• Physiographic Controls on Developlllelllt In the Queen Elizaheth Islands t By V. W. 81M"

(t4t1l, Annual Technical Meeting, P. & N.G. Division, and 65th Annual General Meeting, a.I.M., Edmonton, April, 1963)

INTRODUCTION ture dips below _30°F. Thomas (kg. cal./sq. m./h.L At values points out, however, that even un­ above 1,400 units, heat loss is so iDean Hare of McGill University der these extreme conditions, daily rapid that exposed flesh freezes has recently pointed out that Can­ temperature variations may range and outdoor activity is severely re­ ada is too cold and too big.tHis as high as 100 to 15°F. (Thomas, stricted. In contrast, the southern precise reasons for this belief do 1961, p. 945), Prairie Provinces, in the same not concern us here, but I suggest month, experience wind chill values Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 that it is also an apt description Summer, as we know it in south­ ranging from 1,200 to 1,400 units­ of the Queen Elizabeth Islands. ern Canada. is not experienced in bitterly cold on the wind chill To put it another way, climate and the Queen Elizabeth Islands. In scale. In April, the Queen Eliza­ terrain in the Queen Elizabeth July, the mean monthly tempera­ beth Islands arc still bitterly cold Islands are seriously restrictive ture is approximately 40°F., or (wind chill: 1,300 to 1,500 units) physical factors determining the roughly the same as winter tem­ and are, in fact, comparable with direction and rate of economic ex­ peratures in Vancouver or April the southern Prairies in January. pansion. These factors are discus­ and October temperatures in Ed­ By July, the Islands experience a sed in some detail in this paper. monton. wind chill of 800 units, roughly Simple temperature values do not, comparable to Winnipeg or Toronto CLIMATE however, give a true indication of in April. Finally, by October they conditions in the high Arctic. A are again as cold as the Prairies in In all activities in the Arctic, January. man's comfort is of primary im­ much more meaningful measure of coldness is given by the "wind portance. As Harwood (1961, p. In summary, during December. 1106) suggests " ... in the end it chill" value. The degree of cold­ January and February. the Queen is his heat loss which determines nesS experienced by human beings Elizabeth Islands are colder than whether he is cold and inefficient is known to be related primarily the southern Prairie Provinces but or warm and efficient." The first to temperature and wind speed, and not quite as cold as the interior of aspect of the climate of the Queen wind chill values are a measure of Keewatin. Spring and fall are Elizabeth Islands which needs em- the heat loss under varying tem­ cold, but no more so than winter . phasis is the severity of the tern­ perature and wind speed values. on the Prairies. Summers arc cool perature and the duration of the The greatest wind chill occurs in and are similar to spring on the period of extreme cold. Tempera­ the Arctic in January. In the Prairies. tures normally associated with Queen Elizabeth Islands values Heating degree-days provides an­ winter in southern Canada occur range from 1,500 to 1,900 units other useful method of indicating during 10 months of the year (Fig· the sC'verity of the ArcUc climate. u.re 1), At Resolute, on Cornwal­ The number of heating degree days lis Island, sub-freezing tempera­ EOMONTON below 65°F. is proportional to the tures are usual between mid-Octo­ ALTA amount of fuel required to hf"at a ber and mid-April. Only during house to 70°F. Values of this par­ July and August can temperatures 50 EUREKA • N.WT. " o ameter in the Queen Elizabeth Is­ be expected to remain above freez­ ~40 lands arc two to three timps the ing, and even during this period /'io A values in southern Canada (10.000 occasional sub-freezing days may units in Edmonton compared to occur. Most areas of the Islands ':~-----~1i~--- 22.000 to 24.000 units in the Queen share with interior Keewatin 1'° --t'-f ~ 20 TORONTO Elizabeth Islands). Two to three District the distinction of being the times as much fuel is required to coldest areas in Canada in January, heat a building in the high Arctic when the mean monthly tempera- as is required in southern Canada J,-'------:"-­ (Thomas, 1961, p. 948), As the Is­ !: lands are the most expensive area -00 J in Canada for the heating of build­ tProceedings~ Resonrces for To­ ings, economic problems arise in morroW Conference, Montreal~ Dc· .•

of only 2.8 inches and 3.0 inches Elizabeth Islands into three major of 10,000 feet, the highest eleva­ respectively. Approximately half physiographic regions. These are: tions in eastern North America of the annual precipitation falls as (1) the eastern mountains and up­ One pass across the United States

M snow between September and May. lands, (2) the central uplands and Range between Yelverton Bay and Amounts range from 50 inches in (3) the northwestern lowlands and Tanquary Fiord is almos-t ice free. the southeastern corner of the plateaus (Figu,re 2). I would like although it reaches a height of Queen Elizabeth Islands to less than to discuss each in turn. 5,000 feet and could be crossed only 20 inches in the northwest. This with difficulty. relatively small amount (Montreal (1) The Eastern Mountains and receives an average of 112 inches Uplwtds The mountainous interior of Axel annually) is swept about by winds Heiberg Island is covered by two Extensive mountain and high large ice caps. The north cap is throughout the winter, and drift­ plateau topography occurs on the ing may be a serious problem. On smoothly contoured and reaches a three eastern