Index

2M1207–39B 14, 137 atmospheric biosignatures 273–274 2MASS J05352184-0546085 131, 132 of Earth 274 2MASS, see 2-Micron All-Sky Survey atmospheric 269 2-Micron All-Sky Survey 116, 125, 126, atmospheric spectroscopy 266–267 136, 137, 143, 145 atmospheric temperature 269–270 47 UMa 3, 189–190, 197, 198, 200 AU Mic 103 49 Ceti 103 4U 0142+61 213 β Pic 103 51 Peg 1, 3, 22, 28, 116, 128, 154, 155–156 Barnard’s 129 55 Cnc 190, 195, 197, 198, 200 BD +20.307 102 70 Oph 129 Bessel, Friedrich 129 70 Vir 293 binaries, in solar neighbourhood 133 binary lens system, caustic structure 54 AB Pic 14, 123 binary pulsar 215, 216 adaptive optics 125, 126, 127, 135, 136, binary star system, first planet 225–225 142 formation of Earth-like planets 249–250 Airy rings 264 giant planet formation 239, 241, 248 Algol 131 terrestrial planet formation 241–245 ALMA, see Atacama Large Millimetre binary star systems, habitability of planets Array 246–251 Apache Point Observatory 34 planet formation 236–245 apsidal circulation 196 planets 223–257 apsidal libration 184 with giant planet 243 apsidal motion 195–196, 201 binary , larger separations, terrestrial apsidal oscillations 182 planet formation 241–243 apsidal precession 184 Sun-like 133–134 apsidal separatrix 181–182, 196, 201 binary systems 124 Ariel 288 biomass burning, products 274 Astrobiology Roadmap 259 biosignature detection 278–279 astrobiology, definition 259 biosignatures 272–278 astrometric binaries 129 atmospheric 273–274 astrometric detection 4 remote-sensing classes 272 astrometric surveys 145 black dwarfs, see brown dwarfs , accuracy 4 Black Widow pulsars 213 Atacama Large Millimetre Array 106 Bond albedo 291 atmosphere, of Earth 268–269 Bradley, James 124 search for 267–269 brown dwarf desert 8, 39, 53–54, 128, 130, atmospheres 5–6, 16 139, 161 306 Index

Brown Dwarf Spectroscopic Survey 145 Class III objects 90 brown dwarf, first identification 116 close binary system, terrestrial planet brown dwarf- connection 115–152 formation 241, 242 brown dwarfs 115–146 close-orbiting planets 153–175 and , classification 123 atmospheres 167–168 as companions 132–141 composition 169 atmospheres 145–146 orbital characteristics 156–162 chemical abundance 117 parent stars 161–162 cooling 117, 120 semi-major axis distribution 157 core temperatures 117 transit discovery 156 deuterium-burning limit 8, 123 cloud cover, effect 278 diameters 117 COBE, see Cosmic Background Explorer evolution 117–119 comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 187 formation 8, 117 continuously habitable zone 260, 261 intrinsic properties 117–123 of Sun 261 evolution 117–118 cool Earths 6 mass threshold 117 cooling age 216 observed characteristics 120–122 CORALIE survey 13, 29 spectral energy distribution 120 core accretion 163, 164 146 core accretion model 11, 288, 290 temperature evolution 118–119 core fusion, temporary 117 Bruno, Giordano 153 coronagraph, for planet detection 263–264 coronagraphic imaging 16 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope 15, 22 COROT mission 14, 142, 169, 171, 297 carbon dioxide 267, 268, 269, 271, 276–277, co-rotation resonances 165 278 Cosmic Background Explorer 100 carbon dioxide, in Earth’s atmosphere 267, critical mass 165 268, 269, 271, 276–277 critical semi-major axis 230, 234, 235 seasonal cycling 277 cryovolcanism 288 Cassini spacecraft 288 caustic crossings 53, 59 dark matter microlensing 50 caustic curve 53, 59 Darwin mission 16, 143, 169, 263, 265, 267 caustic perturbations, stellar 55–56 DAZ white dwarfs 217–219 planetary 54–55 debris disks 97–105, 106 CFHT, see Canada-France-Hawaii behaviour 99 Telescope collisions 98 Chang-Refsdal lens system 55 dependency on stellar type 105 chaos 187–189 evolution 99–100 chlorophyll absorption 275 imaging 103–105 CHZ, see continuously habitable zone spectral energy distributions 101–102 cicumprimary disk, in binary star system formation 90, 97 236, 237 debris, in Solar System 98 circularisation time scale 160 Deep Near-Infrared Southern Sky Survey circulation-mode separatrix 183 124–125, 137, 143 circumstellar disks 10, 89, 236, 290 DENIS, see Deep Near-Infrared Southern circumstellar dust 89 Sky Survey Class 0 objects 89 detection, astrometric 4 Class I objects 90 microlensing method 47–48 Class II objects 90 microlensing method, sensitivity 48 Index 307

