Paralleled by the Expansion of Its Media. Almost 70 Per Cent

DOCUMENT RESUME I ED 031 079 EM 006 191 Mass Media in the Developing Countries; A Unesco Report to the United Nations. Reports and Paperson Mass Communication, Number 33. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris (France). Pub Date 61 Note-47p, Available from-Mass Communication Ckaring House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e, France, also, Unesco Pubhcations Center, P.O. Box 433, 317 E. 34th St., New York, N. Y. 10016 ($.50) EDRS Price ME -$0.25 HC-$2.45 Descriptors-*DevelopingNations, *Economic Development, Educational Needs, Films, *In'oormation Dissemination,Information Needs,InformationServices, *Mass Media,Publications,Radio,*Technical Assistance, Television, World Problems Identfiers-UNESCO Paris There is statistical evidence to show that theexpansion of a nation's economy is paralleled by the expansion of itsmedia. Almost 70 per cent of the world's population, spread over 100 countries, does not have basicmass information facilities. These areas are always underdeveloped and lack facilitiesfor formal education. It is a principle of the United Nations that freedom of informationis a basic human right, and that is the reason for this report. It describes past efforts, both by special agencies and by United Nations organs, to develop information media, and sketches the problems of deveoping information mediain society, focusing on the problems as they exist in South East Asia, Latin America, Africa, the Middle Eact, and other areas. It offers recommendations, first in general terms, and then accordingto media: news agencies, press, radio, film, and television. The report concludes witha discussion about financing a development program. Referencesare provided. (Author/GO) ' 1- , $ A%, tv,fro.

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4, 4re11+f Ae CA^ 4S'4 , . I% .1/4 r This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Clearing House of the Department of Mass Communication of Unesco. Unless otherwise stated, the reports may be reproduced in full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports and papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publications or from the Mass Communication Clearing House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris- 7e. L

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

No. 1Films and Filmstrips about the work o/ the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, May 1952 (out of print). No.2 World Film Directory - Agencies concerned with Edu7ational, Scientific and Cultural Film - Section A :Africa; Section B: America (North, Central and South); Section C: Asia and Oceania ; Section D: Europe and Section E : International, July 1952 / September 1953'(free on request). No.3 Films and Filmstrips about Education. August 1952 (out of print). No.4 Unesco Publications on Mass Communication - An Annotated Bibliography. October 1952 (out of print) with Supplement 1954 (out of print). No.5 Television - An Experiment in Community Reception in French villages. August 1952 (outof print). No.6 Kerosene Filmstrips and Slide Projectors. November 1952 (free on request) (out of print). No.7 The Daily Press - A Survey of the World Situation in 1952. December 1953 ($0.40;2/-(Stg.); 1,00 NF)(out of print). No.8 Education lor Journalism - 1953. January 1954 (*0.40; 2/-(Stg.); 1,00 NF) (out of print). No.9 Bibliography on Filmology as Related to the Social Sciences. February 1954 (*0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF)(out of print). No. 10 Newsprint Trends 1928-1951. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF) (out of print). No. 11 Paper lor Printing (other than N ewsprin t) and Writing - 1929-1951 Trends. March 1954 ($0.40;2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 12 Paper lor Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September1954 ($0.50 ; 3/- (Stg.); 1,50 NF), No. 14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rwal Communities. July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 0,50 NF). No. 17 International Rules lor the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films andFilmstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 (*0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 18 A Manual for Evaluators ol Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 (*0.40;2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 19 List of Films Recommended lor Children and Adolescents up to 16 years FollowingSelections made in 22 Countries. June 1956 (out of print). No. 20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print). No. 21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography ol Books and Articles on MassCommunication published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 (SI ; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 NF). No. 22 Periodicals for New Literates: Editorial Methods. June 1957 (*0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.);1,50 NF). No. 23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences, December 1956 ($0.40;2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No. 24 Periodicals lor New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1;5/- (Stg.); 3,00 NF). No. 25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF). No. 26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF). No. 27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development. 1959 (*0.75;3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF). No. 28 Film Programmes lor the Young. 1959 (*0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF) (out of print). No. 29 Film-making on a Low Budget. 1960 ($0.50; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 NF). t,o. 30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 NF). No. 31 The Influence of the Cinema on Children and Adolescants.4nAnnotated InternationalBibliography. 1961 (*1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 NF). No. 32 Film and Television in the Service of Opera andBallet and of Museums. 1961 ($1.00; 5/-(Stg.); 3,50 NF).

MC. 61. XVII. 33. A

Printed in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e ©UNESCO 1961 U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, EDUCATION &WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION Massmedia THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLYAS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OROPINIONS i .;TATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICEOf EDUCATION in the POSITION OR POLICY. developing countries A Unesco report to theUnited Nations

unesco FOREWORD

The United Nations has been concerned since its inception with assisting the less developed countries to develop their press, radio broadcasting, film and television. In order to explore the possibilities ofan expanded programme in this field, the Economic and Social Council in the spring of 1959 requested Unesco to carry out a world survey with suggestions as to the action that might be taken. Unesco has been conducting the survey bymeans of a series of meetings in the regions concerned, bringing together experts in the information mediaas well as representatives of governments and of international organizations. Each meeting was to draw up for its regiona concrete programme for development of the information media. The first meeting, for South East Asia, was held at Bangkok in January 1960; the report of that meeting was published as No. 30 of the present series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication. The second meeting, for Latin America, was convened at Santiago, Chile, in February 1961 ; its report has been published as a separate Unesco document (MC/ 41).The third meeting, for Africa, is to be held at Addis Ababa early in 1962. Unesco was requested by the United Nations to submita first report, prior even to the completion of the series of meetings. In submitting the report, the Director-General of Unesco observed that its preparation had been guided by two premises : "The first is that a prerequisite to freedom of information is the existence of adequatemass communication facilities. Nearly70 per cent of the total population of the world, living'in more than 100 countries, at present lack these facilities to a degree that denies them full enjoyment of this basic human right. The second premise is that development of the information media forms part of economic developmentas a whole and therefore may be assisted by resources drawn from technical assistance programmes. Such assistance in the mass communication field is of growing importance at a time when the underdeveloped countries are seeking to attain in a matter of years a level of advancement which it has taken the developed countries centuries to achieve." The Unesco report was considered by the Commissionon Human Rights in February-March 1961 and by the Economic and Social Council in April 1961. On the recommendation of the Commission, the Council adopted a resolution, the full text of which is given on the followiag page. The report suggests action which could be carried ,.)1.,t,-;.9t only within the United Nations, but also by governments and mass media organizations and enterprises. it is hoped that the present publication will help to stimulate such action as part of a broad effort to develop the information media in less developed countries. RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (APRIL 1961)

The Economic and Social Council, (d) The establishment of national training programmes for professional and technical per- Recalling General Assembly resolution 1313 sonnel and research in the use of information (XIII) of 12 December 1958 and Part I of resolution media; 718 (XXVII) of 24 April 1959 which requested the (e) The consideration of their present and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural future needs for information media in planning Organization to forward its report and recommen- their communication and transport services; dations to the Commission on Human Rights and (f)The examination of the possibility of con- th;_=. Economic and Social Council, cluding bilateral and multilateral agreements and 1. Expresses its appreciation to the Director- of the desirability of adopting fiscal, tariff and General of the United Nations Educational, Scien- other measures designed to facilitate the develop- tific and Cultural Organization for the report and ment of national information media and the free recommendations concerning the development of flow of accurate and undistorted information within information media in underdeveloped countries;(1) and between countries in the light of the overall 2. Commends the United Nations Educational, financial and material resources; Scientific and Cultural Organization for the work (g) The establishment or extension of national it is doing in furthering the development of informa- professional associations as essential elements in tion media in less developed countries, and in their mass media programmes; particular commends it for stressing the importance 5.Recommends that the governments of the of the part played in education and in economic and more developed countries co-operate with less social progress generally by the development of developed countries with a view to meeting the informatior media; urgent needs of the less developed countries in the 3. Requests the United Nations Educational, development of independent national information Scientific and Cultural Organization to continue media, with due regard for the culture of each actively to further this programme, in consultation country; with the United Nations and other Specialized 6.Invites the Technical Assistance Board, Agencies concerned; the Special Fund, the Specialized Agencies con- 4.Draws the attention of Member States to the cerned, the regional economic commissions and possibilities of action and international co-operation other public and private agencies and institutions in promoting the development of national informa- to assist, as appropriate, the,less developed coun- tion media in the less developed countries, such as tries in developing and strengthening their national those dealt with in the report and recommendations information media; prepared by the United Nations Educational, Scien- 7.Requests the United Nations Educational, tific and Cultural Organization on the establishment Scientific and Cultural Organization to prepare, in and expansion of national news agencies, news- consultation with the United Nations and other papers and periodicals, radio broadcasting, film Specialized Agencies concerned, a further report and television in the less developed countries by: containing specific recommendations to the Com- (a) Programmes for the development of their mission on Human Rights on additional concrete national information media as part of their planning measures that might be undertaken through interna- for economic and social development; tional co-operation to meet difficulties with which (b) The establishment of national committees less developed countries are confronted, taking into to assist in formulating and carrying out pro- account the results of the regional meeting held in grammes for the development of information media; Santiago in February 1961 and the one to be held in (c) The inclusion of appropriate mass com- Addis Ababa in 1962 (resolution 819A (XXXI)). munication development projects in their technical assistance programmes and in bilateral and multilateral aid irogrammes for economic and social developmem , (1) E/3437 and Add.l. TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE PAST EFFOR1 10 DEVELOP THE INFORMATION MEDIA Initial Efforts 7 Action by United Nations Organe 7-8 Request for Development Programme 8-9 Regional Approach Suggested 9-10 General Assembly Decision 10 Aid for The Information Media 10-14

CHAPTER TWO PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPING THE INFORMATION MEDIA The Media in Society 15-18 Problems, by Regions South East Asia 18-24 Latin America 24-28 Africa 28-31 Middle East 31-33 Other Areas 33-34

CHAPTER THREE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions 35-37 General Recommendations 37-39 Recommendations, by Media 39-40 News Agencies 40 Newspapers and Periodicals 40-41 Radio Droadcasting 41-42 Film 42 Television 42-43 Financing a Development Programme 43-44

REFERENCES 45 CHAPTER ONE*

PAST EFFOW ro DEVELOP THE INFORMATION MEDIA

INITIAL EFFORTS ACTION BY UNITED NATIONS ORGANS , International effort to assist development of the During the war, th a news agency, press, radio information media began some 40 years ago, when broadcasting and tilm enterprises of many professional organizations of the press took up the countries in Asia, Europe and Africa suffered issue.Their efforts had been prompted by the heavy losses of equipment and personnel. The rapid expansion of internatioral reportage and of reconstruction of facilities in these areas became telecommunication t chniques during the First an urgent concern of theUnited Nations and its In December World War. , competent Specialized Agencies. In 1921 the Press Congress of the World, an 1946 Unesco, by decision of its GeneralConfer- international organization of newspaper editors ence, launched a survey ofthe needs of the and publishers founded in San Francisco in 1915, information media in the war-devastated met at Honolulu and urged the reduction of rates countries(1).The following year, by General and the extension of facilities for the transmis- Conference decision, the survey was broadened sion of news by cable and radio.Meeting at to include countries in Asia and LatinAmerica Geneva in 1926, the Press Congress recorded which were handicapped by inadequatefacIlities(2). that it had succeeded in securing the exchange of Subsequently, the survey was expanded to cover news at low rates by radio-telegraphbetween the the rest of the world and served as a basisfor United States of America and East Asia.The certain concrete measures to assist Member Congress urged the convening of an international States in developing their information media. conference to study the problems of news trans- These measures are described in the concluding mission.Turning to problems of professional section of this chapter.The information training,, it recommended an increase in the num- gathered in the course of this survey was pub- ber of schools of journalism, the improvement of lished by Unesco in the form of a series of re- their standards and a wider international exchange ports entitled Press, Film, Radio(Volumes I-V). of journalists and technicians.In the, same year The 'United Nations Conference on Freedom the first Pan-American Congress of Journalists, of Information, convened at Geneva in 1948 and convened by the Pan-American Union at attended 1>y, representatives of 54 governments and Washington, D.C., dealt, int !r. alia, with the observers from eight international organizations, establishment of schools of journalism in Latin had meanwhile considered possible means of America and the abolition of import duties on remedying deficiencies in mas"s communication newsprint. facilities throughout the world.The Conference In 1927 the League of Nations took the first noted that Unesco had already begun to help action on a broad intergovernmental level in this countries handicapped by an insufficiency of in- field _when it convened at Geneva a IT aeting of formation media and urged that all assistance be representatives of news agencies, newspapers, given to the Organization in carrying out itstask(3). international organizations of journalists and In addition, the Conference recommended government press services.The purpose of the measures to encourage the development of national meeting was to seek ways of assuring the cheaper news agencies, increase the availability of low- and more rapid transmission of news with a view cost radio receivers and stimulate the production to reducing risks of international misunderstand- and improve the distribution ofnewsprint(4). ing.Subjects considered by the meeting included These resolutions were noted in 1949 by the the lowering of press rates, the improvement of United Nations Sub-Commission on Freedom of communication and the trnining oi journalists. Information and of the Press, established by the Subsequent meetings of press experts convened by Commission on Human Rights.The Sub - the League in 1932 and 1933 dealt largely with Commission recommended that, in considering measures to prevent the diffusion offalse and in- the economic development of underdeveloped accurate news.These issues likewise engaged the attention of professional organizations, such as tne InternationalFederation of Journalists and * The formal sections of this report have been the International Federation of Associations of abridged for purposes of the present publication. Newspaper Managers and Publishers, in the years (1)References to conference resolutions and preceding the Second World War. sources of information are listed on page 45.

7 countries, the Economic and Social Council the production of pulp and paper, particularly in should pay special attention to the development of the underdeveloped countries. domestic information agencies.The Council Meanwhile the Sub-Commission on Fr 2edom took note of the Sub-Commission's recommenda- of Information and of the Press had re-ex; mined tion in the same year and referred it to the Techni- the general problem of development of the informa- cal Assistance Committee of the Council (TAC) tion media.Early in 1952 the Sub-Commission for consideration(5).In 1950 the TAC discussed recommended that the Economic and Social the Council's resolution and decided that govern- Council request Unesco to continue its studies and mental requests for technical assistance fe i. the pursue its work on technical assistance for the development of information agencies would bc con- devplopment of independent domestic information sidered in the normal manner by the TeOnical agencies.The Sub-Commission also suggested Assistance Board, which would then report to ihe that the Secretary-General, in conjunction with TAC. the Technical Assistance Committee of the Within a few months a mounting shortage of Council and Unesco, report on the question as a newsprint throughout the world stimulated con- whole to the Council.On the basis of this recom- certed action by a number of United Nations mendation, the Council in mid-1952 invited the Organizations.With the rehabilitation of the Secretary-General, in conjunction with Unesco, press in devastated areas, the spread of literacy to study way3 and means of encouraging and de- and the expansion of the press in many of the veloping independent domestic information underdeveloped countries, the demand for newsagencies and to report to the Council in 1953(10). print had rapidly increased in the post-war years. However, production of this vital commodity was largely concentrated in a relatively few technically REQUEST FOR DEVELOPMENT PROGaAMME advanced countries, with the underdeveloped countries relying almost wholly on imports for The General Assembly, at its seventh session late their supplies. in 1952, also discussed the problem and elaborated When the post-war shortage became acute in upon the above-mentioned resolution of the Council. mid-1951, the General Conference of Unesco urged In a resolution on information facilities in under- Member States to examine the question and invited developed regions of the world, the General the Economic and Social Council to mobilize the Assembly invited the Council to consider the resources of the United Nations and the competent desirability of expanding the area of its study and Specialized Agencies in a joint co-operative effort requested the Sec,.etary-General in preparing the to solve the problem(6).Particular attention was report requester:, by the Council, to elaborate "a drawn to the importance of research in the use of programme of concrete action".The General substitute raw materials for newsprint, of the in- Assembly cited various possible measures in this creased production of wood pulp and of related field and invited the Council to recommend to the economic and financial questions.In response to organizations participating in technical assistance this appeal, the Council in September 1951, called and other aid programmes that they give sympa- for concerted action by producers, consumers, thetic consideration to requests from governments government and United Nationsagencies(7). for aQsistance in improving information The Conference of the Food and Agriculture facilities% *Li ). Oz ganization, at its sixth session in December In response to the requests of the Council and 1951, unanimously recognized the gravity of the the Assembly, the Secretary-General, in conjunc- crisis and urged chat the production of pulp and tion with Unesco, prepared a report on the paper be increased.The FAO also decided to Encouragement and Development of Independent send expert missions under the Expanded Pro- Domestic Information Enterprises. This report gramme of Technical Assistance, at the request dealt with the main problems of developing news of Member States, to help prepare concrete plans agencies, the press, radio broadcasting and film of action.The United Natio: Is General Assembly and concluded with what the Secretary-General in January 1952 noted with satista;.tion the action described as "elements on the basiA of which a taken by Unesco, by the Council and by theFA0(8). programme might be formulated by the Council it- In mid-1952 the Economic and Social Council self".The Secretary-General's suggestions dealt observed that the short-term situation concerning with such matters as the reduction of tariffs on newsprint production and distribution had improved essential materials, the lowering of press rates, to the extent that immediate international action p. ofessional training, the production and thstribu- was notnecessary(0).Nevertheless, the Council tion of newsprint and regional P'..,liabor ation in the requested the Secretary-General of the United development of the information media. Nations, together with FAO, Unesco ard the Inter- The Secretary-General's report was con- national Bank, to continue their efforts over a sidered by the Economic and Social Council in long-term period.Accordingly the FAO, as de- 1954.The Council also considered the report of scribed in the concluding section of this chapter, its Rapporteur on Freedom of Information, urdertook a programme of action, in co-operation Mr. Salvador P. Lopez, who had reviewed certain with other United Nations agencies, to stimulate aspects of the development of information media in his survey entitled Freedom of Information, with Unesco, to prepare an analysis of information 1953. and recommendations received and to present on The Council drew the attention of governments the basis of this analysis "elements necessary for to the suggestions for action presented in the the formulation by the Council of a programme of Secretary-GeneraPs report,- invited governments concrete action and measures on the international of underdeveloped countries to study the possi- plane which could be undertaken for the develop- bility of encouraging the development of existing, ment cf information enterprises of underdeveloped and the establishment of new or additional informa- countries, with an evaluation of the material, tion media.The Council also drew the attention financial and professional requirements and re- of these governments to the possibility of seeking sources for the implementation of this programme". technical assistance tor such purposes from the United Nations, the Specialized Agencies and other intergoverninental organizations.It further re- REGIONAL APPROACH SUGGESTED commended that Unesco intensify its activities to encourage the development of information media(12). In a report to the Council early in 1957 on Media At the same time the Council urged increased of Information in Underdeveloped Countries, the action, under the technical assistance and other Secretary-General stated that he did not believe programmes, to promote the training of informa- it was possible, on the basis of replies received tion personnel, "in view of the importance of ade- from governments, to present a useful statement quate information as a factor of economic develop- on the elements that would be necessary for the ment"(13).In addition, the Council rPcommended formulation of the programme envisaged by the to the Specialized Agencies and the Technical Council.However, he observed that since Assistance Administration that they give due con- countries in a number of main regions have com- sideration, under their Regular programmes and mon problems aryl common needs, the inquiry under the Expanded Technical Assistance pro- might be effectively pursued by means of a series gramme, to governmental requests for aic w'oich c_ regional meetings of experts in the mass media would be useful in promoting freedom of informa- and of representatives of the underdeveloped tion(14).The Council also decided that, subject countries.Representatives of underdeveloped to the approval of the General Assembly, the countries might be able to present a detailed Secretary-General should be authorized to render, picture of their sp;!cial problems and needs;the at the request of Member States, services which experts would be in a position to offer advice on did not fall within the scope and objectives of how to meet such needs."Jointly, experts and existing technical assistance programmes, in government representatives might be expected to order to assist these States in promoting freedom draw up in a practicable and scientific manner" of information.This recommendation was ap- the programme desired. proved by the General Assembly in the same yea,, After considering the Secretary-General's 1954(15). report in April 1957, the Council requested Mem- In the meantime Unesco had been giving a ber States which had not already done so to trans- certain amount of aid to Member States to assist mit to the Secretary-General the information re- them in building up their information media.It quested of them(19). The Council a.ho invited was not until 1954, however, that this activity was the Secretary-General to complete and submit to formalized by a decision of the General Conference the Council, not later than at its twenty-seventh of Unesco to provide aid to Member States, at session early in 1959, the analysis of elements their request, for the development of their mass needed for the formulation of a programme, tak-

communication services(16). . ing into account any recommendations which the In 1955 the Economic and Social Cour-Al, not- Commission on Human Rights might :nake as a ing the General Assembly's resolution re .erred to result of its consideration of the problem of above, requested the Secretary-General to take information media in underdeveloped countries. steps, in collaboration with Unesco, ,to put into The Commission Oil Human Rights had mean- operation a programme to promote freedom of while established a Committee on Freedom of information by providing such services as experts, Information which was required, inter alia, to fellowships and serninars(17).In addition, the report to the Commission on action that should be Ccuncil decided that a further study on the develop- taken to develop the information media and improve ment of media of information would be highly desir- their utilization(20).Later in 1957 the General able.It accordingly requested governments to Assembly requested the Economic and Social

transmit to the Secretary-Generaf information on . Council to invite the Commission, when examin- tmedia of information existing in their territories, ing the report of its Committee on Freedom of information on measures and plans for the develop- Information, "to give special attention to development of the media, and recommendations and sug- ing media of information in underdeveloped gestions for possible action on the international countries" and to transmit to the General Assembly plane for the development of the media in under- the Commission's report on these matters, developed ountries(18).The Council Aso re- together with the CounciPs recommendations(21). quested the Secretary-Genkral, in consultation The report of the Committee on Freedom of