islands of the Queen maximum elevation of 7,000 feet the' other hand. wind-compacted l Elizabeth group. The greater part obscuring the underlying ridge and drifts have a slab-like character of Ellesmere Island. interior Axel and can often support great valley structures. The south ice cap Heiberg Island and eastern Devon is slightly lower. At the margins weights. Heavy, tracked vehicles Island are areas of high relief. Al­ can travel with ease over wind­ of both, numerous nunataks reach Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 though :rock types and structures the surface. hardened snow. The heaviest snow­ vary widely. slopes are steep and falls occur in autumn. Rain in the access to the interior is difficult. The problems of travel in the form of light showers of short dur­ To further hinder movement in this higWand areas of the Queen Eliza­ ,ation may fall from June to Aug­ area, much of it is covered with beth Islands, wJ;1ere the land is not ust. fields of permanent ice and snow covered by pennanent ice, are in :.Mean wind speeds in the Queen and. in some cases, extensive ice large part due to the broken, dis­ Elizabeth Islands do not differ caps completely obscure underlying sected nature of the terrain. The greatly from wind speeds in south­ mountains. Southeastern Elles­ coasts are commonly steep and ern Canada. Arctic winds seem mere Island and eastern Devon Is­ fringed with talus slopes and bed­ stronger because temperatures are land, for example. although under­ rock cliffs. Access to the interior low. In general, sununer is the lain by mountainous Precambrian can only be gaioed "along the deep windiest season; the fall and win­ topography, are ahnost completely fiords which penetrate the coast or ter much less so. Few really gale­ covered by ice caps. On Devon via the outwash-filied valleys which force winds have been recorded in Island. a smooth dome of ice rises extend inland from the heads of the Queen Elizabeth Islands and, to 6,200 feet, and similar elevations the fiords. These access route:s to particularly in the winter months, are attained on Ellesmere Island. the interior of the land masses periods of completely cahn weath­ In both areas, the ice domes drop generally follow the structural er are frequent. steeply to the coast where nuna­ trend but often terminate abruptly taks, mountain peaks projecting in valley ice tongues from the in­ Seasonal cloudiness and varia­ terior ice caps. Their value as i tions in visibility are of great im­ above the ice. appear. In general, 1 the coastal areas, although indented travel routes is often uncertain. 1 portance to surface and air travel Although shallow-d raft, ice­ in the high Arctic. Cloud cover is by bays and fiords, are extr~elY steep. Access to the interio is strengthened vessels can penetrate least during the late autumn and many of the fiords in late summer, winter months and greatest during usually difficult or impossible for wheeled or tracked vehicles. land movement along the valleys at the summer and early autumn. their heads is likely to be more September is the cloudiest month Centr:al and northern Elles ere difficult. Well-supported tractor of the year coinciding with the l Island and interior Axel H berg trains would have little difficulty in period of greatest precipitation. Island include some of the nation's winter, when rivers are frozen. In 0.,..: Visibility is poorest in summer and most spectacular scenery. Ice cov­ sununer, swiftly flOWing glacier-fed early autumn. and flying weather ers the mountain areas less com­ rivers confined in narrow valleys in the Queen Elizabeth Islands is pletely, although northern Elles­ restrict the ease of movement of best in April and December (Wil­ mere Island is almost totally ob­ mechanical vehicles. Such move­ son and Markham, 1953), If day­ scured. The underlying bedrock, ment is possible. however where: light is also considered. then April l which ranges in age from early the valleys are wider and are floor­ is unquestionably the best month. Palaeozoic to Mesozoic, has under­ ed by glacial river gravels. Blowing snow may also be a gone a series of major orogenies. serious impediment to travel Even The rocks are now folded along two The eastern mountain areas have light winds can easily pick up snow principal fold axes. One extends been extensively glaciated. Al­ particles. At wind speeds under 15 roughly north-south through Axel though fine-grained sedhnents of , Heiberg Island; the other trends marine origin occur within a short , m.p.h.1 visibility is over 6 miles. It approximately northeast through distance of sea level the uncon­ "1 decreases rapidly, however. with l increasing wind speed. and visibil­ northern and central Ellesmere Is­ solidated material in the .uplands is ity is near zero at wind speeds of land. The resulting topography usually of a comparatively coarse­ 40 m.p.h. Combined with low tem­ has a pronounced ridge and valley grained texture and of glaciofluvial peratures such wind speeds make character which controls the drain­ origin. This material is well-dram':" outdoor activity almost impossible. age pattern and the orientation of ed, and the active layer over perma­ the long bays and inlets that in­ frost in sand and. gravel may be dent the coasts. General summit several feet thick. Not only do elevations exceed 5,000 feet, and extensive flats. of outwash gravel lEy a considerable generalization. the numerous nunataks of the occur where airstrips could be it is possible to divide the Queen United States Range reach altitudes built, but the surface material is to ••~__ . /. Technology, Winter, 1963, Calgary 199 