microlensing 6–7, 47–88 Earth-like planets 16, 143, 262, 270 near peak of Planck function 2 with water 243, 249, 250 optical 1–2, 14–16 Earth-mass planets 47, 66, 73, 80, 81, 82, optical, coronagraphic imaging 16 83, 171, 265 optical, differential direct detection 15 Earth-sized exoplanets 142 optical, Doppler spectral separation 15 Earth-sized planets, direct detection optical, interferometric imaging 15–16 263–264 1–3, 12–13 eccentric Jovian planet, effect 262 selection effects 12–13 eccentricity boosting 160 transit 4–6, 13–14 eccentricity of orbit, distribution 10–11 deuterium burning 8, 123 eccentricity oscillations 182, 201 differential direct detection 15 eccentricity pumping 10, 166, 296 direct imaging, high contrast 135, 136 eccentricity, as function of semi-major axis disk instability mechanism 164, 241 159 disk lifetimes 165 eccentricity/inclination oscillations 167 disk truncation, in binary star system 238, eclipsing binaries 130–132 241, 244 EELT, see European Extremely Large disk-averaged spectra, of terrestrial planets Telescope 267 Einstein radius crossing time 50, 59–60, 76 disk-averaging 264 Einstein ring radius 49, 56, 59–60, 63, 64, dispersed fixed-delay interferometer 25–28 80, 81 advantages 27 ELODIE -biased radial velocity Doppler measurement error 26 survey 13, 31 Doppler precision 26 Enceladus 288, 291, 296, 299 spectral resolution 28 energy-balance equation 296 disturbing function 180, 185, 233 environmental characteristics, of planetary Doppler broadening 266 system 264–265 DFDI method 25–28 equilibrium surface temperature 291–292 echelle method 22–25 EROS, see Exp´erience pour la Recherche Doppler Planet Surveys 21–45 d’Objets Sombres multiple object 30–36 Europa 286–288, 289, 296, 297, 298, 299 multiple object, early results 32–36 internal structure 287 multiple object, science needs 30–32 single object 28–30 surface 287 single object, main results 28–30 tidal heating 287 Doppler recoil 98, 105 European Extremely Large Telescope 143 Doppler spectral separation 15 excretion disk 213, 219 Draper, Henry 127 exomoons, life on 298–300 dynamical effects, types 195 exoplanet, orbit schematic 179 dynamical interactions 140 exoplanetary mass function 158–159 dynamical properties, distributions exoplanets, around pulsars 210–216 194–200 first 209 dynamical stability 187–189, 196–200 habitability 246–251 dynamics, observational constraints in binary star systems, orbital stability 178–179 227–235 in stellar graveyard 209–222 ε Eri 103 lowest mass known 209 η Crv 102 meteorology 167 Earth, orbital motion 64, 65, 79, 211 semi-major axis distribution 157 308 Index

Exp´erience pour la Recherche d’Objets GJ 317 156 Sombres 50 GJ 436 156, 169 Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia 3 GJ 446, radial velocity 3 GJ 876 8, 190–191, 195, 196, 200 Fabry-Perot etalon interferometer 22 GJ 3021 293 fallback disk 213 Gl 86 225 feeding zone 97, 164 Gl 229B 116, 126, 127, 135, 136 fiber feed 22, 32, 34 Gl 436 137 finite source effects 56–58 Gl 569B 130 first exoplanet, discovery 1 Gl 570D 137 Fomalhaut 103, 104 Gl 581 137, 145, 191, 200 formation models 11, 16 Gl 802B 129, 137 formation of planets 163–165 Gl 849 137 formation times scales 164 Gl 876 137 fringing spectrum 27 Global Microlensing Alert Network 65–66 fusion reactions 210 globular clusters 214–215 GMAN, see Global Microlensing Alert γ Cep 224–225, 226, 231, 232, 233, 240, Network 247, 248, 250 Goodricke, John 131 habitable