.- ,,., ~ ~ . ~ . ~ ,~ A TYY V'~Y~ Tr'Vl~ Ttr'11T% ?T'IITd'%lT A I-Tr' r% 1%'r 7 T f- 1 'TVh'Y'1 DOCVUMENT Ui1NTER1INAT1uiONALOF ' 'A BANIK FOORI RECONSTRIUAICTIION ANDLi DEVELIOPMENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION
Public Disclosure Authorized Not For Public Use _ PS-13 .~VOL. 3 Report No. PS-13
Public Disclosure Authorized LAND AND WATER RESOURCES SECTOR STUDY
BANGLADESH
(in nine volumes)
VOLUME II
THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
GONTATNTNG:
Techniral Report No. 1 - Reginnnl DlPo1Apment FraeTnwork Public Disclosure Authorized Technical Report No. 1 - Land Capability Potentials and ConsQtraints
'iiec emL.er1,97 Public Disclosure Authorized
Asia Projects Department
This report was prepared for official use only by the Bank Group. It may not be published, quoted I or cited without Bank Group authorization. The Bank Group does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the report. IMLTALLS APJJ ACROUIriS USED
M- M!illlion HYV - High Yielding Varieties ADC - Agricultural Development Corporation TIP - Thana Irrigation Program RWP - Rural works Program LLP - Low Lift Pumps BG - Broad gauge RR Line MG - Metre gauge RR Line IWTA - inland Waterway Transport Authority IWT - Inland Waterway Transport BSIC - Bangladesh Sma 1 Industries Corporation Note
"The Land and water Resources Sector Study - Bangladesh" dated December 1, 1972 was prepared between May 1971 and the summer of 1972 under the general supervision of the Bank, by staff members of the Bank, and FAOf with substantial help from consultants. The UNDP and the Bank shared the cost of the consulting services. The study is made available on the understand- ing that it does not necessarily represent the official position of the Government of Bangladesh or of the Bank.
The study is based mostly on data collected prior to March 1971. Although some of the infonmation contained in the study is out of date, the essence of it is valid and it should be useful to the Government of Bangladesh and to other countries, agencies, and institutions interested in the development of Bangladesh.
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUME II - THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS.AND CONSTRAINTS
i. This Volume describes and analyzes the physical factors which influence land use and agricultural development possibilities in Bangladesh and the related. factors influencing the development process. In this Volume, important physical, economic, and.social considerations are p gsented on a regional basis, according to four major regions of Bangladesh* to highlight the differing potentialities and.constraints on d.evelopment in the country. Information contained in this Volume is largely based. on soil and.land.cap- ability data provided by the FAO/UNDP assisted Soil Survey Project of Pakistan, and on hydrological data provided.by EPWAPDA. More detailed, information remains in the detailed. reports produced.by the Soil Survey Project and can be obtained by reference to the specific report covering that area. ii. While reading this Volume, the Summary Maps at the end should be consulted. Reference is also made to the large-scale Analytical Maps (in the separate folder) and. to the Technical Report No. 4 where the present land. use and landcapability data have been quantified, various kinds, levels, and. rates of development inputs assumed. and. future production values derived,by computer analysis for each region, and.for "development units" within each region. Both this Volume and Technical Report No. 4 helped to formulate the development strategy outlined, in Volume I.
4 4ii Technical Repn.t Pi-. 1 tinnl-nA&d in this Vollm d-rjwiba each op t w four regions of &ngladesh. Specifically, it outlines for each region the hisitomr, _ami,n4ist.ra+ton, populatiAn, urbar.ob a+±o.4 labor force,-- ve-- -- physiography, soils, climate; present land use and potential; present and rlinArmmr ,ehairlnT-nmar%t activi+.4"*.at anv +r n .,tio.
------, uAa^"4c p ."A Oa- 4-- 's. iv Technical Report No. 2 ecribes and an^vales, on. the basis of the UNDP Soil Survey Project, the land factors which influence land use and agricl+1tal Awvelop-^t%^c&4M14l+vies- ~*~j~*** ' - 4-AI.& n LJWU- -u- I &4LO h MA_eLU I .LJyi C.La pro-jJLL1 vides the basis for the formation of an agricultural strategy to increase
~n,,' .A AAnAAo1,^ _.u +t,e A .1 A.+4A1. A..J A.. n __J v.i 9., _- I__nq_ " .b ~ &4W'A"VW. ULWL& CLI J.~LUAJ.j, &aJJJ.Lu..LJ aULL ~JLUL .LJa possible. The classification considers the land as it is at present and the relat±4ve ease or A4ffi_l+ty of overcomi4g eXist4g limitations, especially by irrigation and drainage. It provides a uniform basis for evaluating agr±cultural and water control developmen,t possibilities throughout Bangladesh.
/ These four major physical regions should not be confused with the four -. 4-r D-1l44- 'A4 Di .LJsi of 4th uu.LIL..
INTERNATIONAL B ANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION
R A EG.J-LI-^nES H
T AAtM A%TTh1JAW PVPQAfTTPDrQ qPtPTAv QTTflV
VOLUME II
THE RBGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 1
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
December 1, 1972
Asia Projects Department
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUM4E II - REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
TECHNICAL REPORT- NO. 1
REGIONIAL D-,VELOP1NT FWAIE'OflK1-/
TABLE OF CONTTENTS SUNOIARY AND CONCLUSIONS
I. INTRODUCTION ±
II. THE NORTHWEST REGION 2
A. The Setting 2
Location 2 History 2 Administration 2
B. Human Resources 4
The People 4 r)tmo2ra4hy h Labor Force 5 Urbanization 5 Literacy 6
C. Physical Resources 7
Physiography and Soils 7 Climate 8
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential 10
Present Land use 10 Development Potential 12
E. Development Implications 15
Water Projects and Programs 15
Completed Projects 16 On-going Projects 17 The Future 17
Transportation 18
Rail 19 Highways 20 Waterways 21 Local Transnortation 21
1/ Thli -reort.wasnrpnared by Messrs R- O'Sullivan. H Rashid and W. Drewes -2-
Page No.
Industry 22
III. THE CENTRAL REGION 24
A. The Setting 24
Location 24 History 24 Administration 2L
B. Human Resources 26
The People 26 Demography 26 Labor Force 27 Urbanization 27 Literacy 27
C. Physical Resources 29
Physiography and Soils 29 Climate 30
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential 32 rru-ex, ±And 'use 32 Develdpment Potential 33 E. Development Implications 36
Water Projects and Program 36
Completed Projects 37 On-going Projects 37 The Future 38
Transportation 38
Rail 39 Y.ighways 40 Waterways 41 T ocal Trars-port I
Ir.dustry 0l
A.The Seti.glJ. LA*k
I.L THEZ SOVUTnwrwS "AL.GION 44
la. U tLL..LLLr, 4L4 Page No.
LocationL-l L44 History 44 A A. 4istra-lon,i 44
B. HumanaResources 445
The People 45 Demography 45 Laduor Force 4 Urbanization 46 Literacy 47
C. Physical Resources 43 Physiography and Soils 48 Climate 49 D. Present Land Use and Development Potential 51
Present Land Use 51 Development Potential 53
E. Development Implications 55
Water Projects and Progress 55 Completed Projects 56 On-going Projects 58 Transportation 53 Rail 59 Highways 60 Waterways 60 Local Transport 62 Industry 63
V. THE EASTERN REGION 64
A. The Setting 64
Location 64 History Administration 64
B. Human Resources 66 The People 66 Demography 6 Labor Force 7 -4-
Page No.
Urbanization 68
Literacy 68
C. Physical Resources 69
Physiography and Soils 69 Climate 70
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential 72
Present Land Use 72 Development Potential 74
E. Development Implications 76
Water Projects and Programs 76
Comnlpted Proiects 77 On-going Projects 78 'fhe Future 78
Transportation 79
RDil 80 Highways 81 Waterways 81 Local Transport
Industry 82
List of Tables
1. Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Vevelopmk,ent Unito - IvorjLawes u RLegioni - urop k uuu acres). 2. Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops IL T -3 _TN------t_ . _ - ___/-. _ __ - AC - -- _~ . X by Land D-evlopleull unitL - Northnwest Region - urop (% Of toTal area). 3. Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops biy Land Development Unit - Central Region - Crop ('000 acres). 4. Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops by Land De-velopment Unit - Central Region - Crop (% of total area). 5. Estimated Acreage Suitabie ior Specified Crops - by Land Develop- ment Unit - Southwest Region - Crop ('000 acres). 6. Estinmated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit - Southwest Region - Crop (% of total area). -5-
7. Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops - by Land Development Unit - Eastern Region - Crop ('000 acres). 8. Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops - by Land Development Unit - Eastern Region - Crop (% of total area). 9. Regional Comparison of Transportation Coverage: Arterial Routes. 10. Regional Comparison of Local Transportation Modes. 11. Regional Comparison of Local Telecommunications. 12. Regional Comparison of village accessibility to major transportation facilities. 13. Distribution of Public Call Offices (PCO's) in June 1970.
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUME II - RfEGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 1
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
SUMMAR! AND CONCLUSIONS
The Land i. The Northwest (NW), Central (C), Southwest (SW), and Eastern (E) regiom cover respectively 24.5%, 16%, 28% and 31.5% of the total 55,000 sq. miles of Bangladesh. Much of the land in the Northwest Region is higher than in the rest of the country except for the hilly area along the eastern boumdary of the Eastern Region, and as a result flooding is less deep and extensive than elsewhere. The landscapes in the Central Region are lower and relatively flat. The Southwest Region has very flat terrain and is interlaced with rivers and tidal channels. The Eastern ReRion has a very varied physiography ranging from very flat lowland in the north, which is srnhbe.t to the deeneat floodinz in the counkcv to steeply sloping hills in the southern Hill Tracts.
Damography ii. The two regions west of the Brahmaputra River have a smaller popu- ain1m+jnrelarvi+r +thnn +thev-pcAn,a +ro +the aa+ nol +'ha wriver, ht+ +he rulral pop- ulation densities still average about 1000 persons per square mile. The esti- msted. population for 1971 of the PWegior--(hflaw.- the - gratio nssof 1, ), was 17.0 million (NW), 17.5 million (C), 19.0 rmllion (SW), and 19.5 million (E). The corresponding gross population densities were: 959, 139, 849 862 persons per square mile in 1961 which has increased to an estimated. 1329 by 1907n +nhrne,h de 4,,to ,na wi4 rn'tiors, cyclone,v, dao+1.,a ard4nv '~~ n,4 rwir,e no accurate figures on internal population densities by district is available at this t-ime. Data on-'.iraJ4 popuJ-ion dersities are 14-4+v-A to irfo^pwtvOn from the 1961 census. In the Northwest Region densities per square mile of ,,,il+4 vv,+cA ~ y,~1.a+ 4,ftia4- T. 4-,. f4 ea4-wer4ls4- (708 i 1-OI1 ) --A b, ighe+ -~ ..,-..0.4~0.* ~ ..'.W sJ J.AL J AJJ.W.FlAS UJ.60 UV .L.& , I,9 I 'J'W J.A1 ./.JL .A I L LLJ.5ALAVQ W in Bogra (1132). In the Central Region, many thanas had densities over 2000 ~~j.~~~4 .A0.%J4;& £l.LOOV A.LS VLAV LJLLIAVAnWQ~U 1Wr,.LVALL XMA.LU.UJLL. A.L.LO UAJ."PI &ACLU 11hzLI highest rural density at 1274 persons per square mile and Khulmna District
UV&A v6 U 0.U .v_%-" LI 11LAWV L16UV.L41 jA= VJ.VjLL, kA"UsU6 A1 JJ.L L.0Lo-LA.I LAICU, V.lt. 1"614ou0 rural density in the country at 1191 persons per square mile and.Sylhet District --- -,4+k-' 1,, + -4- 'r7O7 w,,441 41, 44... t, .a i..J...1 -- j On &4-1 .J.I ULALC- .L.'WQ0 11 I.7 51.. LA IOLLC %JILAJ. U C1r10.JAA I2LL.-L ±L~A. U;0 LIL~V .L41 VJLJ.L Jd-o
44 4 Thr 4 as .. 1 iii.4&iU%&FJ.U e.LAM14-16 OL, &=UUIJp UUI t.DllVere 1.s a COnt'A-Umo-us migration within regions and between r.egions to satisfy seasonal labor demands. In t+he Nor+twYest Regon obi'4y of labor ia genei>1y conAsidered to be less than in other Regions but there are noticeable seasonal movements of people fro..,_1 +k,.e^^te ,r.,.owre A~ .g1l WFU63pp*ad,14. o'Ae.. a.as ..-L.--- tblteL we-F-es'UMA pftXU o. ~~ ~~** 0.44J.J~~~~ kJsIk tedLUU04uthOAn 0L0 andAAU..'ALW-WOIT pr --.L the Central Region to the north. In the Central Region, there is a seasonal
mn-rW40 + 5LL FIJ.kJiJiJ& YorIo-ae s.-eV OfJ 1the k85 t-arU Ragiorl W-uOu buu - ii -
deep flooding has subsided, and a permanent migration towards the Dacca conurbation. People in the Southwest Region travel to the coastal and offshore island areas, particularly for the aman rice harvest, and from the more populated eastern side of the Region to the less populated western side, which has a seasonal shortage of labor. There is less seasonal movement within the Eastern Region, where labor requirements are generally available locally. The population pressures in the center of the Region lead to permanent emigration, particularly to Dacca and Khllna cities.
Urbanization
iv. The pattern of urbanization varies. Overall only 5% of the nenli,+Ae-i IT_s wi4z.r There -la a omtm)e-ft ainall +etsi,o 4n' +ha 1Ve,.+1atnao+ Region but none with over 65,o0o people (1961). The Bangladesh capital city, nsrr, in thn Centras 57- 4 ,n A ^twQ Annf nranl 4- 10X;1 (Ailn nnI 0~+4_ mated for 1971 although urban areas surrounding Dacca Municipality would raise +1n4wvhis rwfk +o abo^ver 1 m4114 a,+4.-,- .d-o f-4tP4 4 'agr vhan uhe, nex Jfl_a CA UJ W - V IJ.L'l,, OL. lJ .J.4 ~JU ULIl~ .auU,,A&m& L U4U~1 ,oA~ most inportant town in the Region, Mymensingh. The Southwest Region is theU~ le3s4+v1 'r- zed pA '4 of, 41 h --.Ad1- 1--h 2 R3a.op ---- le 14 t- e 4- 4.to. ~ U ~ . k&4.4.LJ WU J.5.UlV ~J UA4WUj J .LU &4.JL~ V 'J~LA.6 j P SJW/0 4 JAW.AV J-.LV %-JSAL UU WV5.44 (1961), although the town of Khulna is increasing in size more rapidly than eJ A LhO.._ _4L _ ~A., _ _ T I U1A L4 er_ ILn l o W44 4- - -;- _ : _ J but it is still only about half the size of Dacca.