often made up of a suitable con­ bedrock in the area is flat-lying, other hand, the depth of the active struction aggregate. escarpments occur and many of the layer is so Shallow that, unless the streams are deeply entrenched. In route was used frequently, tractors Lateral movement along the some areas, the axis of folding is would probably not be impeded. coast is very difficult. Inland it is east-west. Here, east-west valleys usually not possible to travel penetrate for considerable distances East of the Hecla and Griper against the grain of the country. inland, e.g., the valleys at the lowland on Melville Island the land head of the west coast bays rises once again. Although the Communication by air also pre­ maximum elevations range between sents problems in this region. The which open eastward from Kellet Strait. Often, too, flat-floored val­ 600 and 1,000 feet, escarpments, single-engine bush aircraft on deep ravines and incised rivers give floats, Which has been such a use­ leys provide access routes to the interior. an impression of rugged terrain. ful machine in the mainland Arc­ Folding has been intense in this tic, is less suitable here. The num­ The plateau-like aspect of the area, and symmetrical ridge and ber of fresh-water lakes which can valley topography is common. be used as landing sites during the country gradually diminishes to­ summer is extremely small, and ward the lowland between Hecla Bathurst Island is similar to Mel­ ice doe£ not leave even tile shallow and Griper Bay and Liddon Gulf. ville Island. Symmetrical, parallel lakes until late in the summer. Here, a rolling plain less than 100 folds extend east-west. The ter­ Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 The operating season is therefore feet above sea level provides a rain is undulating to rolling and very short, often only 2 or 3 weeks. route across the island which could deep valleys occur in places. No In winter, single-engine aircraft on be used as a surface tractor road part of the island rises above 1,500 skis can operate over wide areas. from Winter Harbour or Bridport feet. Cornwallis Island has a The Islands provide a variety of Inlet to points on the coast of dome-shaped summit at an eleva­ terrains suitable for the construc­ northwestern Melville Island, to tion of 1,000 feet from which tion of aircraft landing sites. Such adjacent islands and possibly even streams radiate toward the coast. sites are found in both the upland to Prince Patricle Island. During Those flowing east have deeply en­ and lowland areas. In the eastern the summer of 1962, a firm of con­ trenched valleys; those flowing highlands, Aero Service Corpora­ sulting geologists reconnoitered the west occupy broad open valleys. tion, working for the U.S. Air route across Melville Island from Low rounded hills are separated by Force, has even discovered a num­ Winter Harbour to Weatherall Bay gently sloping plains covered with ber of places where it suggests that and found it passable for tracked an unconsolidated surface material emergency landings could be made vehicles. The portion of the route of weathered rock. Hills of gla­ by multi-engine aircraft on unpre­ from Winter Harbour to Liddon cial deposits have been reported in pared sites (Pressman et al~ 1961), Gulf climbs to a height of 1,000 feet the interior. Such sites have been located on but is relatively unimpeded by river outwash fans near the front of valleys or other obstacles. The In southeast Ellesmere Island as well as on Grinnell and Colin Ar­ valley glaciers, on gravelly erosion surface material is composed of cher peninsulas, the terrain rises surfaces and mesas at elevations weathered rock fragments and, to elevations of 2,500 feet from the of up to 3,000 feet above sea level, though much of the path would be low shores of Norwegian Bay and on raised marine terraces and on across the structural trend of the Baumann Fiord. The major axis alluvial fans. Many additional Island, careful selection of the of folding trends northeast. sites could be made serviceable route would make overland travel with only slight effort. possible. In the summer, the sur­ The Greely-Hazen upland lies face, especially in shale areas, can between the United States Range (2) Central Uplands become boggy and impassable. Sur­ on the north and the Victoria and face run-off is only a partial ex­ The second major type of ter­ Albert mountains on the south. planation for this phenomenon. This region of intensely folded rain in the Queen Elizabeth Islands Snow melt-water certainly causes extends in a broad arc across the rocks, up' to 40 miles wide and lying bog conditions, especially early in at an elevation of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, southern portion. It inCludes most the melt season. Latel', however, of Melville Island, all of Bathurst has a northeast structural trend. much of the groundwater is pro­ The drainage pattern reflects tllis Island, Cornwallis Island, Grinnell vided by the melting permafrost Peninsula of Devon Island, and a trend, and the valleys of two of surface, and this source remains the larger rivers in the region, the portion of southwestern Ellesmere constant throughout the summer. Island. An outlier region of a sim­ Ruggles and the Dodge rivers, pro­ In areas where the drainage pat­ vide partial through routes con­ ilar type occurs in northeastern tern is not welI developed, melt­ Ellesmere Island where the Greely­ necting Lady Franklin Bay with water remains to saturate the sur­ the eastern end of Greely Fiord. Hazen upland extends from Greely face material to a depth related to Fiord through to Lake Hazen and