zone 247, 248, 250 GQ Lup 8, 14, 123 Kozai resonance 232–233 gravitational lensing 2, 6, 7 planet 224–225, 226, 231, 232, 233 gravitational microlensing 47–88 planetesimals 240 by multiple 51–53 GAIA spacecraft 4, 40 discovered exoplanets 67 Galactic bulge 60, 61, 64, 66, 83 first planet 62, 67, 69 Galactic Exoplanet Survey Telescope 7 future programs 79–83 Galilean moons, see moons, of Jupiter future programs, expected planet Galileo spacecraft 287 detections 81 Ganymede 287, 289, 291, 293, 296, 299, lens geometry 49 300 light curve 50, 53, 56–57 gas giants, composition 123 observational programs 65–79 high mass population 160 parallax 64 low mass population 160 physics 48–50 GD 165 116 planet detection efficiency 56, 57, 58 Gemini observatory 136 planetary mass ratio 59 GEST, see Galactic Exoplanet Survey star-planet separation 59 Telescope theory 48–53 geysers, on Enceladus 288, 289 theory, multiple lens equation 51–52 GG Tau 227 theory, multiple lens 51–53 circumbinary disk 227 theory, single lens 48–51 giant planet migration 39 gravitational stirring 98 giant planet science 37–39 greenhouse effect 269 giant planet-brown dwarf transition 8 GSMT, see Giant Segmented Mirror giant planets 4, 5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 31, 37–39, Telescope 40, 224, 225, 231, 297 atmospheres 141 H 43691 156 atmospheric spectroscopy 219 habitability, markers 274 formation 80–81, 90, 105 definition 225 Giant Segmented Mirror Telescope 143 diversity 261–262 Index 309

effect of eccentricity 260 high resolution cross-dispersed echelle of planet 260 spectrograph 22–25 habitable planets search 262 calibration methods 24 habitable world, definition 259 Doppler measurement error 23 habitable zone of Sun 260–261 Doppler precision 23 habitable zone 11, 40, 166, 243, 246–251, spectral resolution 24 252, 260–261 High-Accuracy Radial velocity Planetary inner and outer limits 246–248 Searcher 24, 25 of Sun 246, 249 Hill radius, of planet 6 HARPS see, High Accuracy Radial velocity Hill stability, see hierarchical stability Planet Searcher Hill-sphere radius 291 H-burning limit 117, 118 HIP 14810 181, 193, 196, 200 HD 12661 182, 184, 191, 197, 198, 200 Hipparcos mission 4 HD 18940 126 HN Peg 136 HD 37124 182, 184, 191, 196, 200 host stars, properties 31 HD 38529 191, 197, 200 hot Jupiters 1, 5, 6, 116, 121, 122, 136, HD 41004 8 154, 155, 167, 170, 178, 291 HD 69830 11, 102, 103, 183, 191, 200 atmospheres 5 HD 72905 102 HR 4796 103 HD 73526 191, 195, 196, 200 HST, see Hubble Space Telescope HD 74156 192, 197, 199, 200 Hubble Space Telescope 4, 61, 62, 63, 69, HD 80606 293 82, 92, 93, 104, 126, 135, 138, 155, HD 82943 192, 195, 197, 198, 200 215, 217, 227, 263 HD 83443 192 Huygens, Christiaan 285 HD 102195 28 hydrogen degeneracy 115, 117 HD 104985 293 hydrogen fluoride gas cell 22 HD 108874 185, 192, 195, 200 hydrostatic equilibrium 117 HD 114729 116, 128 hydrothermal vents, see ocean vents HD 128311 192–193, 195, 200 HD 132406 156 inclination of orbit 2, 4 HD 141569 93 Infra-Red Astronomical Satellite 98 HD 147506 156 infrared excess 90, 91, 100, 101, 102 HD 155358 193, 196, 200 infrared nulling interferometer 263 HD 168443 193, 200 Infrared Space Observatory 99 HD 169830 193, 200 infrared spectra 267–268 HD 189733 168 inner orbit, planet 228 HD 190360 193, 200 instantaneous habitable zone 260 HD 202206 193, 195, 200 interferometric imaging 15–16 HD 203030 136 intermediate mass planets 169 HD 209458 4–5, 6, 35, 155, 156, 167 Io 287, 296 HD 217107 193 iodine cell calibration method 22, 24 Herbig Ae stars 91 IRAS, see Infra-Red Astronomical Satellite Herschel spacecraft 106 islands of instability 235 Herschel, William 124 ISO, see Infrared Space Observatory HH30 92 hierarchical stability 188–189, 197, 198, James Webb Space Telescope 16, 106, 142, 199, 201 143, 144, 218 High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Jodrell Bank Radio Observatory 211 Searcher 145, 170 Jupiter 286, 287, 291, 297, 299 310 Index