9 Information, considered by the Human Rights . results", the Director-General stated in a report Commission early in 1958, contained a series of on Development of Media of Information in Under- suggestions on the development of information developed Countries to the Economic and Social media in underdeveloped countries.These dealt Council early in 1959, "similar ones might be held with such matters as professional and technical for Latin America, Africa and the Middle East. training, the production of newsprint, the establish- It might thus be possible, in due course, to formu- ment of low press rates, the manufacture of low- late for the various regions of the world the type cost radii) receivers and technical assistance for of development programme which the General specific development projects. Assembly and the Council have requested". The CommisFion, after considering its Com- In a concurrent report to the Council on mittee's report, requested the Economic and Development of Media of Information in Under- Social Council and, through it, Unesco and the developed Countries, the Secretary-General of the other Specialized Agencies concerned, to initiate United Nations stated that the further replies from action to implement the Committee's suggestions governments pursuant to the Council's requests of on the granting of ass_stance to the underdeveloped 1955 and 1957 contained a number of interesting countries in building up adequate information media ideas and complemented the information and which could facilitate the free flow of accurate and suggestions previously forwarded.The Secretary- undistorted news and information.The Commis- General added, however, that he still did not feel sion asked that reports from Unesco and other that the body of information, suggestions and ideas Specialized Agencies on the work undertaken in re- contained in the replies permitted him to discharge sponse to this request, and on the problems en- in a practical and realistic manner the Council's countered, be transmitted to it for consideration original request to present elements necessary for at its fifteenth session early in 1959(22). the formulation of a development programme. At The Council at its twenty-sixth session in mid- the same time, he drew attention to the General 1958 requested Lhe Commission to complete, at its Assembly's decision at its 1958 sessioninviting fifteenth session, its recommendations on freedom the Council to request the Commission on Human of information in the light of its Committee's re- Rights to arrange for constant review of the pro- port and the comments of governments, blems of providing technical assistance to under- Specialized Agencies and non-governmental developed countries in the information field. He organizations on that report(23). recalled ,:hat at its twenty-sixth session in mid- 1958 the Council had acted to ensure that the Com- mission's report on this problem would be before GENERAL ASSEMBLY DECISION the Council at its twenty-seventh session in April 1959. The General Assembly at its thirteenth session The Commission on Human Rights in March late in 1958 reviewed the various decisions taken 1959 considered the report of the Secretary- by the Council and the Commission and expressed General, the memorandum by the Director- the hope that the Council at its twenty-eighth ses- General of Unesco and the report of its Committee sion in 1959 would formulate a programme of con- on Freedom of Information, already mentioned. crete action and international measures for the de- The Commission decided to review developments velopment of information media in underdeveloped affecting freedom of information, including the countries.The General Assembly also invited problems of providing technical assistance to the Council to request the Commission on Human underdeveloped countries in the information field, Rights to arrange for constant review of the pro- as a regular item on its agenda.(26).It also re- blems of providing technical assistance to under- commended that the Economic and Social Council developed countries in the information field and to adopt a two-part resolution: Part I proposed that report regularly to the Council on progress Unesco be invited to undertaite a survey on the achieved.Finally, the General Assembly invited problems of providing technical assistance to Unesco and other interested Specialized Agencies underdeveloped countries in the field of informa- to formulate concrete proposals to assist the de- tion; Part II proposed that the Secretary-General velopment of information media in the less de- be requested to prepare an annual report on developed countries and to include an account of their velopments affecting freedom of information and efforts on this and other aspects of freedom of in- a substantive report, for submission to the formation in their annual reports to the Council(24). Council in 1961, on developments in that field Concurrently with this action by the General since 1954.The reports requested of the Assembly, the General Conference of Unesco ap- Secretary-General were to include information on proved the convening of a meeting of government the development of information media in the under- representatives and experts of the information developed countries.The Econsimic and Social media in South East Asia in 1960 to draw up pro- Council adopted this two-part resolution at its posals for the development of the media in that twenty-seventh session in April 1959(27).Sub- region(25).This action was guided by the regional sequent action by the Commission and Council in approach suggested by the Secretary-General in 1961 is indicated in the Council resolution, the 1957."If this first meeting should yield positive text of which appears on page 5 of this publication.

10 AID FOR THE INFORMATION MEDIA patch of expert missions, the holding of expert meetings, the conduct of research, the publication Paralleling the decisions, described above, which of studies am! assistance in establishing inter- have been taken by the United Nations and the national centres for training in journalism. interested Specialized Agencies, a limited pro- During and following its post-war survey of gramme of practical action hasbeen carried out information facilities in underdeveloped areas, to encourage the development of informationmedia Unesco dispatched a number of expert missionsto in the underdeveloped countries.An account of Africa, Asia and Latin America and awarded this programme will provide examples of thetypes fellowships to information specialists in those of assistance which have been rendered through regions for specialized training abroad.This international action, and will also indicate the assistance has been utilized, for example, in the existing pattern for concerted effort in this field development of national news agencies, the by the United Nations family.It should be noted improvement of printing techniques and the that following the General Assembly decisionof organization of educational broadcasting services 1958, referred to above, technical assistance re- and film institutes. sources have become generallyavailable for the Seminars and technical meetings havebeen development of the mass media, but stillonly to a on various subjects,including the production and limited extent. use of audio-visualmaterials for education, the exchange of radio broadcastsand the use of tele- United Nations vision for education.In addition, experiments and pilot projects have beenconducted in the use Following the inauguration in 1949 of theUnited of radio, film and television foreducation in rural Nations programme of Technical Assistance,the areas. administered In the field of radio, fci example,Unesco in Technical Assistance Administration in Khartoum a number of projectsof the International Telecom- 1960 held a regional training course munication Union to help the underdeveloped for Arabic-speaking broadcastingpersonnel and countries improve and expand theirtelecommunica- assisted several African countries inorganizing tions services, which are essential to thefunction- their broadcasting services.In the film field, stimulate the pro- ing of the information media.Under this arrange- the Organization has helped to ment, ITU experts were sent to advise telecom- duction and distribution of documentaryfilms in munication administrations in these countriesand Latin America and South East Asia,and assisted fellowships were awarded to enable their special- in establishing at Mexico City theLatin American ists to study highly developed systemsabroad. Institute for Educational Films (ILCE),which pro- Pakistan, for example, received a team of motes the use of audio-visual aids ineducation. experts who advised on the establishmentof a Similarly, the use of television in educationhas modern telecommunication system, withradio been encouraged through experiments incommunity communication links to Jther countries.Experts reception in various countries. assisted in the establishment of aradio-telephone Many of these efforts are based onresearch system in Afghanistan; in the expansionof broad- in the development and use of the mediain areas casting in Lebanon; and in reorganizingtelegraph which are less advanced industrially.For ex- and telephone services in Iran, Iraq,Saudi Arabia, ample, Unesco has studied thede%velopment of United Arab Republic (S,fria) and Yugoslavia. radio reception facilities suitable for tropical Local staff were trained by missions inMalaya, countries; of film equipment that can beused in the Republic of Korea, Ethiopia and ElSalvador, non-electrified areas; and of composing and and in Ethiopia an ITU mission assisted insetting printing machinery suitable for vernacular up a telecommunications institutefor training and languages and small-circulation newspapers. research.Meanwhile telecommunication special- Unesco's main rôle in research,however, has ists were sent from a number of lessdeveloped been to help co-ordinate the rapidly growing ac- countries to study in Europe and NorthAmerica. tivities undertaken both in the advanced and less Under its programme to encourageindustrial advanced countries. development, the United Nations dispatched experts Research in this and other fields has been to advise on the production of paper,including made available to specialists in the form ofpub- newsprint, in Ceylon, Colombia, India, Israeland listed studies on various aspects of mass com- Pakistan.A TAA-FAO mission assisted in munication, such as the organization of news establishing paper mills in the Philippines,and agencies, the production of newsprint and other Yugoslavia received advice on the productionof printing paper, low-cost radio reception, film newsprint and of telephone, radiobroadcasting and production and the training of information person- television equipment. nel.Inequalities in the distribution of mass media facilities have been highlighted in a number of Unesco has conducted a broad programme toassist Unesco studies and notably in WorldCommunica- in improving mass communicationtechniques and tions which is published periodically and gives a developing the information media in underdeveloped country-by-country account of the distribution of countries.This programme has included the dis- such facilities throughout he world. 11 In recent years Unesco has devoted increasing the United Nations in the telecommunication field. attention to training for journalism in all themedia The ITU's activities are further illustrated by the and particularly to means of improving training following examples.In Africa, its experts have standards.To further this objective, the advised on radio frequency usage in Libya. Experts Organization assisted in establishing an institute at the telecommunication institute in Ethiopia, for higher studies in journalism at Strasbourg already mentioned, have assisted in training over University, France, to serve Europe and adjacent 500 local officials.In South America, the Union countries, and a similar centre for Latin advised Bolivia on the modernization of its radio America at the Central University of Ecuador network and assisted Paraguay in reorganizing its (Quito).For Africa, Unesco held a regional radio communication and telephone services. seminar on teacher training early in 1961 at Dakar, In Asia, ITU experts trained Indian special- Senegal and will organize a similar seminar for ists in microwave communications and gave South East Asia at Manila later in the year. further assistance to Iran and Iraq in modernizing Certain current activities stem from the two their telecommunication systems.Jordan and Unesco meetings, held at Bangkok in January1960 Malaya received aid in extending their radio and and at Santiago, Chile in February 1961, onthe telephone services and Pakistan in expanding its development of the media in South East Asia aixi telecommunication network.Experts also as- Latin America respectively (see Foreword). sisted Lebanon in improving its telegraph services During 1961-1962 further study will bemade of and Saudi Arabia in establishing a broadcasting possible measures to promote the developmentof centre.At the same time, specialists from a national news agencies, the expansion of news- number of countries in Africa, Asia and North papers and increased technicalco-operation be- and South America were granted fellowships for tween film, radio and television servicesin those advanced study abroad. two regions. The ITU has also co-operated in planning Similar action is being taken in Africa, regional projects for telecommunication develop- During 1961-1962 a concerted effort is beingmade ment.A major scheme, involving both the ITU to develop broadcasting in TropicalAfrica as a and the ECAFE, seeks to connect countries in tho means of helping to meet the urgentneeds of Middle East and South East Asia with the inter- education. Late in 1961 a meeting will be held at national telecommunication network in Europe and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanganyika, of directors of the Mediterranean basin.In 1958, ITU experts broadcasting organizations and of directors of surveyed telecommunication services in Asia and eaucation b draw up development plans in this the Far East and in 1959 an international meeting field.Meanwhile, assistance has been given to convened by the ECAFE at Tokyo examined their Togo through an expert mission which hasadvised report.This meeting recommended action at the on the development of the press,radio broadcast- national, regional and international levels for ing and news services of that country. telecommunication development.In addition, the ITU is collaborating with the Organization of International Teleedmmunication Union American States in the preparation of plans for the development of an Inter-American Telecom- The International Telecommunication Union has munication Netk ark.These Asian and Latin for a number of years assisted its member American projects, incidentally, represent the countries in organizing their telecommunication first attempt to study the improvement of telecom- departments; constructing, operating and main- munications in the light of its influence on the taining their telegraph, telephone and radio com- economic development of individual regions. munication systems; and training personnel in A joint effort by the ITU and Unesco concerns all branches of telecommunications. the production of low-cost receivers for use in the Since 1952. the ITU has intensified this underdeveloped countries.On the basis of a effort through participation in the United Nations Unesco proposal, the last Administrative Radio Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance. Conference of the ITU (Geneva 1959) invited the Under this programme, the Union has helped to Union's International Consultative Radio Commit- reorganize and improve existing telecommunica- tee to draw up specifications for one or more tion systems and build new networks in under- types of receivers suitable for production in large developed countries requesting aid.Many of quantities at the lowest possible cost(28).The these projects have related to radio communica- Secretary-General of the ITU was requested to tions and reflected a growing desire among the communicate the results of this study, with underdeveloped countries to extend their relations suggestions as to the action to be taken,. to the with other countries and advance their national Director-General of Unesco.Unesco is examin- economy by means of an efficieri;; andrelatively ing with the Economic Commissions of the United inexpensive medium.At the same time, the ITU Nations, other interested organizations and the has assisted in developing communications byland radio industry, the possibility of pooling markets wire and ocean cable. to encourage large-scale product.on.In response A number of ITU development projects are re- to a request of the Unesco meetii,g on the develop- ferred to in the foregoing account of the workof ment of information media in South East Asia

12 production (Bangkok 1960), the ECAFE isalready studying developed countries to study paper receiver manufactur- abroad. the possibility of establishing in South ing industries in countries of theregion. The expansion of paper production East Asia was considered at the Unescomeeting on that region Food and Agriculture Orgaxiizion the development of information media in (Bangkok, January 1960).The meeting urged that chapter, the Food increased technical and financial assistance be As mentioned earlier in this establish and and Agriculture Organization,pursuant to a re- given to Asian cnuntries wishing to quest of the Economic and SocialCouncil, in 1952 increase production.It also suggested that the in possibility of establishing one or moreregional undertook a programme of long-term action, be co-operation with other United Nations organiza- production centres in South East Asia might pulp and examined by the Conference on Pulp andPaper tions, to stimulate the production of the paper, particularly inthe underdeveloped Development then being convened jointly by ECAFE, the Bureau of TechnicalAssistance countries. and the FAO at The FAO programme consistsof three phases; Operations (formerly the TAA) for increas- Tokyo.This suggestion was consideredin first, a world survey of potentialities Conference, which re- ing pulp and paper output,of which newsprint October 1960 by the Tokyo cent; second, commended that the possibilitiesof establishing represents approximitely 40 per fully explored. advice in planning new mills,with due regard to regional production centres be suitability and continuity of rawmaterial supplies; and technical assistancein building and operating Universal Postal Union them. completed its world sur- In the development of theinformation media, the By 1954 the FAO had world's public services, vey, which coveredmajor as well as incipientand post, the oldest of the remains an essential channelfor disseminating potential producing countries.A meeting of reports, articles experts in late 1952 hadmeanwhile examined pro- information in the form of news fibres. and photographs, as well as newspapersand other cesses for pulpingtropical and sub-tropical Universal In South and Central America,the FAO was as- publications.As in pre-war years, the for Latin Postal Union has in the pastdecade constantly sisted by the Economic Commission of the post for America and other United Nationsorganizations, sought to promote the wider use culminating in a conference -..'ointlyconvened at these purposes. ECLA and the Acting on suggestions inspiredby Unenco, Buenos Aires in 1954 by the FAO, 1952 and 1957 granted Technical Assistance Administration.The re- Congresses of the UPU in together with a study on a number of newfacilities for the dispatch of news- port of this conference, and certain other publications. World Pulp and Paper Resourcesand Prospects, papers, periodicals with Unesco, Such publications weze permittedto travel between prepared by the FAO in co-operation for printed the Economic Commission forEurope and ECLA, couatries at half the ordinary rate the Economic and Social Council matter, regardless of sender.A further decision was submitted to abolition of customs clearance in May 1965.In transmitting these two reportsto was the virtual Agencies, the charges on newspapers andother yublications not Member States and the Specialized In addition, the UPU Council recommended thatsympathetic considera- liable to import duties. requests for techni- simplified its newspaper subscriptionscheme, tion be given to governmental national currency, at cal assistance for the orderlydevelopment of pulp which permits payment in the FAO to continue local post offices, for subscriptionsto foreign and paper industries; invited and their dispatch at its efforts to promote pulpand paper production; newspapers and periodicals, whenever appropriate reduced rates. and expressed the hope that, have followed private capital would be given areasonable oppor- Various regional postal uaions development the example of the UPU in theinformation field. tunity to participate in any necessary the Postal Union of of pulp and paperresources(29). At the suggestion of Unesco, the FAO the Americas and Spain in1955 and the Arab Acting on the Council's request, member adminis- assigned a group of technicalassistance experts to Postal Union in 1956 urged their trations to grant to newspapers,periodicals and the Latin American region to helpcountries co- facilities per- ordinate their pulp and paperproduction on a sound books the rate reductions and other technical and economic baes.Subsequently the mitted by the UPU. FAO, in co-operation withthe ECLA and the TAA, Althnugh the UPU does not participate Advisory Group on directly in the Expnded Programme ofTechnical established the Latin American with the United Pulp and Paper.Many Latin American countries Assistance, it collaborates closely services of this Nations in recruiting a.id briefingexperts to assist have availed themselves of the in improving and group.Meanwhile, the FAO had sent expertmis- the underdeveloped countries Africa, Asia, North expanding their postal services.The UPU also sions to some 30 coulitries in enable and South America and Europeto study problems advises on the award of fellowships to In addition, FAO personnel in these countries to studyabroad. of forestry and forestproducts. exchange of fellowships have enabled specialistsfrom the under Moreowtr, the UPU encourages the 13 postal ad- Similarly, the Organization ofAmerican direct technical assistance between States (OAS) and the South PacificCommission are ministrations. making greater use of the massmedia to eradicate illiteracy and provide better vocationaltraining International Labour Organisation within their respective regions.The OAS has also participated in the project (alreadymentioned in The International LabourOrganisation has been problems of the account of the work of theITU) for an Inter- following the social and economic American Telecommunication Networkby provid- journalists for some considerabletime.Studies States to of these problems, in particu- ing the machinery enabling its Member on certain aspects draw up an inter-American conventionestablishing lar on collective agreementsfor journalists, were made before the Second WorldWar. the proposed network. At present, and subsequent torepeated re- Professional Associations quests by its AdvisoryCommittee on Salaried Employees and Professional Workers,the ILO expert Like their pre-war predecessors,international contemplates the possibility of convening an professional associations of the massmedia have meeting, in 1962 or loon afterwards,to consider in their problems of journalists been active in promoting development the social and economic various fields.For example, the efforts of the and, in particular, theirconditions of work and aixl improved of ITU and Unesco to secure lower rates employment.It is felt that the organization facilities for the dispatch of press messageshave the proposed meeting wouldconstitute, from the view, a timely con- been strongly supported by theInternational social and economic points of Federation of Newspaper Publishers,the Common- tribution by the ILO to the workcarried out by the Press Insti- United Nations in the field offreedom of informa- wealth Press Union, the International the training of tute and the European Allianceof News Agencies. tion and by Unesco with regard to The International Federation ofNewspaper Pub- journalists. lishers, the International Federationof the Periodical Press and the Inter-AmericanPress Regional Agencies Association 'have stressed the needfor a more stable supply and equitabledistribution of news- Regional intergovernmentalorganizations have appeal of the development of the informa- print.It was in response to the also contributed to the professional associations that thelong-term pro- tion media in underdevelopedcountries.Under experts from non- gramme for paperproduction, already mentioned,) the Colombo Plan, for example, United Nations organizations in Asian as well as Asian membercountries have was launched by radio broadcasting, 1952. advised on the development of A number of internationalassociations, such film production and printing inSouth East Asia. as the InternationalFederation of Newspaper Meanwhile, specialists from SouthEast Asia have Federation of in non-Asian member Publishers, the International been given advanced training Journalists and the InternationalOrganization of countries. in training and other in- Journalists, conduct or participate At the same time, government schemes for journalists and haveassociated them- formation services within the South EastAsian field.In addi- of the mass media selves with Unesco's work in this region have made increasing use tion, the International PressInstitute has launched to explain the objectivesof the Colombo Plan to technical and enlist their sup- a programme tohelp raise editorial and the South East Asian peoples standards of the Asian press. port for development projects.