Lake Hazen, in the centre of the the depth of the active layer. In upland at an elevation of only 500 Robson Channel. This region of 1962, this depth was determined to folded Palaeozoic strata exhibits feet, has been used as a winter be about 43 centimetres in weath­ landing area. It is much less sat­ little uniformity. Its one common ered shale. A combination of low characteristic is a prevalence of isfactory in summer, as the lalte precipitation and a greater than is ice-free for only a short time. ridge and valley topography. Pla­ normal amount of summer sun­ teaus and lowlands are much less shine results in the formation of a The problems of overland travel extensive. hard, dry surface crust, although and communication in the central Much of Melville Island west of the material beneath is still satur­ uplands are much improved over Hecla and Griper Bay is a plateau­ ated. This crust. while it may those encountered in the mountain like upland having a maximum ele­ be capable of bearing foot traffic, area. Not only is it possible to vation of 3,500 feet. Although the cannot support vehicles. On the travel for considerable distances

200 Journal of Canadian. Petroleum , ' over the interior __uplands,.,but. ·with readily available in this region, as Ellesmere islands, extends -along ,em, routes across the prevailing coarse-grained glacial surface de-­ both shores of Nansen Sound, and east-west trend of the structure can posits are less common than in the includes Fosheim Pepinsula. ," 'also be foUnd. Although many of eastern upland districts. Perma­ The terrain within this region is the river valleys are deeply en­ frost is also a more serious prob­ extremely complex. Gently sloping trenched, particularly those in lem where fine-grained materials coastal plains predominate in some 'western Melville Island and east­ are susceptible to ice segregation. places. Elsewhere, the surface is ern Cornwallis Island, It is poss­ Soil failure. mass movement and hilly and dissected or undulating ible to find routes of gentle grade frost heaving are all serious con-' and plateaU-like. Tilted sedUnent­ around these obstacles. struction problems in areas where ary strata outcrop as cuestas. and In winter, selected routes could ice lenses occur. volcanic sills and dikes are found be used by tractor trains utilizing throughout. It is in this region (3) Northwestern Lowlands and previously deposited gas caches. that piereement domes of gypsum Plateaus Harwood has pointed out that, for stand as prominent features sever­ distances of less than 200 miles, The third major region, one of al hundred feet above the sur­ ;;-"/.' tractor trains may prove, at least undifferentiated lowlands and pla­ rounding terram. ~ '-: in winter, to be the most econom­ teaus, includes the major islan.ds Elevations are highest in the ical way to move bulk supplies of Prince Patrick, Mackenzie King, east, with summits on Axel Hei­ Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 (1961, p. 1104). The method is not Borden, Ellef Ringnes and Amund berg and Ellesmere islands com­ new. It has been used extensively ,Ringnes, such smaller islands as monly reaching 3,000 feet. Farther in the northern Prairie rrovinces Brock, Lougheed and Cornwall, and west, elevations are much more and, although expensive, is m~ch portions of Melville, Axel Heiberg moderate. Only occasional hilltops' less so than air supply. It has not and Ellesmere islands. The region reach 1,000 feet and most summits so far been used to any extent in is located in the northwestern part are hetween 600 and 800 feet. the Arctic Islands. The use of such of the Islands. with an extension Southern Prince Patrick Island " routes would be much more diffi­ into N ansen Sound between Axel has an irregular surface of steep­ cult in summer. There is usually Heiberg and Ellesrriere islands. ;-"1'" sided hills and parallel ridges with ('~~~'<- \/,,; a lack of vegetation to provide a The coastal lowland portion of a relief of several hundred feet. cohesive agent in the soil. Over­ the region extends along the ex­ Streams draining southward from , land tr"vel might he impeded hy j treme northwestern fringe of is­ the main drainage divide are short , muddy conditions. particularly in lands from Prince Patrick Island and swift and have cut deep val­ ", residual material over shale bed­ to Meighen Island. Elevations are leys. Similar terrain occurs on­ l rock. The depth of the active lay­ Ii generally below 500 feet and the western Mackenzie, King Island. 1 er is shallow, however, and the area is underlain by unconsolidated The portions of Melville Island and ~ mud is seldom deep. A variety of and poorly consolidated Tertiary northern Grinnell Peninsula in­ J vehicles for overland and over-snow sediments. These deposits, rang­ cluded in the region, as well as all \ transportation are available or are ing in size from fine silts and clays of Cameron Island, most of Mac­ i under development for use in Arc­ to cobbles and boulders, are the kenzie King Island and southern 'J tic areas. most characteristic material of the Elle! Ringnes Island, are lOWland j Water supply will be a much region. Low-gradient sluggish areas mantled by unconsolidated more serious problem in this re­ streams flow in braided courses in materials. Braided streams in gion. Not only are fresh-water valleys containing quantities of broad valleys terminate in project­ lakes few in nwnber but those ing deltas. Low northwest-trend­ i" sand and gravel. These streams which occur are shallow. Wide. commonly occupy SUb-parallel ing escarpments control the drain­ deep rivers similar to those in channels at