Climate vr The climate in the Northwest Region is marsinallv warmer in the summer and cooler in the winter than elsewhere, and rainfall is noticeably less than in the other regions. The southwest of this Region and the north- west of the Southwest Region are the driest part of the country and receives about a quarter of the 220 inches of rainfall recorded in the north nf the Eastern Region. The coastal areas of the Southwest and Eastern Regions are frequently hit by damaging cyclonic storms. Insolatton is nnt1eneahbl less in the Eastern Region than elsewhere. Agriculture vi. Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector in all the regions and employs some 90C of the labor foroe. Tha most imnpota+nt crop is rice and to a lesser extent jute. Nearly all the cultivable land is already under cultivation. The nereIntai7e of the tntal ronpped area 4n the country in the different Regions is as follows: 27.5%,Q,W), 21% (C), 28% (SW), and 2i C(E): and the average croppinp i_ntmnsI+tjAY are 1VA (NW). 145% (c) 130% (sw) and 175% (E). A direct relationship exists between high cropping intensities and hith noninatlan dansiti-es whin'h irnf1cbr%+sQ +hga relative pressures on land. There is an overall deficit in foodgrain pro- duction compared with the existIng demand. but mnsA-84ded'ah i ieri tnxni variation. For example, at an assumed demand of 16 oz. per head per day, regional fooderain production as a nereentaiae of regannal demanAd 4s 1R% (Nw), 64L (C), 98% {SW), 88% (E). Dinajpur District in the north of the Northwest Region is the bizzest surolus area and exports rir-e tn the r.Ast of +ih. country . 28% of the country's production of rice is in the Northwest 1/ Cropped area divided by cultivated area. Region, nearlyw 0 or zhe production or sugarcane, pozatoes ana woacco, and 30% of the jute. In the Central Region, rice production is only 19% of the total, but 40% of the jute is produced there. Apart from rice, sugarcane and vegetables are important in the Southwest Region, and tea in the Eastern Region, mainly in Syihet District. Water Projects and Program vii. Smalal scale irrigation and flood protection schemes have been completed in all regions by the TIP and RWP. More than double the number of low lift pumps have been fielded in the region east of the Brahmaputra than those bordering the river. Most of the country is flooded during the monsoon but the depth of flooding is less of a constraint to agricultural production in the Northwest and Southwest Regions. The per-, centage of the land in the different Regions flooded by more than 3 ft. Y of water is 17% (NW), 37% (C), 21% (SW)2 and 55% (E) and by more than 6 ft. of water 8% (NW), 21% (C), 6% (SW) and 27% (E). viii. The biggest emphasis on large scale flood control and irrigation project development has been in the Southwest Region where the Kushtia Unit of the Ganges Kopadak Project and the Coastal Embankment Project have been under construction for some years. Important development projects completed in the Northwest Region include the Thakurgaon Tubewell Project (63,000 acres) in the northwest of Dirajpur, and the Brabmaputra Right Bank Flood Protection Embankment. In the Central Region the Dacca Demra Project (15,000 acres) is the only project completed. The Karnafuli Hydro-electric Project near Chittagong was completed in 1962 in the Eastern Region and the Coastal Embankment and Chandpur Projects are under construction. Transportation ix. Transportation in the Northwest Region is predominantly by land. The coverage by railroads is the best in the country and by highways is better than average. Movement by water is very limited. Comnunications to and from the Region are limited by the difficulties of crossing the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers. Traffic is more orientated to a north-south more- ment than east-west. In the Central Region, transportation is well developed by land and water. Generally the eastern side of the region is better served by water transport and the western side by land transport. Dacca City is the focal point of the transportation system of the country and a large percentage of the country imports pass either through or to Dacca. Important inland ports are located at Dacca and Narayanganj. In the Southwest Region movement is predominantly by water and the coverage by rail and road is less than else- where in the country. The important seaport of Chalna is located in this Region and Barisal and Khulna are important inland ports. Land comiuni- cations are orientated towards a north-south movement, whereas water comn- unications are generally in an east-west direction. Transportation by the three modes of transport are important in the Eastern Region. The port of 1/ Flooding more than 3 ft. deep limits crop yields and more than 6 ft. deep severely limits yields. a-I
Chiu.ttagng is the origin or termination point foar zuc Of the traffic in the country and traffic movements are dominated by shipments between ChlbBa~ goU WJaUc. JAca.l transporlD ls by both iand anai water, eth latter being important in the Sylhet Basin and the coastal areas. Motor- ized lanrd transpurt is more developed at the iocai ievei here tnan else- where.
Development Potential: The Northwest Region x. The Northwest Region has a higher potential for rapid agricultural development than any other region. Tnis is mainly because of the great extent of highland and shallowly flooded land suitable for conversion to IRRI aman varieties without irrigation. Much of this land, except on the Barind Tract, could also produce a broadcast IRRI aus crop without irri- gation, to replace the local aus varieties. Groundwater appears to be readily available for irrigation development throughout most of the Region, and especially in the north. With irrigation, boro or transplanted aus could be grown on all except the permeable ridge soils covering much of Dinajpur and on the highest floodplain land elsewhere. On permeable ridge soils, a wide range of dryland rabi crops could be produced, as well as sugarcane on non-flooded land. Full development of the deeply flooded land in the southeast must await the construction of polders with pump drainage, but as a first phase, production could be increased con- siderably by providing pump irrigation so that boro could replace the existing uncertain deepwater aman. These developments would make the Region even more of a surplus rice producing area than it is at present. In order that the farmers may have an adequate incentive to produce crop surpluses, there would need to be considerable improvement in storage, marketing and transport facilities. For cash crops such as oilseeds and cotton, processing facilities would need to be provided parallel with expansion of cultivation. Improved packing, transportation and marketing are also required if the present decline in mango cultivation in Rajshahi is to be reversed. The widespread sharecropping in the north of the Region, where nearly 25% of the land is sharecropped, could limit the success of an agricultural input distribution program in that part of the Region due to the inability of sharecroppers to respond to such a program. Transportation at the local level could also be a limiting factor on development particu- larly during the wet season, when the aus crop is harvested. The limited arterial connection between this Region and the rest of the Province could exacerbate marketing problems and be a limiting factor on crop diversifi- cation. Apart from agriculture, industrial development is at present very limited but important possibilities exist in the development of industries based on the deep coal and limestone deposits in the center of the Region. Development Potential: The Central Region xi. The diversity of physical conditions within the Central Region provides wide ranging opportunities for agricultural development. IRRI varieties could be substituted for local aus and transplanted aman varieties throughout the Region; perhaps for deepwater aman varieties eventually. AThse rFvienUWW t ould be eff ceWd M.'6W V V6 .or.o ti6.8- Irrigation would make possible a vast extension in boro cultivation, rtplacJnsdeve-FWFtoer --ar. or, bas'ln lJand s0"wVec W^ ^^ood%% ar wnd&~&&Wa b, cast aus on higher land where drought is the main hazard. Primary pumping from whe ma'or rAvers needs oW be pro-vded o extenLdthe present surtace water sources available for low-lift pump irrigation, but tubewell irrigation needs too bje develoe.inhge ar.d less accesss'u.le tduu.a (pr-o-vdedU tohaL gro-lunda-Uaer resources are confirmed.). Irrigation would.be particularly beneficial on 4.1- _ U_a ._ -._ - m _ _ :_ Xn ______- . ___.__4 _ - _p _ __ uL}' I.L'aUV., t1bP. La.L Ir UugtLr;Uaej U .LdUU, cerUaJ, JLLULs ano vegetables. Full development of the deeply flooded. areas must await the Qonstrluction of polders wIth p-ump drainage -whe-re this Is practical), but provision or irrigation alone to these areas would increase production considerably as..well as remove the uncertainty of..crop production in areas subject to flood hazard.. Although the pressure on land is very considerable in parts of this Region, average cropping intensities are not much different from the average for the country. Sharecropping is rather less than else- where. The high pressure on land and.limited. sharecropping together with the ready market for surplus produce in Dacca provide aLgood background.for suc- cessful development through the introduction of hxv; provid.ed local in- adequacies in storage marketing and. transportation can be improved.
Development Potential: .Tne Southwest Region xii. Long-term development in the Southwest Region depends, ultimately, on decisions taken regarding water transfer from the Ganges-Brahmaputra. Until such time as additional surface water might be provided, however, there is much that could be done by other means. In the west, prospects for tubewell development seem to be very good. Irrigation in this area, as within the existing Ganges-Kobadak Project Area, could be used to enhance both rice and dryland crop productiont sugarcane, tobacco, vegetables, plan, bananas, fruit trees on the highest rldges; broadcast aus and transplanted aman (IRRI varieties), together with jute and rabi crops on lower ridges, two transplanted IRRI rice crops per year on basin clays not flooded too deeply in the monsoon season; and a single crop of IRRI boro in basin centers. IRRI boro could be grown extensively on deeply flooded land in the east where irrigation might be provided either from tubewells or, in part, from the low-lift pumps along rivers that are tidal in the dry season. There are particularly good prospects for low-lift pump development in Barisal and the north of Patuakhali where tidal creeks remain sufficiently fresh during the dry season. 2/ Few places are more than half a mile from such a creek, but minor works - such as cross-bunds, low embanlments, two-stage pumping - might be needed to provide irrigation to particular areas. Irrigation would make it possible to follow a transplanted IRRI aman crop (which may not need irrigation) with IRRI boro. Such irrigation development would
1 HYV - high yielding-varieties. g This statement is subject to the provision that water abstraction from the Brahmaputra-Gangee-Meghna system does not draw the saline limit in the Meghna estuary north of Bhola Island. - vJ. -
'2-JA.A
WJ ID WU LhWOUL.LUJ. aOUAA" WL I,LIU 93LJIM.L J.EU.L i.. .LUL bAUU 1-LUZ WJ. I~UU., C±Ltu.r" of some of the cross channels and perhaps provision of additional north- south chann.els beWeGen 'whe ruaJuL- £-.~ver. rL-vvsion o° s-uch irrigatioi development in Khulna will depend on decisions to be taken regarding wat-- a nsfer to the area flrcm the uanges. In the meanTmeMS exclusion of salt water flooding from the land by the Coastal Embankment Project and impruved water management witin the polders should maKe wIdespread cultivation of IRRI aman possible. The pressure on land is greatest in the east of the Region in Faridpur and Barisal-Patuakhali and least in the northwest in Kushtia and Jessore. Relatively high cropping inten- sities are already achieved in these areas where the population density is greater. Sharecropping is most prevalent in Kusthia and Khulna where about 22s of tne land is sharecropped, and this could have a negative influence on the introduction of more advanced technologies in these areas. Except for the north oI- the Region, the year round accessibility of much of the Region to water transport makes movement at the local level less of a problem here than elsewhere although movement by un- powered boat is inevitably quite slow. Industrialization is not seen to be an important factor in development in the near future. Development Potential: The Eastern Region
xiii. There is less potential for agricultural development in the Eastern Region than elsewhere without major engineering works. The highest potential exists on the old Meghna floodplain, especially in the higher east where IRRI aus and transplanted aman could be substit- uted for existing varieties without the need to provide supplementary irrigation. Irrigation in this area would permit boro to be substituted for broadcast aus; alternatively, it could be used to provide high yielding dryland rabi crops. In more deeply flooded parts of the Meghna floodplain, IRRI varieties might eventually be developed to replace existing aus and deepwater aman varieties. Provision of irrigation on this land would make boro cultivation possible, but this would be at the expense of existing aus, aman and rabi crops which most of this land produces satisfactorily at present without irrigation and without undue flood hazard. This land would be amongst the easiest in the country to empolder and drain, (by pumps in the north, by tidal sluices in the south), and could then mainly produce two transplanted rice crops per year. Most other land in the Eastern Region is handicapped for development by natural hazards of varying degrees of severity. Although IRRI aus and transplanted aman could be substituted for local varieties on piedmont and adjoining floodplain land, yield expectations would be lower than elsewhere because of periodic damagne from flash floods, against which protection might be difficult to provide. Flood protection of the deeply flooded Sylhet Basin area would be extremely expensive due to the great depth of flooding. The off-shore islands and the coastal fringe of Noakhali District suffer the double handicap of severe exposure to damaging cyclones (and associated storm surges) and paucity or absence of suitable irrigation sources by which crops could be grown in the more secure dry season. IRRI aman - vii -
could be substituted for local aman on much of the land, with consider- able benefits in years without late cyclones. IRRI aus might also be grown in non-saline areas. Intensification of crop production in the hill areas is limited by the prevalent steep slopes, excessive rainfall and lack of suitable material for making terrace retaining walls. Tree crops need to be encouraged in place of shifting cultivation, but access- ibility and marketing provide major problems. The intense pressure on land throughout much of this Region due to the high population density already results in severe shortages of foodgrain and widespread poverty in spite of relatively high cropping intensities. Agricultural develop- ment in this Region is more dependent than elsewhere on changes being provided in the agricultural environment by water oontrol projects. In industry the most important developments expected to take place are based on the huge natural gas reserres in the north of the Region, which will provide the raw material for the development of fertilizer factories and other natural gas based industries.
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUME II - REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 1
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRANEWORK
I. INTRODUCTION
1.01 This Technical Report presents a description of the people, the land, land use and the constraints and possibilities for agricultural development in each of the four regions of Bangladesh with the intent- ion of highlighting the importan.1 regional differences to be considered in the formulation of a development strategy. Information on land capability is drawn from the reports of the FAO/UNDP assisted Soil Survey Project of Pakistan, and reference is made to the Land Development Units (LDU's) delineated by the Soil Survey Project. The location of the LDU's is shown on the attached map (Map 7). More information on Land Capability and Land Development Units is presented in Technical Report No. 2 of this Volume, but detailed information may be obtained by consulting the reports produced by the Soil Survey Project covering the particular area of interest.
1.02 Technical Reports 1 and 2 are the qualitative companions to Technical Report No. 4 where present land use and land capability data have been quantified, various kinds, levels and rates of development assumed and future production values derived by computer analysis for each Region and for "Land Development Units" within each Region. These Technical Reports helped formulate the development strategy outlined in Volume I. - 2 -
II. THE NORTHWEST REGION
A. The Setting
Location
2.01 The North-West Region of Bangladesh is north of the Ganges and west of the Brahmaputra river. Its northern tip is within a few miles of the Himalayan foothills. From north to south, this Region stretches for 200 miles and from east to west it is more than 100 miles wide in places. The total area is 13,347 sq. mi.-24.5 % of the area of the country. From Dacca the closest part of this Region is 60 miles away, whereas the furthest area, Tetulia, is 250 miles distant.
History
2.02 Some of the most interesting historical sites in Bangladesh are in this region. Two thousand years ago. during the reign of the Maurya Dynasty, the area was known as Pandravardhana, The capital was at Pundranagara, at the present site of Mahasthan, 20 miles north of Bogra. Later, it gave rise to the Pala dynasty, who ruled most of eastern India for over four centuries. During their ascendancy this was a very imnortant area for Buiddhism. and missionaries went out from the viharas of Mahasthan and Paharpur to Tibet, Burma; Thailand- Cambodia; Java; Ceylon and other rmointrieps After the invasion of the Turk-Afghan groups in the 12th century, the area remained the stronghold of the ril - of the MUslim Kingdom of Bengal, who esQtabhisbhed their capitals at Firozabad and Gaur. Only after the Moghuls gained control in the Iate sixteenth centuryrv cdid thep nter of nower move to frcArr
0n3 Fonr manw re'ntilriocs cilk wac the moct 4 mnnrtnnt exponyt nf thic area. It was produced not only in Rajshahi but also in Bogra, Pabna and parts of Rangpur. Silks were exportedoto he Moghul Court and the Ottoman empire. After trade with Europe opened up silks were exnorted to France, Y.olland1 an i-n-r ,1-inl to- Eglnd.A Y.owever,in the early lth cent-r, deliberate policy decisions reduced the export market and the industry declned; T n1;g oan sugarcne bcaom ;_e 4!r;_1_1 c A-r_; plantations led to riots in Shahzadpur in Pabna district and gradually ir.digo bCegan to f.all out of fav or. Uute supplantedA t as the mai.4 cash crop by the third quarter of the 19th century.
Administration
2.04 At present, this Region forms one of the four administrative -ivis4onsof Mr,--I -sh =- the- DR-A--. n4-4v4si-n. thin-1-.. t-h Divisior,- there are five Districts: Pabna, Rajshahi, Bogra, Rangpur and Dinajpur. The next administrative tier is the sub-division. Bogra has only one sub- division, coterminous with the district. Pabna and Dinajpur have two sub-divisions and Rangpur and Rajshahi each have four. The next tier, and in many ways the most important one, is the thana. There are 113 thanas in this Region, distributed as follows: Pabna 17, Rajshahi 30, Bogra 13, Rangpur 32, Dinalpur 22. All development departments of the government, such as agriculture and education, have officers down to the thana level. The Bangladesh Agriculture Development Corporation, which is an auton- omous agency, also has officers down to the thana level. - 4 -
B. Human Resources
The People 2.05 Ninety-seven percent of the people of this Region are Bengalis by the commonly accepted criteria that they consider Bengali as their mother-tongue. There is a heavy infusion of mongoloid strain in the Bengali population and there are distinctly mongoloid groups known as Polia and Koch. Both groups speak Bengali dialects. The Santals form the third distinct group. They are from Central India and show marked Dravidian affinities. Most of them are bilingual in Santali and Bengali. Of the immigrants coming into this region from 1947 onwards the majority have been Bengalis from West Bengal and Assam. A sizeable group of Urdu speaking Biharis also came in. The 1961 census enumerated 118,678 persons claiming Urdu as their mother-tongue. This would be a fair approximation of the number of Muslim Bihari refugees. There were also a small number (C- 31,000) of Hindi-speakers from Bihar and further -Test. All of them are Hindus and had come in before 1947 as coolies, blacksmiths, field hands, tanners, etc.