14 CHAPTER TWO

PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPINGTHE INFORMATIONMEDIA

In this report,informatior SOCIETY and education begins. THE MEDIA IN is interpreted in itswidest possible sense asis in fact now being done inAfrica, Asia and Latin through a multiplicity America, where the crucialr8le of the mass Information is disseminated media in education is receivingincreasing recogni- of sources - through thewritten and spokenword tion. and the visual image,presented in a variety of of modern origin. forms, both traditional and Factor in Freedom ofInformation The present survey isconcerned with the problems of assisting theunderdeveloped countries tode- radio This broad definition ofinformation is one which velop the media ofinformation - the press, by the United Nationsitself. broadcasting, film andtelevision - which are used has also been adopted In the first place,the development of theinforma- to reach people on a massscale. considered as a prerequisite These media are a variation on atheme older tion media has been to the full enjoymentof freedom of information as than civilization itself.Modern communications of the signal fire on the a basic humanright.This right, it was recog- are the direct successors nized, could not be effectivelyenjoyed in countries hill, the drum in the forest,the pigeon in the air, information ship, coach or train; ofall or communitieswhere the media of the dispatch sent by were inadequate.As early as 1948, theUnited those means, indeed, bywhich people have sought, Freedom of Information the need to communi- Nations Conference on since time began, to satisfy had proclaimed thatfreedom of information"is cate rapidly with eachother. freedoms to which the information are ulually the touchstone of all the The mass media of United Nations isdedicated" and that it "depends considered to have begun wiiththe development of the availability to the people mechanical printing in thefifteenth century. for its validity upon they of a diversity of sourcesof news and ofopinion"(31). However, it may equallybe maintained that the General Assembly ex- outgrowth of the industrialrevolution In the following year, are a social pressed its conviction that"freedom of infc:ma- which changed the face ofEurope and a large part freedoms and that it is but is only now tion is one of the basic of North America a century ago essential to the furtheranceand protection of all having its broad effectin the underdeveloped countries of Africa, Asiaand Latin America. otherfreedoms"(32). in the mass communication A leading specialist Role in Economic andSocial Progress field has made the followingobservation on the "The importance of theprint- growth of the media: The second aspect ofthe development of the ining development in thefifteenth century is thatthe long centuries of spoken, formation media has alsobeen given increasing balance was swung from the recognition by the UnitedNations - that is, the first-hand communicationtovard visual and second- The import- important role of the mediain education and in hand communication on ala-ge scale. generally. developments in the nineteenthcentury economic and social development ance of the It is self-evident thatthe faising of educa- is that some of thelimits were taken offcommunica- pecLil tional standards in theunderdeveloped countries tion;it was extended, overthe heads of the knowledge of farming able, to the masses who calls for the uissemination of /privilf.?ged and the specially health and community And the importance ofthe recent and industrial techniques, had need of it. development, among other things.But when one electronic developments is thatthe balance of the in a matter of years a communication channels isagain swung back to- is attempting to accomplish task which it has takencenturies to complete in ward spoken and seeminglyfirst-hand communica- the traditional means of largeaudiences."(30) the advanced countries, tion, although to fantastically education alone prove inadequate.It is here that The information mediatoday serve the evident world in the mass media, unsurpassedin speed, range and purpose of keepingpeople informed of the possibilities The media have a secondfunction, force of impact, offer the greatest which they live. for effective action. which has perhaps beeninsufficienav recognized - This func- Experience has shown that thedevelopment of that is, as an instrumentof education. reciprocal relationship to importance, particularlyin the these media stands in tion is of growing economic development.On the one hand, a underdeveloped countries. certain level of wealth mustbe reached in any It is not easy to decidewhere information stops 15 society before it can sustain the development of Two television receivers. services not as immediately essential as food and As many as 100 States and territories in Africa, shelter.On the other hand, the information media Asia and Latin America fall below this very low can markedly stimulate the capacity to create "minimum" levc-i in all four of the mass media. further wealth by enlisting the "human" or "non- These counLries have a combined population of physical" factors, such as improved skills and 1,91C millions, or 66 per cent of the world total. better education, more direcVy in efforts for n additional 19 countries, representing two per economic development. cent of the world population, fall below the The media can thus serve effectively in win- "Unesco minimum" in respect of three of the ning public support an :. participation in those media.In short, nearly 70 per cent of the worlc4 efforts.The feeling, or knowledge among the peoples lack the barest means of being informed of general population of being part of a developing developments at home, let alone in other countries. economy is an invaluable incentive to a country's In point of fact, the actual situation is even economic and social expansion.This, in turn, worse because the above criteria do not take into facilitates more effective planning by governments, account the distribution of facilities within as well as by financial, industrial and other countries.In many underdeveloped countries, agencies.In the long run, this development forms over 60 per cent of the population live in rural part of the transformation of a primitive agricultur- districts, whereas the facilities for information al economy into a largely industrial economy are concentrated in a relatively few urban areas. characteristic of the modern State. Consequently, the above very general analysis Planning for the development of the informa- does not fully reflect the dearth of facilities in the tion media must of course form part of any over- rural areas of most underdeveloped countries, and all programme for economic and social expansion, even of some semi-developed countries which taking into account the multiplicity of other nation- otherwise stand above the "Unesco minimum" al needs.However, there is evidence that de- level. velopment of the media, possibly because its ef- Another striking fact is that some 40 sovereign fects are more indirect than direct, has not been States in the underdeveloped regions have no given the place it should logically occupy.For national news agencies and must rely for much of example, while problems of developing transport their domestic news on the five world agencies - and telecommunication services have recently re- Associated Press and United Press International ceived increasing attention, limited consideration (U.S.A.), Reuters (British Commonwealth), has been given to problems of deeloping the in- Agence France-Presse (France) and Tass (USSR). formation media in programmes 'Cor economic ex- Moreover, news about these countries is sent pansion.Similarly, while a "service" function abroad largely through the worldadencies- that such as formal education is now generally accepted is, through services which are not their own. as a basic factor in ec:onomy and social expansion justifying heavy investment, the development of Link with Income, Literacy and Other Factors the mass media has often been regarded solely as II consumption", with the primary emphasison its The above evaluation of development of the mass cultural significance.Yet, in a broaci sense, de- media in some 120 countries corresponds very velopment of the media may itself be treated as an closely with the United Nations designation of essential element in pre-investment, and thus countries which are generally underdeveloped. forms an integral part of any general programme With due regard for the limitations of the method for economic and social progress. of classification used, the United Nations considers that a country is underdeveloped if the average per Dearth of Facilities capita income is less than $300 annually.One hundred and one countries are found to be below Both for education arid kformation generally, there this income level and an additional 16 countries is a striking dearth of mass media facilities over fall within the $300 to $400 range(33).The the greater part of the world.In certain of the countries in these two groups are, with few ex- advanced countries, there are for every 100 people ceptions, those which fall below the "Unesco as many as 58 copies of daily newspapers, 94 radio minimum" for information facilities or which receivers, 13 cinema seats and 32 television re- stand only slightly above that level. ceivers.Elsewhere the distribution of facilities Any realistic approach to the problems of falls sharply below this level.In order to measure developing the information media must clearly the insufficiency of facilities in the underdeveloped include an examination of the relationship between countries, a general yardstick has been established. underdevelopment of the media and underdevelopment Unesco has suggested, as an immediate target, generally.As part of the present survey, Unesco that a cciuntry should aim to provide for every 100 undertook an initial study which attempted to cor- of its inhabitants at least the following facilities: relate, on the one hand, various indices of the use Ten copies of daily newspapers; of information facilities and, on the other, various Five radio receivers; factors in economic, social and educational de- Two cinema seats; velopment(34).

16 The analysis included all uruerdeveloped increase in expansion of the mass media.Indeed, countries in Africat, Latin America, the Middle the two processes interact because development East and South East Asia, with a population of at of the media in turn spurs economicgrowth. least 500,000, for which relevant data were available.Data used were for the period 1957- Future Demand for the Media ] 959. The results for all of the underdeveloped It may be anticipated that the future willbring a regions combined showed the following degrees of sharp increase in demand for the information correlation: media in the underdeveloped countries.It is believed that the Economic and Social Council, no less than the underdeveloped countriesconcerned, Newsprint Per capita Iniaistrialc) consumption income Literacy(a)Urbanization(b) lization would wish to assess the extent of that probable per capita .83 .82 69 .68 increase in planning a programme for c welopment of the media. Daily newspaperPer capita Industria- futurz.-- circulation income Literacy Urbanization lization It may reasonably be assumed that the per 100 persons .83 .79 .75 .51 level of demand for the media can be relatedto three major factors: Cinema seating Urbanize- Industrie- Per cap:ta capacity tion lization income Literacy (a) growth c population; per 100 persons .86 .80 .613 (b) increasing per capita income; (c) the comparatively higher demand for the Number of radio Per capitaIndustrie- receivers income lization 1.iteracy Urbanization media which a given rise in per capita income per 100 persons .86 .78 .72 .71 stimulates in the underdeveloped countries, as (a) Literrcy: percentage of adult population able to read and write. compared with developed countries (i.eincome DO Urbanization: percentage of population living in localities of 2,000 and elasticity of demand). more hibabitants. In assessing the higher demand for the mass (c) Industrialization: percentage of gainfully employed males in non- media, newsprint was singled out because it has agricultural activities. been the subject of special study by the FAO and Unesco and offers a reliable point of referencefor It will be evident from the above that there is estimating growing requirements for information. very high correlation indeed ofdevelopment of the The most recent estimate by theFA0(36) shows mass media with economic factorsin general de- that, assuming a moderate increase in per capita velopment, particularly income.This applies income of two per cent annually, newsprint de-- even to development of the press, towhich literacy mand for all the underdeveloped regions combined might have been expected to have the closest re- will increase from 750,000 metric tons in 1955 to lationship.This provides statistical confirmation 2,658,000 tons in 1975(36).If the 1955 figure is of the evident fact that in the underdeveloped indexed at 100, the 1975 figure corresponds to 354. countries there are many literate persons who can- Although this expected increase in demand is not afford to buy newspapers.The study also very considerable, the forecastis highly plausible. shows that literacy correlptes Triore closely with All the determinants of future demand work in the radio than with the cinema.This may suggest same direction.Populations in the underdeveloped that audio-visual communications are more easily regions are rapidly increasieg; per capita incomes understood than auditory ones alone, at least by are rising; the demand forinformation media in people of limited education. the underdeveloped regions is highly sensitive to Data for Latin America (excluding Argentina) growth of either of these two factors.Conse- wereiparticulary comprehensive.An independent quently, the resultant estimated increases in study undertaken for that region confirmed the future demand for the mass media are greater than conclusions already drawn for all the regions com- is commonly realized. bined.Moreover, it was possible also to include Demand for all of the media is expected to television reception for Latin America, correla- show the following increases by 1375, placing the tion results being as follows: demand in 1955 at 100: Africa 338 Number of tele- Industria- Pet capita Latin America (excluding vision receivers lization income Urbanization Literacy Argentina) 341 per 100 persons .92 .83 .R0 .60 Near and Middle East 384 Far East (excluding Japan Finally, the general analysis, which also and mainland China) 382 embraced comparisons with a number of advanced The striking conclusion emerges that by 1975 countries, confirmed that as income rises, the the demand for the mass media in all four regions demand for the mass media increases in com- combined will in all likelihood be three and a half paratively greater proportion in the underdeveloped times that in 1955.The above figures are all the than in the developed countries.It thus becomes more striking in view of the fact that they exceed apparent that as the- economy of an underdeveloped by far the increases which would be attributed to country expands, one may expect a commensurate growth in population alone.Thus, the increases in per capita demand wou]d be 242 in Africa,200 In 24 countries, including the most populous in Latin America, ',29 in 'he Near and MiddleEast in the region, the circulation level is well below and 256 in the Far Eaet. the "Unesco minimum".Two of them, Brunei High as these estimate:3 may appear,they may and Portuguese Timor, have no daily newspapers well err on the conservative side.They do riot, at all.Countries with a very low distribution include Afghanistan and Netherlands New Guinea, notaui,allow for the eife:ts of spreading literacy, whicn during the rext 15 yi:ars is expected to in- with 0.2 copies per 100 inhabitants; Cambodia crease more rapidly than alight beexpected from and Iran, 0.5; Nepal, 0.08; and Laos,0.06. The the increase of income alone.It is not at this circulation level in Burma, India, Indonesia and stage feasible to make zipecial quantitativeallow- Pakistan and Thailand is slightly higher, ataround ance for this 'autonomous" :actorof literacy. In 1.0 copies, and is a little higher again in the due course it may have to be taken into accountin Republic of China, Ceylon, Malaya, Korea, estimates of regional, and particularly of national Philippines and the Republic of Viet-Nam.In demand, as a further factor in the growth of the contrast, the "city States" of Singapore andHong mass media. Kong have fairly high circulations (21.0 and 22.6 respectively) while the level in the Ryuku Islands (34.8) is close to that of Japan or the United PROBLEMS, BY REGIONS States of America. In addition, there are 801 non-daily newspapers, including weeklies, and10,403 periodicals. These broad economic and social factors should Owing to insufficiency of data, no estimateof total be borne in mind in examining the present lackof circulation of these publications can at present be information facilities and in considering the prob- made.Most of them apparently have circulations lems of providing assistance for the development of a few thousand copies or even less.It may be of the information media.Following is an ex- noted that India maintains as many as 6,737 amination of problems of development, by regions periodicals.Several hundred publications of this and by media. type appear in Ceylon, China, Pakistanand the Philippines.In contrast, Cambodia has only 17 such publications, Sarawak 7, and Laos none. SOUTH EAST ASIA Inadequacies in newspaper circulation are reflected in the extremely low consumption of For the purposes of this survey, "south EastAsia" newsprint.Total annual consumption is 270,000 is defined as the region 31 the Economic Cimmis- metr4A, tons, or 0.3 kg. per person, compared sion .:or Asia and the Far East, ext,ndingfrom with 10 kg. per person in Western Europe and36 Iran to Japan(37).At the outset it may be noted in North America.Most of the countries depend that Japan is the only country in the region with on imports for all of theirnewsprint supplies, highly developed information media.Japan is, in limited quantities being produced only in China, fact, able to claim 77 per cent of thetotal daily news- Republic of Korea, India and Pakistan. paper circulation, 73 percent of the total of radio re- Two of the greatest obstacles to the develop- ceivers, 40 per cent of the cinema seatingcapacity ment of the press in South East Asia is the and 97 per cent of the total of televisionreceivers in relatively low level of literacy and low purchasing the region.To give a more accurate picture of the power.No more than 40 per cent of adults in the general level of development in South EastAsia, region are literate; about 90 pev cent have an Japan is therefore excluded from thisaccount. average income of less than US$100 a year, and The remaining 27 States and territories inthe the remainder, -between $100 and $400 ayear(39). region have a combined population of 767,000,000 Nevertheless, it appears that there is a large or 26.4 per cent of theworld total(38).In most reading public which could be reached if news- of these countries the level of development of the papers and periodicals, of popularappeal, could media is below the minimum, suggested by Unesco, be made more readily available to the people. of ten copie-1 of daily newspapers, five radio re- In most of the countries, there is a dearth ceivers, two cinema seats and two television re- of newspapers in rural areas and an excessive ceivers per 100 inhabitants. concentration of newspapers anti of newspaper advertising, in the larger cities.To meet the Newspapers and Periodicals rising demand for newspapers in Asian languages, national and local language newspapers need to be The 27 countries are served by as many as919 developed not only in the larger communities, but dailies.However, their combined circulation is in smaller towns and villages.This aim could be no more than 10,810,400, or an averageof 1.4 achieved by the expansion of existing newspapers copies for every 100 persons.Most of these news- and the establishment of new ones in rural and papers have circulations of about 5,000copies and semi-rural areas. only a relative few exceed 25,000.Countries A primary obstacle, however, is the lack of with the largest number of dailies are India,420; capital for press development.The management Indonesia, 95; and Pakistan, 80. of newspapers is fraught with more than the

18 require three to separately below, is the shortageof trained normal business risk and it may If these various five years for a new,well-managed daily news- editorial and technical staff. of difficulties could be overcome, itshould be pos- paper to pay its way.As a result, directors of 50,000 smaller papers have greatdifficulty in obtaining sible to develop daily p-pers in towns channels.Neither or more inhabitants and newsweeklies in towns loans through normal credit A newspaper has the advantage ofadvertising in these news- of25,000or more inhabitants. adequately recognized by governments, might be started as a weekly and,after circula- papers been into a daily. municipalities and other advertisers. tion has been built up. converted widespread lack Support from "job printing"orders would be de- Another basic problem is the their of even moderately up-to-datecomposing and sirable to help these new enterprises pay passing, way. printing machinery.It may be noted, in similar that no such machinery ismanufactured anywhere In the development of periodicals, Asia (except Japan). problems of financing, equipment,printing paper, in Africa, Latin America, or A special Vast regions are dependent on arelatively few techniques and personnel prevail. United Kingdom, difficulty is that the price ofperiodicals is countries in Europe, such as the low per capita France, Germany, Italy,SwitzerlatO and the relatively high in the light of the U.S.A. or USSR. income.Readers of limited meansconsequently Scandinavian countries, or on the rather than Newsprint presents a similarproblem, most choose first to buy newspapers being dependent on periodicals.The best prospects of success ap- of the countries in the region publication of illustrated maga- Europe and Canada for theirsupplies.In addition, pear to lie in the of small circula- zines for groups of workers,rural communities since most of the newspapers are Research is required in tion, they are able to order onlyin relatively and women readers. This makes it difficult for them each country to determinethe type of periodicals small quantities. best suited to its audiences. to obtain supplies underfavourable market conditions. It is estimated that, with thespread of literacy, News Agencies andTelecommunications the expansion of the press andgeneral economic total of 2 4 development, the demand for newsprintand other Thirteen of the countries maintain a double by domestic news agencies.In Afghanistan, printing paper in the region will nearly single government- 975. However, it Cambodia and frail, there is a 1965and increase fourfold by controlled agency; Burma, Ceylon,Hong Kong, is extremely doubtful whetherthe world's export- Philippims and Viet-Nam eachhave a privately- ing countries will be able tosatisfy the expected have two pri- increases in demand, or whetherthe South East owned agency; India and Indonesia finance imports on vate agencies and the Republicof Korea and Asian countries will be able to while China possesses one such a greatly extended scale.An increase in the Pakistan three; the region is, government agency and fiveprivate services. In production of printing paper within certain countries, such as Burma,Ceylon, India, if only for that reason, an urgentnecessity. Philippines, the news- Obstacles affecting the supplyof machinery Indonesia, Pakistan ar-I the by shortages of paper industryparticipates in the control and and newsprint are incfeased management of news agencies. foreign exchange and, in many cases,by high im- Laos, In addition, in- States without national Agencies are port duties on the3e materials. and Thailand. adequate distribution facilities andheavy transport Malaya, Nepal, Singapore circulation and in- Most of the existing nationalagencies are and postal charges impede the limited in scope, their mainactivity being the crease the cost of newspapers. within their Other problems peculiar to theregion concern collection and distribution of news scripts, used widely in own countries.Even within this range, little printing in non-ideographic effort has apparently been madeto draw on the South East Asia, and in ideographicscripts member newspapers or agency (Chinese characters, which areemployed in China, news resources of subscribers.Most agencies organizetheir news Japan, Korea, etc.).In countries using non- and provide subscribers ideographic scripts, a widespreaddifficulty is sources independently with a basic service.Few agencies attempt to that printing is industrially littledeveloped.Most countries and still inadequately maintained, send out news about their own presses are small and fewer maintain correspondentsabroad. composing and binding equipment isoutdated and countries in the there is little designingfor scriptsin various The flow of news between of region, as well as the exchangeof news between languages.The result is an acute shortage of the world, is printed material in the many scriptsused in the South East Asia and the rest largely in the hands of theworld news ;Agencies region.With regard to printing inideographic Chinese- (Associated Press, United PressInternational, scripts, the main difficulty is that Reuters, Agence Fran e-Presseand Tess). A language papers use between2,000and 3,000 distribute inter-- characters regularly, compared tothe1,850used number of the national agencies national news from these agencies.Although the by the Japanese press.The problem here is to erdeavoured to pro- shorten the time required for newspaperproduction. world agencies have recently vide more news about Asia ingeneral, the South A w:despread obstacle,which is dealt with 19 East Asian countries still do not receive sufficient These disparities are due largely todifferences news about one another or about the restof the in methods of fixing costs, to the vagariesof world, from an Asian point of view.On the other exchange rates and to the fact that the same hand, insufficieiit effort has been made to cultivate charges are usually made for dispatches sent by an interest in Asian news among readers inother radio, even when no intermediate handling isin- regions, unless the news is of a sensational nature. volved, as for those sent by cable and requiring This interest could be developed not only through the payment of extra transit fees to one or more cabled "spot news" reports but through airmailed intermediate stations.In addition, many adminis- news articles giving an interpretativebackgroi ri trations do not permit users to receive radio to current events. newscasts direct; reception is consequentlyhandled Arrangements for the exchange of Asian news by external communication agencies, with a re- are in force between various agencies inthe region sultant increase in costs.A further obstacle is and could be greatly extended, as, for example, in the imposition on communications of fiscal taxes, the exchange of airmailed news articles and press in some cases as high as 50 per cent of the cost. photos.The exchange of press photos is, however, The establishment of lower and more uniform frequently limited by high import duties and other rates in all communication services is essential charges.Moreover, agencies are often hindered to the wider flow of information within the region, from carrying more foreign news because of the and between the region and the rest of the world. economic position of their member newspapers. Most Asian newspapers have a limited number of Radio Broadcasting pages, with little space for foreign news,and cannot afford to pay increased agency subscriptions Many of the problems encountered in the fieldof for wider news coverage.In short, the develop- the press do not arise, or are less acute, in ment of news agencies is closely linked to de- radio broadcasting and col:ntries in the region are velopment of the press generally. giving priority to this medium in expanding their Major obstacles to news agency development information facilities.All of them now maintain are lack of capital for expansion, lackof equip- broadcasting services, ment and lack of experienced staff.However, the In most of the countries, including Afghanistan, greatest difficulty arises from the inadequacy of Burma, India; Ceylon, Indonesia, Iran, Malaya, telecommunication services and disparities in Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, and Viet-Nam, broad- communication charges, which differ by as much casting is a State monopoly and is largely financed as 700 per cent for similar services.Charges through license fees and/or government subsidies. also vary for messages sent in reverse directions. In Macao and the Ryuku Islands, only private In most South East Asian countries, inland services, maintained by advertising, are conducted; trunk networks are poorly developed and little ef- in China, Hong Kong, Korea and the Philippines, fort is made to co-ordinate the use of telecommuni- both public and private services operate. cation channels.As a result, one service may be The 27 countries are served by 450 transmit- overloaded while other circuits are not fully oc- ters and 5,416,000 receivers, representing0.7 cupied throughout the day.Although there is a receivers for every 100 persons.The largest growing demand for telex, leased circuits and broadcasting organizations, in terms of transmit- telephoto services, traffic is limited owing to high ters and power, ,are those of Burma, Ceylon, costs, insufficiency of radio circuits, and limitations China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Korea and on hours of transmission.Telegraph services in Pakistan.India, for example, has 56 transmit- general are slow and underdeveloped and despite ters with a total of 1,214 kw. and China 127 trans efforts to improve the telephone services, the mitters with a total of 588 kw.In contrast, cer- number of telephones in proportion to population tain territories such as Macao and Portuguese (0.1 for every 100 persons) is one of the lowest in Timor maintain one or two transmitters of low the world.Telephone services require expansion, power. particularly in the rural areas, so that there will Only Brunei, Hong Kong and Singapore exceed be at least one telephone within a radius of every the Unesco minimum of five receivers per 100 ten miles in all South East Asian countries.The inhabitants.All three countries maintain a wired- telegraph services, which are now often beaten diffusion system.Eleven countries, including by the airmail, need to be improved through the Ceylon, China, Korea, Iran, Malaya and the introduction of teleprinters and speedier handling Philippines, have between one and four sets per 10 and delivery of messages.Present deficiencies people.Among countries with less than one set work to the particular disadvantage of the national per 100 persons are Afghanistan,Burma, news agencies, since the world agencies can Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, utilize tele -Jmmunication services from points Pakistan, Thailand and Viet-Nam.A number of outside the region. countries use community receivers in an attempt The press rates problem is particularly acute to increase coverage. in South East Asia, where costs range from the Despite the multiplicity of languages, the pre- British Commonwealth penny-a-word rate to valence of common languages in various neighbour- charges which are among the highest in theworld. ing countries enables domestic programmes to be