right angles to the age of the latter islands. There southern Canada do not occur in trend of the coasts. Although fre­ are few lakes, and the surface is the high Arctic. So far as is known, quent, they are not usually en­ an undUlating plain at an average all streams freeze completely in trenched and can be easily crossed. elevation of 200 to 300 feet, with winter. In ,summer. they may be Low interfluvial ridges are charac­ elevations increasing slightly to­ shallow. torrential and of steep teristic of the area. Coastal slopes ward the interior. Brock and Bor­ gradient. or broad and braided in are extremely gentle on these is­ den islands rise 500 feet to central shallow valleys. All flow most lands and, in winter, it is often domes. Streams in the southern strongly in the spring melt season difficult to detect the transition and southeastern portions of these and their volume decreases toward from snow-covered land to sea ice. islands are incised and flow in the end of the summer; by latr= This is particularly true on the more clearly defined channels than summer. many have ceased to flow western co'ast of Prince Patrick those on the northwest coasts. completely. On most of the Queen Island, but is evident to a lesser A belt of terrain through the Elizabeth Islands, limited supplles extent on all the islands. central portion of Elle~ Ringnes of fresh water are available all Southeast of the coastal plain is Island is a dissected plateau of sununer from the melt-water of a complex area of lowlands and flat-lying intrusive rocks which has semi-permanent banks of snow. In plateaus. The rock structures. com­ resulted in " block-like surface pat­ most places, fresh water from ter­ monly of Mesozoic age, show con­ tern with a summit elevation of >'-, restrial sources could, however, siderable variability. They range about 800 feet. Coastal cliffs are support only a small number of from almost flat-lying strata on steep, but slopes are gentle at the people. It is, of course, always eastern Prince Patrick Island to heads of bays. 'Piercemzmt domes , possible to use sea ice or salt water the intensely folded zone of the alto occur in this area. Amund : as a practicable, if expensive, Eureka Sound fold belt. A low­ 1i.ingnes and Cornwall islands are source of fresh water. land portion of this zone. which in­ similar to EIle! RingnEs but are Building materials are not so cludes parts of Axel Heiberg and consid-erably lower. Much of the -'~ :.' -- .. ,.. ' TechnologYr Winter, 1963, Calgary 201 Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021

Figure 2.-Queen Elizabeth Islands. Physiographic Regions. (Fig'ures 2 and 4 are placed opposite each other JOI" area is covered by subdued hills, sheim Peninsula of Ellesmere Is- is the greatest lil{elihood of devcl­ ridges and escarpments. land, upland areas rise to almost opment are also the areas in which The coasts of Axel Heiberg Is- 2,500 feet and intervening low- surface facilities can be constructed land included within the lowlands lands slope gently to sea level. with least difficulty. and plateaus region contain a var- Streams are broad and shallow, Within the lowlands and plateaus iety of terrain features ranging and overland travel is possible. region, the problems of construc- from low coastal plains to uplands tion and overland movement are approaching 3,500 feet in elevation. SURFACE CoNDITIONS IN THE closely related to rock type. Fer- The surface gradually becomes NORTHWESTERN LoWLANDS haps the most suitable arcas for more rugged toward the north AND PLATEAUS development are those underlain where it is dissected by fiords. The limitations imposed by ter- by the Beaufort formation, the un- In the extreme north, however, rain and the problems of overland consolidated well-drained sands and the terrain is again subdued and travel are well illustrated in this gravels that are probably of late low conical hills rise from a coastal region. The economic development Tertiary age. In this material, plain. Slopes on the east side of of the resources of the Queen Eliz- conditions for construction and for the island are gentle. Even here, abeth Islands, particularly petro- point-to-point movement are good. however, structural control of the leum, will require good facilities Slopes are generally slight, seldom topography, deeply incised rivers for surface transportation. Their exceeding 6 or 7 degrees. In many and the indented nature of the development is possible, however, areas, it is possible, in summer, for coast make land travel along the in many parts of the Islands. This aircraft on wheels to land on com­ coast extremely difficult. On Fa- is because the areas in which there pletely unprepared sites and, dul'-

202 Journal of Canadian Petroleum _:L~~z,~J _._. _ _'_' 1/'OPtIMUM' OP~N:WA;-ER: CONDITIONS' , , 'SEPTEMBER 15-2q,1962: 11 .,' IIIL.:.OPEN, W~T'ER • i" . W.A. Block,