Demography
2.06 The Northwest Region is the least densely populated of the four regions when density figures are based.on population/arable land. The total population is estimated. to be 17.0 million (1971). In 1961, an average population density of 959 persons per sq. mile was recorded bringing 1571 density estimates to 1180. The probable district-wise distribution, before tbh mAss migrations rAsulting from the civil war is given in the table below:
District 1961 Population 1971 estimated. Pbnulation (million) (million) /
Dinajpur 1.8 2.4 Ranaour h.0 503 Bogra 1.7 2.2 Pabna 2.1 2 8 Rajshahi 3.0 4h.
2.07 There are severa1 big areas with a population density well below the average for Bangladesh. Two are in the extreme north, with Tetulia Thana (¢14 opersons npr sq. mile in 1961) hbing the least crowded.r Further south, in the eastern part of the Barind area, there is another block of thanas with low nonulation densities- centering aromnd Tarash= A thirdi block is in the western part of the Barind, centering around Nachole, which has a nopulation density of onlv Jeq nter sq. mile in 19601 the lowest of any thana outside of the Hill Tracts, with the exception of the hanas in the non-agricultural .9undarban area.
I/ Assuming a nopnulation Prowth of 2.9 nerc-nt nper Annum for the drcidp. 1961-71. 2.08 The highest densities are in the Tista valley and along the right bank of the Jamuna River. The Thanas of Gaibandha, Palashbari, Rangpur, Saidpur, Gabtali, Bogra, Naogaon, Rajshahi, Sirajganj, Kamarkandi and Shahzadpur are the most densely populated, with over 1,800 persons per sq. mile. Some of these can be classed as urban thanas since they include large towns.
2.09 The density of rural population on the cultivated areas varies quite a bit within the region, as can be seen from the table below. The figures are taken from the 1961 Census but they are representative of the relative difference between the districts. Both Bogra and, Pabna have high man/lard ratios even though the Barind covers half of Bogra and the Bhar lowlands form a third. of Pabna. The lower pressure on land. in Dinajpur and Rajshahi is leading to some immigration into these districts. It should. also be noted that 1971 density figures would show significant increases and comparative figures of density/arable land, particularly in the NW region which would show higher figures yet.
1961 Census District Density per sq. mile
Dinajpur 708 Rangpur 1107 Bogra 1132 Pabna 1127 Rajshahi 831
Labor Force
2.10 In 1961, about 11 percent of the labor force was non-agricultural. Within the Region, there is continuous migration from Pabna and eastern Bogra to the less populated areas to the west and north but much more significant is the immigration into western Rajshahi and northern Dinajpur from Tangail and Jamalpur in the Central Region and from Noakhali in the Eastern Region. The labor situation is quite tight apparently since earth-cutting labor is brought in from Noakhali. Given the relatively low population densities in the Barind and the piedmont areas in the north rapid agricultural development in these areas may be affected by a labor shortage. Mobility of labor within the Region is generally considered to be less than in the other Regions.
Urbanization
2.11 The urban pattern is somewhat different from the other Regions, insofar as there is no city of any significant size. By the definition of the Ponulation Census. cities are urban areas with 100;000 or more population. This Region does, however, have a number of big towns, which are well distributed. A list of the more imDortant of these towns. with their 1961 and 1951 populations, is given below. Some of these towns grew very cor.sa-id er ably in, the Qq T 195' A,nl is..ig4to4u -o f-rom. "es- Bengal and Bihar, in India. Saidpur received a big influx of,refugees in-1947 but thereafter it .as steadl.y declined as people moveu off to Khulna and Dacca. Saidpur was the fifth largest urban center in 1961, after Dacca, Chi-tt agong, Vxuln. .d ,.e-MIryanaJ pouato of ~LL~. ~ .)14. I. ~4L~, , L~L_L.LLC& a.LU 1'ICL dLY LLdL6ILJ * ±LL PUjJUdL±UL. IL UL Parbatipur and Thakurgaon also declined in this decade, but this was again d ue to thLLe moveOILentl oil refLugees. During the 1960r 6 al".I te district headquarters grew significantly, especially Bogra and Rajshahi.
UrbLaI PUpULatioULL i.L.L.Lerence Town 1961 1951 1951-61
Saidpur 60,628 61,369 - 1 n .! ...L .j CZ OO 00 fll . Lasai56859,3~ + 42 Sirajganj 47,152 37,858 + 25 Pabna 40,9/2 32,240 + 27 Rangpur 40,634 31,759 + 28 Dinajpur 37,711 35,687 T 6 Bogra 33,784 25,303 + 34 Nawabganj 29,725 28,446 + 27 Parbatipur 27,188 32,875 - 17 Laimonirhar 22,001 9,170 +140 Naogaon 20,276 11,287 + 80
Literacy
2.12 The Northwest Region is lagging behind the Central and Eastern Regions in education. The percentage of literates in ithe total population of Bangladesh was 17.6 percent in 1961. The Northwest Region had a literacy percentage of 16.7 in that year. Dinajpur and Bogra districts are above the provincial average in literacy percentage, while the other three districts are below the average. The pattern of literacy in the Region is shown by the following table:
District Percentage Literate (1961)
Dinajpur 21.3 Rangpur 14.8 Bogra 18.6 Rajshahi 15.7 Pabna 16.3
There is one university in the Region, in Rajshahi. There are also two agriculture training institutes at Tajhat, near Rangpur, and at Natore. There has been a demand for some time for an agricultural university in this Region. At one time the campus of the Carmichael College at Rangpur was considered for the setting up of such a university. 4.LU3o.t. a. U^1DoAL.._,
Physiography and Soils
2.13 The physiography of the Northwest Region is characterized by the land sloping downmard in a southeasterly direction. The elevation above sea level varies from 300 ft. in the northwest of Dinajpur District and 150 ft. in the northwest of Rajshahi District to 25 ft. in the southeast of Pabna District. The land gradient in the northern half of the region averages 2 ft. per mile while the gradient in the southern half, excluding the uplifted part of the Barind Tract in the northwest of Rajshahi, averages 0.2 ft per mile. The Tista River crosses the north east corner of the Region, and a number of small rivers cross the region in a north-south direction. The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers constitute the southern and eastern boundaries.
2.14 The Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain occupies most of Dinajpur District. It comprises an old part of the Tista alluvial fan with a braided river landscape. There are complex patterns of broad sandy or loamy ridges inter- mixed with numerous shallow channels or basins with mainly loamy soils. Almost the whole landscape, except the highest ridges, lies wet or shallowly flooded in the monsoon season. The main river channels are entrenched about 15-20 feet below the surrounding landscape.
2.15 The younger part of the Tista alluvial fan and floodplain occuDies a variety of landscapes in the Northwest Region. The reason for the diversity is that the Tista has previously occupied and,abandoned,several channels across the region, (including the valleys now occupied by the rivers Mahananda, Purnabbaba, Atrai, Little Jamuna and Karatoyal and has brought down sediments of different texture at different times. The small floodplains of the Dudhkumar and Gangadhar rivers in the north of Kurigram Subdivision are included in this unit. There is a complex, braided river, floodplain land- scape of sandy ridges and level, silty depressions throughout most of the Northwest and on the middle Atrai floodplain; this grades eastward into mainly silty sediments on low narrow ridges and in broad level depressions; heavy clays occur on the lower Purnabbaba floodplain and in the lower Atrai basin (which separates the Barind tract from the Ganges floodplain). Ridges in the north are above normal flood level and most of the unit is only shallowly flooded (by rain water) in the monsoon season. The lower Purnabhaba floodplain and lower Atrai basin are subject to deep flooding, and parts remain wet for most of the dry season.
2.16 The Barind Tract is the important physiographic feature of the centre of the Region. The Tract is mainly level with slowly permeable soils overlying little-weathered Madhupur clay. The few stream channels are several miles apart and have tightly meandering courses. Most of this area is shallowly flooded by rain water in the monsoon season mainly within field bunds, but occasional flash floods in the Atrai and Little Jamuna rivers - 8 -
sDread river water over adioinine Barind areas- esneciallv in the north. In the latter area, the boundary between the Barind Tract and the Tista floodplain is not sharn because of the erratin diqtribhution of shallow floodplain sediments over the Barind landscape. The western part of the tract in Raishahi District is more closely dissected and relqHiyelv higher than the remainder of the tract, reaching a maximum height of about 140 feet above sea-level in northwestern Raishahi. This nrea has horn mnlif i--d and tilted, causing streams to cut deep valleys.
2.17 The Lower Atrai Basin includes Chalan bil and other bil areas occupying the denression fonl owed by the Tower At rqi river separating the Barind Tract and the Ganges floodplain. The north side of the area is o._iied hv the down-warped southeastern edge of the Barind Tract which has been mainly shallowly buried by clay from the Atrai and Little Jamuna floodnlains Flooding is un to V; feet deep*, in -he monsoon season. The centre of the area formerly remained wet throughout the dry season, but has ropcntlu haen artifie-iamlly A-n4ined Flood-levels ofte.n rise rapidly because of accumulated run-off from the Barind Tract, aggravated when this water 4i 1-bacA up by high flood levels ir. the jamuna (Bra n.t-putraariver The topography is mainly smooth, but locally irregular in the south where young Ganges sediments have penetrated and in the norhThwest wiere narrow ri4 dge of Atrai and little Jamuna alluvium occur.
2.18 The Ganges River Floodplain in the south of the region is shared
b-y the r.ortherr. partL of the Sout.hwest Region ar.d the southwesterr. part L LI. LL ) LAIIJ ij L. LA. L.Li .J LULiW~ L. LX 6 LJiaiU L"lI~O LILW~ L~ .1j. L. of the Central Region. It comprises a typical meander floodplain landscape of ridges, basins anLid o'ld channels. ILn general, thLLe topogah-sr,.ooth,4 is IJL J. ~LU~ d~.LLI~ U±U L~I4iiii~4~* LII ~ d±~ Lii~ U 6ULapjJ1 L Z LO. iiUV LLiL but it locally comprises rapidly alternating linear low ridges and depressions,
especL.Lad.±y 1in LLth e L '.LLiLe L'ianges channelC .Lb'scUIInLtIIl ) Lin11,1 i L UU . 116 and depositing large areas of new alluvium on its banks and char land each year. Ganges alluviuiu is calcareous (although dasiLi clays andU somie older ridge soils are usually non-calcareous). Clay soils predominate in basins anu on the greater part of1most ridges, but silts and occasionally sands occupy higher ridge crests. The substratum is mainly silty, but is sandy in places in the west. Flooding is mainly deep, but becomes shallow in the west (where some ridges lie above flood level) and is caused mainly by rain water except near the Ganges and its distributary channels.
CL.Lirate
2.i9 The Nortnwest Region nas a warmer summer and a cooler winter thani the other Regions, and Rajshahi District in the west of the Region is, on average, the driest area in tne cuuntry As in tne otner Regions, temperatures rise steadily from January to April, remain fairly steady from April to October, and the faii to reacn a iow in December and January. Mean summer temperatures are in the low eighties, with mean daily maxima reaching nearly 1000 F in April throughout most of tne Region. Rangpur is marginally cooler. In winter, mean temperaturesdrop to the low sixties and daily minima to the low fifties. Historical minimum temperatures recorded in Rangpur, Dinajpur and Pabna are 39°F in January. 2) 2) Mesan -rlative4, hum.id4 A 40s- h4ih thirnioghoiut the yeoair -n.A there i8 generally more variation during the year in this Region than elsewhere, par4ticularly .4ore thIa.LO4inthe s.out of the Untr,The high Ar4i1 temperatures coincide with the lowest mean relative humidity of 55% in iJr and 6-657 ir.e eas of the R months the humidity is high at about 90% and remains high until December whLen 4it falls reach low ApilAin WUU .L. *O4.. LOsharplyr n , toL 001..Lu a .---1z -4 lJA 44 2.21~ f'Only verrcer.t recordAs of annual zvrg vprton are &.. ~ Only vcjLy L t..LL L. %.LLU LA ~LL L CLVC&C&B4 CVMFULa;.J.LJLL . available, and these indicate a variation of from 40 inches to 55 inches w.LLL.Ln LAMe I1=rO.LULL. Lhis4 large spread iLs probably dueL tLo thLe LmLLtU recoVrds available. The southwest of the Region has lower evaporation and the northeast hi8'LhLer. MaxiLmUmI LI.LVLLLLL =V4ULeL.LULL ..4 JI-J" .0 L-I J.6-.LA7i.e and monthly evaporation is relatively steady from June to October at 3.5 to 4 in.chLLes. E£vaporat'Lo. 'Ls genera'L.Ly 'lower iLn thLe CUentrald± a.3 higher in the Southwest Region.
2.22 There is less rainfall in the Region than the other regions. Rainfall varies from 50 inches in the southwest ana 80 inches in the south to 90 inches in the north. This must be compared with the extremely high rainfall in the northeast of Syihet of 220 inches, and 120 inches in the south of Patuakhali. The lowest average annual rainfall in the country,50 inches, is recorded in the northwest of Rajshahi District. 95% of the rain falls between May and October. March and April rainfall, of considerable im- portance to a'us and jute is significantly less in the west of tne Region than in the Region as a whole. The Region is particularly well covered by rainfall measuring stations, many of the records going back to the 1920's. Comprehensive Meteorological Stations are located at Dinajpur, Rangpur, Laimanirhat, Bogra, Sirajgang, Ishurdi and Pabna.
2.23 The region is not seriously affected by the cyciones that originate over the Bay of Bengal although torrential downpours occasionally cause local flooding. On the averages winds are moderate; the max,mim average wind speeds are recorded in the middle of the year. Insolation is not noticeably different from the rest of the Province. - 10 -
fl Preasntr T.Landl Uea0 nd feloTcplnpnment Pnotental
Present Y.andi TUcse
2.24 The UNorthwest P.egior. pr-sert-l includes 30A of the culivated area of the country and 27.5% of the cropped area but only 22% of the population. Th,e present agricultura1 practices are prnmar4ly infliienced by the amount of rainfall and the soil type, although flooding in the south4ern and eastern part.s of the Regionr also1 inf luer.ce cropping pratte---s in these areas. Cropping intensity is less than in the other Regions particulay _..1..the:_ort ws$t . o-t..A- ,-.-4 .n.where 144-- D .n.aor 4D AQ-vr.teAA .L U.L a . EL 11 L O tL f lJL LLLWCO . L L LL1I LtW1 1 W-LO- c .1 14 0. 0 O1sVLa,J -0 to winter crops. Winter cropping is more prevalent in the south, particularly -In Pabna ant ndBogra udistrLcts.
21.5C1L MosP1-rk,U~L Oci L.I1Cthe U±L.LerentLLdifferentC.3 NLLUbk-d Litof.9- L..LUP9 -rprJLWLJWLb-. - -- -4- .14.r KJ0.Ja..Lta40.s Pak i stan are to'be found in the Region including important cash crops such as jute and tobDacco. I'lle nRegion pertLy pproduces a surpLus ±11 iuCugLaius, andU fruitL and legumes are grown in abundance. Much of this produce is exported to the rest of the cuuntry The aeg.Loii produuuts nearly JfO% U] theLoC ULU±XryU production of sugarcane, mango and potato.