20 understood across frontiers.Thus, Phushtu given to the design of more powerfultransistor links Afghanistan and Pakistan; Urdu links sets for classroom use. Pakistan and India; Tamil links India and Ceylon; Other problems concern the lackof training Malay links Ceylon, Indonesia and Malaya; facilities, the lack of facilitie5 foraudience re- Chinese links China, Indonesia and Malaya and search, and the need for more Pollaborationand "international" languages such as English and exchange of programme material b.Aweenbroad- French link almost all of the countries of the rasting organizations of the region.Although region.These links are supplemented by the programmes in English andFrench are easily external services undertaken by most South interchangeable, it might also be possible to ex- East Asian countries in which programmes are change programmes originally preparedin Asian broadcast in the language of the target area. languages.Another method of exchange might Obstacles to the development ofradio in the be the pooling of resources by two or more region concern both transmission andreception. countries to produce common programmes.In Although South East Asian broadcastingorganiza- the same way, countries could makeregional tions rely on a small number ofindustrialized arrangements for the beaming of daily newsbul- countries for transmitting equipment, the cost letins to each other and provide betterfacilities, may not often be a majorfactor.Greater such as the "press collect" system,for the trans- obsta".1e0 to national coverage are inadequate missions of news by radio journalists. electrification or the lack of programme lines to diffuse programmes from central studios to other Film points.Another deficiency is the considerable overlapping of frequencies used by countries in Some 13 countries produce featurefilms and their the region and the lack of regional planning, orat total output is increasing.India, which produced least of negotiation, to assure the moreeffective 295 such films in 1958, and Hong Kongwhich pro- fourth in the use of frequencies allocated. duced 246 in 1959, stand second and A problem of a different nature is that,in world 11.-zt respectively. China and Koreamake conirast to Western countries, Asiancountries do over 100 features yearly;the Philippines made not need merely two or three separatechannels 97 in 1958 and Pakistan and Burmabetween 40 and catering for different tasts, but separateservices 80.Smaller numbers of features areproduced different in character and addressed to different in Viet-Nam, Singapore, Iran,Ceylon. Indonesia audiences.One service must be addressed to a and Thailand. fairly literate urban minority who, on the other All of these countries, as well as Cambodia, hand, own most of the receivers in the country. Malaya and Netherlands New Guinea,make docu- Another service must be devoted to a lessliterate mentary films, in many cases throughthe agency rural majority who not only must be providedwith of government film units.Newsreels are pro- programmes, but with means of listening tothem. duced in Burma, Ceylon, China, India,Indonesia, This rural audience needs radio for instruction Iran, Korea, Pakistan, Ryuku Islands,Singapore, as well as entertainmentand should be given some Thailand and Viet-Nam.There is no film pro- incentive to take advantage of the servicesprovided. duction of any kind in Afghanistan, Brunei,Laos, The farm forums conducted jointly byAll-India Nepal, North Borneo and Sarawak. Radio and Unesco, in which village discussion Films from Europe, Japan, the U.S.A.and groups listen and comment onagricultural ques- USSR circulate fairly widely in theregion. tions, are an example of social educationand train- The 27 countries are served by 7,673fixed ing in the radio field.Country dwellers often cinemas (35 and 16 mm.) with a total of5,202,000 receive such programmes through community sets seats, representing 0.7 seats for every100 people. and programmes should, therefore, not beaddres- Cinemas are generally located in thelarger cities sed to them as individuals. and thousands of small towr.s andvir ges lack In providing reception services, the problem screening facilities. uf equipment is much greater than in transmission. Only nine countries exceed the Unesco mini- Most South East Asian countries depend on afew mum of two seats for every100 inhabitants - producing countries outside th., .! region for supplies Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Macao, of receivers and the cost of a set to an individual North Borneo, Philippines, Ryuku Islandsand listener may be prohibitive.The manufacture of Singapore.Although India has as many as 3,400 low-cost transistorized sets is now feasible, but cinemas and Indonesia 655, the average cf seats since this is dependent on mass production, an in these countries is less than one per 100 persons. assurance of large-scale marketsis necessary. Countries with even more limited facilities in- Shortages of foreign currency and heavy import clude Afghanistan, Iran, Laos, Pakistanand duties also limit the availability of sets to Asian Thailand. audiences.The apparent solution would be the Although most governments use mobile uniis manufacture within South East Asian countries of to bring films to outlying communities, many receivers suited to community listening, and hundreds of thousands of Asians have yet to see battery operated where electricity is not available, their fiist film.Throughout the region, the to be supplied to rural areas.Attention should be average cinema attendance per personis 2.8 times 21 a year.The ratio is higher than this in Brunei, power is extremely low, the imposition of duties Cambodia, China, Malaya, Hong Kong, India, on imported information films and of taxes on Indonesia, Korea, Macao, Ryuku Islands and cinema admissions further restricts the circulation Singapore.In contrast, attendance in Laos, of such films.In view of the advent of television Netherlands New Guinea, North Borneo, Pakistan, in South East Asia, it is highly desirable that the Philippines and Portuguese Timoraverages countries of the region take co-operativemeasures less than once a year. to encourage the production and interchange of in- Numerous problems of production, distribu- formation films for diffusion through thisnew tion and exhibition limit the role of the filmas a medium. vehicle for cultural exchange and the flow of information between the countries of the region,and Television between the region and the rest of the world.All raw film and equipment for producing and exhibit- Television is in its infancy in South East Asia. ing films are imported from Europe, NorthAmerica Only five countries - Hong Kong, Iran, the Republic or Japan, except that in the case of India, some of Korea, the Philippines and ThaiJand- maintain minor items of equipmentare made locally.Im- regular services.These services, with a total port duties and foreign currency shortages increase of eight transmitters and 113,000 receivers,are the difficulty of obtaining these materials. developed to a very limited extent, thz bulk of the Due largely to the lack of trained personnel, facilities being concentrated in major cities. technical and artistic standards of productionare India is conducting an experimental station and generally not very high and filmsare not effective- Pakistan and Singapore are planning to establish ly used.The great potentialities of the film for services. education, instruction and training in agriculture, A number of other South East Asian countries industry and other fields are still to be fullyap- are reported to be considering the introduction of preciated and exploited in South East Asia. television, but information on their aims, needs In the field of legislation, little has been done and resources is lacking.If such information to encourage the production and exhibition of qual- were secured through a comprehensive survey of ity films, particularly documentary andother in- the region, television could be developed inan formation films, by suchmeans as subsidies and orderly and efficient manner for the benefit of the reduction of taxes on distribution.Measures the peoples concerned.Without this initial plan- of tnis kind have proved effective ina number of ning, television is likely to fail in its reileas a technically advanced countries. potent medium for bringing information and in- In most South East Asian countries, produc- struction both to city and rural audiences. tion equipment and laboratory facilitiesare in- Expe-ience has shown that powerful social adequate and there is little co-ordination for the forces can compel the introduction of television use of facilities within individual countries or be- before a country may be economically ready for it. tween neighbouring ones with similar needs and It is therefore desirable that governments of the ambitions in film production. region include television in their plans for the de- The lack of well-organized distributing systems velopment of telecommunicationsso that they may is a major obstacle to the effectiveuse of features, be prepared for the extraordinary rapidity with documentaries and newsreels alike.Distribution which the medium can develop. activities are scattered among various government Whether television is to be operated forcom- or private agencies and in few countries hasa col- mercial or non-commerical purposes isa matter lective list been established of educational,scient- for each country to decide.But even though tele- ific and cultural films locally available.Little vision services may be privately owned andcom- effort is made to promote the interchange of Asian mercially operated, they continue touse publicly films or of Asian newsreel items betweenAsian owned broadcasting frequencies and should there- countries through such meansas the establishment fore observe adequate educational and cultural of co-operative arrangements for adaptingfilms standards in the public interest. into various Asian languages.In contrast, facilities There are a number of major obstacles to be for the distribution of European, Americanand overcome if television is to be effectively de- other non-Asian films are relatively extensive and veloped in South East Asia.Most countries of well organized.The result is to limit understand- the region have insufficient financialresources fur ing among the Asian people of eachother's lives the establishment and operation of television and problems and to createan imbalance in the ex- stations.Neighbouring countries with cultural diange of films between East and West. or other links might therefore consider the estab- The exhibition of films in rural areas is,as lishment of services on a group basis, taking into already mentioned, re,-"icted byan insufficiency account the need for agreement on uniform trans- of fixed cinemas as wellas of mobile units.Few mission standards. schools and community centresare equipped with A related problem is the lack of qualified techni- 16 mm. projectors.There is a widespread need cal personnel for the operation of stations and main- of low-cost projectors foruse both in urban and tenance of receivers.This calls for the provision rural areas.In a region where individual purchasing of training facilities within or outside the region. 22 Another major question is the lack of pro- instruction, except that in Burma and Malaya gramme resources produced locally and suited to certain newspaper editors have organized general the needs of the countries concerned.Such re- classes as well.Some ,.,f these countries have sources should include live programmes,normally prepared adequate plans for training but lack the using local artists or events; television films financial resources, equipment and technical made within the country; and films obtainable knowledge to implement them. from abroad. A widespread difficulty is the dearth of The allocation and effective use of frequencies qualified teachers of journalism and insufficiency must also be considered. A related question is of fellowships and other facilities for the training that television signals have a limited range, which of teachers either within the region or abroad. is likely to confine a service for the time being to There is also a lack of suitable textbooks on urban centres. editing and newspaper management, as well as Moreover since few countries of the region of library material and training equipment. A have adequate electrification, television would further obstacle is the reluctance of many mass need to be developed in stages until national cover- media enterprises to accept graduates in journal- age is achieved.Linked with this problem is the ism or to provide sufficient financial inducement difficulty, in the face of currency shortages, of to retain them in the profession. obtaining transmitting and receiving equipment Similar deficiencies prevail in other fields. from abroad.In a region of low individual pur- In the technical side of the press, there is a chasing power, the cost of receivers will doubt- dearth of facilities for training in the management, less present a greater problem than that of trans- supervision and printing of newspapers and mitters.However, this obstacle might.be re- periodicals.In the news agency field, there is a duced by organizing community viewing services widespread need for the exchange of journalists through teleclubs.In addition, the development by national agencies as a means of giving them of transistorized television sets, as in Japan, for broader experience and promoting understanding example, may further facilitate the spread of among the peoples of the region. television in the region. Schools for the training of radio technicians Careful planning is necessary at all stages to are maintained in a number of countries but need preclude the introduction of television where it is to be extended to provide for the expansion of not viable.Countries of the region should be broadcasting in the area.Closer liaison is also able to benefit from the experience of other South required between broadcasting organizations and East Asian countries which have begun operating telecommunication administrations so that train- services.For this purpose, the impact of tele- ing facilities may be provided on a national basis vision on Asian audiences and its use as an instru- with a minimum of cost. ment for educational and economic development In the film field, the lack of facilities for should be assessed through careful research. training professional and technical personnel is particularly acute.Most countries in the region Training and Research have no formal facilities of any kind and rely solely on "on-the-job" instruction.In India and The lack of qualified professional and technical the Philippines, limited technical courses in film personnel is one of the most formidable obstacles and television are provided but there are no to the development of the mass media in South advanced facilities for training in production. East Asia.An information enterprise with Among obstacles to the development of training limited facilities but well qualified staff will be at facilities in the region are a dearth of financial least moderately effective.On the other hand, resources, the lack of established standards for an enterprise with extensivefacilities but insuf- the recruitment of film apprentices and technicians ficiently trained personnel will have little prospect and a failure among employers to appreciate the of success. need for organized training.These deficiencies A major aspect of the problem is the profes- seriously impair efforts to improve the quality sional training of journalists in the various media. either of features or information films. Only a limited number of journalists in the region Closely related to the question of training is have received systematic training which combines that of research in the mass media.One con- technical instruction with wide general education clusion of the Bangkok meeting on the development and an understanding of professional ethics.The of the media in South East Asia was that research development and operation of the mass media in was urgently needed to assess the precise ways in South East Asia will call for the services of many which modern techniques and equipment could be thousands of fully-trained journalists. employed to advantage in particular development Nine of the countries - China, India, Indonesia, projects.Research is required, for example, Iran, Korea, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and In the promotion of techniques suitable for produc- Viet-Nam - offer professional courses, most of ing national and local language newspapers; in them at schools of journalism or university depart- the types of periodicals becit suited to various ments of journalism.In the other countries of the audiences; in the use of radio, film and televis- region, journalists receive only "on-the-job" sion for education in different countries or areas;

23 and in the response of audiences to different radio there is considerable scope for expansion of the and television programmes.Such research is provincial press. essential as the basis for effective development of The general total of 1,154 daily newspapers, the media in any region. however, may be considered as sufficient for the region.Only four countries have one daily. Moreover, the existing dailies can be expected, LATIN AMERICA provided they can obtain the necessary staff, sup- 1 plies of materials and capital, to expand their For the purposes of this survey, "Latin America" circulations in step with current growth in popula- includes all of the countries of South America and tion, literacy and per capita income. Central America, as well as Mexico and the Daily newspaper circulation is, however, far Caribbean.The region embraces 34 States and from adequate, considered on a per capita basis. territories, with a total of 200million people, or The regional average is 7.4 copies per 100 6.9 per cent of the world total. inhabitants.Of the 32 countries for which data Five of those countrieE, with a total of 13 are available, 12 possess up to five copies per million inhabitants, fall below the "Unesco mini- 100 persons, eleven have five to ten copies, five mum" with regard to all four of the mass media. possess ten to fifteen copies and two have 15 to20 An additional five countries, with a population of copies per 100 inhabitants.The remaining two 17 million, fall below the minimum with regard countries, the Bahamas and Bermuda, have as to three of the media; eleven countries, with many as 35 copies per 100 persons.Among 91 million inhabitants, fall below the minimum with countries at the bottom of the scale are Haiti regard to two of the media;and ten countries, with (0.3 copies), Windward Islands (0.6), Martinique 67 million inhabitants, fall below the minimum with (1.1), Guadeloupe (1.2), Guatemala (2.2) and regard to one of the media.Possibilities for ex- Honduras (2.5). pansion of the media throughout the region are, In addition, there are 1,630 non-daily news- therefore, manifold.Such development must papers and 7,862 periodicals in the region.About necessarily be affected by the levels of purchasing 85 per cent of these publications appear in seven power, which vary considerably in this area. countries - Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, About four per cent of the Latin American popula- Mexico, Peru and Venezuela.Most of the tion have an average annual income of less than periodicals are published in the main centres, $100; 52 per cent, between $100 and $200; 20 per usually on presses which they do not own. A cent, between $200 and $300; and the remaining small number have considerable circulations and 24 per cent, between $300 and $600.Another are sold in other Latin Americancountries. factor is the level of literacy, which is now about Most periodical publications, however, print only 57 per cent among adults. a few thousand copies or even less.In general, Three additional observations might be made the periodical, technical, specialized and rural regarding the status of the media in the region. press is still in its infancy.The region has, for Firstly, the great majority of the Latin American example, few effective agricultural journals or population proper is Spanish-speaking, the only school newspapers.Assistance is needed in es- other widely-spoken language being Portuguese. tablishing specialized professional associations Language barriers in Latin America are thus far (e.g. to promote the rural press) or in organizing less important than in most of the other under- jointly-owned printing services and the co-operative developed regions.Secondly, there is, on the purchase of materials. other hand, a clearly defined population group ccm- Moreover, only tentative efforts have been posed in the main of Andean Indians, most of whom made to produce reading material for adults who, speak vernacular languages, have special needs and having acquired literacy, need instruction in new are as yet barely affected by the massmedia. farming and industrial techniques, housing, hygiene, This is a problem requiring special research and and similar subjects.Governments might con- action.Finally, there is in general a striking sider establishing educational publications of this disparity in the availability of mass media facili- kind or promote their development in other ways. ties as between urban and rural communities. A The supply of printing paper has been a long- development programme should therefore make standing problem both in regard to price and the adequate provision for rural groups. expenditure of foreign currency.This is particularly true of the smaller newspapers printed on Newspapers and Periodicals presses requiring sheet paper.Action has been taken by FAO and ECLA to stimulate local paper The region is served by 1,154 daily newspapers production, not only as a means of furthering in- with a total circulation of some 14.7 million.In dustrial development but also to facilitate contact each country, a few major newspapers, published between producer and consumer and ease the in the capital and sometimes also in a few pro- balance of payments.Demand for newsprint in vincial cities, account for most of the circulation. the 20 Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries Few of the newspapers in the larger cities publish totalled 495,000 metric tons in 1956.It is ex- special editions for outlying areas.Consequently, pected to rise, according to the FAO, to 970,000

24 tons in 1965 and 1,790,000 tons in management and administration.The third Although production in the region is increasing, obstacle arises from the high or disparate rates there will still remain, by 1965, an ex 'ess of charged for transmitting news within the area and demand of some 500,000 tons to be met by imports. to other regions. The estimated increase in newsprint consump- The problem of training is considered later tion reflects the rapid expansion of the press in this section.A possible solution to the com- which can be expected to take place in the next few munication problem may derive from the project, years.However, there are customs and financial initiated by Mexico, for an Inter-American Tele- obstacles to the importation of printing paper and communication Network, which would link all other supplies which need to be reduced.The ex- countries in the Americas and be jointly owned by pansion of the press and improvement of existing participating governments.A meeting of tele- newspapers will also c-ill for many more trained communication experts, convened in Mexico City, editorial and technical personnel, a problem which in April 1960 by the Organization of American is dealt with below. States, pointed out that such a network could permit the exchange of news within the region at News Agencies and Telecommunications operating costs comparable to those in Europe. The network could also be an inexpensive channel Argentina and Brazil have private4-owned agencies for the distribution, throughout Latin America, of which exchange news between the main cities or news from other regions, as well as for the dis- supply it to the provinces.Cuba is the only patch of Latin American news abroad.The ex- country possessing a news agency which distributes istence of a telecommunication network could, it news regularly to other countries in the region. was also stated, greatly facilitate the exchange Smaller agencies, all private, exist in Chile, of radio and television programmes. Uruguay and Venezuela.None of these services It therefore appears that the most important distributes news from the world news agencies. immediate step to promote the flow of information Moreover, no Latin American agency, with the within the region would be to build up adequate possible exception of one in Brazil, is of the co- telecommunication facilities for the western hemi- operative, non-profit making type, like the sphere.Apart from this "internal" problem, Associated Press (U.S.A.) or various agencies in however, there would remain the problem of im- Europe.Expansion of national news agencies proving the inward flow of news of special interest might be given special attention in a development to Latin America from other regions, through programme for the region. services operated and controlled directly by Latin A number of factors favour news agency de- American information enterprises.It would velopment in Latin America.The first is the clearly be impossible for Latin American enter- economic element.News agency development in prises, any more than for Asian ones, to attempt the region, as elsewhere, would normally be based at this stage to build up a news file of the scope on the existence of newspapers and broadcasting of those now provided by the world news agencies. stations able to subscribe to agency services. On However, useful arrangements, even if limited the basis of total newspaper circulation and totals in scope, could now be made to deal with this of radio and television receivers, the mass media problem. are more highly developed in Latin America than The technical obstacles to remedial action of in South East Asia or Africa It appears para- this kind are not insurmountable.A scheme to doxical, on economic grounds, that there should improve foreign news coverage could be put into be fewer national news agencies in Latin America operation by a group of information enterprises than in either of these two other regions. representing countries within the region, or it A second favourable factor is the trend towards could be a sequel to the establishment of national economic and social integration in Latin America. news agencies in a number of Latin American Indeed, such integration may well depend largely countries.Arrangements would need to be made upon a greater flow of news among the countries of for the economic transmission of news from one the region.Economic and social unity may in or more points in North America or Europe to turn strengthen the development of a Latin American the countries where subscribers to the scheme outlook on world events, thus facilitating the es- were located.The proposed Inter-American tablishment of joint arrangements for covering Telecommunication Network could contribute to world news. lowering distribution costs throughout the Americas. Three negative factors offset these positive A final point is that the development of national ones.Most important, perhaps, is the fact that news agencies, and even more of regional news the extensive services of the world news agencies agencies, would be very difficult without govern- are distributed directly in Spanish and Portuguese. ment encouragement.Such assistance need not This would diminish, for Latin American agencies, necessarily take the form of direct financial the "translation" function which is impertant among participation.Substantial indirect contributions news agencies in South East Asia.There is, in might take the form of tax exemptions or of re- addition, a severe lack of trained Latin American duced telecommunication rates, comparable, for senior news agency staff, particularly in example, to the Commonwealth penny press rate.