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1, ,l j ,I ",,' 1 ~, j oontrast purposes.) Figure 4.-·Queen Elizabeth Islands, Optimum Open-Water Conditions, September, 1962. ing the past four summers, it has content, and the sandy gravel can that provides good surfaces for become an accepted procedure. be used for cement with a minimwn tracked and, possibly, wheeled ve- UsuallY, such aircraft do not ex~ of preparation. hicIes. They may also be used as ceed the size of the De Havilland aircraft landing sites. Flat stretches Otter, but it is believed that larger The Beaufort formation has a of sand on the uptilted edges of aircraft could be accommodated light-toned appearance on aerial sandstone strata around the gyp_ in the same manner. Similarly. photographs. However, small dark- sum domes on ElIef Ringnes 1s­ overland transport with tracked or. toned areas of patterned ground land, for example, could be used possibly, wheeled vehicles is feas- occasionally occur. Such areas are for this purpose without additional ible in this terrain. Only in the the surface expression of beds of preparation. Unlike the undeform­ bottoms of stream valleys, where silt which, in summer, tend to be ed Beaufort formation, the Isach­ the usual coarse-grained surface boggy. The fine-textured material sen sandstone fonnation is com- results in the formation of ice materials also include a consider- manly tilted and slopes may be able number of boulders, would lenses with resulting soil instabil- locally steep. Low-gradient routes there be difficulty. Not only does ity. can, however, be selected around the surface material of the Beau- A second major surface type in these steep areas with little trouble. fort formation provide a good Sllr- this region is that developed on Streams within the area may be face for overland movement and sandstones of the Isachsen fonna- difficult to cross for a short time for aircraft landing sites, it also tion. Found in the interior basins in spring. Surface and subsurface may provide a suitable construc- of the region, sandstone areas are drainage is good and boggy condi­ tion aggregate. It has a low silt composed of firm, gravelly sand tions do not occur. The depth of

TechnologYI Winterl 1963.. Calgary 203 /I

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n~ ,'\J.~ /.~ 'y ELLEF RINGNES ISLAND:/ j SUMMER TRAFFICABILITY ". (after D. St Ongel

VERY GOOD TO EXCELLENT GOOD I~. <.. POOR:(a) STEEP SLOPE ",. !,.,..,.. (b) MUDDY IN SUMMER

'0'· .. ' Figure 3.-Ellef Ringes Island, Summer Trafficability. the active layer in summer reaches the fanner we must include the with the overland vehicles noW in a maximum of approximately 50 gypsum domes and gabbro areas of use. The flanking talus commonly centimetres. A firm surface re­ Ellef Ringnes Island (Figure 3). attains slopes of 30 degrees, and mains throughout the snow-free The surfaces are rough and bare the surfaces of the mesas are usual­ season. rock outcrops are common, but the ly covered with thick deposits of Within the lowlands and plateaus terrain is seldom boggy. Although weathered rock debris. Cliffs and region, there are two types of ter­ the flanking slopes are steep. flat escarpments may prevent ready rain which are unsuitable for easy surfaces occur on upland mesas or access to the mesa surface. Such mobility and ready construction. ridges. Even here, however, local areas are transitional between the These are areas having either steep relief may be 700 to 900 feet. These Beaufort formation and the sand­ slopes or badly drained soils. In areas are probably untrafficable stone formations. 204 Journal of Canadian Potroloum ,<.-•.-~ ------_.-

The badly drained areas are .as­ SEA ICE AND NAVIGATION In most swnnters, the ice among I sociated with shale bedrock. Shales I the islands clears slowly from of the Deer Bay formation, in par­ Ice is the greatest single hind­ X southeast to northwest. In late' " tictfIar, have very poor traffic-bear­ rance to navigation in the Queen i ing characteristics. They weather Elizabeth Islands. For 10 months June, the first signs of approaching break-up ap~ear, in the form. of to a fine silt and, ill summer, the of the year it is impenetrable, and, north-south cracks across Barrow thaw turns the top 50 centimetres during the remaining two months, into a muddy. quagmire. although navigation is possible, vast Strait, and puddling begins on the quantities of ice persist along the surface of the ice between the is­ .. ;; It is in fine-textured materials sea routes and changes in wind and lands. By the end of June there weathered. from shale and in de­ weather bring almost daily changes is open water with scattered ice posits of marine sediments in the in ice concentration. Supply ships east of Devon Island. At this time, coastal lowlands that the trouble­ move only when escorted by ice­ the northern portion of Lancaster some phenomenon of ground ice breakers. Sound and Barrow Strait is open, segregation is particularly well scattered ice remains in t~e south developed. Soils in these areas are Three main zones of ice concen­ and open water appears in Welling­ noticeably unstable, and tabular tration occur. In the extreme ton Channel. During the first part northwest, in the channels and ba­ of August, leads form near the masses' of white ice close to the Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 surface are often exposed by soli­ sins extending from Prince Patrick southeastern corner of Melville Is­ fluction. Construction on such ma­ Island to Axel Heiberg Island, the land and there are' signs of break­ terial is extremely difficult and, in ice is composed largely of polar up in Penny Strait and in Queens . ,~. summer, aircraft on wheels must pack, thick, massive ice more than Channel. Leads form in Norwegian be careful to avoid these areas. one year old and characteristic of - Bay and cracks appear in Nansen /1" . Well-developed ice wedge polygons the surface of the centra~ Arctic Sound. By mid-August, Viscount are also commonly associated with Basin. Although leads and areas Melville Sound is open and ice in these muck soils. The presence of of open water form in summer, the central part of the Islands such polygons in association with this ice seldom opens sufficiently to shows signs of loosening. At . the ....,.