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The Use of Standardized Test Scores: an Historical Perspective

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The Use of Standardized Test Scores: an Historical Perspective THE USE OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by KARLA LAIRSEY SWAFFORD (Under the Direction of William Wraga) ABSTRACT The field of educational tests and measurements is a broad one, complete with a variety of perspectives about how educators should approach assessment of student ability and learning. The standardized testing movement is used by politicians and policymakers to hold schools accountable. Each decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first century have seemingly brought a different argument as to what the shortcomings of American schools are and what to do to solve that problem. However, there has been one constant denominator: assessing students’ learning through a standardized test. Recently legislation in the United States, including the national No Child Left Behind Act and Georgia’s A+ Reform Act, has begun to dictate that students, teachers, administrators, and schools as a whole be judged on the basis of a single test score. This study uses historical research methods to explore the history of standardized testing in the United States and what lead test developers have held to be the appropriate and inappropriate uses of test scores. Additionally, this study provides background on seven standardized tests and their appropriate uses. The seven assessments include the California Achievement Test, the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, the Metropolitan Achievement Test, the National Assessment for Educational Progress, the Scholastic Aptitude Test, and the Stanford Achievement Test. The study finds that test scores are properly used for determining student achievement and the effectiveness of an educational program as long as the scores are used along with other pieces of information, such as teacher observations and performance assessment data, to make high-stakes decisions about students. To use a single score to make important decisions such as student promotion, retention, and graduation or about the quality of schools is deemed an inappropriate use by testing experts and test publishers. These findings are in direct opposition to the current policy such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 that requires that schools and students be judged based on one single test score. Such public policy and legislation should be reviewed for their suitability in school reform efforts. INDEX WORDS: Educational Measurement; Educational Assessment; California Achievement Test; Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills; Stanford Achievement Test; Iowa Test of Basic Skills; Metropolitan Achievement Test; Scholastic Aptitude Test; National Assessment of Educational Progress; No Child Left Behind THE USE OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by KARLA LAIRSEY SWAFFORD Bachelor of Arts, Georgia State University, 1993 Master of Arts, University of Georgia, 1999 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION ATHENS, GEORGIA 2007 © 2007 Karla Lairsey Swafford All Rights Reserved THE USE OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by KARLA LAIRSEY SWAFFORD Major Professor: Dr. William Wraga Committee: Dr. Catherine Sielke Dr. John Dayton Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December, 2007 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my family and to God. My family has been unfailing in their support of me, and they have never wavered in their certainty that I could do this. My husband, Roger; my son, Jackson; and my parents, Ralph and Nadean, were a source of constant encouragement to me. God has blessed my life far beyond what I deserve, and He has given me the opportunities and the ability to accomplish much. For this, I am unspeakably grateful. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge my major professor, Dr. William Wraga. He has been a wonderful mentor, never pushing me more than I needed but always there to nudge me along. His influence over my academic career is great, and I am deeply grateful for his support. He has regarded me not only as a doctoral student but also as a woman with a family who always took priority in my life and as a fellow educator with responsibilities that often pulled me away from my research. However, he continually encouraged me and was always ready with a supportive word to keep me plodding along. I would also like to recognize Dr. John Dayton and Dr. Catherine Sielke for serving on my committee and for their contributions to my work. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the following individuals from the testing companies and agencies who were invaluable in my gathering of the research represented by this work. Educational Testing Services—Andres Pollack—Andres spent countless hours pulling from the ETS Archives for me. His assistance was invaluable to me. The College Board—Wayne Camara Riverside Publishing—Hala Istanbouli National Center for Educational Statistics—Arnold Goldstein v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 STANDARDIZED TESTING.......................................................................................1 Background of the Problem.......................................................................................1 Significance of the Study ..........................................................................................3 Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................9 Scope of the Study...................................................................................................10 Research Questions .................................................................................................10 Methodology ...........................................................................................................11 Assumptions ............................................................................................................16 Limitations of the Study..........................................................................................17 Definitions of Terms ...............................................................................................17 Organization of the Report......................................................................................19 2 THE ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF STANDARDIZED TESTING IN THE UNITED STATES ..……………………………………………………………… 21 Civil Service Exams ................................................................................................21 Studies of Individual Differences in Europe and America......................................23 The New Phenomenon ............................................................................................30 The Business of Standardized Testing ....................................................................43 vi The Accountability Movement................................................................................48 Summary .................................................................................................................50 3 SEVEN STANDARDIZED TESTS............................................................................51 The Stanford Achievement Test..............................................................................51 The Scholastic Aptitude Test ..................................................................................53 The Iowa Test of Basic Skills..................................................................................57 The Metropolitan Achievement Test.......................................................................63 The California Achievement Test ...........................................................................64 The Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills ................................................................66 The National Assessment for Educational Progress................................................66 Summary .................................................................................................................72 4 THE APPROPRIATE AND INAPPROPRIATE USES OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: SCHOLARS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT.......................73 Summary .................................................................................................................92 5 THE APPROPRIATE AND INAPPROPRIATE USES OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: TEST PUBLISHERS ............................................................................94 The Stanford Achievement Test..............................................................................94 The Scholastic Aptitude Test ................................................................................100 The Iowa Test of Basic Skills................................................................................103 The Metropolitan Achievement Test.....................................................................108 The California Achievement Test .........................................................................110 The Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills ..............................................................115 The National Assessment for Educational Progress..............................................116 vii Summary ...............................................................................................................117 6 IMPLICATIONS
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