25 the largest producer, made 114features in 1958. Radio Broadcasting Argentina and Es-azil produceabout 30 features; Uruguay and Technically speaking, Latin Americais better Chile four; and Cuba, Guatemala, facilities. Venezuela, one or two annually.All feature served with radio than with press basis. Radio is playing an increasinglyimportant role in films are made on a commerical the region since, Only a few countries producedocumentary the dissemination of news within State agencies unlike the press, it has no problemsof physical and other short films regularly. and universities play animportant part in these transport to outlying areas.However, the available, general technical and programme levelof Latin activities.Although exact data are not that of the Mexico is probably the largestproducer of short American radio is perhaps lower than Smaller press. films, followed by Brazil andArgentina. in the producers include Bolivia, Chile,Colombia, Cuba, Some 19.5 million receivers are in use Peru, Puerto Rico, area, the average per100 people being 9.8 sets. El Salvador, Haiti, Jamaica, Density of distribution varies widelywithin the Uruguay and Venezuela. 40 sets Six countries produce two or morenewsreels: region.For example, Bermuda has some Venezuela, Colombia per 100 persons, whereasHaiti has 0.6. Eleven Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, countries possess less than five sets per100 in- and Cuba.One newsreel each is producedby Dominican Republic, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, ElSalvador, habitants (British Honduras, Panama, El Salvador, Guadaloupe,Guatemala, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Nicaragua, Paraguay and Peru. Honduras, Ecuador, French Guiana, in countries ani Surinam).A further eight countrieshave be- Films are occasionally produced 100 people. other than those mentioned above.The wide- tween five and 10 receivers per in due course Numerically speaking, the regionaltotal of spread introduction of television may 2,378 broadcasting stations would seemto be more create a demand for localfilms in these countries. films, "11 than sufficient for Latin America'sneeds.Many Mexico has a natural market for its of low power and particularly features, in other countriesof the of these stations are, however, Other exporters are Argentina and limited range.A number operate on short-wave region. with a consequent loss Brazil.Films from the United States,and to cover larger areas, but widely.A few in quality of reception. European countries, circulate privately films are imported from othercountries, usually Although nearly all of the stations are region, and film owned, there is at least oneState-operated station through film festivals held in the Many stations subsidized clubs, which are becoming increasinglypopular. . in almost every country. with by the State play a useful rOlein providing educa- The region is served by 12,847 cinemas, The multiplicity a total seating capacityof nearly seven million, tional and cultural programmes. While most middle- of commercial stations is themajor obstacle to or 3.5 seats per100 people. potential number sized communities have at least onecinema, many their own development, since the kind. of listeners and the availablebudget per programme smaller centres lack facilities of any Several stations are owned Governments have little mobile equipment. are inevitably reduced. Nine countries have two seats or less per100 by newspapers, an arrangementwhich helps to reduce information ser- inhabitants (the Bahamas, Bolivia,Dominican operating costs through pooling of Haiti, vices and other means. Republic, El Salvador, Guaten-ala, broadcasting in the Honduras, Paraguay and Peru); 14have from two The development of radio seats; region would therefore call forimprovement in the to six seats; six have from six to seven and an increase and three have over seven seats per100 persons variety and quality of programmes, Islands). in audiences, rather than anexpansion of transmis- (Bermuda, British Guiana and the Falkland The provision of low-cost re- Annual average cinema attendance inthe region sion facilities. Attendance is highest ceivers would greatly contribute toexpanding the is 4.9 times per person. An increase in the Caribbean area, with ratesranging from audience, particularly in rural areas. In Mexico, Uruguay in audiences would in turn facilitatethe financing eight to 13 times per person. the number of and Venezuela, the rate isbetween seven and nine, of better programmes, provided and between four and six inArgentina and Brazil. stations did not further increase. is less The problem of the multiplicityof stations thus In contrast, attendance per person Clearly, however, this than three times a year in Barbados,the Dominican appears as a central one. Islands, is a matter for legislation which canonly be solved Republic, Ecuador, the Falkland Guadaloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Hondurasand the at the national level.There is, in fact, a general broadcasting Windward Islands. need to modernize and improve radio of the film and television legislation in theregion.Another A major obstacle to development staff, industry is the lack of qualified staff.With better- problem is the lack of qualified programme films could discussed separately below. trained personnel, more and better a subject which is undoubtedly be produced in the well-equipped Argentina and Film studios and laboratories in Mexico, Brazil.Many other countries, however,lack As a result, About ten countries produce featurefilms.Mexico, adequate film production facilities.

26 the Central American countries at present have This, together with a shortage of technical and their newsreels processed in Mexico.Similarly, artistic staff, is the main obstacle to more effect- Bolivia and Paraguay utilize facilities in Argentina. ive television in the region. Regional schemes to assist countries where film Television audiences might be enlarged by production is limited might be envisaged.Another two principal means:the provision of receivers, possibility is the development of co-production including battery-operated sets, at low cost; and arrangements. simultaneous telecasts, from several stations, to Indeed, the main possibilities for expanding audiences in wide areas.Such telecasts would film output generally, even in countries with an require telecommunication links between stations. established film industry, seem to lie in regional Development of the proposed Inter-American action.The development of free trade zones and Telecommunication Network might contribute to common markets in Latin America will probably the solution of this problem, thus facilitating the involve the revision of film legislation concerning formation of a Latin American counterpart to import quotas, import duties and internal taxes. "Eurovision".However, the problem is not The revision of legislation would need to be solely an international one.It is important that matched by increased co-operation between Latin adequate provision for television be made from American film producers, distributors and exhibi- the outset, when national telecommunication net- tors, with a view to making better use of present works are being installed or modernized.This resources.This objective might be furthered has already been done in Colombia, where the through the establishment of regional professional State-operated television service reaches 45 per film associations. cent of the population through use of satellite stations hooked up to the central station in Bogota Television via the national telecommunications network. Television in Latin America has three distinct Training and research aspects.Firstly, almost all countries have transmitting facilities, generally maintained in the A number of Latin American countries now have major cities.Secondly, television does not yet schools of journalism attached to universities or reach provincial populations in a number of countries; colleges.Most of these schools, however, need much, in fact, must yet be done to extend reception assistance in improving their courses.For this in urban areas already served.Thirdly, the local purpose and particularly to meet the shortage of production of programmes is extremely limited. trained journalism teachers, Unesco recently Seventeen countries have at least one station, assisted in creating the Latin American Centre there being 100 stations throughout the region.In for Advanced Studies in Journalism, with head- addition, Chile has an experimental service and quarters at Quito.This Centre, now in its second the Bahamas, British Guiana, Costa Rica, Ecuador year, held its first three-months training course and the Netherlands Antilles are planning to estab- in late 1960.Its future success will depend lish services. largely on the extent of aid available from national There are some 2.9 million receivers in the as well as international sources.However, the region, givingan average of 1.5 per 100 people. provision of teacher-training facilities is only one Apart 'from Bermuda, which averages 19.3 re- of many possible types of action to further the de- ceivers per 100 persons, Cuba has the most highly velopment of journalism education in Latin America. developed service, with 5.6 sets per 100 inhabitants. Other measures might include the provision of Audiences are limited in all the other countries. fellowships for study in other regions, the holding For example, Mexico and Argentina both average of seminars on specialized subjects under the 1.9; Brazil, 1.5; and Colombia, 1.1. auspices of schools of journalism or professional In general, television is privately operated. organizations in various countries, the translation, Programmes are mainly directed to city dwellers, adaptation and publication of textbooks, and the the sector with the highest purchasing power and provision of expert advice.A parallel effort advertising interest.An exception is Colombia, needs to be made for the training of printing and where all stations are owned by the State, although mechanical staff. programmes are partly under commercial sponsor- As mentioned earlier, the lack of qualified ship. news agency staff is a problem of major import- Since Latin America's television audiences are ance in itself.In view of the limited developrrent small, the fees paid by sponsors are very limited of national news agencies in the area, advanced and it is difficult, consequently, to produce good training cannot be provided within the region. quality programmes.Local tele-newsreels are As an alternative, fellowships might be awarded produced in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, for one or two years' study abroad, to a selected Mexico and Venezuela.International news number of Latin American journalists wishing to material and many other programmes are imported, specialize in agency work. already dubbed, from the United States.Even In the field of radio broadcasting, the number Mexico, with its well-developed film industry, has of trained technicians is generally adequate.On not yet been able to compete in the television field. the other hand, there is a shortage of trained

27 programme staff and of facilities for training. people to encourage their development as national In the television field, there is a shortage of or even written languages.Governments and in- technicians and particularly of programme staff. formation enterprises, particularly in the newly Training facilities need to be developed through independent States, are faced with the difficult the establishment of centres at institutions of decision as to which of their various local higher learning.Plans for such training centres languages should be employed in the mass media have, in fact, been drawn up in Mexico.Seminars and whether major European tongues, such as and fellowships would be essential elements of English and French, should continue to be used television training programmes. simultaneously as languages of wide diffusion. Universities in several Latin American countries, including Argentina, Chile, and Newspapers and Periodicals Mexico, have established film training centres. Universities in Uruguay and certain other countries The African press is marked by wide variety in maintain experimental or scientific film institutes. types of ownership, audience and stages of de- In addition, various commercial schools in the velopment.In northern Africa, a large part of region offer training in film making.However, the press is nationally owned and is devoted to these facilities are in the main inadequate, due to Arabic language audiences in that area and, to lack of modern equipment and qualified teachers. some extent, in the Middle East.In the southern , As a result, there is a shortage of well-trained eastern and to a considerable extent the western film technicians throughout the region.Training parts of the continent, the most effective publica- might be promoted through fellowships and seminars, tions are "European owned" and were published as well as by lecture and demonstration tours by originally for European audiences.In West Africa, specialists in film production, distribution and ex- particularly in the English-speaking countries, hibition. African enterprise has lately come to the fore with Mass communication research has been limited publications in European as well as African mainly to historical studies and public opinion polls. languages.The press of East and West Africa is The various institutions now providing training in also characterized by the large number of publica- press, film, radio and television in the region could tions directed by governments, political parties, give invaluable service in research if they were church and missionary groups. made aware of the usefulness of such work and of The continent is served by 221 daily news- the advantages of a joint programme of action. papers with a total circulation of 2,900,000. Subjects for study throughout the region might Circulation levels range from between six and range from legislation on the mass media to an ex- seven copies per 100 persons in Reunion, Mauritius, amination of the requirements of the Andean Indian Melilla and the Union of South Africa to between two population.Here again, remedial action is greatly and five in Algeria, Ghana, Morocco, Southern needed. Rhodesia, the Seychelles and the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Province) and to between 0.01 and 0.9 in 36 countries, including many of large AFRICA population.In seven of these countries, the daily press co-mists of roneotyped bulletins.Fifteen With the lowest level of literacy, Africa is likewise couniries, with a total population of 12 millions, poorer in information facilities than the other major have no dailies of any kind - Basutoland, Bechuana- regions.For every 100 persons there are only land, Cameroons, Cape Verde Islands, Comoros, 1.2 copies of daily newspapers, 1.8 radio receivers Gabon, Ifni, Mauretania, Nyasaland, Ruanda Urundi, and ('.5 seats in permanent cinemas.Moreover, St. Helena, Sao Tome and Principe, Somaliland, no single country in Africa reaches the Unesco Spanish Sahara and Swaziland. minimum for information facilities, cited above. There are also 835 non-dailies and 1,382 The 60 States and territories in the region have periodicals, most of which are concentrated in a combined population of 236,000,000 or 8.1 per nine countries. cent of the world total.The general level of pur- Newsprint consumption for the whole region chasir:g power, slightly higher than in South East is less than 137,000 tons annually,representing Asia but lower than in Latin America or the Middle 0.6 kg. per person.Africa depends wholly on East, is a major obstacle to expansion of the mass imports for its supplies of printing paper. ir!ed.:a. About 70 per cent of the population have an Among the many obstacles to expansion of the average income of less than $100; 25 per cent, be- press in Tropical Afria are a dearth of develop- tween $100 and $200; and the remainder between ment capital and an insufficiency of advertising $200 and $400.Development of the press is particu- support, due largely to the lack of major industries. larly impeded by the low level of literacy - between This insufficiency could be in part overcome if 15 and 20 per cent among adults. government printing contracts were placed with A problem affecting development oi all the domestic rather than non-African firms.In addi- media in Africa is the great multiplicity of tion, newspaper operations are heavily taxed in a languages and dialects.Thesc: number nearly 800 number of countries and the imposition of import and relatively few of them are spoken 1.7 enough duties on equipment and materials, all of which are

28 imported, constitutes a further difficulty.As in Since in most of the Africancountries sub- South East Asia, there is a widespread lack of scriptions from newspapers, broadcastingservices reasonably up-to-date composing and printing and other sour ces would not meet the costof run- machinery, and smaller publishers have difficulty ning a news agency, government assistancewould in obtaining newsprint under favourable market probably be necessary.In that event, conditions conditions. for the establishment of an agency shouldprovide Distribution problems are probably greater that it does not become an organ of thegovernment than in any other region, with the result that press itself or of any single interest. circulation is concentrated mainly in the larger To assure a comprehensive flow cf newsbe- centres.Surface transport services are generally tween the countries of Africa, co-operationbe- poor and the smaller publishersfind it almost im- tween national news agencies would need tobe possible to organize their own distributing services encouraged.This objective might be furthered (even by bicycle) in wide areas with scattered through an association of national agencieswhich, populations.Under these conditions, use of the while enjoying complete autonomy,would exchange airmail has become almost obligatory in many news, promote technicalimprovements, safe- areas.However, airmail surcharges impose an guard their common interests and assistin the de- excessive burden on the precarious budgets of velopment of new news agencies.In Europe, an many press enterprises.Remedial action on association of this kind, the EuropeanAlliance of this problem might be taken through theAfrican News Agencies, has functionedeffectively since its Postal Union.It is significant that the most suc- establishment in 1957. cessful press groups are generally well capitalized With the exception of the southernpart of enterprises with links outside the continent. Africa, telecommunications areinadequately de- Attempts have been made to provide news veloped, particularly between countrieswithin the sheets and other publications for newly literate region.As a result, messages being sentbetween continuing their interest two points in Tropical Africa mustoften be routed persons with the aim of being trans- in reading.Many of these publications, though through Paris or London, instead of well subsidized, have not had the impactenvisaged mitted direct.Direct links are in fact, generally by their planners because they are too didacticin non-existent.Telegraph services are rudimentary tone.The apparent solution would be to have and telephone serviceslittle developed, if at ail . them deal with much the same subjects asordinary In addition, the transmission of newsis hindered newspapers, but with the materialpresented in a by high or discrepant communicationcharges, with by as much as more easily understandableform. rates for similar services varying 600 per cent. News Agencies and Telecommunications An effective and economic means of overcoming these deficiencies would be the provisionof National news agencies are maintained in 13African scheduled radio communication services,with the countries - Cameroon Republic, Central African news agencies leasingtransmitters and receivers, Republic, Congo (Leopoldville), Gabon,Ghana, or time on these facilities,at reasonable rates. Guinea, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan,Tunisia, The possibility of organizing aco-operative news Union of South Africa and United Arab Republic. exchange service using these channels mightbe Ethiopia, the Ivory Coast, Mali and Togo are pre- studied, in consultation with the AfricanTelecom- preparing to establish news agencies.A number munication Union.The development of telecom- of the existing agencies have been establishedwith munication services for the mass media couldbe government support.Countries without national considerably encouraged if telecommunication tiews agencies rely for theirsupply of news on the administrations or their concessionaires would world news agencies, or in the case ofnon-self- allow news agencies to make direct useof their governing territories, on the national newsagencies radio communication facilities.Direct use of International of the administering States.In general, the ex- such facilities is permitted under the change of news between Africa and other continents Telegraph Regulations and adequatesafeguards is in the hands of the world agencies. against abuse are provided (Article 85,Geneva Almost all of the national agencies in Tropical Revision, 1958).At the same time, the wider use of the airmail for thedispatch of news Africa are of recent establishment and require con- be over- siderable development.The main obstacle to news articles, features and photos should not agency expansion is lack of managerial experience looked. and the need to simplify the problems involved. A common error in establishing news agenciesin any Radio Broadcasting region is the tendency to mix thc _3traightforward work of collecting and distributing news with mis- Radio broadcasting has advanced morerapidly cellaneous activities such as publishing, advertis- than the press in Africa and in recent yearsthe ing and propaganda.In addition, there is the need total of receivers has increasingly exceeded that to make a clear distinction between a national news of copies of daily newspapers.In most of the agency and a government informationdepartment, couatries, broadcasting services are underpublic even if the news agency is governmentsponsored. control and their expansion has been actively 29 encouraged by governments.Nevertheless, many Organization of the exchange of programmes gaps remain to be filled, particularlyin the pro- is particularly difficult in TropicalAfrica, due vision of programmes suited to local audiences. largely to the multiplicity of locallanguages and Throughout the region, there is wide diversity the widely differing culturalbackgrounds of local in the stages of development reached.Countries audiences.The problem is much more acute in in the southern part and most of the northern part this region than in South East Asia,the Middle of Africa have achieved the highest level of ex- East or Latin America, where largepopulation For pansion.In Tropical Africa, a number of groups have linguistic or culturalaffinities. countries have made moderate progress.On the those audiences in Africa whose commonlanguage other hand, various territories, including Gambia, is English or French, the larder is not soempty Ceuta, Ifni, Melilla, Ruanda Urundi and St.Helena, as for others.But the programmes available still lack broadcasting facilities of any kind.The to them through exchanges ortranscriptions are Cameroons do not produce programmes hut are rarely produced with African audiencesin mind. served by Nigeria.Basutoland, Bechuanaland, South West Africa and Swaziland are similarly Film served by the Union of South Africa. There are no more than 309 transmitters for Only the United Arab Republic andTunisia pro- the whole continent, most of them being concen- duce feature films regularly.In 1959 the United trated in nine countries.Radio receivers total Arab Republic made 60 features and Tunisia one 4,344,000, giving an average of 1.8 for every 100 (in co-production with France).Newsreels are inhabitants.Only four countries have more than produced, generally by government agencies,in five sets per 100 persons - Mauritius, SaoTome Angola, Ghana, Mauritius, Morocco,Mozambique, and Principe, Somaliland and the Union of South Tunisia, and the United Arab Republic.Docu- Africa.Countries with the lowest distribution mentary films are made in Algeria, Congo level are Ruanda Urundi, Upper Volta, Niger and (Leopoldville),Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, the Sudan. Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Sudan,Swaziland, A number of countries maintain international Tunisia, Uganda, Union of South Africa and the broadcasting services and also conduct domestic United Arab Republic.Features and newsreels programmes in one or more locallanguages. from Europe and North America circulate fairly Most of the non-self-governing territoriesbroad- widely. cast programmes supplied by theadministering There are 2,400 cinemas with a total of States. 1,300,000 seats.Only Algeria, Mauritius, In developing their services, the countriesof Melilla and St. Helena possess more than two Tropical Africa are confronted first with the seats per 100 inhabitants.Although mobile units problem of assuring national coverage with the are being increasingly used in rural areas,the limited resources at their disposal in terms of average attendance per person for thewhole region finance and trained personnel.Circumstances remains at a level of once a year.Countries with may dictate a beginning with the more concen- an attendance rate of more thantwice a year are trated urban areas where services can be more Algeria, Libya, Mauritius, St. Helena, Sierra easily and economically established.But it is Leone, Union of South Africa and the United Arab essential that planning should, from the start, Republic. provide for the larger operation.Such decisions As will be seen from the foregoing summary, affct the choice of transmission systems and the most of the countries of Tropical Africa lack types of receivers suitable for use in areaswith production facilities of any kind.Existing pro- inadequate electrification. duction units are hampered by a dearth of develop- A major transmission problem in Tropical ment capital and of trained personnel, thehigh Africa arises from the fact that, for reasonsof cost of importing raw film and equipmentgenerally economy, short-wave broadcasting iswidely used subject to import duties, and difficulties in for domestic services.Short-wave transmissions organizing adequate distribution systems. In in the tropics are, however, severely affectedby countries with linguistic or othe affinities, the solar interference from October to Apriland im- production of films, at least of newsreels and provement can only be realized if funds aremade documentaries, might be encouraged by pooling available for the introduction of frequencymodula- studio and other facilities.Co-operative tion broadcasting, combined with medium-wave arrangements might also be made by groupsof "booster" services.The solution to the receiver countries for the purchase of materials. problem may lie in the provision of low-cost transis- In a number of countries, existing arrange- tor sets, ideally available to every family and ments for distribution do not favour the exhibi- school.Communal listening may help to meet the tion of information films in commercial cinemas shortage of sets'but should be regarded as a tem- generally committed to "double feature" program- porary and insufficient device.It is to be noted that, mes.Alternative outlets for information films with one or two exceptions, the countries of Africa might be provided through the formation of com- rely on imported equipment and that duties increase munity cinema clubs which could also serve as the cost of receivers by as much as 50 per cent. teleclubs eventually.As in the other regions,