2.26 The percentage of the countryt s production in the Region of some of the more important commodities is as follows:
Northwest Region % of Provincial Production of Agricultural Commodities
Commodity % Commodity _%
Rice 28 Banana 37 Wheat 45 Rape & Mustard 40 Jute 30 Onion 34 Mango 55 Sweet Potato 17 Sugarcane 53 Watermelon 36 Potato 48 Tobacco 63
Cropped Area 27.5%
2.27 Rice is grown throughout the Region. Transplanted aman is the major crop throughout the north and west, grown on land that is shallowly flooded in the monsoon season. On the Barind tract, and in the north of Dinajpur, it is mainly grown as a single crop. Elsewhere, it is usually preceded by broadcast aus or jute, and the land remains fallow in the dry season. Aus is the only rice crop grown on well drained highland soils. Part of these soils also produces a dryland rice crop after the aus. On land flooded too deeply for transplanted aman, broadcast deepwater aman is the major crop. In deep basin sites, it is grown alone, but on less deeply flooded ridges it is commonly grown mixed with aus and followed by a dryland rabi crop. Jute is grown on part of this land in place of mixed aus and aman. Boro presently occupies only a small proportion of the area, mainly in deep basin sites along the lower Purnabhaba and lower Atrai floodplains. 2.28 Jute is important on poorly drained Tista floodplain soils and tobacco on associated well drained soils, especially near Rangpur town. Sugarcane is important in Rajsnani and in Dinajpur. Sunnhemp and mustard/ rapeseed are widely grownl on the Karatoya-Bangali floodplain, and production of potatoes and vegetabies is important on high floodplain land adjoining the edge of the Barind tract in Bogra and the south of Rangpur. Mangoes are important in the west of Rajshahi, but much of this production spoils because of the inadequacy of transportation to the terminal markets. For this reason, and the need for increased rice supplies, production has been declining in recent years.
2.29 Farm sizes are generally bigger in the north of the Region than elsewhere although there is still considerable farm fragmentation, a factor which weighs against efficient irrigation. Farms in the north of the Region average nearly 5.5 acres whereas in the south the farms are close to the country average of 3.5 acres. Most of the land is farmed by the owners but about half the farmers have a part of their land sharecropped. Sharecropping is more prevalent in Dinajpur and Rashahi where it accounts for about 25% of the land, compared with a country average of 16% and a Regional average of 21%.
2.30 Farm fragmentation is more frequent in this Region than elsewhere. particularly in Bogra and Rahshahi where the number of farms reporting to be in more than ten fragments for example is 47% and 42% respectively compared with a Regional average of 37% and a country average of only 29". This high fragmentation of farms which are already relatively small, favors the growth of cash crops in these areas, particularly fruit and vegetables.
2.31 The present intensity of land use in different parts of the Region is indicated by the present cropping intensities in the Region. Cropping intensities here are lower than the country average of nearly 150 percent particularly in the north of the Region, and substantially less than the high 200 percent obtained in parts of the Eastern Region.
2.32 Agricultural development is inevitably strongly linked to the foodgrain demand in the Region and in the country as a whole. This Region presently produces sufficient foodgrain to support the population in the Region, although internally, the north is in surplus, while the south is in deficit. But foodgrain (wheat) is still distributed by the Food Deoartment while rie is exported to the other parts of the country, particularly Dacca. Estimates of districtwide production of foodgrain as a percentage of demand, together with present cropping intensities are presented below. Assumed demand was 16 oz per head per day of foodgrain. Dinajpur is seen to be considerably in surplus while Pabna is a maior deficit area, The cropping intensities are least in the surplus area and greater in the deficit area, demonstrating the pressure on land in the more nnniilated areas - 12 -
Percent Production of Demand Cropping Intensities District for foodgrain percent
Dinajpur 124 117 Rangpur 106 131 Rajshahi 104 123 Bogra 96 133 Pabna 66 144
Development Potential
2.33 The Northwest Region has exceptionally favourable conditions for a rapid increase in agricultural production. This is because a high propor- tion of the land (27%, 2.1 M acres) is level, poorly drained, highland and medium highland on which IRRI aman could be substituted for the present transplanted aman varieties and where, with irrigation, an additional transplanted rice crop could be grown in the dry season. Additionally, in NW1 14 2, 3 and 4a, there appear to be ample groundwater resources which could be exploited by tubewell irrigation. Groundwater resources in other units still require confirmation, but early indications have been promising in the north and east of NW13 (and 12) as well as in parts of NW5 and 9. No major soil fertility problems have been reported--with the possible exception of calcium deficiency on sandy soils in NW1, and 2, and phosphate fixation on red soils in NW12 -- and considerable responses can be expected from adequate use of standard fertilizers on all the major crops, especially under irrigated conditions. 2.34 Substitution of IRRI aman for local transplanted aman varieties undoubtedly offers the simplest and cheapest method of achieving a dramatic increase in agricultural production. On approximately 1.5 M acres in NW1, 2, 3,4a, 4b, parts of 5, 12 and the eastern half of 13, it is considered that IR20 could be grown without irrigation and -without the crop's high yield potential being unduly jeopardized. This assumption is based on experience with existing aman varieties, which mature a month later than is envisaged for IR20, and on the observation that topsoils generally remain wet up to at least early December, except on permeable ridge sites. In Raishahi district (NW6, 9, 14 and the western half of 13), where the rainfall is below 60 inches, irrigation might be desirable to ensure satisfactory yields of IR20. However, even in this district, the introduction of 90-100 day IRRI aman varieties. already envisaged, might make increased yields possible without dependence on irrigation.
2.35 Although provision of irrigation would undoubtedly make IRRI aman production more secure in relatively dry years, it seems doubtful whether it would be economic to provide irrigation solely for this purpose. The major purpose of providing irrigation facilities on IRRI aman land would be to make possible the cultivation of a second transplanted rice crop in
1/ NW1 refers to Land Development Unit (LDU) No. 1 in the Northwest (NW) Region. For definition of Land Development unit see Technical Report Number 2. For location see Summery Map 7 or Map VI of the Analytical Map Series. - 13 - the dry Qann Thic would hp snperiallu hbene'iiel nn 1 0 Mn acres of the Barind tract (NW12, 13 and 14) the greater part of which produces only a single cron nf amnan nt nrprsnt. On the Tistan nnri sQnnintpd flnnAnlainQ (0.7 M acres in NW3, 4a, 4b, parts of 5 and 6), irrigation would provide lesser -- thnioh Qsill imnnrtant -- hbnefits RincP TRRT hnrn nr trrnsnlantrd aus would here be substituted for the existing, relatively reliable, broad- cast aus and 4ut nroAduct-4 on. Culivas-tiotrnn eof TPPT hb-ron/u 4vemn1IraC.laa ar heavy irrigation rates on the 0.3 M acres of permeable ridge soils used for am an cultivation in 1J1 ^r.and2, but would eh practical on 0.25 M acres of silty basin soils in the south of NW2.
2.36 Provision of irrigation would also make possible the cultivation of IRRT hnronlna n.0 1 VN acres of season.ally deeply flooded land -in NW 5, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10 and small parts of other units. However, cultivation of these crops wouldA preavt.ra_ lt4i..At-i4 ofao C aahe _r_e A A,AdAe_.p.wA . A And -v.L'FrJO WVJiA.LÆAfrJL;VXLLL_ ttALLL|V aI...LIJL |J. L&IC LLoaL_ ,^TAU CCjWCLCLs dMIA^11 ^ALU dryland crops on such land. This might not be advantageous for farmers presently produci n g rotations of mixedA aus ar,d amant fol.1owed by i.mpjortant cash crops such as oilseeds and sunnhemp, except in areas of serious flood hazardU. Caudl.ivatior.LULL .L%.D.L boLrLghtUfJL'.J be Liazarlous iLn buas±in centers iLn units 7, 8a, 8b and 10 because of rapid flooding in years of heavy pre- moso ranfll _' ea s Ib _' ] t1.__L __..AL_y__t_u__ __ J __ ------_- __M monbuuii LIIDAX'd'. rtba u±XLLy b LUU .LArbS CtLtqU.LLeU LU dUbULLULd WfltLltCL limited flood protection could be provided in the critical pre-monsoon periodu.
2.37 For full development of deeply flooded land, embank-ments and pump drainage will be required. Most of the land could then produce two trans- planLteU £IrL LrUc cLUps peL year. JtL LIgtILL be impos±U±' Lo maintain adequate drainage of deep basin centres, which uight thus be restricted to producing a single boro r'L ce CrOpe anud ridge soils too permeaxLe 'or transplanteu rice would need to grow such crops as sugarcane, bananas, and kharif and rabi dry- land crops. Irrigation woulu be neeued to produce optimum benefits rrom drained land. The feasibility and economics of such large scale polder projects on ladLU adjoining thte Jamuna and Ganges rivers remains to be established: the shifting channels and riverbanks provide serious problems both for embankment and for provision of irrigation water from the rivers. Drainage of such deep interior basins as in NW7, 8a and 8b (complicated in the latter case by its location on the international border) also poses serious technical problems.
2.38 Permeable ridge soils occupy c.3 M acres. Of these, 1.3 M acres (mainly in NW2, 3,4a,4b, 9 and 12)are suitable for dryland crop production in both the monsoon ana dry seasons. This makes them suitable for perennial crops such as sugarcane and bananas and for both kharif and rabi vegetables, oilseeds, and rabi cotton. Permeable ridge soils subject to seasonal flooding are suitable for rabi dryland crops such as wheat, oilseeds, tobacco, vegetables, etc. These crops all require irrigation for optimum production. - 1I, -
In general- the hi cher ridge soils have moderate to rapid permeability and a high irrigation requirement. This is especially the case with the soils in NI.Tl and the northern parts of NTJ2 and 3. The econo.mics of irrigating subsistence dryland crops on these soils requires examination.
2.39 Table 1 indicates the acreage of land in each LDU suitable for 4 TQRIL.. arlfl.anf andtin boro.at , w.v,,ea.1,a , 5gro..unnuts,IJ.I.Jr.,n,.Iea+ Uottonn.n UJandLsugarc nann tane, aUAAnd Tabl.~L~PTOa . 2 presents the same information on a percentage basis. These estimates 4 I -reprentIS- a- eas exclushve onA and waver, asrngn n .4 irrigation is available. Drainage is not assumed. The estimates are con- 4 side-red conSe-v-r,ativeI repres enti; ng t-h.e nd1'n-esln b4 -ld- S ,4 - 4iegAo-4-4 --- a-- f 4ntIhe crop (with appropriate inputs).1l/ In particular, it is probable that fur- +ba,- n n"rva+.4ariA annh -o;4- 1tr-l-,TT 4n-n1 n-aA.. the acreages indicated for this crop in NlT4a, 4b and, particularly 5, to be Iincreased consid,eraby.
1/ Good land management is assumed. This will be essential for maintenance of a puddled topsoll on Harind tract soils (NW12, 13, 14) for satisfactory culti- vation of irrigated IRRI boro or transplanted aus. E. Development Implications
W,Tater Projects and Programs
2.4o The gross area of the Northwest Region is 8,55o,ooo acres, of which 5,790,000 acres are normally under cultivation. Much of the agricultural land is flooded during the monsoon, and the depth of flooding dictates the cropping pattern used by the farmers. Generally, land flooded by more than 3 feet re- quires the farmers to adopt a cropping pattern which limits potential crop yields, and flooding greater than 6 feet, one which severely limits potential yields. In t1hs Region little more than 24'9 of the land is flooded by more than 3 feet of water in an average year and only 8% 'y more tnan 6 feet and this compares very favorably with the other Regions._/ Most of the cultivated area would benefit from irrigation since this would enable a greater intensity of cropping. Up to the present, little effort has been made to locate irriga- tion supplies in areas of high land capability since evaluation of land capa- bility has only recently been completed by the Soil Survey Project.
2.41 Even before the introduction of HYV, water development in the North- west Region was more concerned with the provision of supplementary irrigation than with the reduction of theflood hazard since flooding is less of a limiting factor on agricultural production here than elsewhere. Deep flooding occurs in the south of the Region and from the Atrai River in the interior, but flooding from the Brahmaputra has been largely eliminated by flood protective work. Sur- face water is available for dry season irrigation in some parts of the interior of the Region, mostly those areas subject to flooding in the wet season, but availability is less in this Region than elsewhere and sufficient to irrigate only a small percentage of the cropped area. Small scale development of these surface supplies for irrigation has been accomplished by the provision of portable diesel driven pump units ('low lift pumps') by ADU to groups of far- mers under the Thana Irrigation Program (TIP). The final extent of develop- ment under this program using surface water supplies is not known, but it is known that only a small part of the Region can be irrigated in this way due to the limited availability of surfaae water.
2.42 There is, however, considerable potential for groundwater exploitation throughout most of the Region. The major tubewell developments in the Province have taken place here and further developments are underway or in the final planning stage. The northwest of the Region, in Dinajpur, in particular, has proven groundwater reserves for intensive economic tubewell development, but the ultimate possibilities within the rest of the Region remain to be confirmed. In the meantime, exploitation of known groundwater reserves is going ahead on a non-intensive basis throughout the Region, mainly under ADC operating through the TIP, and this will provide much of the information necessary for a proper appreciation of the potential for development of groundwater.
2.43 Diversion of the large dry season flows of the Brahmaputra, Tista and Ganges rivers to provide irrigation requirements is made difficult by the unsteady nature of these rivers. Pumping of the backwater of these rivers from more stable tributaries is more feasible, but the area that can be economically served in this way is limited in this Region by the relatively steep gradients of the tributaries combined with the large distance of much of the interior from
1/ See Technical Renort Number 2. Vol. IT. the main rivers. The eastern part of the Region has direct flood protection in the form of the Brahmaputra Right Bank. Secondary flood protection from local flooding has been provided in the interior by numerous channels and embankments constructed under the Rural Works Program (RWP). Flood protection by the construc- tion of polders around project areas are in the final stages of planning for two projects in the south of the Region, the Belkuchi and Pabna Projects, intended for construction during the fourth year plan (see below).
2.44 The ultimate solution to the provision of irrigation facilities for the Region in the Iong term will he more clear when the nresent Regionwide program of tubewell construction enables a better assessment of the ground- water notential. Large scale (and expensive) soIutions are available in the diversion of the dry season flows of the Teesta, Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers hv thp ornnq+.rini+.An Af bharrageq nnrn.q th= rivers TTHoweve, t+.is doubtful when or even whether such barrages will be necessary for development of other
25 S:qma>ll cescale IrrIation -^. i +Ah wo_4^n Includ the Installae tion by mid-1970 of 2,562 2-cusec capacity low lift pumps and 150 tubewells by ADT through the TIP, providing irrigation for 135,000 acres. Of the LLP's fielded in the Province, 14.2% have been fielded in this region although the region contains 3- -ofthe cropped land, and this e he ger lac of availability of surface water here. Dinajpur in particular has the smallest coverage of LJP in the Province. The gerneral location of the pps in the region is shown by the following table:
North>west Regon T.T.P Fielded bk, M4A_1O70
DISt-rict AT- of Pumos Fielded Culti4vable Area Sq.Miles/pump
Dinajpur 147 18.7 R-ang-pur 5°3 7.1 Rajshahi 1,090 3.5 P1ab-na 332 5. Bogra 490 3.1
Apart from the Thakurgaon tubewells described below, about 150 tubewells have
n 1.4 rf"u der-Li -_1-__ _ IJL e_2U V1__ _1 ___ _ A _ __ _
U: . ;> WAL UiC L1ZL&U.Ig UQI1 ±UUUWt:1±± p1LUJtLL, .LO UlmX ULISLU4 . Y JLIdS-U I L.V L-±Ed LOful project completed in the region. This project, which is located in the north- west of DinaJpur district, exploits the high-yielding aqufers LIn that area with 365 relatively closely spaced (about 0.5 mile apart) 3 cusec wells. The proJectu was cor,pleted Ln 1966 by TleIrvJAPDA. culuiLvableL CO[IIILanded area is 63,000 acres, and in 1970 30,000 were already being irrigated from the pro- Jeu U. -17-
2.h7 Some flood protection has been achieved by the Brahmaputra Right Bank Flood Embankment which was completed by 4APDA in 1965. This project has largely prevented serious flooding from that river in the east of the region. The embankment, 135 miles iong, stretches from Kauria on the Tista River almost to the mouth of the Hurasagar River about 28 miles below Sirajganj and provides flood protection for an area of 58O,oOo acres, of which at least one-third were previously seriously flooded.