Jupiter-mass planets 55, 66, 76, 77, 78, 80, Lyapunov time 189 81, 143, 154, 218, 220 Lyot, Bernard 126 JWST, see James Webb Space Telescope μ Arae, dynamics 193, 195, 200 Keck Exoplanet Tracker 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, M dwarfs 116, 120, 133, 134, 137, 141 38 M8 dwarf 116 Keck telescopes 4, 13, 78, 136, 142, 145 MACHO Project 50, 65 Kepler mission 14, 40, 68, 81, 83, 142, 169, MACHO-95-BLG-3 66 171, 252, 297 MACHO-97-BLG-41 66 Kepler, Johannes 178 MACHO-98-BLG-35 55 Kepler’s Third Law 178 magnetosphere, of giant planet 299 Kirkwood gaps 188 Mars 260, 261, 267, 268, 269, 270, 278, 296 Kozai mechanism 166, 167 MARVELS, see Multi-object APO Kozai resonance 232–234 Radial-Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Kuiper Belt 98, 100, 103, 106 Survey Kuiper, Gerard 286 mass distribution, power law 7–8, 29 mass function 158 L dwarf binaries 139 mass loss, by evaporation 169 L dwarfs 116, 119, 120, 121, 138, 145 mass/separation diagram 140–141 near-infrared spectra 121 mass-inclination degeneracy 178, 179 optical spectra 120 mass-radius diagram 170 L1551, interferometric observation 239 mean motion resonance 184–185, 195, 201 Lagrange stability 188, 197, 198, 199 mean motion resonances 235, 296 Lagrange unstable regions 197 Messier 28, millisecond pulsars 214 Laplacian resonance 287 Messier 4, planet 214–216 Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer metallicity excess 161 15–16 methane, in Earth’s atmosphere 273, 274, Large Magellanic Cloud 50, 64, 65 276–277 Large Synoptic Survey Telescope 144 seasonal cycling 277 Late Heavy Bombardment 98, 101, 106 Michelson type interferometer 25, 26 LBTI, see Large Binocular Telescope MicroFUN, see Microlensing Follow-up Interferometer Network librating resonance 185, 186 microlensing events, planetary orbits libration-ciculation separatrix 182, 183 64–65 life, on Earth 259, 261 planetary 53–58 Linblad resonances 165 planetary, parameters 58–65 LMC, see Large Magellanic Cloud Microlensing Follow-up Network 66 Lorentz broadening 266 Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics Lowell survey 124 6, 7, 55, 65, 66, 67, 69, 72, 79 low-mass binaries 136–139 Microlensing Planet Finder 7, 68, 81, 82, low-mass companions, astrometric surveys 83 129–130 Microlensing Planet Search 55, 66 direct imaging surveys 124–127 microlensing 6–7, 13–14 photometric methods 130–132 migrating Jovian planet effect 262 radial velocity surveys 127–128 migration stopping mechanisms 39 searches 124–132 migration 10, 30, 31, 37, 39, 41, 163, 164, low-mass stars 165–167 LSST, see Large Synoptic Survey Telescope speed 165–166 Luyten’s surveys 124 timescale 166 Index 311

type I 165–166, 290 Neptune-mass planets 30, 48, 102 type II 165–166, 290 neutron star 210, 213, 214, 216 millisecond pulsar 209, 212, 213, 214 planet formation 213–214 minimum mass 178 remnant disk 214 minimum mass, for planet formation 94 NICI, see Near-Infrared Coronagraphic MOA, see Microlensing Observations in Imager Astrophysics NIRSPEC, see Near Infra-Red Spectro- MOA-2 survey 55, 79, 80 graph MOA-2003-BLG-53 62, 67, 68, 69 molecular iodine absorption cell 22, 24 ocean moons 295, 298 Monolithic Mirror Telescope 136 ocean vents 298, 299 Montanari, Geminiano 131 OGLE, see Optical Gravitational Lensing moon populations, scaling with host planet Experiment size 290, 297 OGLE-05–390L 8 moon systems, stability 291 OGLE-2005-BLG-71 54, 67, 70–72, 73 Moon, formation 98, 101 OGLE-2006-BLG-109 64, 67, 68, 77–79 of Earth 290 OGLE-2005-BLG-169 58, 61, 63, 67, Moon-forming impact 260 74–77, 81 moons, as habitats for life 285–303 OGLE-2005-BLG-235 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, classes, as function of mass and distance 73 295 OGLE-2005-BLG-390 67, 72–74, 76, 77, 81 detection 297–298 OGLE-3 survey 55 environmental