- a dark-toned surface appearance. permit navigation. In the channels end of August, areas of open water as seen either on the air photo­ between the southeastern islands, have formed south of MacKenzie graphs or in an aerial view of the and in Barrow Strait and Lancas­ King Island, north of Emerald Is­ terrain, is a diagnostic feature of ter and Viscount Melville sounds. land, in Kellett Strait and south of '-;.-. poorly drained and boggy summer year-old winter ice breaks up to Prince Patrick Island. At this time, conditions. permit ship movement in the sum­ Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait mer. Between these two areas, in and Viscount Melville Sound usual­ Figure 3, which shows the sum­ the passages and basins extending ly offer no obstructions to ships. mer traffic-bearing characteristics from eastern Melvllle Island to Finally, by mid-September, when of _Ellef Ringnes Island, is an ex­ Norwegian Bay and Eureka Sound, navigation conditions are at their ample of the type of map which the ice cover is' composed of a mix­ best, the ice has loosened around could be prepared for other areas ture of winter ice and polar basin. Ellef Ringnes Island and Amund in the Queen Elizabeth Islands. ice. Floes of polar ice drift into Ringnes Island and along the west this intermediate area from the coast of Axel Heiberg Island. In In the lowlands and plateaus re­ northwest during the summer, and the central parts of the Islands, gion, a water supply for small those which survive are frozen into much open water is in evidence. It groups of men may not be a prob­ the new ice during autumn freeze­ is at this period, however, that lem. Although lakes are scattered, up. loosened pieces of the polar pack most of the streams provide some drift among the islands and be­ Within the past 10 years the I water during the summer and there J come a hazard to shipping. Figure aerial ice observing and reconnais­ , is always a snow supply in winter. 4 shows the distribution of open A,' .',;, 1 sance work of both the United \ For larger nwnbers of men, how­ water in the Queen Elizabeth Is­ ever, and where quantities of water states and Canadian governments lands in mid-September, 1962, usual­ are required for particular pur­ has increased our knowledge of ice ly the best period for navigation. poses, the available water supply conditions in the Islands. In the Particularly good conditions occur­ may be insufficient. In shale and past five years, particularly, the red in 1962. silt areas, surface water may con­ Canadian Department of Transport I tain quantities of suspended min­ has been making regular ice-obser­ Until now, navigation within the 1 eraI materi3.1 which may have ·to vation flights in the navigable Islands has been largely restricted J be removed to make it potable. On areas. The observations are map­ to the sea route via Jones Sound, the larger streams dams can be ped, and weekly charts are avail­ Hell Gate, Norwegian Bay and l constructed and the swnmer water able for the use of ships in the Eureka Sound to the Joint Arctic ~ supply augmented in this way. In area. In addition. pre-season fore­ Weather Station at Eureka. Each " winter, the problems are severe. casts of the expected ice conditions summer, with the exception of Fresh-water ice may be insufficient in each area are now available. 1955, this station has been res.up­ to meet requirements, and melting The Geographical Branch of the plied by ice-breaker. Occasionally, snow in quantity is not a practic­ Department of Mines and Technical attempts have been made to ex­ able scheme. Sea ice can be con­ Surveys, in association with the plore other channels, particularly verted to fresh water, but only at Polar Continental Shelf Project those in the vicinity of Norwegian considerable expense. Also, trans­ during the past several years, has Bay and those leading north from been carrying out ice observations port problems may be serious at Barrow Strait. Extensions of SIUn­ in the more remote and less fre­ mer sea routes may be possible in locations in the interior of the Is­ quented areas of the northwestern lands. future, using surface vessels. It islands. seems Wllikely, however, that a TechnofogYI Winter, 1963, Calgary 205 major extension of marine opera­ mocked ice commonly occurs along Canada, Geological Survey: "Geol­ tions will become possible until sub­ the shores of islands, in constricted ogy and economic minerals of Canada," Edited by C. H. Stock­ marine freighter and tanker ves­ passages between islands and wher­ well, Economic Geology Series sels are economically feasible. It ever currents or winds are signifi­ No.1, Department of Mines and is reported that Japan is likely to cant. Areas of smooth ice are, Technical Surveys, Ottawa, 1957. have a prototype of such a vessel however, frequent on lee coasts, Harwood, T. A., "Modern methods by the time crude oil production usually the eastern coasts, and of exploration in the Canadian facilities are in operation in the within protected basins beyond the Arctic Islands with special re­ sped to logistic problems." In: Arctic (S. D. Moore, Regina Leader­ influence of winds and currents. Volume 2, Geology of the A1"Ctir., Post, December 11, 1962, p. 18). Possibly the greatest difficulty in Proceedings of the first interna­ using sea ice as a travel surface tional symposium on Arctic geol­ There are no developed harbours would be found in moving equip­ ogy. Edited by G. O. Raasch. in the Queen Charlotte Islands and University of Toronto Press, pp. ment from land to ice across the 1102-1111, 1961. no wharf facilities. What the fu­ ice foot, where tidal action has Legget. R. F., "Potentialities of the ture will bring remains to be seen. badly disrupted the ice. lt seems possible that a number of Northwest; an engineering as­ sessment." National Research recent developments could be used CONCLUSIONS Council of Canada, Division of to extend the navigation season and Building Research; Technical Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/JCPT/article-pdf/2/04/198/2165474/petsoc-63-04-08.