On-going Projects
2.48 Under TIP, the ADC continues to field low lift pumps in the region, but there is only limited scope for developments in this program with LLP's due to a lack of available surface water (see above). The additional nuiber of LLP's that can be fielded without major engineering works is probably about 1,000 pumps.
2.49 Under the same program, the ADC is making a major effort to expand irrigation by tubewells. A project is already underway financed by IDA to sink 3,000 tubewells throughout the Region by 1974. These wells will be of 2 cusec capacity and will be widely scattered - with the dual Durpose of providing immediate irrigation and further information about the possibilities of groundwater developments. During the period of the Fourth Five Year Plan, ADC intended to sink a total of 10,000 tubewells in the Region, and although it is doubtful that such an ambitious target will be achieved, there will clearly be a considerable increase in the number of tubewells in operation in this Region during the next few years.
The Future
2.50 Five projects for intensive development are at present being studied in detail. These proJects worild be implenoite hy WAPDAT An imnpta1nt issue with the two multipurpose irrigation and flood protection projects is the phasing of consotru1-.r%-in eof then JirribatioJn andt dirai-nage olomnt.Q andJ withn all the pnroject-+s the location of the project boundaries in relation to specific land capability. The Thakurgaon Ptcnsion Project and the Rangpur Project are both projects for the provision of irriqglaion facilities by closely spaced tubewells. The Thakur- aonEVt.na4onn, Pr-4foj-cT^Aould provide for the irrigation of 66,0o0 acres- _-n noh- west Dinajpur by 285 large tubewells and 60 small tubewells and would also provide associated ifrastruturalfacilities. The Pangur P"n;tfi,1A provide for the irrigation of 75,000 acres in the west of Rangpur Distrit 'by the provision of 3f00 lerg tubeare1. A +ti4 rd project1 ,c,ve .iuc, of t1ghe enast.o" cside of the region is und; preliminary investigation to provide about 1,000 tubewells. The Belui Pro ject AS located in Pabna District between the Bram,aputra and Karatoya rivers. It is a multipurpose irrigation and flood control project. Of
1 / i- rap on PI Yeei Gonditions ar.d nrijnageo Pter.ta ls on +ho T-hre - Argr Map (Map III) of the Analytical Map series. a gross project area of 101,000 acres, 70,000 acres would be irrigated. Flood protection would be provided by 35 miles of embankments and three pumping plants would provide irrigation and drainage facilities. Low lift pumps would be used for on-farm irrigation. -The Pabna Project is located in the south of the region in Pabna District. It is a multi- purpose irrigation and drainage project for a gross area of 453,000 acres, of which 316,000 acres would be irrigated. Flood protection would be provided by 188 miles of embankment encircling the project area, and irrigation and drainage would be provided by four major pumping plants. Low lift pumps and tubewells would be used for on-farm irrigation.
Transportation
2.51 The Northwest Hegion is served internally by arterial road and rail transport,but communications to and from the region are limited by the difficulties of crossing the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers which form the southern and eastern boundaries of the Region. Local transportation in the interior is mainly by land with some country boat traffic, the latter developing in the wet season to provide some arterial movement of freight from the southeast of the region to other regions. There are five arterial access points across the rivers from the rest of the country. The Hardinge Bridge across the Ganges provides a high capacity double track railway crossing noint for the BG line from the south. The four other crossing points are by ferry and these are limited in capacity and the source of much delay,ro traffic movements. They consist of two rail ferries across the Jamunat nd two road ferries, one across each of the rivers.
2.52 Traffic to the Region consists mainly of foodgrain (wheat), fuel and building materials, while traffic from the region is mainly jute, food- grains (rice)and fruit. The Region is a major producer of most agricultural commodities including rice, jute, bananas, mangoes, sugarcane and potatoes, and it is an important supplier of foodgrains to food deficit areas outside the Region. Within the Region, the general imDlications to the transDortation sector of the present production and requirements of foodgrain are indicated by the following table showing the estimated percentage of foodgrain require- ments produced in each districts
District Production of foodgrain as % of reauirements (1965-1970 average),
Dinajpur 124 Rangpur 106 Rajshahi 104 Bogna 96 Pabna 66
/ In Bangladesh it should be noted that river names change between the con- fluen.ce of mainr river tributaries. The Brahmaputra 1Uver becomes the Jamuna. below its confluence with the Tista, then becomfes the Padma below its con- filuence with the Ganges and the Tower MNeghnn below its conffl uen.ce TAith t-he Meghna. -19-
2.53 There is a general southward and eastward movement of marketed foodgrain; and although a considerable surplus is produced in Dinaipur, whleat is still imported to the DIstrict by the Food Department as it iS to all thA Districts. Nearly h0% of the supplies for metroDolitan Dacca come from the north of this Region mainly from markets lo¢ated close to the m-etre gauge railway line- markets close to the broad gauge railway line tend to dispatch to deficit areas to the south, namely Pabna, Ishurdi, Kusht4a and Far4dpur. In snite of the distance involved, significant quantities of foodgrain are also dispatched to Chittagong. There are no solurrees of nrodnction of fertilizers in the region and all requirements must be imported. Most of the arterial movement of fertilizer is at present by rail nlthougph inc-rPaqing quantitiAm arA bAiinL disnatehed bv water to the north of the region via the lending stage at Chilmari on the Jamuna,(Brahmaputra). Exnort of produce from the region is made diffioult bv the laek of aLrteAriP1 egress from the Region and a critical factor in the development of the Region is the pr'oH e-i4nof bhetter fa_il4tat4e fovr e-rossing thmemainr rivers which form the boundaries. A considerable market for surplus produce exists in the Dacca erAa Wqt.Pr tranpnort. counnld nlav an import.+nt. rol in supplementing eni.inv^ arterial movements and the development of port facilities in the R egion would encourage the development water trans-port-
) .5 Th P.egiona,e is better by ,..v41rail tranrt than any of +the other Regions having nearly twice as many miles per square mile than the Eastern and QOu+h-e..+Grr. Pg9n4 (Table a C' Tf.-ae se.+an o onna,,++., +-trac gauges with 280 route miles of Broad gauge (BG) and 336 route miles of metre gauge (ii-i). Facilities for transshepeent e +th t at Santahar. The BG, running the length of the Region,forms part of the old L ,ainLine li.-k betwveen Calcutta a.-.d A...... Aon traffic this 14e has been- heavier in the past than it is at present. The cessation of cross and through +ralffic +t IniA4 in 19AC5 rs,,ld+- 4n a re,dc4tion ofP traff`c on th-is line ^.P about 30% and this has never been regained. The BG extends to Khulna in the woutU[ivwOest 4Ruegion and thus provides an iJU-Jortant .'li1k fo-- the &M-UrgiOn -rWYt.LULL tLLe seaport at Chalna. Spur lines link the main BG line with the Amruna area in the west of' Rajashahi and w-ith the wagon ferry across the Jamuna112Branmhaputra) at Sirajganj Ghat.
2.55 The MG serves the northeastern and northwestern sides of the Region
A _ .- _ _ _ 4_._- _ 4 + L- 4_ _- - -. '_ _A 4lA_ 4A L1 .1 1- A AT-. Ar- _ ._ aLl pr,idUV ' VB0ULLW LILCLJn conLnLLUI '5.LI WI.VLL ULLU UL-t**.L t'Ysem easu OUi ULLe U[tLULU.1 .LIU hence to Chittagong through the wagon ferry across the Jamuna between Fulchari Ghat anrd Bahdurabad Ghat in the Central Region. This six minle ferry crossrng cperates close to capacity throughout the year and is a serious limiting factor on the m,lovelment of rail traff c both ir and out of the Region The greater route mileage of the MG than the BG is due to a network of low capacity spur lines on the MG.llrri In sp'L0e of_~1 .4,uhe fact_ 4'. tuauL- 4. atuiounui- -- tu.4'-L - raii- -. I-4--~- rouue -- mileage--I in the- country has been very limited since 1947, two extensions have been made to the rMG in the Region in recent years. Tne line at Runea near Tnakurgaon has been extended 14 miles northwards to improve access to the new sugar factory at Pachargarh in northwest Dinajpur and the line at Xurigram in hne Tista Jamuna triangle in the northeast has been extended southwards 20 miles to the small poru at Chilmari on the Jamuna kBrahnmaputra)River, increasing the poss- 1bilities of developing that port. The main MG line from the ferry terminal at Fulchari to the important inter-gauge transshipment poin at Santahar runs close to capacity. See inset map on railroad traffic on the Transportation Map.
2.56 The BG line is generally of better quality than the MG, having better ballasted track and heavier rails, but i4estr,erts in rolling stock by PER have generally favored MG. Some 13% BG locomotives were diesel nowered compared in 1Q70 with 3 r the IAG. Te efficiency of rai m.ovemernt- in the Region is limited by the operation of two track gauges and the con- -sequent d4
Hi4 nl,hrways
2.57 T,he Region has about h2 miles of paved ali weatner main roads and in addition about 160 miles of paved road were under construction in 1970. The paved road width is normally 10 feet. Tne length of main road per sq. mile is close to the average for the province, and the completion of road works under construction will provide a road network better than average (Table 9). Trunk roads link the five pistrict headquarters although R.jshahi is connected to Bogra by a long detour via Pabna. At present, there is poor inter-connection between the road and rail system although roads under construction w"ll improve the situation particularly in the center of the region. The road system within the Region is not as restricted by waterway barriers as that of the rest of the country. Two major waterways presently crossed by ferries are the Atrai river at Shahzadpur in Pabna district and the Mahanda river at awabggu-J near Anulura; ferryfhe across the Nahanda connects an isolated but important mango growing area with the rest of the Region. The feasibility of bridge contruction across these rivers is presently being studied.
2.58 Road access to the Rgion is limited to two ferries. One crosses the Ganges near Hardinge Bridge joining the Ishurdi-Kushtia road; the second, across the iamuna(Brahmaputra) joins the Dacca-Aricha road at Aricha with the Pabna road at Nagabari. Both ferries cause considerable delays in movement to and from the region by road. Lne Jamuna (Brahamputra) ferry travels for twelve miles along the river. No recent figures on vehicle registration in the region are available. but about 5-iO% of the countryis trucking fleet is registered in the Region. In 1969-70 nearly 9,000 trucks were registered in the whole country. Development of arterial road transport is limited by the lack of trucks and the lack of suitable interconnection with the railway system. The Region is less subject to flooding than the other regions and road building is less costly since lower road embankments can be built. The lack of a dense network of river and channels in the Region means that wet season traffic movement must be by road or rail, but the present network of all weather roads severely limits wet weather access. -21-
Waterways
2.59 The Region is very poorly served by water transport. Although bounded by about 300 miles of major rivers, there is no permanent mechanized inland water freight traffic to the Region, and no mechanized freight traffic routes in the interior. Infrequent but year-round passenger launch services are maintained along the Jamuna to Chilmari and along the Ganges as far as Hardinge Bridge, and this gives some idea of the possibility of inland water transport development. Prior to 1965, the Jamuna was an important route for Indian IWT aperators for carrying jute. Country boats operate to a limited extent in the region particularly in the wet season, and relatively small traffic movements occur from the lower reaches of the Atrai and Karatoya rivers to Narayanganj and Dacca. In a 1967 IWTA classification of waterways in the country. NEDECO identified nearly 200 miles of waterway routes to serve the Region all along the Jamuna and Ganges Rivers. Most of these routes were considered relativelv unimDortant because of lack of demand, but there is clearly a good possibility of development of IWT to the Region. The major limiting factor at present is not so much the lack of suitable channels, although most hare--only a two foot depth in the dry-season, but the lack of port facil- ibies and even the lack of demand.
2.60 There are no major inland ports in the Region and the establishment of a permanent port -. the main r4vers would be extrer,ely i44fcu+ due +o their instability. The railway ferry terminals on the Jamuna are maintained at great effort and cost because +here are no better iternaulve sl- IWTA is at present considering the feasibility of the construction of a port on the Karatvya~ ~in ~he ~~UicniE o Iive Shzapur If development ofL a port+ in.L this area is feasible, its construction would be a factor of major importance +o +he A ve'lopmen+ of 'M^Tp in +le Regi-1on.
Tocal TPran3portation
2 .61 ocaL transportuatiL LLLJonis ,iiaJn1.y b-y .land rauher than water due to relatively high landscapes in the region, although a number of rivers, including the Atra', the little Jam-na, and the Karatoya become navigable for large country boats during the wet season. A 1965 sample survey of village transportatLon made by the East Pakistan Bureau of Statistics is reproduced in Table 10. The survey gives some idea of local dependence on different forms of transport in the Region. There are seen to be substantially more unpowered wheeled vehicles in the villages in this Region than in the other Regions - as marny as four times the country average in carts, and only a small number of boats - less than 10 percent of those in coastal areas. There was about one truck operating for every twenty villages. Tne average distance from a village to a metalled road was 9.24 miles; to a steamer/launch ghat 74 miles; to a railway station 10 miles; to a telephone 8.5 miles (Tables 11 and 12).
2.62 There 's transport on ail the rivers, but particularly in the region surrounding the confluence of the Atrai and little Jamuna rivers near ARIrai and in bhe T-ista valley region near Rangpur. Movement at the local level becomes very expensive during the wet season due to the lack of possibilities of water transport and the unsuitability Of the rural road network for wet weather movement. Produce must be carried by headload since local roads become -22-
impassable to bullock carts and trucks, and movement by headload is of the order of four times as expensive as movement by bullock carts in Bangladesh.
Industrw
2.63 There are very few industrial units in the Northwest Region. Indeed, this has been one of the major complaints of this Region against the country planners. Bogra is considered as the industrial center, but even here the size and diversity of industrial units is very limited. There is one textile mill, one chemical factory turning out soap mainly, one match factorvy and one cigarette factory. There are also a number of small units making Bins (small cigars rolled in a special leaf). All the other industrial units are scattered about. This is a feature of the Northwest Region quite distinctive from the other three regions. Whereas in the other regions industries are concentrated in two or three centers in this Region they are scattered. There are seven sugar mills, at Panchagarh, Thakurgaon and SetabganJ in Dinaipur district, at Mahimagani in Rangpur district, at Jaipurhat in Bogra district, and at Harian and Gopalpur in Raishahi district. In addition. there are two nronosed sugar refineries (Iiilphamari and Panchagarh), a proposed jute mill (Rajshahi) and a proposed nanDr Andl npwsnrint nlant (PksnAv - A1 .s thArp srP thrap t.+.til myi1 q- (Ishurdi, Bogra and Siranganj). Jaggery (uncrystalized brown sugar), is produced. at the Vjllager leverl nvwterjde r svr' sr~~-1 ii-Jts O-n++ered about the sugarcane growing area, especially in Rajshahi and Pabna districts.
2.6) TniThis RAeion grows one-q1urter of a11 the Jite of nnP1.qSMh hIV. has only one jute factory, at Sirajganj with 250 looms. Most of the jute is baled for e,nort as raw iiite and some of it is manufactured in the Khulna area. There is a profusion of kutcha baling presses, where raw jute is baled by manual labor and moved to ther areas forfurther processing. There are 347 kutcha presses in Rangpur district, 92 in Dinajpur district and 29 in Pabna district. Jute bales pressed by mechan"Ical reans, and therefore better packed, are known as pucca bales. These are usually for export as raw At. There are 12 puc_a balin presses in +. r L o 3 Saidpur, 2 in Gaibandha, one each at Bansi, Alamnagar, and Bonarpara (Rangpur district), one each at Atrai, Naogaon and Santahar (\aJshahi district) and one in Phulhat (Dinajpur district). 2.65 There are over 100 rice mills concentrated in Dinajpur and Rangpur Districts. Seed oil mills are very often a part of these rice mills. These mills are concentrated in Phulhat, Birampur, Setabganj, Fulbari, Ruhea. HilM. and rhirirbandar of ninainur district and Saidpur. Alamnagar and Domar of Rangpur D.istrict.