30 there is a widespread need of low-cost projectors to national coverage is the cost of providing for use in schools and community centres, and of receivers in a region of low individual purchasing mobile units for screenings in non-electrified areas. power.This difficulty might be overcome by organizing community viewing through teleclubs, Television which could also be used for discussion groups on programmes of special interest. Although televisionis in its infancy in Africa, both external and internal forces are stimulating Training and Research its expansion in a region rich in visual, oral and ceremonial tradition but with a limited level oi' Africa suffeis more acutely from a dearth of literacy.On the one hand, European commercial trained personnel than any other major region. interests, working in conjunction with local Some countries, for example, cannot claim a interests, are underwriting a number of develop- single qualified journalist and in a number of ment projects.On the other hand, many African others, journalists and radio broadcasters work governments view television as a potent instrument only on a part-time ba3is.Journalism courses for education on the school, vocational and adult are conducted at university level in Congo l'euels and, hence, as a means of aiding transition (Leopoldville), Ghana and the United Arab Republic; from primitive tribalism to modern civilization. a similar course is being established in Nigeria. Regular services are now being conducted in In the other African countries, journalists and Algeria, Nigeria, Southern Rhodesia and the newspaper executives receive only "on-the-job" United Arab Republic.There is a total of six instruction and have little opportunity of acquiring transmitters and 84,000 receivers in the region. an understanding of their professional responsibili- Eight additional countries are preparing to intro- ties.In addition, there is a general need for text- duce television - Congo (Brazzaville), Ghana, books on editing and newspaper management and Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco, Northern Rhodesia, other training material. Sudan and Tunisia. In the news agency field, the lack of managerial ln all four "television" countries, programmes experience is a basic difficulty.This problem are conducted under public supervision.In Algeria might be overcome by sending prospective execu- and the United Arab Republic, the services are a tives to major news centres abroad for training. government enterprise and in Nigeria and Southern Alternatively, younger executives from news Rhodesia they are conducted by British commercial agencies overseas might be engaged to set up interests under contract to the State.It is signifi- agencies in African countries and train local staff cant that in Nigeria, news broadcasts and pro- in their functions.Provision should also be made grammes of African music and dances are far more for the exchange of news agency staff within the popular than the imported serials favoured in region. various Western countries. There are no organized fLicilities in Africa Problems affecting development of television for training radio personnel.Although techni- in Africa are similar to those in Asia.Failure to cians from English-speaking and French-speaking realize the significance of television may lead in zountries are able to obtain training in the United some countries to the drawing up of plans which Kingdom and France respectively, there is a need may be out of date by the time they are put into fcr training centres within the region, where in- force.Careful planning and research, preferably struction could be given within an African context. on a regional basis, is necessary to ensure that In the fields of film and television, there are the medium is developed in an efficient and orderly no facilities for training professional and techni- manner.Countries without television should be cal staff, apart from "on-the-job" instruction. able to benefit from the experience of those which Fellowships might be provided for instruction out- have established services, particularly with regard side the region, until such time as training centres to the maintenance of educational and cultural are established in Africa. standards. There are no facilities for mass communica- Since most of the countries possess very limit- tion research which, as in other regions, is es- ed resources for the development of television, sential for the effective development of the media. services might best be established by groups of countries, taking into account the need for agreement on uniform standards of transmission.' Co- MIDDLE EAST operative arrangements of this kind might also be effective in overcoming such major problems as In this region, Israel is the only country with well the provision of programmes suited to African developed information media and is in fact able to audiences, the allocation and use of frequencies, claim 52 per cent of the total daily newspaper circula- the acquisition of equipment from abroad and the tion, 40 per cent of the total of radio rece iv ers and training of personnel. 42 per cent of cinema seating capacity in the Middle In a number of African countries, television East. To give a more accurate picture of the will necessarily be limited to urban centres until general level of development in the Middle East, outlying areas are electrified.Another obstacle Israel is therefore excluded from this account.

31 The remaining 13 countries in theregion have publications were expanded and distribution ser- a combined population of27,000,000 or 0.9 per vices improved. cent of the world total.Lebanon is the only country Among obstacles hindering press expansion that meets the Unesco minimum for information are lack of development capitaland cu equipment, facilities. particularly in the rural areas.The smaller news- As in the other regions covered in this survey, papers also have particular difficultyin obtaining the low level of purchasing power ,xmsiderably printing paper at favourable prices.Rationing hinders development of the information media. of newsprint is generally maintained because print- About 50 per cent of the population in the regicr ing capacity far exceeds available supplies.Im- have an average annual income of less than $100; port duties and foreign currency shortages also 40 per cent, between $100 and $200; and five per make it difficult for publishers to obtain essential cent between $300 and $400.The generally low materials. level of literacy (25 per cent among adults) particularly hampers expansion of the press. News Agencies and Telecommunications On the other hand, the prevalence of a common language, Arabic, and of a commonprinting Only two countries, the United Arab Republic and script is a factor favouring development of the Iraq, have national news agencies, both of them media.Since certain countries in North Africa being maintained with government support. likewise use the Arabic language and script, com- Several of the larger Middle Eastern newspapers mon solutions might be sought forproblems affect- maintain foreign correspondents within the region ing the Arabic-speaking peoples of the two regions. and abroad.However, the flow of news between It is also noteworthy that certain South East Asian centres of the region, as well as between the countries have cultural links with the Arab Middle East and the rest of the world, remains in countries.In the formulation of a programme the hands of the world news agencies.Although for the development of the media in the Middle certain agencies have reduced their subscription East, the relationship of this region to Africa and rates, most of the smaller papers cannot afford South East Asia should be taken into account. to pay for services sufficient to assure a wide news coverage. Newspapers and Periodicals Over a large part of the region, the flow of newt is hindered by high or discrepant costsof One hundred and eighteen daily newspapers, all transmitting news and, in some countries, in- of small circulation, are published in the 13 adequacies in telecommunication services or countries.There total circulation is 378,000, facilities.Remedial action in this field might be representing 1.4 copies for every 100 people. taken through the recently established Arab Tele- Lebanon possesses as many as 46 dailies, the communication Union.In general, the level of United Arab Republic (Syrian Province) 40 and Iraq telecommunication development is higher in the 16.On the other hand, Yemen, Bhutan, Muscat Middle East than in South East Asia and the pre- and Oman, Trucial Oman and Qatar have no daily valence of a common language is an additional press. factor favouring the flow of information.Much Lebanon, with ten copies of dailies per 100 could be done to develop regional teleprinter and persons, and Bahrein (5.8) have the highestcircula- teletype-setting services to facilitate publication tion levels;in the other countries, the average of identical or modified editions and features in ranges from less than one copy in Aden(Colony various Middle Eastern centres. and Protert:zate), Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to 1.9 in Jordan and the United Arab Republic.It is note- RadioBroadcasting worthy that the metropolitan press of Cairo covers a large part of the region. Radio broadcasting has developed rapidly under The countries are also served by 59 non-dailies government sponsorship in a number of Middle and weeklies and 154 periodicals, most of which are Eastern countries.Expansion has been facilitated published in Lebanon and Iraq. by the linguistic and cultural unity of the region, The total annual consumption of newsprint is which permits individual countries to benefit from 8,400 tons, giving an average of 0.3 kg. per person - the experience of c 'hers. a level as low as in Scuth East Asia.AU of the 13 The countries are served by a total of 37 countries depend cri imports for their supplies of transmittars and 590,000 receivers, representing printing paper. 2.2 sets for every 100 people.This average, A general characteristic of the Middle Eastern though below the Unesco minimum of five receivers, press is the concentration of publications inthe is higher than that in South East Asia and Africa. capital cities.The few small town newspapers and Country averages range from 22.8 receivers periodicals are of ..imited interest and are techni- in Kuait to over five in Lebanon and the United cally not well produced.Country dwellers there- Arab Republic and 0.3 in Saudi Arabia.Commun- fore depend on the urban papers, which in general ity receivers are increasingly used in rural areas reach them only after long delays.Newspaper and a number of countries maintain international circulatiun could be considerably increased if rural services.

32 While certain broadcasting organizations regional service might be advisable.Basic transmit special programmes for rural and other problems of television development are the same audiences, others do not yet have adequate means as in the other underdeveloped regions - a dearth of varying their programmes to meet the needs of trained personnel and of programme resources, of different groups.The exchange o; programmes difficulties in assuring national coverage, arid the within the region has not been very considerably problem of providing reception facilities in areas developed, due partly to the fact that listeners in of low individual purchasing power. each country can readily receive programmes from other countries shar'-g the same language. Training and Research Throughout the region, there is an acute need for 'ow-cost receivers.N.) sets are manufactured Lack of training facilities in all the media repre- in the Middle East and import duties ade to the sents a major problem.There are no schools cost of all radio equipment.Another obstacle is of journalism within the region, instruction in the cost of transmitting information required for newspaper editing and management being pro- news broadcasts, which figure prominently in vided only through "on-the-job" training.There Middle Eastern programmes. are no organized facilities for trainingfilm technicians.In the fields of radio and television, Film training facilities are provided only in Iraq.The general problem might be most effectively solved Development of the film has bean retarded in the through the organization of regional training ser- Middle East due to economic and other reasons. vices. No feature films have recently been made in the There are no facilitifes for research in the region and no documentaries except in Kuwait. development and use of tne mass media.The Newsreels are produced in Kuwait and the United provision of such facilities, particularly in Arab Republic (Syrian Province).Features from audience research, would be an essential element the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Province), of any development programme. which has extensive production facilities, circulate in the Middle East, as well as in South East Asia. Several Middle Eastern countries have begun OTHER AREAS adapting imported educational films for local exhibition and are preparing to produce films of Oceania this kind.As these countries share a common language, the pooling of facilities would be a Within this region, Australia, New Zealand and practical means of aiding the production of informa- Guam have well developed information media. tion films both for the cinema and for t'.:levision. French Polynesia and Norfolk Island have suffi- Since all raw film and equipment is imported, co- cient radio and cinema, but insufficient press operative arrangements might likewise be made facilities.The other dependencies are lacking to secure these materials at lower cost. in respect of all or most of the media. The 13 countries are served by 340 fixed The island groups have a total population of cinemas (35 and 16 mm.) with a total of 165,000 2,889,000 and in most of them literacy is at a seeJs, representing 0.6 seats for every 100 people. high or fairly high level;cinly in the Solomon The average attendance per person is 1.7 times Islands, North East New Guinea and Papua is the a 3,4.a.r. Both of these averages are lower than in level 20 per cent or less among adults.A more Swth East Asia.Only Lebanon meets the Unesco widespread obstacle to development of the media minimum of two seats per 100 people.An in- is the level of purchasing power.In general, crease in the number of mobile units and of 16 mm. the average income per person ranges from less is particularly needed in rural areas.Projectors than $100 to between $200 and $300 annually. are also required for schools, few of which are as The press is very little developed and the yet equipped.With these exhibition facilities, distribution of daily newspapers averages only educational films could reinforce efforts undertaken 0.3 copies per 100 persons.The Fiji Islands in the radio field to instruct children and adults in and New Caledonia each possess a daily newspaper, rural areas. with a circulation of a few thousand copies. Daily bulletins appear in American Samoa, the Television Cook Islands and French Polynesia, and weeklies and periodicals in most of the other areas.The Television is developed to a limited extent.Iraq, New Hebrides and Tonga have no press facilities. Lebanon and Saudi Arabia conduct regular services Australian and New Zealand newspapers circulate and Kuwait maintains an experimental station. in areas south of the equator. There is a total of five transmitters and 49,000 Radio broadcasting services, directed by receivers in the region. governments, are more widely developed than Since the countries of the Middle East possess the press and have become the main source of very limited resources for the development of news and other information.Transmitters are television, the establishment of a co-operative maintained in American Samoa, the Solomo:

33 Islands, Cook Island:, Fiji, French Polynesia, of broadcasting services under tropical con- Gilbert and Ellice Islands, New Caledonia, Niue, ditions.There is a general need of low-cost Pacific Islands, Papua and Western Samoa.The film projectors and radio receivers. remaining groups have no transmission services and rely on broadcasts from other Pacific areas. Europe Although community sets are increasingly used, only Fiji, French Polynesia, Nauru, New Among European countries, Albania and Turkey Caledonia and Norfolk Island exceed the Unesco are underdeveloped in press,radio and film, and minimum for receivers. Portugal, Spain and Yugoslavia in press facilities. No films are produced in the islands.Of 13 Daily newspaper circulation in the five groups for which data are available, onlyAmerican countries ranges from 4.5 to 7.1 copies per 100 Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, New persons and per capita consumptionof newsprint Hebrides, Norfolk Island, and the Pacific Islands from 0.7 to 2.6 kg. annually.Portugal, Spain have more than two cinema seats per 100 persons. and Yugoslavia produce newsprint but not in Mobile units are used to a fair extent.The aver- sufficient quantities to meet their needs.All five age attendance per person is 1.4 times a yearbut countries maintain national news agencies. is considerably higher than this in American Samoa, Albania has 2.8 radio receivers per 100 per- "Fiji and French Polynesia.There are no tele- sons and Turkey 4.4.Both countries maintain vision tran _aission or reception services in any international as well as domestic programmes and of the dependencies. use community receivers in outlying areas. Scattered over a vast ocean area, and with Feature films are regularly produced in Turkey small populations, the island groups face formid- and occasionally in Albania (in co-production with able obstacles of transport and finance in the de- the USSR).Both countries produce newsreels. velopment of their press and cinema facilities.In Albania possesses 1.3 cinema seats per 100 per- the radio field, distance is less of a problem than sons and Turkey 0.8. Turkey hasintroduced televi- that of finance, which bears upon the improvement sion and Albania is planning to establish a service.

34 CHAPTER THREE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS technical instruction and training, as well as general education, on a broad scale.This consideration is of primary importance to communi- The information media, it may first be noted, ties which are seeking to achieve, in a matter of serve the dual purpose of keeping people informed years, what it has taken the advanced countries of the world in which they live and as an instrument centuries to accomplish. of education in the broadest sense.This second There is, in fact, a reciprocal relationship aspect, which has perhaps been insufficiently re- between development of the media and economic cognized, is of growing importance, particularly and technical development.On the one hand, a in the developing countries.Illustrating this society must reach a certain level of wealth and trend is the fact that radio broadcasting and visual technological advancement before it can establish aids are being increasingly used in these countries and maintain the services of the mass media. to bypass the barrier of illiteracy and even, in On the other hand, the media can markedly stimu- some cases, to attack illiteracy itself , late the capacity to create further wealth and can The dual function of the information media has spur technical progress by enlisting the human been fully recognized by the United Nations and factors, such as improved skills and better educa- the Specialized Agencies.In the first place, de- tion, more directly in efforts for economic and velopment of the media has been considered as a social expansion.The mass media can thus serve prerequisite to the full enjoyment of freedom of effectively in winning public support and participa- information.If adequate facilities for information tion in those efforts.This active public participa- are lacking, that basic human right manifestly can- tion in turn facilitates more effective planning by not be enjoyed.As recalled earlier in this re- governments and other agencies, and thus becomes port, the United iNations Conference on Freedom a key element in the industrialization of under- of Information in 1948 proclaimed that freedom of developed countries. information "depends for its validity upon the It is accordingly apparent that the mass media availability to the people of a diversity of sources grow with and contribute to the general economic of news and of opinion".The Conference also development of a nation.For a country's declared that freedom of information "is the industrial planners, it thus becomes necessary to touchstcne of all the f.z ':edoms to which the United consider what part of the national resources might Nations is dedicated"(41). best be devoted to development of the media so as On the other hand, a dearth of facilities over to contribute most effectively to the general expan- wide regions of the globe prevents hundreds of sion of the economy.Planning for development millions of people from effectively enjoying free- of the media must of course take account of the dom of information.Unesco has suggested that multiplicity of other national needs in economic each country should aim to provide for every 100 expansion. However, it would appear that de- of its inhabitants at least ten copies of daily news- velopment of the media, possibly because its ef- papers, five radio receivers, two cinema seats fects are more indirect than direct, has not and two television receivers.On this basis, it generally been given the place it should logically appears that nearly 70 per cent of the world's occupy.Yet an accelerated development of the peoples, living in over 100 countries, lack the media may justifiably be considered as an essen- barest means of being informed of events in their tial element in pre-investment, along with the own lands, let alone in others. Such poverty of in- expansion of education and of such services as formation facilities is particularly acute in the rural communications and transport, and, therefore, areas of many underdeveloped countries.It is as an integral part of any general programme for such areas, moreover, that are generally most economic and social progress. lacking in facilities for formal education. The close relationship between development This factor further emphasizes the second of the media ard general economic and social de- aspect of development of the information media - velopment may be demonstrated statistically. A that is, their crucial role in education and in study initiated by Unesco as part of the present economic and social development generally.It survey shows that in all of the underdeveloped is being increasingly recognized that the mass countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, de- media, unsurpassed in speed, range and force of velopment of the media correlates very highly impact, offer unlimited possibilities of providing with other factors in national growth, such as

35 average per capita income and levels of literacy, Restrictive legislation and administrative - urbanization and industrialization.The study also practices constitute another common obstacle. demonstrates that as per capita income rises, the Quantitative limitations are a hampering factor in demand for the media increases more rapidly in such fields as the co-production or exhibition of the underdeveloped than in the developed countries. films.Import duties increase the cost of sup- In other words, expansion of a nation's economy is plies and, for some mat-rials, such as radio re- paralleled by the expansion of its media.Indeed, ceivers, may make the cost almost prohibitive. the two processes interact because, as already In addition, internal taxes on the operation of observed, development of the media in turn spurs information enterprises may seriously impede economic growth. their growth, particularly in the press and film It may therefore be anticipated that current fields. economic and social expansion in the underdeveloped In many cases, restrictions in the form of countries will bring a progressive increase in the national legislation and administrative practices demand for the media in those areas.An assess- have arisen with the general growth of trade re- ment of that probable increase would manifestly be striction and have been only fortuitously applied necessary in planning a programme for development to the information media.Indeed,there now ap- of the media.A tentative forecast by Unesco, pears to be a growing willingness on the part of based on estimates of future increases in the de- governments to grant dispensations favouring demand for newsprint resulting from increases in velopment of the media,provided that the pr capita incomeoshows that total demand for the measures to be taken are drawn to their notice media in Africa, Asia and Latin Americais likely and the mechanism for applying them is not un- to more than triple by 1975.High as this estimate duly cumbersome. appears, it may well err on the conservative side. Of key importance, of course, is -the lack of It does not, notably, allow for the effects of spread- development capital in the lesy advanced countries. ing literacy, which is expected to increase during It has been found that in plans for the economic the next 15 years more rapidly than might be ex- development of such countries, expenditure on pected from the increase in income alone.This communications and transport is usually about period, it may be noted, will also witness further one-sixth of total public development expenditure. technological advances which are already transform Within this total, communications represent about ing communications in the advanced countries and two to three per cent, most of which, however, is are expected, before long, to make their influence invested in the development of telegraph and tele- felt in all parts of the world.Of the multiplicity phone services.Of the total of public development of advances in this field, it suffices to mention the expenditure, slightly under one per cent is, in possibilities of transmitting press dispatches and general, devoted to development of the information radio and television programmes over wide areas media - mainly in the broadcasting fi,21d.To by means of satellites in outer space; of using this, should be added recurrent experditure on the teleprinter and teletype-setting services for the operation and maintenance of information enter- simultaneous publication of newspaper editions prises.Ira many countries, moreover, much of and features throughout whole regions; and of the expenditure on development of th ;.. media is emp]oying television and facsimile services to private, particularly in, the establishment and transmit a newspaper direct into the home.These operation of newspapers, the production or im- advances have opc..ied not only a new era in world portation of radio receivers and films, and the communications, but also a new approach to inter- building of cinemas. national co-operation. AlthoUgh national initiatives for development Meanwhile, however, the underdeveloped of the media have been at best sporadic, on the countries are impeded by a maze of technical and international level there has for a number of years economic obstacles in their efforts to develop been increasing recognition of the need for action their information media For example, many of in this field.As far back as 1948 the United these countries lack accurate data as to the extent Nations Conference on Freedom of Information re- and distribution of mass media facilities, and as commended specific measures to encourage de- to the transport. communication and other ser- velopment of the media(42).The following year vices needed to support a programme for mass the United Nations Sub-Commission on Freedom media development.In most of them, moreover, of Information and of the Press, set up by the Com- expansion of the media is further h impered by the mission on Human Rights, concluded that special high cost and inadequacy of telecommunication, attention should be paid to the development of postal and transport services. Machinery and domestic information enterprises as part of the essential materials, such as newsprint, are in economic development of the less advanced short supply and scarcities of foreign exchange countries.In 1952, the General Assembly called limit their importation.A number of countries, for a programme of concrete action for develop- again, have special problems such as those aris- ment, of the media(43) and in 1955 the Economic ing from a multiplicity of languages or from and Social Council requested the Secretary- climatic and other natural difficulties encountered, General of the United Nations to present elements for example, in tropical broadcasting. for the formulation of such a programme (44).