conditions 291–297 OGLE-4 camera 79, 80 formation 290–291 optical detection 1–2, 14–16 of exoplanets 285–303 coronagraphic imaging 16 of Jupiter 285, 286, 297 differential direct detection 15 of Saturn 285 Doppler spectral separation 15 water content 295 interferometric imaging 15–16 MPF, see Microlensing Planet Finder Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment MPS, see Microlensing Planet Search 5, 6, 7, 50, 65, 67, 69, 72, 78, 79 Mpsini 2, 7–8, 10, 156, 158 orbital eccentricities 159–161, 166 as function of orbit radius 10 , distribution 10–11 distribution 7–8 pumping 10 Multi-object APO Radial-Velocity Exo- orbital elements, uncertainties 179 planet Large-area Survey 32, 33, 34, 2, 4 36, 37–40 , distribution 8, 9 multiple planet systems, dynamical orbital radius, distribution 8, 9, 10–11 properties 200 orbital theory 179–189 dynamics 177–208 analytical methods 180–186 interactions 194–200 oscillation, circulation 181 multiple systems 3, 10, 11, 39 libration 181 orbital resonances 10 separatrix 181 N2K radial velocity survey 31 oscillations, apsidal 182 naming convention 1, 67–68 eccentricity 182 N-body calculations 179, 180, 183, 186, outer orbit, planet 228 195 oxygen, in Earth’s atmosphere 261, 273, Near Infra-Red Spectrograph 144 274, 278 Near-Infrared Coronagraphic Imager 142, ozone, in Earth’s atmosphere 266, 267, 143 268, 269, 273, 274, 278 312 Index

Packed Planetary Systems hypothesis 197, flaring 91, 92 199 magnetic field 91 Panoramic Survey Telescope & Rapid masses 94 Response System 143 planet formation 95–97 Pan-STARRS, see Panoramic Survey velocity gradient 91 Telescope & Rapid Response System protostar collapse 117 parent stars mass, as function of semi-major Proxima Centauri 125 axis 163 PSR B0329+54 211, 212 parent stars, metallicity 11–12, 161–162 PSR B1257+12 12, 153, 209, 211–212, photochemical hazes 278 213–214 photometric observations, of planets PSR B1620–26 153, 215–216 265–266 PSR B1829–10 211, 212 photometric variability, of planets 265–266 P-type orbit 228, 234–235, 229 photosynthesis 276–277 stability 234–235 photosynthetic pigments 276 pulsar planets 12 Pickering, Edward 131 origin 213–214 Pioneer mission 286 searches 211–213 Planck function, of planet 2 pulsar, millisecond 209, 212, 213, 214 planet exchange 216 pulsars 210–211, 212–213 planet formation, models 294 magnetic fields 212 N-body simulation 97 planet detection 210–211 stages of 236, 237 planets 210–216 planet migration rate 39 radio 210 PLANET, see Probing Lensing Anomalies spin down 210 NETwork spin up 213–214 planetary characteristics, remote detection 264–272 radial velocity curve 3 planetary embryos 96, 97, 164, 242 radial velocity detection 1–3, 12–13 planetary environment 264 radial velocity method, precision 3, 22 planetary spectra, in Solar System 279 radial velocity surveys 145, 155, 170, 178, planetesimals 90, 96, 164, 166, 231, 236, 179 239, 240, 242, 245 detection rate 28, 31 encounter velocities 245 main results 28–30 planet-planet scattering 48 major methods 21–28 PlanetQuest 40, 145 next generation 37–41 point particles, classical dynamics 177 radiation environments 289 point-spread function 63 radio pulsars 210 power law 158–159 radio pulses, timing 210–211, 212–213 Poynting-Robertson drag 99 red edge, refectivity 275 precession 181, 183 reduced Delaunay momentum 233 Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork 6, remote sensing spectroscopy 266–272 65, 66, 72 remote-sensing biosignatures, classes 272 properties of observed exoplanets 7–12 resonances, co-rotation 165 protoplanetary disks 90, 91–97, 105, 165 resonant argument 185 accretion 91 resonant interactions 184–186, 195 angular momentum 91 Riccioli, G. B. 124 clearing 92, 93 runaway glaciation 246, 260 dispersal mechanisms 92 runaway greenhouse effect 246, 260 evolution 95 Runge-Kutta methods 187 Index 313

Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar super-Earths 30, 37, 40–41, 47, 48, 76, 77, Planet Search 14 81, 169, 262 satellite orbit, planet 228 supernova explosions, asymmetric 213–214 Saturn-mass planets 76, 78, 80, 197,199, supernova 210, 213- 214 201 SuperWASP wide survey 14 SCR 1845 b 14, 15, 123 surface composition 270–271 SDSS, see Sloan Digital Sky Survey surface ocean, indicators 268 searches, around dim stars 2 surface pressure 269 around white dwarfs 2 surface signatures 275 around pulsars 211–213 surface spectra 271 seasonal variations 272 surface temperature 269–270 secular interaction 181, 195 for icy moons 292 secular resonance 183, 184 SWEEPS, see Sagittarius Window secular theory 180–184 Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search separatrix, apsidal 181–182, 196, 201 symplectic integrators 229 circulation-mode 182, 183 libration-circulation 182, 183 τ Ceti 103 SIM, see Space Interferometry Mission T dwarfs 116, 119, 120, 121, 138, 144, 145 Sirius 129 near-infrared spectra 121 Sloan Digital Sky Survey 32, 37, 116, 125, optical spectra 120 137, 143 T Tauri stars 90, 91, 93 snow-line 48, 80, 82, 166, 288 classical 90 Solar System, dynamical properties 200 weak line 90 formation 94, 95 telluric absorption lines 22 how typical 1, 177 temperature structure determination 267 solar type stars 135–136 temporal signatures 276–277 space based microlensing 81–83 temporal variability 277 Space Interferometry Mission 4, 13, 39–40, terrestrial mass planets 210, 214 68, 145, 265 terrestrial planet characterisation 262 spectral energy distribution 90 Terrestrial Planet Finder 16, 143, 169, 265, spectral features, variations 272 267 Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast terrestrial planet formation, in binary star Exoplanet Research 142, 143 system 241–245, 251 spectroscopic binaries 127–128 in close binary system 241, 242, 251 single lined 128 in larger separation binaries 241–245 double-lined 127, 131 terrestrial planets, disk-averaged spectra SPHERE, see Spectro-Polarimetric 267 High-contrast Exoplanet Research extrasolar, first spectra 278–279 Spitzer Space Telescope 64, 92, 100, 101, formation 91, 95–97, 98 103, 104, 142, 166 hunt for 170–172 sputtering 292 number formed in binary star systems star formation 89 245 STARE transit camera 4, 14 ThAr calibration method 22, 24 starlight suppression goal 264 thermal escape 292 stellar binary systems 133–135 Thirty-Meter Telescope 143 S-type orbit 228, 229–234 three-body system, dynamical evolution stability 229–234 228–229 sub-disk 290 tidal heating 288, 289, 296–297, 298 subdwarf, pulsating 220 and boosted temperatures 296–297 314 Index tidal pairs 195 Venus 260, 261, 267, 268, 269, 270, 278 Titan 278, 289, 291, 295, 297, 300 Very Large Telescope 2, 4, 13, 136, 142, TMT, see Thirty-Meter Telescope 143, 145 TPF-C, see Terrestrial Planet Finder visible light coronagraph 263–264 TPF-IR, see Terrestrial Planet Finder VLT, see Very Large Telescope Transatlantic Exoplanet Survey 14 Vogel, Hermann 131 transit detection 4–6, 13–14 Voyager missions 286, 287 of exoplanet, first 4 of exoplanets 4–6 water sublimation rate 292, 293 transit spectroscopy 5–6, 168, 298 water vapour, on Earth 266 transit surveys 39, 155 water, retention 246 transiting planets, direct detection 142 water-rich planets 262 TrES, see Transatlantic Exoplanet Survey white dwarfs 216–220 TrES-1 14 planetary evolution 218 TrES-3 156 planet detection 220, 221 TRIDENT imaging camera 15 planets 216–220 Triton 290 pulsating 219–220 υ And 194, 200 wide field imaging surveys 143–144 UK Infrared Digital Sky Survey 143, 144 Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer 144 UKIDSS, see UK Infrared Digital Sky WISE, see Wide-field Infrared Survey Survey Explorer UV radiation, shield 267, 268, 269 X-ray binaries 213, 214 V391 Pegasi, planet 220 VB10 116 Y dwarfs 119, 120, 144 Vega 103, 104 velocity gradient 91 ζ Lep 102