2.66 There is a major railway workshop in Saidpur and minor railway
-- Arkhop in IPar. ua.+, flmlAonix LAmt an,d Ishu di.
2.67 A fair amountv of cottage i9 located in the Northwest Region. Handloom textiles are concentrated in the Shahzadpur and Santhia thanras of Pab.nadistrict4 . Handloom products from these areas are traded all over Bangladesh A small amount of silk reeling and weaving is carried out. i-n TLalpuir, NaT!nifTa1gnvaid a amnyll cille 4",,i,a4 4nl Inn+ i locat 4r. Rajshahi. 2.68 Carpentry, especially for making cartwheels and the frames for horse-buggies known as ekka, is important in Rajshahi, Pabna and Rangpur districts. Pottery making is important in eastern Bogra, from where much of Rangpur and Dinajpur districts are supplied.
2.69 Boat building is important only in parts of Pabna and Rajshahi districts. According to the 1962 Survey of Cottage Industries carried out by EPSIC, there were 177 boat-building units in Pabna district, 66 in Rajshahi district, 33 in Bogra district and only 9 and 5 respectively in Rangpur and Dinajpur districts.
2.70 Biri-making (small cigars) is an important cottage industry in Bogra, Siraigani and Pabna. Most of the units are families, but there are a few with over 20 workers and could thus be classed, as factories. An important future development could be based on the coal and limestone of the Jamnalgan area, north of Naogaon. A cement factory, based on the limestone, found just to the west of JoyDurhat, has been nlanned. The limestone is in thick beds. but 1;600 feet below the surface. vast quantities of coal lie below the limestone, down to a denth of 5,000 feet. The coal could be shaft-mAned or burnt undergromnd and piped out as coal gas. Krupp A.G. of Essen, Germany did find coal ex- traction to be economic. Tf this were to be confi-rmed (desnite nossible lib- eralization of trade with India), then a number of coal-based industries, such as dyes and chemicals. could be establish-ed nearhy. - 24 -
THE CENTRAL REGION
A. The Setting
Location
3.01 The Central Region is between the Meghna and Brahmaputra-Jamuna rivers. In the south the Brahmaputra-Jamuna river is called the Padma river and forms its' boundary and in the north it reaches the foot of the Garo Hills. The Meghna-Kalni-Kangsa river system forms its eastern boundary. It is 140 miles from north to south and 90 miles from east to west. The total area is 9243 sq. miles, which is 16 percent of the total area of the countrv. Dacca Citv is within this Region. "istory
T Th5egior. 'as beer. importar.t inBna snetefalo h J 3.02* ~ ~±I LJL IX.LUi II ULL) £ULLIL J.) LLdL .LIL LII L ~LI UJ. L II Pala Empire in the Twelfth Century. The successors of the Palas, the Sena
yLlyasty, establ' ished D.ikLramLpur as tLei Lr ain cu[lturaL cer.ter.LIraLLpur is in Munshiganj Subdivison, just south of Dacca City. The early Turco-Afghan Muslim rulers of Bengal established their capital at Sonargaon, near the present Baidyer Bazar Thana, a few miles east of Dacca City. They soon moved the capital west to Gaur but Sonargaon reui-aineu an important trade center well into the Mogul times. Dacca, itself, was founded some two thousand years ago but did not achieve importance until the coming of the Moguls in the sixteenth century. The Turco-Afghans took refuge in the Tangail and Kishorganj areas north-west and north-east or Dacca after tne Moguls came. The Moguls established their hold on this area with great difficulty.
3.03 Sonargaon was a very important trade center for about 500 years. The Brahmaputra flowed, in those days, along the present bed of the Old Brahmaputra and then down the course of the lower Meghna. It fiowed past tne site of the present Baidyer Bazar. Little remains of the ruins of Sonargaon. -Tne town was probably washed away in the same way that the Sirajganj port is being eroded at present by the Brahmaputra-Jamuna. Sonargaon used to trade mainly in cotton goods. Cotton was the main cash crop of the Central Region, especially the Brahmaputra floodplain, until the early nineteenth century. Indigo then assumed importance but did. not become as important as in the Northwest Region. After the decline of cotton and indigo, jute, very rapidly gained ascendency after its production was actively encouraged in the middle of the nineteenth century.
Administration
3.04 The Central Region includes all of Dacca Division, except for Faridpur District in the Southwest Region. There are three districts in the Central Region: Dacca, Tangail and Mymensingh. Dacca has five sub- divisions, Tangail has one and Mymensingh five. Tangail was a sub-division of Mymensingh until its separation as a district in 1970. Mymensingh is the largest district in Bangladesh in size and population, even without Tangail. There are 87 thanas, distributed as follows: Dacca 37, Tangail 8, Mymensingh 42. All development departments have officers down to the thana level. - 25 -
The Agricultural Department divides Mymensingh into two for their administrative convenience and has two District Agriculture Officers, at M4ymensingh and at Kishorganj. - 26 -
B. Human Resources
The People
3.05 There are small non-Bengali groups in this Region, mostly along the northern border. They are the Garo, Koch and Hajong tribes. in the Madhupur area there are some Garo and Koch settlements. In 1961, 121,047 persons were enumerated as having Urdu as their mother-tongue. Some of these were Bengalis from the old Dacca city, but most were Maslim Bihari refugees and other imaigrants from central and northern India. There are also Hindi-speaking immigrants from India, who settled here two or three generations ago. Most of these people are in Mymensingh District.
Demography
3.06 The Central Region has the highest average density of population of all the regions and some of the most densely populated thanas in the country. The total population in 1971 is estimated to be 17.5 million. The 1961 census recorded an average population density of 1389 persons per sq. mile. Although the 1971 density is considerably higher no accurate figures are available due to extensive internal migrations which have taken place. The probable district-wise distribution, before the mass migrations of April 1971, is as follows:
District 1971 Population (million) l/ Dacca 7.4 Tangail 2.1 Mymensingh 7.9
17.4h
3.07 The most densely populated rural areas in Bangladesh are in Munshiganj and Narayanganj sub-divisions south and east of Dacca. In the purely rural thanas of Tangibari and Lohajang there were 2,614 and 2,338 persons per sq. mile, respectively, in 1961. By now there may be 30 to 40 nercent more people in these areas. The average density of population for the 369 sq. mile Munshinganj sub-division was 2109 persons per sq. mile in 1961. The average population density for the Narayanganj sub-division is even higher, but it includes the city and industrial areas of Narayangani and Demra. Within this sub-division too there are rural thanas like Araihazar and Baidyer Bazar with over 2,000 persons per sq. mile. The highest population densitv of all rural thanas in Bangladesh is in Dohar thana. This is in Dacca Sadar South sub- division but in an area adjoining Munshigani sub-divison. The population density was as high as 2915 persons per sq. mile in 1961. Some areas of very low population density are within Mymensingh district but outside the Central Region because the Haor area of eastern Mymensingh is within the Eastern Region. There is an area of relatively low density along the northern boundarv where Nalitabari Haluaghat and Durgapur thanas had less than 850 persons per sq. mile in 1961.
1/ Assuming a population growth of 2.9 percent per annum - 27 -
Labor Force
4 4 4 4 3 .0Q T.7-4 -h4 n the Degi on ther is acnti nuous 4nfl o, io Iacc a it, SU . V -L US LU L.,- *UL. - -L 1 SSAS- SL-- -L.... . especially from Munshiganj, Tangail and Kishoreganj areas. Some emigration subdi4vision t-akLes p'laceLarUaL. O y .L.fLrom. UJLU Tangail'4. A4st-rict.A. L.A J41. I a±L.anA aA4acen-aUj UI.OL v. Tam.a1pur flj9 A 0U UJV .4.0 .LU toLI- th1eL.LL relatively less populated areas of Rangpur and Dinajpur districts. There is
harvesting the boro rice crop from all parts of eastern Mymensingh district. ITh ere is considAera-le m.ovem.ent int o this Region b-ecause of the inflow i=t th1e Dacca-Narayanganj conurbation. The major areas of immigration are Comilla, NKToakhali1 and Fardpu dsricts. There is sor.e info course fror, every- 11 MIJaNL-L.L CaLLu 1 CIL LUPLUL U.LO L.. L .LLb* IC.C -L ±L.±WJ.)LL piofW0 UL LL OC L4£041 CV- part of Bangladesh.
Urbanization
3.09 Dacca City is dominant in the urban pattern of this Region. The city of Naarayanganj is ten miles fromr Dacca but the two are joined by an almost con- tinuous line of buildings, brickyards, factories and markets along the road that follows the Buriganga r'ver. North ofi an 'n-ustrLaLLDacca s-uburb has developed at Tongi. The whole conurbation between Tongi and Narayanganj had a populatLon oL 719,000 in 1961 and probably about 1.1 million In early 1971. A marked feature of the Dacca conurbation is that mostly men immigrate to work in the factories andu oiLces, so that there were about 65 iemales to every 100 males. Since 1961 an increasing number of the earlier settlers brought their Lamilies and the large numbers oL squatters from. Madaripur sub-division, in Faridpur district, also brought along their families. All the other towns also registered an increase in population between 1951 and 1961, as can be seen from the table below. Since 1961 Narsingdi, Bhairab Bazar and Mymensingh have grown faster than other towns. Gnorasha hnaa probably reacned tne 5,000 population mark by early 1971 and thus qualified to be a town, since it had also some of tne urban amenities.
Urban Population % Difference Town 1961 1951 1951-61
Dacca Conurbation 718,766 411,279 +74 Mymensingh 53,256 45,315 +18 Jamalpur 37,988 27,078 +40 Bhairab Bazar 31,749 12,040 +164 Sherpur 24,924 19,312 +29 Kishorganj 24,03i 19,067 +26 Tangail 23,688 21,639 +9
Literacy
3.10 Surprisingly this Region ranks lowest in the percentage of literates in the population. wnereas the average for Bangladesh is 17.6 percent the literacy rate in this Region is 16.3 percent. The urban areas have high rates of literacy however. Mymensingh, with 59.3 percent literates in 1961 had the highest literacy rate of any urban area in Bangladesh Dacca had a literacy rate of 46.9 percent. Most of the other towns had around 30 percent literate. - 28 -
Despite these relatively high urban percentages the average is low because of the low literacy in many areas of Dlymensingh district. The literacy rate for Tangail sub-division (later district) was 14.8% in 1961. The present Mymensingh district had a literacy rate of 13.9% including the Haor area thanas of Nikli, Itna and Oshtogram. Excluding them the literacy rate was 14.1%. Dacca district had a literacy rate of 19.5%. - 29 -
C. Phyvical Resources
Physiog~raphy and Soi418
3.1 1 Thp reoional X1Wnhsqionrnnhv _ C-o-1_. in r----r-thp--- o-- Central Reo -_isnn-- c thnrartPri7ed '- v--:-her -'-A-s downward slope in a southeasterly direction. The land elevation above sea level varies f-ro QO ft in the Iills north of Mymensingh to 10 ft along the eastern limit. In the center, the Madhupur Tract rises from 25 ft above the surround- in8 cour.tryside to about 50 ft. LT-ne QnnQsre irrPaular- ranging frorm 4 ft per mile in the north, 2 ft per mile around the Madhupur Tract and 0.2 ft per mile in the southern floodplain ares The Dhaleswari River crosses the southeast of the Region joining the Brahmaputra and the Meghna rivers.
3.12 The gently sloping Northern Piedmont Plain borders the hills in the north of Mymensingh. Adjoining the hills anda lnng the floodplains of rivers debouching from the hills, there are mainly loamy sediments subject to shallow or intermittent flooding and these are ad4oIned by clay pla4ns or basins s eih4w't to deep.r flooding. The area is subject to flash floods. The Old Brahmaputra Floodplain occupies most of the north of the region centered on the town of Mymensingh. It represents the part of the Brahmaputra floodplain which the river virtually abaA.doneA when it changeA 4n.to its present JaU..una channel almost 220 years ago. The relief comprises the broad ridges and basins of a meander fliooAplain, but is local', Jrregular near r4 ver channels. The sed4mAents a mainly silty on the ridges and clay in the basins, but there are important sandAy areas in tbe west of My,..enmesi4ngh i-str4ct anA the north-east ofnDacca District. There are many, small, sand-filled, earthquake fissures in northern 1Auernl ..e_ ..;g__..s _rg-- ;r. west an A soul. 1e alUove normal o1o0 E1y ULCI~LLO t *LLL. .LLC Li.Lr2I 0tEL - J. _4.5=1L L.LL`.e L ai..iu IULI.LL J.. ujV-ILi Li. 5 LJ) level. Most ridges and basins in the west and in Dacca District are shallowly flood0ed in b1ut floodiA4ng becom,es ver-y deep tow-ard the .L 4AL U U Li theLii LI m,on.soonL iUtI season,atJ , U ILL .L LLL/..Li,UO.LitO L V y U j L1.JWQA. 5.10 Ut boundary with the Sylhet basin. Flooding is mainly by accumulated local run- ofLf anli rai.-.water.
1J TILe Madhupur TractLin the center of LteL Lregion iLIL±UUde bseVLal. contrasting kinds of landscape. The Madhupur Clay itself is a heavy, slicken- sided cLay, but gives rise to both loar,.y andU cLay oils. Level, ueeply weathered terrace areas occur most extensively in the west of the tract. They have few or no valleys and ha-ve a general pattern of relatively well drained soils on the higher edges and of poorly drained or seasonally shallowly flooded soils on the slightly lower terrace interiors. The Madhupur Clay has weaLnered deeply to provide a red mottled, pervious clay substratum. Level, shallowly weathered terrace areas occur scattered in small patches throughout, but two major areas occur to the north and east of Dacca. The larger area, between Tongi and Joydebpur, is seasonally shallowly flooded, whereas the area immediately east of Dacca is deeply flooded in the monsoon season (except for the part within the Dacca-Narayanganj-Demra Project Area which is now pump drained). In these areas, there is usually 6-18 inches of grey silty soil over the little altered grey Madhupur Clay. There are a few shallow valleys, some with silty sediments, others with clays or peaty soils. Closely dissected, deeply weathered terrace areas are most extensive in the east of the tract. They comprise level or rounded small hills up to about k mile broad, usually rising abruptly 10-20 ft above broad valleys. The hillocks have a deeply weatnered, red mottled clay substratum similar to that referred to above. The valleys have heavy clays which are deeply flooded in the monsoon season; the iower ends of tnese valleys remain wet throughout the dry season. Closely dissected, shallowly weathered terrace areas occur scattered in large and small blocks throughout the tract. They comprise gently rolling or undulating highland areas interlaced by many small, shallow branching valleys which are mainly shallowly flooded in the monsoon season. The red or brown highland soils overlie little altered grey Madhupur Clay at 1-3 ft. The valleys have silty soils. .Finally there are broad deen valleys which include the lower Turag valley, Bil Belai and several smaller valleys. These valleys have heavy clays, sometimes with neat lavers; which are seasonally deeply flooded and with extensive areas remaining wet throughout the dry season. The Madhupur tract is crossed by a number or rivers which have Brahmaputra alluvium on their narrow floodplains.