36 , A special Committee on Freedom of Information, report, national development of the information set up in 1957 by the Commission on Human Rights, media would constitute the basis of any general gave its main attention to the development of the development programme.Such expansion, in media and the Commission itself decided in 1959 turn, would form an integral part of plans for to review on a continuing basis the problem of economic and social development.The action ,. providing technical assistance to the underdeveloped taken by the United Nations in this field may countries in the information field(45). provide the impetus for corresponding national Parallel with the recognition of the need to initiatives by the countries concerned. develop the information media, there has been a Long-term planning for development of the history of international effort which, although media may well follow individual patterns accord- limited in scope, has none the less demonstrated ing to each country.Certain common elements the feasibility of such action.The work of the will, however, mark the initial phase of such United Nations and the Specialized Agencies has planning.These would include the drawing up of moreover shown that, in the advanced countries, an inventory of existing information facilities and there exists a vast fund of knowledge and techniques an assessment of national needs, the definition which could be effectively channelled to the under- of priorities for the various media axxl the co- developed countries if the necessary resources ordination of the mass media programme with were to be made available. plans for the expansion of communications, trans- What appears to be needed is an impetus which port and other services.Such preparatory work only the underdeveloped countries themselves can would be needed in order to estimate the proportion provide.As was emphasized at the Bangkok of the national resources, in both the public and meeting on development of the media in South East private sectors, required for the mass media Asia, national development should be the basis of programme and for integrating it with general any programme in this fieid .While the technical plans for economic development. assistance required is available in the developed countries, the demand for the programme, nrid (ii) Governments of the underdeveloped the accompanying national measures, rest with countries might consider the possi- the underdeveloped countries. bility of establishing national com- The principal value of the present report may, mittees to assist in formulating and in fact, reside in its possible stimulus to broad carrying out programmes for de- national initiative in an international setting. velopment of the information media. Indeed, the following recommendations might ideally have been based on an examination, far 'the variety and complexity of the tasks involved more detailed than could have been made through in drawing up and carrying out a development a regional analysis, of the problems of each programme would seem to require some kind of country concerned.This kind of national survey co-ordinating machinery in each of the countries may well become the logical sequel to the preaent concerned.This might take the form of a report. national comrnAtee, which could gather together representatives of all the interested institutions and governmental agencies, including those con- RECOMMENDATIONS cerned with economic development, education, telecommunication and transport and which could also enlist the participation of the information The recommendations set forth below fall into two professions. groups - those of a general nature and those con- A national committee of this kind could be the cerning each of the media.Each recommendation focal point for carrying out 1/105t of the present is followed by a note on its motivation whicli is, in recommendations of a general nature and, in general, a recapitulation of the relevant observa- particular, the foregoing centrk\l recommendation tions contained in this report. on the formulation of a national programme for development of the information media.It might establish national plans, including a suggested (A) GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS definition of priorities for expansion of the various media, and also determine the phasing of the plans (i) Governments of the underdeveloped and the budgets needed.It would, finally, ensure countries might consider the possibility the integration of the plans with the country's of formulating national prpgrammes for general programme for economic and social de- development of the information media as velopment. as part of their planning for economic , development. 1 (iii) Governments of the underdeveloped countries might consider the inclu- This recommendation is basic to the effective de- sion of appropriate mass communi- velopment of the information media in underdeveloped cation development projects in their countries.As has emerged from the present requests for technical assistance or

37 in their bilateral or multilateralaid be necessary both for the planning of a develop- programmes for economic andsocial ment programme and in determining how the mass development. media might best be employed as instrumentsfor information and education.Research would be This recommendation reflects apropciard which required, for example, in making a national the Bangkok meeting fai- South-EastAsia made inventory of needs and resources in the informa- to governments of that area and whichmight well tion field, in improving the managementof in- be applicable to other regions.It attests to the formation enterprises, in applying new communi- growing importance attached to mass communica- cation techniques and in studying the responseof tion projects in requests for technical assistance, audiences to the various media.Another field as exemplified in themounting number of such ior study, particularly in the newlyindependent requests received from the newly independent countries, would be the problem faced by govern- countries of Africa.Such requests might be de- ments in the preparation oflegislation applicable voted to drawing up long-term development to the establishment of informationenterprises. measures, assessing how moderntechniques and This problem has arisen in varying waysin the equipment might be most effectively employed, development of press, broadcasting and film defining the resources required and carrying out enterprises throughout the world. The consider- training programmes for mass communication able body of experience thus acquiredmight be personnel.To this end, teams of experts might placed at the disposal of the developingcountries. be requested to conduct national surveys and on- the-spot studies.Meetings might also be (v)In planning the development of their organized to help governments and the mass communication and transport services, media associations carry out specific development governments of the underdeveloped projects. countries might give due consideration to the present and future needs of the (iv) Governments of the underdeveloped information media. countries might consider the possibility of assisting the establishment The effective development of themedia depends of national tr aining progr amme s for to a very large extent upon the availabilityof professional and technical personnel telecommunication facilities for news agencies, and of encouraging research in the newspapers and radio andtelevision services. use of the information media. Such development is frequently hampered by high or disparatecommunication charges; by the in- As already observed, the lack of qualified pro- adequacy of telecommunication facilities; andby fessional and technical staff is one of the most technical limitations on their use.In planning formidable obstacles to development of the in- the development of telecommunicationservices, formation media in all the regions concerned. governments might give special consideration to The provision of trained staff is essential not the particular problems of the mediaand especially only to the effective operation of information to the new opportunities offered by recenttechno- enterprises but also to the improvement of stan- logical advances for the enhanced use of themedia dards which would enable the mass media to play for information and education. their full role in programmes for economic and The importance of the development of com- social development. munications in the underdeveloped countries has Governments might therefore consider the been emphasized by the International Telecom- possibility of assisting the establishment of munication Union.In 1958 the Union's Admini- national training programmes.To this end, strative Council drew the attention of Member assistance might be given in establishing training countries, particularly in Africa, Latin America schools or courses;in providing training fellow- and the Middle East, to the usefulness of joint ships, study grants and expert aid; in organizing action on the regional level as exemplified bythat the production of textbooks for training; and in undertaken in Asia and the Far East under the equipping libraries and laboratories at schools of Expanded Programme of TechnicalAssistance(46). journalism.Consideration might also be given Such regional co-operation, with particular re- to the possibility of creating, in each region, a ference to the use of telecommunications by the council o direct a long-term programme of 'mass media, was recommended by the meeting seminars on teacher training, courses for working of experts on the Inter-American Telecommunica- journalists and the exchange of experience among tion Network (Mexico City, April1960)(47). professionals in all the media.A pattern for Another major factor in development of the such training programmes exists in the internation- media is the provision of adequate air and surface al institutes for higher studies in journalismestab- transport services for the distribution ofinforma- lished at the University of Strasbourg, Fra.Ace, and tion materials.Problems of the media in the the Central University of Ecuador, Quito. transport field might be examined within theframe- Closely related to the question of training is work of the international and regional organizations that of mass communication research, which would concerned.

38 The broad problem of the effective use of com- that successive Plenipotentiary Conferences of munications and transport services in development the International Telecommunication Union have of the media was examined in 1953 by the Rapporteur adopted an opinion in which Member countries on Freedom of Information appointed by the Economic IIrecognize the desirability of avoiding the im- and Social Council.The Rapporteur concluded position of fiscal taxes on any international com- that decisions of administrative conferences in munications"(50). the telecommunication and postal fields "have the most immediate implications for the free flow of (vii) Encouragement might be given to the information".He also observed that "if govern- establishment or expansion in the ments were prepared to appropriate relatively underdeveloped countries of profes- small additional sums of money, the potentialities sional associations of the mass media, in these fields would be better exploited"(48). as essential elements in a development programme. (vi) Governments of the underdeveloped countries might consider reviewing Essential to the operation and growth of the mass their tariff and fiscal policies with media are the men and women whose vital task it a view to facilitating the development is to inform the world's people through those of the information media and the free media.Any development programme would flow of information within and between depend considerably for its success on the close countries. association of the information professions. An effective way of enlisting such co-operation is A maze of tariff and trade obstacles and mount- through the professional organizations of press, ing costs impedes the development of the mass film, radio and television, of which there are media and the free flow of infOrmation both over 1,000 in some 93countries(51). within and between countries.In some cases, In the advanced countries, professional as- tariffs have been imposed for the protection of sociations of the mass media have helped their domestic industry and, in others, as a means of members to serve the public interest better raising revenue.However, these considerations through such activities as the improvement of might well be offset by the advantages offered in facilities for professional training, the establish- promoting educational progress and development ment of professional standards, and the promo- of the information media.Consideration might tion of the free flow of information.At the same therefore be given to the elimination or reduction time, international professional associations have of such obstacles. co-ordinated the efforts of national organizations A wide variety of possibilities exists for and have sought to assist the establishment of international action to reduce tariff and fiscal similar groups in the underdeveloped countries. obstacles to development of the information media. The professional organizations thus constitute an One such possibility is offered by the Agreement invaluable source of talent and co-operation for on the Importation of Educational, Scientific and the implementation of a development programme. Cultural Materials(49), which grants exemption In most of the underdeveloped countries, pro- from import duties to publications and, under cer- fessional associations have not had an opportunity tain conditions, to newsreels, educational films as yet to take root and are limited at best to local and sound recordings.It would assist develop- societies of slender scope and resources.The ment of the media if the underdeveloped countries opportunities offered for professionals to gather were to adhere to the Agreement and, in accord- together at the seminars and meetings forming part ance with its spirit, provide for tariff exemption of a development programme would stimulate the of such articles as newsprint; printing and com- growth of professional associations in the under- posing machinery; news-transmitting equipment; developed countries.The growth in those raw film and film projectors; and radio and tele- countries of well-knit organizations of publishers, vision receivers and equipment in finished or semi- journalists, broadcasters and other information finished form. personnel would be of invaluable assistance to Other obstacles are the levying of internal taxes national development programmes. Such associa- on press, film and other information enterprises, tions could effectively serve the immediate pur- shortages of foreign currency required for the pose of advising on the formulation of requests purchase of essential materials and the imposition for technical assistance for mass communication of fiscal taxes on press dispatches.Consideration development projects. might be given to the possibility of reducing taxes on information enterprises to the extent permitted by national revenue requirements.Bilateral (B) RECOMMENDATIONS, BY MEDIA agreements might be concluded between governments of exporting and importing countries to enable in- As already observed, measures of a national tending importers to purchase needed materials character would constitute the main elements of with local currency.With regard to the levying of the development programme recommended for im- fiscal taxes on press dispatches, it may be noted plementation with the help of the United Nations.

39 the development would, of course, bedetermined Paralleling assistance for All such measures of the national newsagencies would be measures according to the needsof each country and in full between information professions. to encourageco-operative arrangements co-operation with the them to increase the flowof news.Such arrange- Nevertheless, certain featuresof the development by meetings of repre- media would appear to be common ments might be facilitated of the individual sentatives of the mass mediain each region. to all countries. These meetings mightconsider such matters as The present recommendationsdeal with the summarized news serviceat might be taken to develop the provision of a general measures which reduced cost tonewly established newspapers news agencies, newspapersand periodicals, radio services during theirearly years broadcasting, films andtelevision.The back- or broadcasting of operation;the promotion of newsexchange ground to the recommendationswill be found in the agencies; and the developing the informa- agreements among existing review of the problems of possibility of poolingcorrespondents of agencies tion media, given inChapter II of this report. services outline the broad actionin- or individual newspapersor broadcasting The recommendations in world news centres. volved in the developmentof each of the media; suggestions in the case ofSouth East more detailed (ii) Newspapers andPeriodicals Asia and Latin Americawill be found in the re- published separately by ports for those regions, The primary objectivehere would be theeffective Unesco(52). establishment of the pressin each country, with particular emphasis ondevelopment in rural and semi-rural areas.The expansion of provincial Measures might be takento encourage andassist publications adapted to thelanguage and interests the establishment andexpansion in the under- of rural population wouldbe a basic measure in a Jeveloped countries of newsagencies, newspapers development programme. 3eriodicals,. radiobroadcasting, film and First steps might be theprovision of expert television missions to advise on thefinancing, capital equipment, location, businessmanagement and (i) News Agencies production of newspapers andperiodicals.Once the blueprints have beendrawn up, there would National news agencies arethe basis of an adequate Experience has remain the major problemof financing newspapers system for disseminating news. and periodicals vhich,particularly in the case of proved that they provideessential services not frequently have great diffi- for radio broadcastingand smaller enterprises, only for newspapers but culty in obtaining loans throughnormal cr.edit other media.They, in turn, depend uponthe for their maintenance channels.Governments might consider means media for revenue necessary of helping such enterprisesto obtain credits from and expansion. public or private sources, apossible channel A primary measure,therefore, would be the expansion of exist- being the "developmentbanks" now established in furnishing of assistance for the various countries.In the entire programmefor ing national news agencies,and for their creation and periodicals, Such assistance mightbe the development of newspapers where there are none. the granting of liberalfellowships to press per- given by means of expertmissions to advise on and operation of sonnel would also play akey role. the establishment, equipment Of equal importance is theavailability of national news agencies, andalso by the extensive in greater training of person- newsprint and other printing paper provision of fellowships ;or the quantities and at lowest possiblecost.Technical nel.Another requirementwould be long-term sources, for the and financial assistancemight be furnished to loans, from domestic or other countries wishiAg to undertake orincrease the purchase or lease of equipment. the possibility of networks are expanded production of printing paper; As telecommunication establishing regional centresfor paper production in the underdevelopedcountries, due attention requirements of the might also be explored.In addition, governments would need to be paid to the might encourage theformation of national news- information media, and to the vast newpossibilities to enable publishers advances for ex- print purchasing co-operatives offered by recent technological to obtain supplies atlower prices through long- pansion of news agencies.In addition, action The possibility might be exam- the flow of news on term contracts. would be needed to increase ined of supplying newsprintto newly established telecommunication channels, sincecheap and ade- during their early prerequisite to publications at reduced cost quate technical facilities are a years of operation.As noted under the general effective operation of national newsagencies.The customs duties is it will be recalled, recommendations, relief from Economic and Social Council, also an important factorin the distribution of news- itself re-examined thisproblem in 1959 and ex- efforts print supplies. pressed the hope that, as one measure, Another widespreadproblem, due largely to would be continued tointroduce reduced inter- of press dis- lack of capital, is thedearth of even moderately national rates for the transmission up-to-date printing andcomposing machinery. patches as expeditiously aspossible(5J).

40 Attention might be given to the application of new and eliminating many of the difficulties of trans- printing techniques, particularly for the publica- mission, particularlri the tropical zone. lion of newspapers in national or local languages. Secondly, the conk, 2e requested a study on the In addition, the immediate equipment problem production of low-cL,,,t, receivers for use in the might be alleviated by governments and professional underdeveloped countries.This study is being organizations in assisting the transfer from the de- carried out by the International Telecommunication veloped countries of idle equipment which could be Union, in co-operation with Unesco and the Region- reconditioned for use in the underdeveloped areas. al Economic Commissions of the United Nations. Continuing advice and assistance in the pro- A large-scale increase in the production of duction of newspapers and periodicals might be low-cost receivers, as the Radio Confereice em- offered through the establishment in main regions phasized, is essential for the expansion of broad- of a Press and Graphic Arts Institute.Such in- casting in less developed countries.An immedi- stitutes might afford training in the managerial, ate target for those countries might be the editorial, financial and technical aspects of the achievement of the "Unesco minimum" of five production of newspapers and periodicals; they receivers per 100 persons, and ultimately, the could also assist in conducting training programmes target might be one receiver for every family. for the printing trades. In addition, they might Governments of the underdeveloped camtries assist the eventual formation of national press and might accordingly examine with the Regional graphic arts centres.In the meantime, seminars Economic Commissions the possibility of encourag- conducted in the various regions, wherever possible ing the domestic manufacture of receivers. in co-operation with the professional organizations Special attention might be given to the production concerned, might provide certain limited training of battery-operated, transistorized sets for use in facilities anti permit the exchange of experience non-electrified areas and the establishment of immediately needed for development of newspapers servicing centres to maintain them. and periodicals. In the development of national broadcasting services, expert missions might be of considerable (iii) Radio Broadcasting assistance in advising on the planning of services and on the equipment, installation and operation of Unsurpassed in speed, range and economy, radio broadcasting stations.Within the framework of broadcasting is particularly sui .,?d as an instrument the ITU and particularly of its International Con- for information and education i-i the less developed sultative Radio Committee, many opportunities countries.However, if radio is to serve these exist for the co-ordination of national plans for countries to the extent of their special requirements, the development of broadcasting and the better use two objectives would need to be met: firstly, broad- of frequency allocations. casting services should be made very wiJely avail- While an increase in both transmission and able; secondly, the programmes produced should reception facilities is essential, the very con- serve educational purposes particularly a3 well as siderable present development of broadcasting in the special needs and interests of rural audiences. many of the underdeveloped countries lends import- In attempting to accomplish in a matter of years a ance to the more affective use of existing services. task which has been the work of centuries in the Essential elements are the improvement. of pro- advanced countries, the underdeveloped regions gramme standards and the use of radio for informa- cannot rely on the traditional means of education tion and education.Regional seminars might be alone but are turning to radio broadcasting which, held at which the broadcasting profession could like film and television, offers immense possi- work out methods of achieving these objectives, bilities for instruction through the media of mass as well as the greater exchange of programmes communication. between countries.Such seminars might also In developing their broadcasting services, the study the pc ssibility of pooling resources for the underdeveloped countries are confronted with the production of programmes.All of these forms basic problem of assuring nation-wide coverage of co-operation might be promoted by the establish- with the limited resources at their disposal in ment of regional exchange centres. terms of finance, equipment and personnel.In ad- Training would be a key factor both in the im- dition, most of these countries have inadequate provement of programming and_the development of electrification and are located in the tropical zone broadcasting techniques.Liberal provision of where conditions of radio transmission and recep- fellowships and study grants might accordingly be tion are difficult. made for the training of professional and technical The last Administrative Radio Conference of personnel, both within each region and in the ad- the International Telecommunication Union (Geneva, vanced countries.Encouragement might also be 1959) examined the technical problems of broad- given to thr, eztablishment of national and regional casting in less developed countries and adopted two training centres and to the expansion of bilateral important recommendations.Firstly, the confer- arrangements between countries for the tr!..ining ence recommended that governments use frequency of broadcasting personnel.In the promotion of modulation transmiss ions in their national broadcasting the use of radio in education, special attention services as a means of assuring improved reception might be given to the production of programmes

41 designed for rural audiences, such as the farm The production and distribution of films in flrums which enable village groups to listen to the less developed areas is generally marked by arid comment on discussions on agricultural and a lack of mutual knowledge of what is being done n'her questions.In areas where large-scale by the countries of each region.Encouragement literacy programmes and general educational might accordingly be given to the establishment facilities are lacking, radio broadcasting may well of arrangements to co-ordinate the production serve as a direct training tool at all levels. and use of films and to exchange information and Professional associations can play a vital materials.Some action of this kind has been role in the development of radio broadcasting as taken in certain regions with regard to newsreels, well as pf television in the underdeveloped but very little with regard to documentary or countriea.Some national professional associa- educational films.Such arrangements could be tions have already formed regional bodies which made through existing production or distribution might now assume additional functions in the train- services or through regional training ntres. ing of personnel and the exchange of programmes. Differences of language in certain regis could Elsewhere the establishment of national associa- be overcome through the production of various tions and regional co-operative bodies might be language versions of the films exchanged.Co- encouraged so that they can play their full part in operation between countries might be fur ther ad- the development programme. vanced through regular regional meetings of key personml in the production and use of films. (iv) Film Such regional meetings may well provide the basis for establishing and maintaining systematic ex- The powerful impact of the visual media makes change arrangements. film, particularly in view of the spread of television, A widespread problem is the lack of equipment an increasingly important means of information and and materials for film production and exhibition, education.Full account should be taken of its due largely to shortages of foreign currenéy needed potentialities in any programme for development for their importation.As already suggested under of the information media in the less developed the general recommendations in this chapter, countries. governments might consider making bilateral or A first measure would be to encourage the other arrangements so that essential purchases development of existing organizations for the could be made with local currencies.In addition, production, distribution and use of films and to groups of countries might consider sharing studio assist the establishment of these facilities in and laboratory facilities or undertaking the co- areas where they do not exist.Governments production of films.Regional co-operation might might consider the possibility of participating also be enlisted in the production of basic mater ials directly in these activities through the setting up such as raw stock and certain types of equipment. of governmental agencies or, alternatively, of In particular, a study'might be made of the possi- lending assistance by means of development loans, bility of stimulating the production of low-cost pro- tax exemptions and other initial concessions. jectors for use in schools and rural areas. Encouragement might be given partici larly to the production and distribution of docun-ientaries, (v) Television A newsreels and educational films for use in theatrical and non-theatrical circuits, as well as for tele- The extraordinarily rapid spread of television in vision. Special attention might be given to the almost every region of the world and the boundless use of such films for education in rural areas and opportunities thus offered for popular education and to educational films in general.Technical and enlightenment makes this medium a key factor in financial assistance might be extended to countries a courory's planning the mass communication field. wishing to develop their film services in this way. Such planning would need to foresee the introduc- The training of professional and technical tion of television at the proper juncture in the personnel is a key element in the effective develop- nation's technical and economic deNielopment. ment of film.Governments of the underdeveloped Many decisions are entailed as to the timing and countries might accordingly examine the possibility character of a national television service, and, of establishing or assisting the establishment of while these will vary from country to country, national or regional training centres.These much can be gained from international co-operation measures could be combined with an internationally and an exchange of experience at the eirliest stage. assisted programme including training fellowships, The development programme foreseen by the missions of experts and arrangements for the ex- United Nations may help to provide these oppor- chauge of students and teachers, as well as re- tunities and thus be of .,rticular assistance in the fresher courses for professionals in the film and television field.In view of television's potential- television fields.Emphasis would need to be ities as an instrument for teaching, educational placed on training not only in production, but also programming should be given very high priority in the distribution and use of films, particularly from the start. in rural areas.Such centres might also provide Foremost among the problems faced in estab- for the training of television personnel. lishing television in the less developed countries