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 to improve wharfing conditions in Extreme temperature conditions PaY'61' No. 65, 1959. the harbours. It has been shown in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, re­ Marlcharn, W. E., "Summer break­ at Thule, Greenland, by the U.S. :flected in high wind chill values, up pattern in the Canadian Arc­ tic." Canada, Department of Navy, that the date of freeze-up restrict outdoor work in winter. Transport, Meteorological Branch; can be appreciably delayed by the During the rest of the year, condi­ Technical Circular 3586, 1962. Swedish technique of bubbling com­ tions are no worse than those ex­ Monteith, H. D., "Problems of con­ pressed air through water at freez­ perienced in more southern loca­ struction in the far north." En~ ing temperatures at a wharf. The tions in Canada. Terrain condi­ gineering Journal, Vol. 38, No.6, first controlled experiment in the tions are least favourable for de­ pp. 784-787, 1955. use of a layer of dust on ice to velopment in the high-relief areas Pressman, A. E., R. L. Stitt, J. Ii. advance the date of break-up was of the eastern uplands. Conditions Montanari, and R. R. Blesch, "TE!rrain analysis of icc-free land carried out by the Geographical become more suitable in the cen­ sites in Arctic Canada." Report Branch in the Queen Elizabeth Is­ tral and northwestern portions of No. 0047-30, produced by Aero lands (Arnold, 1961). The Division the Islands, where the loWlands Systems Engineering, a division of Building Research, National Re­ and plateaus offer terrain on which of Aero Service Corporation, Philadelphia, for Geophysics Re­ search Council of Canada, is pres­ overland movement and construc­ search Directorate, Air Force ently continuing investigations on a tion are possible. Sea travel with­ Cambridge Research Laboratories, related study. A similar technique in the Islands, now restricted to a Air Research and Development was used as early as 1928 when coal few well-known routes, will not be Command, U.S. Air Force. AFCRL-206, 1961. dust, sprinkled on the ice in Wake­ substantially increased until SUb­ Taylor, A. "Physical geography of ham Bay, Quebec, was used by the marine freighters are in use. Mod­ J the Queen Elizabeth Islands." Canadian Hudson Strait Expedition ern techniques now extend the pe­ American Geographical Society, to advance the melting of ice in riod in summer when northern New York; 12 vols., mimeo., 1956. the fiord. Both these techniques harbours can be kept in operation. Thomas, M. K., "A survey of tem­ may be valuable in extending the peratures in the Canadian Arc· period of operations in northern tic." In: Volume 2, Geology of harbours. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS the Arctic, Proceedings of the first international symposium on Although hydrographic charts The comprehensive study by Arctic geology. Edited by G. O. are still woefully inadequate, the Taylor (1956) on the physical geo­ Raasch. University of Toronto Press, pp. 942-955, 1961. Federal Government is moving graphy of the Queen Elizabeth Is­ rapidly to fill the blanks in the cov­ lands was of great help in the pre­ Thornos, M. 11..., and D. W. Boyd, "Wind chill in Northern Canada." erage. Hydrographers of the Po­ paration of this manuscript. I Canadian GeographerJ No. 10, pp. lar Continental Shelf Project have would also like to thank my asso­ 29-39, 1957. been working for the past several ciates in the Geographical Branch Usher, J. L., "Operational problems field seasons in plotting water for their assistance. In particular, in the Arctic Islands," Jountal of depths throughout the northwest­ I wish to express my alJpreciation Canadian Petrolenrn Technology, ern part of the Islands. Unclassi­ to D. St-Onge, W. A. Black, R. B. Vol. 1, No.1, Spring, 1962, pp. 35-46. Sagar and W. E. S. Henoeh, who fied charts are slowly becoming Wilson, H. P., and W. E. Marlchmn, available for this and other areas. have all contributed from their "Terminal weather conditions at A possibility, which as far as I personal }{nowledge of the Queen Eureka, Isachsen, Mould Bay and know has not yet been examined, Elizabeth Islands. Resolute." Canada, Dept. of Transport, Meteorological Branch, is the feasibility of using tractors Edmonton; Technical Circular and freight sleds as a means of REFERENCES No. 90, 1951. moving bulk supplies over sea ice. Wilson, H. P., and W. E'. Mm·lcharn, The problem of using ice as a tra­ At'nold, K. C., "An investigation "A study of Arctic surface winds." vel route apparently does not lie in into methods of accelerating the Canada, Department of Trans­ melting of ice and snow by arti­ the bearing strength of the ice. port, Meteorological Branch; ficial dusting." In: Volume 2, Technical Circular 2923, 1957. With reasonable care, safe routes Geology of the Arctic, Proceed­ could be selected with little trOUble. ings of the first international Woods, K. B., and R. F. Legget, "Transportation and economic po­ The difficulty is largely one of find­ symposium on Arctic geology. Edited by G. O. Raasch, Univer­ tential in the Arctic." Traffic ing paths of smooth ice suitable sity of Toronto Press, pp. 989­ Quarterl,y, pp. 435-458, October, for use by tractors. Badly hum- 1013, 1961. 1960. 206 Journal of Canadian Petroleum