3.14 The Jamuna (Young Brahmaputra) floodplain runs the length of the western boundarv of the Central Region. The Jaminn i; t-he name given to the cnn- tinuation of the Brahmaputra river south of Bahadurabad where it leaves its former main channel running east through Mvmensingh DiAtricrt. The main river and its distributaries occupy shifting channels which erode and deposit new spdimentsq on a lrQe srnle each flood seasonn NpW qediments nre qnillpd ir- regularly over parts of the adjoining landscape periodically, filling up older bhnin nrpq (as, fnr ewampnle hasc hapnnPned in thp npat ten -j:nrc in i-he cntilhern- most part of the Turag valley south of the Dacca-Aricha road). This young flnndnlnin cnTnrises a tyvnirl meTnder flnndnplin pattern of broad ridges and basins, with local areas of irregular relief near river channels. This unit also inlncluec the temn-rnrN alluianl formatioqns (chars) within and adjoining tihe main river channel which are subject to change of location, shape and relief each flood season. The deposits are mainly silty on the ridesc and clay in the basins, with local areas of sand on the highest ridges, especially on the char land. Flooding is mainly shallow in the north, but is mainly deep in Tangnil and Dacca Districts. Flooding is mainly by river water, except in some deep basin areas. The extreme south of the region consists of a complex pattern of floodplain deposits from the Ganges, Jamuna or Meghna rivers, interlaced with small rivers and channels. Arial Bil a low lying depression between the Ganges and Dhaleswari levees is somewhat different. The area is occupied by clays whlichLwere possibly laid down under tidal conditi.ons similar to those in the present day tidal floodplain in Barisal. The area is deeply flooded in th LLer,onsoon season, Ufainly Lby rain.water iLn thLe northlJbutL by nranges water in the south where corals have been cut through the Ganges levee. The center of the arSea reinsLLL wetLthroughut tthe iUt U sea --
C..li_rmale
J . -J ±11 GLc UCIeLLCntra d cgLon, boULULi Li 'tc UmLULCn. ofi1 -w.SLCL-L aL C C La XL V CA-y 1A '. Precipitation in the northeast of the Region is very heavy. Temperatures rise steadily iLrom J'aLua-ry to April, remCain, fLairLy steady ifror AprilLo. ctober and then fall to reach a low in December and January. Mean summer temperatures areL ini the 'Low eiLghLL ti withWes r,ean daily maxir,a L eching.LLiL thCe riddUle ninetiLes. in April throughout the Region. In winter mean temperatures drop to the middle
5i2LALCS_'sxtesj LU DecmbeULCiIUUC'1UL aLLUand_ JanLUaryJa-uay , ar,LLL UCdI.!)'daily min`-,ato-HjLiCId LU `hLLL= -l1ow _LVW fiits LlLILLLY.is4tori-~- ;cal minimum temperatures recorded in Dacca and Mymensingh are 400.
3.16 Mean relative humidity is high throughout the year. The high March/ AlprilAI_-L.LL k ter,peraturesLLL L L LC coir,indeLUUI .UC withLW.LiLi LLLe lowest.1 -WC- L L.eaLn- -ICL- - 1.elCative-. x L-L-4 C LLUL.j.ty-- 4IL.. - ---'.--'-- 65 iU ren---..-SS across the Region. During the hot monsoon months, the humidity is in the upper eighties. The iimited data avaiiabie on evaporation indicates tnat eVvaporation - 31 -
in the region is less than in the other regions, averaging 40-45 inches per annum. compared with for example 55 inches in the south of Patuakhali District. Maximum monthly evaporation is in April (5-6 inches) and falls steadily to reach a lnw in December and January of 2 inches a month.
3A17 Rainfall i9 very heavy in the northeast of the region wohere the mean annual rainfall is nearly 200 inches per annum. The quantity of rainfall gets nrogressivelv 1es moving siouthwest aroess the Region and is lesq than 70 inches in the west of Tangail District. There is little difference in average dry season rainfall arross the Region but April rainfall is aniut- doubhle that in the Northwest Region. 95 percent of the annual rainfall occurs between April And Octnobr- The reginn is nnt -eriniil1v Afferted hv thp rvnlnnpe that nriainAtP O ~~ ~ ~ ~ - -_ - - _ --______- - -O ------over the Bay of Bengal, although torrential downpours cause local flooding. Windg are lighter in the north of the region than the oth, witih t-he mavimiim average wind speeds being recorded in the middle of the year. Insolation is not significantlu different from that in the c-4- nas a uhole. There are relative- ly few rainfall measuring stations located in the Region, particularly in the yentsringomhrensie, at meteoroloaical stations are loDatca amralynra Mymensingh, Dacca and Narayanganj. - 32 -
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential
Present Land Use
3.18 The Central Region presently includes 21% of the cultivated area of the country and 21% of the cropped area and has 23% of the population. The present agricultural practices are primarily influenced by the time of occurence. depth and duration of annual flooding during the wet season and the amount of soil moisture available during the dry season. CroDDing intensity is close to the average for the country but higher in the north of the Region than the south. Apart from rice, iute is a particularly important crop and more than 40% of the country production of that commodity is in this Region. Rice production is by no means sufficient to feed the people living in the Region, and foodgrain is imported here from all the other Regions. The percentage of the country production in the Central Region of some of the more important com- modities is as follows:
Central Region
% of Country Production of Agricultural Commodities
Commodity % Commodity %
Rice 19 Banana 18
Wheat 13 Rape & Mustard 27
Jute 41 Onion 24
Mango 11 Sweet Potato 37
Sugarcane 12 Watermelon 10
Potato 22 Tobacco 8
Cropped Area 21%
3.19 Land use is more diversified in the Central Region than in the
Othoerr;Arnc, Tnoni an*Ar n 4o thr m24nr of rn AX nvl-ono-in.o 5aroC nf ohol 1 n.ll,71 flooded land on the old Brahmaputra floodplain, the northern,piedmont, and poorly drained level highla.nd and shallow valleys on the Madhupur tract. It is usually preceded by aus, and partly by jute on floodplain land. Most of this land remains
fallow in thLLe dry season. BroaAcast Aeepwater aman is gr o wn exten.sively on deeply flooded basins on the old Brahmaputra floodplain, almost the whole land- scape on thLe Tamsuna and ... £.nhn,aMeg flo odpAl-aiLLns, and part the- bo val-o in the Madhupur tract. In basin centers, the aman is usuall,the only crop grown. On basin margins, it i commonly followed by khesai A flo ridge sites is generally sown mixed with aus (locally with jute) and followed by a wide range of rabi crops, eustard/rapeseed, khesari and m The most deeply flooded land--in the east of Mymensingh, Arial bil, the lower parts of bU.roadu valleys in thULe M4aduIpur tract and locally elsewhere--is mainly used for boro, using either traditional or low-lift pump irrigation. Broadcast aus Ls the main rice crop on well=drained soils on the Madhupur tract and the highest ridges on the old Brahmaputra floodplain. Part of this land is used
lor a seco.dU crop ofL [uL tadLmu L radishe UL goLULLULLULts an fLLrui t rLeU e -s-es jackfruit--are common around homesteads and on field boundaries. Shallow Madhupur
I/ A variety of pulse - 33 -
tract soils and the northern hills are under forest, with some poor grassland or scrub on the shallowest soils.
3.20 Jute is the mador cash crop on floodplain land. especially on the old Brahmaputra and Jamuna floodplains. Mesta is widely grown on well-drained Madhunur tract soils- Potatoes and kharif and rabi vegetables are maior crops produced on raised platforms in the Munshiganj area. Vegetables are also grown on raised nlatformA on the eastern margins of Dacca city. Narsinadhi has become an important banana producing area in the past decade as production has declined in the older hbnana gro.rwing area around Munshigani. Sugarcane is grown locally on relatively higher land, but mainly used for making gur. Khejur, the sugar palm, grows7 ext1ensivIely on the Gnges floodnlal'n and provides an aidditional source of sugar. Jackfruit, lichis, pineapples and radishes are important cash cropn on the Madhupur tract.
3.21 Farm sizes are generally higger in the north of the Region than the south, and farms are highly fragmented, as they are throughout the country. Farms in Mymensngh4Tanga±l Distrirt average 3 arr and iin Dnacc Dctrict 2.9 acres, compared with the country average of 3.5 acres. Most of the land 0 ic oiv7nor-fnrmoA biut ahbuit LLO %of the farmeirc ha-ve a pnrt of the-ir lnd chare- cropped. The area of the land that is sharecropped is rather less in the Region than in the country as a whole since it accounts for 15 percent of the la.nd in Mymensingh-Tangail District and 13 percent in Dacca District compared with 16 percn-t ove-r t-ha nnn+,. Most of t-he f-rms a d4iv4iAA1 int osa.rate frag- ments and the degree of fragmentation is rather less than the country average-- the number of farms reporting toa be more than ten fragm.ents 4i 96 4arca,n Mymensingh-Tangail and 23 percent in Dacca compared with 29 percent in the whole
3 .2 2 Th-e present inter,s4ity o-f land use in differer.t parts of: the 'Deg-on is indicated by the present cropping intensities in the region. Cropping ir.t-ensit4ies 'ere are qilte close to the cou.-y a-verag _of nearl--y 15- p but they are less than those presently obtained in parts of the Eastern Region whaere intensities cLLose to 200 percent are achieved. Agricultural developmr,ent in the Region is inevitably strongly linked to the foodgrain demand in the reg-ion and 4in th-e Provilnce as a wh.ole. MUere is greater presur forth J. C~LiLt LU L.I LLIC LU LL.C aaaWIJL LLLCL= L0 6CalL=. OUL.Ld± LPCbb ------ULt:: LUA. LLLC intensification of agriculture in the deficit areas than the surplus areas.
This PL%=rp.LLJLL j. CCeLLLn.Ly poJ.UUcs ir.suffiL.nt.LLL LfoodgrLai to suppJor L LAIC poUU.Lati.on and foodgrain is imported from other regions and made available by LLI Food D [stiLrates ofi dUiLstriLctLwiLse productiLor ofJ lfooudgraiLr as a percentage of demand together with present cropping intensities are presented
elow. Ass-ur, eU demand -was 1 u oz per hCead pCer day of fLoUUdra.LL. IhUs UDaLa Lb a r.major deficit area and Mymensingh a deficit area.
District % Production of Demand Cropping Intensity for FoodgraiLn /%
_- - _ ._ _. _ . O OXn
Mlymiens'LIl- ell inghX)116[ 83%oO/ 150)I r
Development Potential
32ne diversity of environmental conditions in the Central Region proviaes it with wide ranging opportunities for agricultural development. Approximately - 34 -
255 percent of the -4io '1.M aces- -Ihlanda leel porl drind _g _.. \_3 _ l LIO . V I.,JULIL .L) ULL aLLLULL, LiL.L611±d1U and medium highland soils on which IRRI aman could be substituted for the present trans-!anted aman varities without supplementary irriga.4 In4T addition, 57 percent of the region (c. 3 M acres) is considered suitable for TRRT boro/transplanted aus if irrigatinn can be provided. The 0.3 14 acres of deep, well drained, terrace soils on various parts of the Madhupur tract are considerably under-utilized at Dresent; but they provide one of the Province's major resources of land suitable for diversified crop production throughout the year if provided with irrigation. Present indications are that ample groundwater resources exist in the Madhupur tract and old Brahmaputra floodplain, and probably in remaining floodplain areas too, but doubt remains concerning availability of groundwater in the northern piedmont zone (C2 and 6) 1/ No major soil fertility problems have been reported, with the exception of phosphate fixation on red Madhupur tract soils, easily corrected by 'placement' rather than broadcasting of phosphate fertilizers. Considerable responses can be expected from adequate use of standard fertilizers on all the major crops, especially under irrigated conditions.
3.24 Substitution of IRRI aman for local transplanted aman varieties provides the greatest opportunity for a rapid increase in crop production within the region. The major areas of suitable land occur in LDU's C2, 3a-d, 4, 5, 6 and the Joydebpur, Sabhar and Sripur thanas or 13. Rainfall is everywhere high enough for the crop to be grown without irrigation, although irrigation would be useful as a stand[by 'nL UCocasional years o LUW Lr.nfall. nUWVtL pLUV.LoLUr. of irrigation--mainly by tube-well--on this land would be for the purpose of growinbg a second transplanted rice crop in the.dy A- T- r..ost cases, this.I would displace an existing, but uncertain, broadcast aus or jute crop. Land i-, r9 andA A is eosedA to th-e-,hazvA of flash flod,c affectin, b,o-1h aman nndl boro/aus seasons. Feasibility studies are required to ascertain the possibility of nroviding diversion hinds and drains to nrotect affected areas.
3.25 In addition to these higher areas, IRRI boro or transplanted aus could be grown with irrigation on lower land presently producing deepwater aman, together with aus or lute and rabi crops over considerable areas (especially in C8a and 9). The extent to which available surface water supplies have already been harnessed for low-lift pump irrigation is not known, but it is certain that tube-well irrigation will be needed on a large scale to maximize dry season rice production. The major areas of suitable land, including both highland and flooded land, occur in LDU's C2, 3a-d, 4 (depressions), 5, 6, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10, 11 and 13 (poorly drained terrace sites and deep valleys). The gross area suitable, if irrigation can be provided, is estimated to be almost 3 M acres. Early flash floods pose a problem in parts of C2 and 6, and early rise of flood- water could jeopardize production in some years in basin centers in C6, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10 and 11. Introduction of earlier maturing boro varieties and provision of simple protective bunds (together, perhaps, with pump drainage by the iow- lift pumps provided for irrigation) are needed to increase the security of production on these sites. Substitution L IRL UULU/ LLoanbpJlntLeU aus existing crops would be most advantageous on basin land where deepwater aman is0 go.t alone and is su4.a -- to flood dam.age. It might not be advantageous to farmers producing rotations of mixed aus and deepwater aman followed by a high value rabi crop -such no musrtard/rapeeed ecpnt in nrasn of serions flood hazard.
3.26 Substitution of IRRI varieties for local varieties of broadcast aus and aman--when they become available--offers considerable scope for a simple, low-cost, improvement in this region. The total acreage presently under these 1/ TIe., LDU G29nd 6.-Fr def-ini tion nf LDU see Technical Report No. 2. For location see Map. crops has not been estimated, but it probably exceeds 1.5 M acres in each case. This improvement could be effected without provision of irrigation. Although yield increases might be less spectacular than from conversion to irrigated transplanted IRRI crops, introduction of these broadcast varieties could be of considerable value to both the farmer and the Provincial economy until such time as irrigation facilities can be provided to all suitable land. The LDU;s of major interest for this purpose are:
Broadcast aus Deepwater aman
C3a-d, 4, 5, 6, 8a, 9, 10, Basins in C3a-d, 5, 6,; 12, 13 ridges and basins in C7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10, 12
3.27 For full development of deeply flooded land, embankments and pump drainage will ultimately be required. Most of the land could then produce two transplanted rice crops per year. It might be impossible to maintain adequate drainage of deep basin centers, which might then be restricted to production of a single crop of boro. Also, ridge soils too permeable for transplanted rice could. be used to grow such crops as sugarcane, bananas, and kharif and rabi dryland crops. Irrigation would be needed to optimize benefits from drained land. The area with least problems for polder development is C8a, since this is bounded by the highly stable Lakhya and middle Meghna river channels which could also provide almost unlimited irrigation supplies. Empolderment of deeply flooded land along the unstable Jamuna and Ganges rivers (LDU's C8a, 9, 10, 11) and on the border of the deeply flooded Sylhet basin (C7) provide much greater problems which remain to be proved technically and economically feasible.
3.28 Permeable terrace and floodplain ridge soils occupy about 2 M acres, mainly in C3a-d, 4, 5, 9, 12 and 13, and to a lesser extent in other floodplain units. Of this land, about 0.7 M acres is suitable for dryland crop production in both the kharif and rabi seasons. Approximately 0.35 M acres of this land on the Madhupur tract would be especially well suited for sugarcane if provided with irrigation. Permeable ridge soils are suitable for dryland rabi croDs such as wheat 1/ oilseeds, tobacco, vegetables, etc., In general, the Madhupur tract and higher floodplain ridges (especially in C4) have moderate to rapid permeability, and so have a relatively higher irrigation requirement than most seasonally flooded floodplain soils.
