 Chemical and Electrochemical Treatment 354 11.3.2 Chemical 1 Thermal 361 11.3.3 Alkali 1 Thermal 363 11.3.4 Thermal and Physical 363 11.3.5 UV Treatment 365 11.4 Coating 367 11.4.1 Carbon, Glass, and Ceramics Coating 368 11.4.2 HA Coating 370 11.4.3 Ca-P and TCP Coating 391 11.4.4 Composite Coating 399 11.4.5 TiN and TiC Coating 403 11.4.6 Ti Coating 409 11.4.7 TiO2 Film and Coating 413 11.4.8 Other Coatings 418 11.5 Collagen, Protein, and CHI Coating 420 11.5.1 Collagen Coating 427 11.5.2 Protein Coating 431 11.5.3 Peptide Coating 432 11.5.4 CHI Coating 433 11.6 Coloring 435 References 436 Contents xi 12 Advanced Materials, Technologies, and Processes 457 12.1 Introduction 457 12.2 Materials, Structures, and Processes 459 12.3 Functionally Graded Materials and Design Concept 461 12.4 Controlled Porosity/Foamed Structures 464 12.4.1 Controlled Porosity 464 12.4.2 Porosity-Controlled Surface and Texturing 466 12.4.3 Mechanical Property and Its Effect 468 12.4.4 Foam Metal 469 12.5 Near-Net Shape Forming 471 12.5.1 Net Shape Forming 471 12.5.2 Net Shape Nanostructured 472 12.5.3 Near-Net Shape Technology 472 12.6 Nanotechnology—Materials and Structures 474 12.6.1 Nanostructured Hydroxyapatite 475 12.6.2 Nanostructured Titanium 476 12.6.3 Nanostructured Titania 478 12.6.4 Tissue Engineering 480 12.7 Hybridization and Multifunctionality 483 12.8 Bioengineering and Biomaterial-Integrated Implant System 486 References 490 Epilogue 499 This page intentionally left blank Prologue Writing a book based on reviewing published articles like this book is a typical example of evidence-based learning—EBL. The evidence-based literature review can provide foundation skills in research-oriented bibliographic inquiry, with an emphasis on such review and synthesis of applicable literature. All information is obtained from numerous sources provided by scholars and researchers who are involved in various disciplines. Available sources possess a variety of features, especially the degree of reliability. There is a known rank of reliability for evidence sources, which is particularly important in medicine and dental fields (from the most to least reliable evidence source): (1) clinical reports using placebo and dou- ble blind studies, (2) clinical reports not using placebos, but conducted according to well-prepared statistical test plans, (3) study reports on time effect on one group of patients, (4) study reports, at one limited time, on many groups of patients, (5) case reports on a new technique and/or idea, and (6) retrospective reports on clinical evidence.