42 are the lack of financial resources; shortages of exchange of filmed and, eventually, live pro- qualified technical personnel and maintenance grammes between the countries of a region. facilities; absence of suitable programme material; limited range of television signals; and inadequacy of electricity, communications and other resources FINANCING A DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME needed to develop reception.Careful planning is therefore required to avoid the introduction uf television where it is not viable.There should The survey aarried out by Unesco on "the problems be assurance that it will reach the bulk of the of providing technical assistance" has thrown people in the country, including those in rural light on certain aspects of the financing of meas- areas.Any assistance to help develop television ures for development of the information media. would also need to be directed towards program- The following observations have been included so ming and the use of the medium generally in a as to complement the foregoing conclusionsand way that is consistent with the cultural roots and recommendations and to allow for their realistic needs of the people. assessment in the light of existing possibilities When the decision has been taken to establish for financing a development programme. a national television service, various forms of It might first be noted that, in the initial assistance could be made available.Fellowships phase of a developmeni programme, the emphasis could be provided for the training of engineers, would presumably be on pre-investment surveys, programme personnel and specialists in manage- the preparation of "blueprints" for mass comment, educational television and audience relation- munication projects, training of journalists and ships.Missions of experts might advise on the technicians and, as a corollary, the establishment setting up of experimental stations and the training or expansion of professional associations of the oi audience research teams on a national basis. mass media.Succeeding phases of the programme Instructors and research workers might be pro- would involve the long-term investment of capital vided to staff national and regional training centres, and the extension of commercial credits for the seminars and workshops.In addition, informa- establishment, expansion and maintenance of news- tion could be continually :61.nplied on research and papers, news agencies, radio broadcasting and develppmen4s in the programming anti technical television services, as well as for the production fields. and exhibition of films. A major requirement would be the availability Financial assistance during the initial or of receivers suitable for local conditions of re- planning phase of the development programme ception.A study might therefore be made of the might be sought through channels ir the pre- possibility of encouraging the production or as- investment field.Internationally, these channels sembly, on a regional basis, of low-cost receivers. include the United Nations Expanded Programme The spread of television could be considerably of Technical Assistance and the United Nations stimulated by community viewing, based on the Special Fund and, bilaterally, the corresponding organiza ion of teleclubs which afford opportunities facilities provided by the technical assistance or for disculsion on programme topics of special pre-investment programmes of governments or of interest.The immediate target in a country trieht regional agencies such as the Colombo Plan.In be the "Unesco minimum" of two sets per 100 a number of cases, such as`that of the Special persons, which would be the barest requirements Fund, it would appear necessary to link individual for effective community viewing. mass communication projects fairly closely with Training is another basic element in the de- subsequent investment and the development of velopment of television.Fellowships could be economic productivity, as distinct from the more provided for the training of senior engineers, pro- socia3 or cultural aspects of information. gramme staff and management personnel in For the succeeding or investment phases of countries where television is in varying stages of the programme, investment capital and commercial development.Training for technicians, junior credits might be obtained from a number of sources, ,-gramrne. and management staff could be pro- private and public.In both the private and public videa locally or regionally.Initial instruction sectors, domestic and foreign channels might be could be given by experts at experimental television utilized. stations.Subsequently, groups of countries might Since development of the information media set up regional centres for training in management in general requires normal profit-making invest- and engineering programme techniques, and educa- ment, the natural primary source of finance would tional television, including comm.nity viewing. be private capital, whether domestic or foreign. These cen'res might also provide facilities for Private capital might be involved, for example, resear ch . in the domestic production of radio receivers or Regional co-operation could also be enlisted newsprint, although the possibilities of joint in achieving agreement on such matters as techni- participation by government and private capital in cal standards, frequency allocations and the availa- such enterprises should not be overlooked. bility of television channels.Another field for In the case of newspapers and films, foreign such co-operation would be the promotion of the private capital may be invited to invest side-by-side

43 with domestic capital in certain underdeveloped without gov2rnment guarantees.Loans from the count-ies.In certain other countries, govern- International Bank, the IFC and similar financial ments may be inclined to reserve investment in sources have been strongly concentrated on the these media to domestic sources, and, in the economic infrastructure, especially transport and case of documentary films and newsreels,to power.This has facilitated the development of sponsor production directly.It may be noted that the media indirectly, since improved power sup- in some of the underdeveloped countries, smaller plies facilitate the expansion of radio broadcasting newspaper enterprises find it extremelydifficult and television, while improved transport eases the to raise credits through normal financial channels, distribution of newspapers, films and other since the domestic commerical banks grant loans materials.The International Bank has also made on a short-term basis only.A possible means of loans directly towards the expansion of telecom- arranging long-term loans for such enterprises munications and might therefore be a source for might be to enlist the aid of the "Development development of the broadcasting media. Banks", such as those recently established in a More recently, increasing attention has been number of Asian countries with the assistance of given to the financing of the type of project to which the International Bank for Reconstruction and development of the media normally belongs. That Development. is, projects which belong in part to thesocial in- As for public foreign capital, there is a frastructure (such as education, health and possibility of loans of the type which the Inter- information) rather than the economic infrastructure, national Bank makes to governments or on govern- and which may not be directly paying propositions ment guarantee.Similar loans are also available on an individual project basis or ontheir individual bilaterally from various governmental institutions foreign exchange accounting.Such loans may be and by direct access to the major capital markets granted on very long term (up to 50 years), and at of the world.One difficulty is that the develop- interest rates as low as two per cent.Above all, ment of the information media, being part of the they do not necessarily have to he repaid inforeign general "social infrastructure" of the economy, currency. may not be directly profit-making and hence aloan Loans of this kind are particularly suitable might not be justified on a direct project basis. for development of the media.They are now However, in the case of the International Bank this available on a multilateral basis through the would not necessarily preclude a loan, since the International Development Association, the larger effect of development of the media on the economy affiliate of the International Bank.On a bilateral as a whole would be taken into accountrather than basis they are available through various govern- the profits directly recoverable. ment institutions.On a regional basis they are A second difficulty with loans from the above available through institutions such as the Inter- sources is that they must, in general, berepaid American Development Bank.It may be expected in foreign currency.Development of the informa- that much of the future foreign financing of mass tion media is not generally a means of earning media development would be channelled through foreign exchange, although it may help to save institutions of this kind. foreign exchange by reducing imports of newsprint These possibilities for financing a develop- and other materials.The primary factor in this ment programme might appropriately be examined case would be whether the generalforeign exchange following upon the completion of "blueprints" for situation of the country concerned is sufficiently the national expansion of the mass media. secure to assure the repayment of loansin foreign Governments might at that stage afford a certain currency. priority to mass communication projects in the Another possibility, especially for loans to national financing of new enterprises or in their private enterprises, is the International Finance requests for long-term loans or other financial Corporation (IFC), the smaller affiliate of the assistance under bilateral or multilateral aid International Bank, which makes loans to industry programmes.

44 REFERENCES

(1) First Session, Mass Communication (36)Latin America (excluding Argentina), Africa, Project 1 Near and Middle East and the Far East (ex- (2) Second Session, Resolution 2.2.1 cluding Japan and Mainland China) (3) Final Act, Resolution 32 (37)This region does not include Mainland China, (4) Final Act, Resolutions 20, 30, 33 North Korea, North Viet-Nam and the (5) Resolution 240 D (IX) Mongolian People's Reput ic (6) Sixth Session, Resolution 9.6 (38)Population figures cited here and elsewhere (7) Resolution 374 (XIII) in this report are for mid-1959 (8) Resohtion 528 (VI) (39)Annual Average Per Capita National Income, (9) Resolution 423 (XIV) 1956-1958 : United Nations Statistical Office, (10)Resolution 442 E (XIV) New York, 1960 (11)Resolution 633 (VII) (40)World Demand for Paper to 1975 : FAO, (12)Resolution 522 K (XVII) Rome, 1960, p.51 (13)Resolution 522 F (XVII) (41)Final Act, Resolution 1 (14)Resolution 522 J (XVII) (42)Final Act, Resolutions 20, 30, 32, 33 (15)Resolution 839 (IX) (43)Resolution 633 (VII) (16)Eighth Session, Resolution IV. 1.5. 6 (44)Resolution 574 D (XIX) (17)Resolution 574 A (XIX) (45)Resolution 1 (XV) (18)Resolution 574 D (XDC) (46)Resolution 383 (13th session) (19)Resolution 643 (XXIII) (47)Resolution VII (20)Thirteenth Session, Resolutiqn IX (48)Freedom of Information 1953 : Economic (21)Resolution 1189 B (XII) and Social Council, New York P. 14 (22)Resolution 6 (XIV) (49)This Agreement is now applied by the (23)Resolution 683 C (XXVI) following 33 States : Afghanistan, Austria, (24)Resolution 1313 A (XIII) Belgium, Cambodia, Ceylon, Cuba, (25)Tenth Session, Resolution 5.21 Denmark, El Salvador, Finland, France, (26)Resolution 1 (XV) Germany (Federal Republic of), Ghana, (27)Resolution 718 I and II (XXVII) Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Israel, Jordan, (28)ITU - Radio Regulations (Geneva 1959) : Laos, Luxembourg, Malaya (Federation of), Recommendation No. 7 Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, (29)Resolution 569 (XIX) Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, (30)Mass Communications, Wilbur Schramm, Thailand, United Arab Republic (Egypt), editor : University of Illinois Press, Urbana, United Kingdom, Viet-Nam, Yugoslavia Ill. U.S.A., 1949, p.3 (50)See International Telecommunication (31)Final Act, Resolution 1 Convention, 1947, 1952, 1959 (32)Resolution 313 (IV) (51)Professional Association in the Mass Media : (33)Annual Average Per Capita National Income, Unesco, Paris 1959 1956-1958 : Statistical Office of the United (52)Developing_ Mass Media in Asia, Unesro Nations, New York 1960 Paris, 1960 (34)Spearman's coefficient of rank correlation Meeting of Experts on Development of was used in this analysis Information Media in Latin America, (35)World Demand for Paper to 1975 : FAO, Unesco 1961 Rome 1960 (53)Resolution 719 (XXVII)

45 Vie should like to draw the attention of our readers to the Unesco Coupon Scheme, unesco which may enable them to purchase materials listed in this periodical. Because it is often difficult to sead money coupons from country to country for the purchase of books, films, laboratory equipment, etc., Unescu has created a sort of international currency, theUNESCO COUPON. These coupons enable schools, universities, teachers and students in many parts of the world to buy freely the materials UNESCO COUPONS which they need for study and research. can be used to buy:

UNESCO COUPONSare on sale books, periodicals, in most Member States ptocopies, which have currency restrictions. microfilm copies, art reproductions, If you do not know where to obtain coupons, charts, globes, maps, please consult sheet music, your National Commission for Unesco gramophone records, or write to Jnesco, Paris, the following categories of for the information. educational films : (a) screening prints and duplicate prints, TheTRAVEL COUPON SCHEME, (b) original negatives and which is designed duplicate negatives ; as well as to overcome the currency barriers (c) 16mm. raw film for printing to educational and cultural travel, the above categories of films; is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Scheme various categories of scientific described above. material for education and Travel Coupons are a form research, such as : of international travellers cheqee. opticalisauments, balances and weights, 'hey provide the foreign exchange laborator- glass-ware, needed to rnable travellers such as students, electrical measuring instruments, teachers and research workers analytical and clinical testing to spend trnt abroad for study or research. apparatus, etc.

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with separate addenda on BOOK COUPONS, FILM COU"ONS COUPONS FOR SCIENTIFIC MrsTFRIAL Unesco Coupon Office INTRODUCNG THE UNESCO TRAVEL COUPON Place de Fontenoy (containingthe addresses ol the naticnal agencies responsible Paris -7e for the allocation and issue ol coupons, and the iminks where they may be cashed) 1 France ".

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Salt Road, AfghanistanPanuzai, Press Department, Royal Afghan Ministry Jordan: Joseph I. Bahous & Co., Dar-ul-Kutub, of Education, KABUL. P.O. Box 66, AMMAN. Albania : N. Sh. Botimeve, «Naim Frasherili, TIRANA. Korea : Korean National Commission for Unesco, Argentina : Editorial Sudainericana S.A., Alsina 500, P.O. Box Central 64, SEOUL. BUENOS AIRES. Lebanon : Librairie Antoine, A. Naufal et Freres, B.P. 656, Australia : Melbourne University Press, 369 Lonsdale Street, BEYROUTH. MELBOURNE C. 1 (Victoria). Liberia : J. Momolu Kamara, 69 Front and Gurley Streets, Austria : Verlag Georg Fromme & Co., Spengergasse 39,VIENNA V. MONROVIA. Belgium: Office de publicite S.A., 16, rue Marcq, BRUXELLES; Luxembourg : Librairie Paul Bruck, 22, Grand-Rue, N.V. Standaard Boekhandel lielgielei 151, ANTWERPEN, LUXEMBOURG. For The Courier: Louis de I annoy, 22, Place de Brouckere, Malaya (Federation of) & Singapore: Federal Publications Ltd., BRUXE LLES. Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE. Bolivia : Libreria Selecciones, avenida Camacho 369, Malta : Sapienza's Library, 26 Kingsway, VALLETTA. casilla 972, LA PAZ. Mouri ti us : Nalanda Co. Ltd., 30, Bourbon Street, I-ORT-LOUIS. Ebreria Universitaria, Universidad Mayor de San Francisco Mexico : Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal, 41, Mexico D.F., Xavier de Chuquisaca, apartado 212, SUCRF. ME XICO. Brazil : Fundacl'o Gertillio Vargas, 186 Praia de Borafogo, Monaco: British Library, 30, Boulevard des Moulins, caixa pos:al 4081, RIO DE JANEIRO. MONTE CARLO. Bulgaria : Raznerznos, 1, Tzar Assen, SOFIA. Morocco: Centre de diffusion documentaire du 13.E.P.I., B.P.211, rurma : Burma Translation Society, 361 Prome Road, RANGOON. RABAT. Cambodia : Librairie Albert Portail, 14, avenue Boulloche, Netherlands: N.V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, PHNOM-PENH. 's -GRAVENHAGE. Canada : TheQueen's Printer, OTTAWA (Ont.). Netherlands Antilles: G.C.T. Van Dorp & Co., (Ned. Ant.) N.V., Ceylon: Lake House Bookshop, P.O. Box 244, WILLEMSTAD (Curacao, N.A.). Lady Lochore Building, 100 Parsons Road, COLOMBO 2. New Zealand: Unesco Publications Centre, 100 Hackthorne Road, Ch.le : Editorial Universaaria S.A., avenida B. O'lliggins 1058, CHRISTCHURCH. casilla 10220, SANTIAGO. Nicaragua: Libreria Cultural Nicaragiiense, For The Courier: Comisiim Nacional de la Unesco en Chile, calk 15 de Septiembre n9 115, MANAGUA. calle San Antonio 255, 79 piso, SANTIAGO. Nigeria : C.M.S. (Nigeria) Bookshops, P.O. Box 174, LAGOS. China : The World Book Co. Ltd., 99 Chungking South Road, Norway: A.S. Bokhjrfrnet, Lille Grensen 7, OSLO. Section 1, TAIVEH, Taiwan (Formosa). Pakistan : The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd., Colombia : Libreria Central, Carrera 6-A n9 14-32, itOGOTA.. Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374, Costa Rica : Imprenta y Libieria Tieios, S.A., apartado1113, 56-N Gulberg Industrial Colony, LAHORE. SAN JOSE. Panama : Cultural Panameiia, Avenida 7? n9 TI-49, Cuba : Libreria Econimica, Pte Zayas 505-7, apartado 113, apartado de correos 2018. PANAMA. LA HABANA. Paraguay: Avncia de Librerias de Salvackr Nizza, Yegros, Czechoslovakia : Artia Ltd, 30. Ve Sment:ich, PRAHA 2. entre 25 de Mayo y Mcal. Estigarribia,ASUNCION. K. Peru: «ESEDAL - Oficina de Servicioss, Dpta de Ventade Denmark : Einar Munksgaard Ltd, 6 Norregade, KOBENHAVN Publicaciones, Jirim Huancavelica (calle Ortiz) 368,LIMA. Dominican Republic : Libreria Dominicana, Mercedes 49, Philippines : Philippine Education Co. Inc., I1154 Castillejos, apartado de correos 656, CIUDAD TRUJILLO. wilio .44 44, Ecuador: Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Niicleo del Guyas, Quiapo, P.O. Box 520, MANILA. Pedro Moncayo y 9 de Octubre, casilla de correo n91542, Poland : Osrodek Rozpowszechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych GUYAQUIL. PAN. FaYac Kultury i Nauki, WARZAWA. El Salvador : Manuel Navas & Cia., 1avenida Sur 37, Portugal: Dias & Andrade Ltda, Livraria Portugal, SAN SALVADOR. rua do Carmo 70, LISBOA. Ethiopia : International Press Agency, P.O. Box 120, Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland: The Book Centre, ADDIS ABABA. First Street, SALISBURY (Southern Rhodesia). Finland : Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, 2 Keskuskatu, HELSINKI. Rumania : Cartimex, Str. Aristide Briand 14-18, P.O. Box 134-135, France : Librairie de l'Unesco, place de Fontenoy,PARIS-7e ; BUCURESTI. Wholesale : Sales Section, place de Fontenoy, PARIS-7e. Singapore : see Malaya (Federation of). French West Indies : Librairie J. Bocage, Rue Lavoir, B.P.208, Spain: Libreria Cicntifica Medinacel , Duque de Medinaceli 4, FORT-DF-FRANCE (Martinique) MADRID 14, Germany (r Rep.): R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Unesco-Vertrieb For The Courier: Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A. Pizarro 19, fiir Deutschland, Rosenheimerstrasse 145, MUNCHEN8. MADRID. Greece : Librairie H. Kauffman, 28, Rue du Stade,ATHENES. Sweden: A/ B.C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, Guatemala: ComisiOn Nacional de la Unesco, Calle 6-79, STOCKHOLM 16. zona 1 (Altos), GUATEMALA. For The Courier: Svenska Unescoridet, Vasagatan 15-17, STOCKHOLM C. Haiti : Librairie «A Ia Caravelle*, 36, rue Ruax, B.P. 111, Switzerland : Europa Verla$, Rgrnistrasse 5, ZURICH. PORT-AU-PRINCE. Hong-Kong: Swindon Book Co., 25 Nathan Road, KOWLOON. Payot, 40, rue du Marche, GENEVE. Hungary : Kultura, P.O. Box 149, BUDAPEST 62. Thailand : Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue, BANGKOK. India : Orient Longmans Ltd.: r7 Chittaranjan Avenue, Turkey: Librairie Hachette, 469, Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu, CALCUTTA 13; Indian Mercantile Chamber, Nicol Road, ISTANBUL. BOMBAY 1 ; 36a Mount Road, MADRAS 7 ; Gunfoundry Road, Union of South Africa : Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty) Ltd., HYDERABAD I; Kanson House, 24/1 Asaf Ali Road, Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 724, PRETORIA. P. 0. Box 386, NEW DELHI 1, United Arab Republic : La Renaissance d'Egypte, Sub-Depots : Oxford Book & Stationery Co., 17 Park Street, 9 Sh. Adly- Pasha, CAIRO (Egypt). CALCUTTA 16; and United Kingdom: H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569; Scindia House, NEW DELHI. LONDON S.E. 1. Indonesia: Bappit Pusar «PERMATA., Djl. Nusantara 22, United States of America : Unesco Publications Center, DJAKARTA. 801 Third Avenue, NEW YORK 22. N.Y., Iran: Comission nationale iranienne pour l'Unesco, and except for periodi7als : Columbia University Press, avenue du Musee, TEHERAN. 2960, Broadway, NEW YORK 27, N.Y. Iraq : McKenzie's Bookshop, BAGHDAD. Uruguay : Unesco Centro de CooperaciOn Cientifica rara America Ireland : The National Press, 2 Wellington Road, Ballsbridge, Latina, Bulevar Artigas 1320-24, casilla de con eo, 859, DUBLIN. MONTEVIDEO. Israel : Blumstein's i3oo;,stores Ltd., 35 Allenby Road and Oficina de RepresentaciOn de Editoriales, plaza Cagancha 1342, 48 Nahlat Benjamin Street, TEL AVIV. 26, iFt piso, MONTEVIDEO. Italy: Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni, via Gino Capponi USSR: Meihdunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA G-200. casella postale 552, FIRENZE. KINGSTON; Viet-Nam: Librairie papeterie Xuan-Thu, 185-193, rue Tu-Do, Jamaica : Sangster's Book Room, 91 Harbour Street, B.P. 283, SAIGON. Knox Educational Services, SPALDINGS. Yugoslavia: Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, BEOGRAD. Japan: Maruzen Co., Ltd., 6, Tori-Nichome,Nihonbashi, P.O. Box 605, Tokyo Central, TOKYO. 17061 $0.50 ; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 NF