3.29 Table 3 summarizes the acreage of land in each LDU suitable for IRRI aman and boro, wheat, groundnuts, cotton and sugarcane, and Table 4 presentss the same information on a percentage basis. These estimates represent gross acreages, exclusive of settlement and water, assuming that irrigation is available. Drainage is not assumed: this would considerably increase the proportion of land within empoldered areas for all the crops indicated. The estimates are considered conservative, representing the land best suited to production of the crop (with appropriate inputs, including good land manage- ment where maintenance of a puddled topsoil is essential for satisfactory irrigated boro cultivation on highland soils, especially in C2 and 13).
1/ Wheat yields may not be satisfactory south of about latitude 24°N (roughly, Aricha-Tongi-Narsinghdi), but this requires testing. - 36 - E. Development Implications
Water Projects and Program
3.30l.-.e gross area oL the Central Regior. is *,254,000 acres. Mucn of the agricultural land is flooded during the monsoon and the depth of flooding dictates the cropping pattern used by the farmer. Generally, land flooded by more than 3 feet requires the farmers to adopt a cropping pattern which limits potential crop yiel±dS, oUUULng greaeLr LLan 6 reet sev'ex-Uy limits potential yields. About 37% of the land is normally flooded by more than 3 feet of water aIU 21% b y more than 6 feet of water. Tne more deeply flooded lands would benefit most from flood protection. As in the other regions, there has been little effort up to the present to locate irrigation supplies in areas of highland capability. 3.31 Both floods and droughts are limiting factors on agricultural production in the Central Region and water development programs and studies have been geared towards mitigating these physical factors. Very deep flood- ing (up to 20 ft deep) associated with the high monsoon discharges of the Meghna River occurs in the Sylhet Basin area of the Eastern Region, and this also affects the eastern part of the Central Region in the lower parts of the Old Brahmaputra floodplain. In the southeast and southwest, much of the land is flooded by more than 6 feet of water during the wet season. The center of the region is less prone to very deep flooding except for the lower parts of the Madhupur Tract where moderate flooding (3 ft-6 ft) is extensive.
3.32 Surface water is available for dry season irrigation in the interior of the region, mainly in those areas subject to flooding during the wet season, hut the ultimate area that- cqn depend on these surface sunnlies is not vet known. Small scale development of these surface supplies has been accomplished by the nrovi-jiion of low lift pumps to grouns of farmers tinder the Thqnq Trrigatrion Program. Exploitable groundwater is available to a considerable extent in the
tocr..n m:i;nlx, i-n t-ho nnrt- v-,n1Miti-qt-inn i,- anino r nly n l nn : nn-n iyn,inQi 7 basis throughout the region, mainly under ADC operating through TIP, and c-mpleti-4r ar.d testing of these wellc will provide infrmatin about aqefPr conditions in the Region in addition to providing irrigation facilities. As in the other Regions, direct diversion of water frorm the major rivers for irrigation is complicated by their unsteady nature, and can only be accomplish-
ed by large scale engei ;- wok * T4r-ibutrino from the ma4n r-Ivers in the south of the region are more stable and water for irrigation can more economical- ly1-. be1.b- obk-tal-.-Atained 9---.,-.Lon the...4-ba,., by1 largea-.-. s--ala-,a p-Lping,, ., ThT1,n -.oa,,1n+--A e Dcnn n nn m project area is provided with irrigation facilities in this way.
3.33 Apart from poldering in the Dacca-Demra area, no large scale flood protLecti4or, works have b-eer. com.pletedAin the region, although local flood protection and drainage has been achieved throughout the region by numerous embankm-l and channels constructedIen.ts under the Rural Works Program. The possibility of constructing a protective embankment along the left bank of the Brahl.maput-ra, on th-be western siAe of the fRegion, has been under Acra- tion for some time. Since this would result in the double embanking of that river, a cons id erale t.aount of further study s still required i.4o mentation. Reduction of flooding on the eastern side could be obtained by cor.structir.g "submersib le e--,an.]uents" along th.e Meghr,a, bUt aga-n ru-ther studies of the feasibility of such a proposal are required. In the immediate Luture, flood protectior. for thei1ldfo..i. the Dacca Southwest projct- area is proposed by poldering,as is protection for the Dacca North project are~a area~~~~'(seblo)l.e/se 'ue±WJ.±LLo-.LvLILvlJI solutior. in thI-e lor.g te 4Umnt o thLe provision of irri- gation facilities for those areas not covered by low lift pumps and tubewells
is not yet clear. Water WL11 UL.L.UILIZ.Ly Llave 'Lo be diver f-Arom the Brc^.h...a- putra and/or Meghna rivers. It is not impossible that a barrage across the Brahmaputra, which wou'Lu aieOW UdVerioLUL 0£L prLL U£ LILe !VW a'ULon LIIc course of that river through the center of the Region might provide the best solution, but considerable study remains to be done on this poblem.L.
Completed Projects
3.34 Small scale irrigation projects in the rtegion inc'lude tne instaiiation by mid 1970 of 5,922 2 cusec capacity lowlift pumps and 150 tubewells by ADC through the TIP. Of the total number of LLP's fielded in the Province, 33% have been fielded in this Region although the Region contains only 21% of the cropped land and this reflects the ready availability of surface water as well as the proximity of the area to the centers of administration. The general location of the pumps in the Region is shown by the folloving table:
Central Region - LLP Field by mid 1970
District No. of Pumps Fielded Cultivated Area: Sq Miles/Pump
Mymensingh 3,545 1.5
Tangail 704 1.5
Dacca 1,673 1.7
Some of these LLP are located in the Sylhet Basin in the Eastern Region. Details of ADC tubewell location in the Region are not available but they are primarily located northwest and southeast of the town of Mymensingh.
3.35 The Dacca-Demra Project is a multipurpose drainage and irrigation project which was completed by WAPDA in 1967. The project area is 15,000 acres and it is located close to the city of Dacca. Flood protection is provided by embankments, and one pump station satisfies the needs of irri- gation and drainage. Urban and industrial expansion have encroached upon part of the project area and by 1970 some 25% of the area was no longer being used for agriculture.
Ongoing Projects
3.36 Under TIP, the ADC continues to field low lift pumps in the region but there is only limited scope for developments in this program with LLP's due to the limited availability of surface water. The number of additional LLP's that can be fielded without major engineering works is probably about 3,000 pumps. Under the same program ADC is making a major effort to expand irrigation by tubewells. A project is already underway, financed by a suppliers credit, to sink 5,000 tubewells across the region by 1975. These wells will be of 2 cusec capacity. The Future
3.37 Three projects for intensive development are at present being studied in detail. These projects would be implemented by WAPDA. An important issue with the two multipurpose projects is the phasing of the sequence of construction of the irrigation and flood protection elements and particularly in the case of Dacca North, the location of project and subproject boundaries in relation to specific land capability.
(a) The Dacca Southwest Project is located to the southwest of the city of Dacca in an area which is presently deeply flooded. It is a multipurpose irrigation and flood control and drainage project, covering a gross area of 334,000 acres. A program of phased development is proposed. The first phase would provide flood control and drainage within an empolder- ed area of 92,000 acres and 104,000 acres of irrigation. LLP's would provide on-farm irrigation. Later developments would complete the poldering of the area.
(b) The Dacca North Project area is located north of the city of Dacca in Dacca District. The project area is 226,000 acres, of which 20,000 acres is forest which is intended to be maintained as such, and 30,000 acres are set aside for urban and industrial use. The project is a multipurpose scheme to provide for irrigation and drainage. Polders would provide flood protection and internal irrigation and drainage would be provided by primary pumping stations with low lift pumps and tubewells being used for on-farm irrigation.
(c) The North Mymensingh Tubewells Project is located northwest of the town of Mymensingh close to the border with India. The project would provide 300 tubewells of 2 cusec capacity to irrigate a maximum area of 40,000 acres. Implementation of this project is delayed until the quality of the aquifer can be confirmed.
Transportation
3.38 The Central Region is served internally by arterial rail, road and water transport. Dacca, in the south of the region, is the focal point of the transportation system of the country and a large percentage of the country's imports pass either through or to Dacca. The Padma and Meghna rivers which form the southern boundaries, are major arterial routes for water traffic. The Region is well connected to the seaport at Chittagong by the three modes of transport and there is good connection by water to Chalna. Local transportation in the interior is by b6th land and water, witbh wnter transnort becoming extremely important during the wet season particularly in the eastern part of the region. The old course of the Brahmaputra River is an imnortant seasonal route for local water transport running through the centre of the Region.
3.39 Traffic to the Region includes the complete range of commodities necessarv to sunnnort the large urban comnlex of Dacca-Naravangani and particularly foodgrains (both wheat and rice), fuel and building materials. Traffic from the region consists of goods from the seaports transhipped for dispatch throughout the country and large quantities of jute about 0.5 million tons per annnum from the extensive cultivation of the commodity in the interior of the Region. Large quantities of foodgrain are imported to the Region partLclaUrly to Dacca District. Tnere is movement of foodgrain from all parts of the country to the major deficit area around Dacca. Most of the supplies are Irom thne coastal areas of tne Southeast Region and thfle nortnern part of the Northwest Region, although there is some southern movement of foodgrain within the Region.
3.40 Fertilizer distribution within the region is mainly by rail with increasing quantities of urea being supplied from the new factory at Chorasal. TSP and MP are imported by rail from Chittagong. The Region is well served by the three modes of transport in the country and is well connected with the Southwest and Eastern Regions, but particularly the Eastern Region. There is limited connection with the Northwest Region.
Rail
3.41 The Region is relatively well served by rail transport having an average of one mile of railway for each 29 square miles - a considerably better rail coverage than the Eastern and Southwest Regions, but not as good as the Northwest Region (Table 9). The rail system operates exclusively on metre gauge so that problems associated with dual gauge operation experienced elsewhere do not occur. There are 320 route miles, in the Region. The main line from Chittagong crosses the Meghna river by the King George VI Bridge at Bhairab Bazar, some 40 miles northeast of Dacca, and this bridge provides the only link between the rail system of the Eastern and Central Regions The main lines in the Region form a tri- angle between Mymensingh in the north, and Tongi Junction and Bhairab Bazar in the south. Dacca, due south of Tongi Junction, is thus served by a rather indirect route from, Chittagong due to the northerly location of the Meghna crossing point, which makes Mymensingh only fifteen miles further by rail from Chittagong than Dacca (220 miles and 205 miles respectively - the equivalent distances by trunk road are 270 miles and only 150 miles). A new line joining Narsingdi on the Bhairab Bazar - Tongi line with Madanganj which is situated across the Sitalakhya river from Narayanganj is in the final stages of completion and this line will provide a more direct link between Chittagong and the Narayanganj industrial area. North of Mymensingh, the line runs westwards to the two important ferry crossing points of the Jamuna or Bahudurabad Ghat and Jagannatganj Ghat to link with the Northwest Region. A spur line also joins the northeast of the Region with the system.
3.42 No part of the district of Tangail is served by the railway, in fact the whole of the western half of the Region is poorly served by the railway system. The railway track is generally poorly ballasted in the Region except for the mainline link between Mymensingh and Dacca. This line is also laid with the heavier (75 lb) rails rather than the standard 60 lb rails with which most of the MG is laid. The poor quality of the track in much of the Region is a limiting factor on efficient operations. Traffic on the lines in the Region is heavy, but not close to capacity except for the line leading out to the Jamuna ferry terminals and the Bhairab Bazar - Tongi link. If the reduction in metre gauge freight traffic that has taken place in the country over the last five years is assumed to be proportional within this Region, there is considerable physical capacity for immediate expansion in traffic volume. 3.43 The Ghorasal fertilizer factory is located on the Bhairab Bazar - Tor,gi line anA alhbough m,uch of -le distr"iLtion 'roml the 'actory wil be ~~~LC*~~ ~~ It&L&.I L "LI UJ LI .LUU _LOl I L UII il L WII_LuL _Li by water transport, traffic on this line must be expected to grow particu- larly quickly as output from the factory builds up. The intrinsLc capacity of this line could be a limiting factor on fertilizer distribution from the factLXry, aL LIhoJU6I Lthe Ln%W'Ly cUIrIALp LUu dl barin1gu1I - MlaudangdLlJ line snouLa go a long way towards reducing the pressure on the Ghorasal line.
Highways
3.44 The Region has about 270 miles of all weather main roads -- and in addition about 3i0um'L±es of paved roaus were under construction in 1970. The paved carriageway width is normally 10 feet. At present the length of paved road per square mile is close to tne average for the country and the completion of road works under construction will maintain this position wnen on-going projects in the other parts are completed. The road running west from Dacca to Aricha forms part of an important link between the capital and the western part of the country and the only land link to the Southwest Region. From Aricha, vehicle ferries across the Ganges-Brahmaputra connect Goalando in the Southwest Region and Nagarbari in the Northwest Region with the Central Region. This road also connects an important vegetable producing area with Dacca. To the north of Dacca, Mymensingh is presently connected to the capital by a very indirect all weather road route via Tangail, although a direct Mymensingh-Dacca link is presently under construction through the extensive Madhupur forest area. This road to Tangail provides the only all weather link between the District of Tangail and the rest of the Region (there is only seasonal water traffic in the Dhaleswari River).
3.45 The north of the Region is relatively isolated to road traffic during the wet season. A seasonal road runs paralle within the border with Assam from east to west across the Region, but main roads are practically non-existent in the northeast, where a network of khals and channels provides a setting more favorable to water transport. In the southeast, the main road to Chittagong provides the most direct all weather link to that port, although movement is hindered by three ferry crossings between Dacca and the Comilla mainland. Further upstream,the Meghna is also crossed at Bhairab Bazar by ferry although the roads in this area are seasonal. Within the Region, the Old Brahmaputra river which runs through the centre, is presently crossed at two points by road ferries, at Mymensingh and Jamalpur. The waterway crossings of the major rivers, and of the Old Brahmaputra channel at Mymen- singh are presently being studied by the Government of Bangladesh to determine the optimum solution for satisfying present and future traffic requirements at those points.
3.46 A considerable percentage of the vehicles registered in the country are registered in the Region, particularly in Dacca District. In 1970, about 50% of all motor vehicles were registered there. The most important highway freight route in the country is that between Dacca and Chittagong and this route represents the most important route for the Region. Development of arterial road transport in the Region is limited by the coverage of pucca roads. Very large quantities of jute are produced in the region but most of the crop is harvested and sold before the end of September to take advantage of the mobility provided by water and to avoid the difficulties of movement on the kutcha roads. This pattern exacerbates the seasonal demand for trans- port services. Road transport access to much of the area is limited to six or seven months in the year. - 41 -
Waterways
3.47 Water transport is an important mode of transport in the Central Region, and the Region ranks second to the Southwest Region in the relative coverage by navigable water channels. The Meghna is a traffic route of major importance, and the year round deep draft navigability of the Lower Buriganga and Sitalakha rivers ensures continuous access by water to the major inland ports of Dacca and Narayanganj. In the 1967 IWTA classification of waterways NEDECO identified nearly 500 route miles of waterway serving the region through- out the year. The Dhaleswari and Bansi rivers are important inland channels in the southwest of the Region and in the south, the lower reaches of the Lakhya river connect Ghorasal with the arterial waterway system. In the southeast, the jute centre at Narsingdi is accessible to the inland fleet via the Arial Khan river.
3.48 The inland port at Dacca extends for about eleven miles along the eastern bank of the Buriganga river and includes a number of jetties and godowns owned by IWTA and by private organizations. The port is presently,/ estimated to handle over 1 million tons of cargo a year, of which over 75V' is due to country boat traffic. Building materials, fuel and foodstuffs are important commodities handled at the port. The inland port of Narayanganj extends for abouttwelve miles along the right bank of the Sitalakha river and has numerous IWTA and private facilities. A large proportion of the c^untryls jute exorts pa-sss thrv^'i^-h ?J4r&-z4 for o^.wr shj.pi.+ +o +heo seaports at Chalna and Chittagong; T'uel, building materials and food- stuffs are other important corn..odities handled. The port is particularly important for seagoing craft from Chittagong. IWT can be expected to grow rapidly in the PRegion and there is no reasorn Tahly any demand that develops for IWT services in the Region can not be satisfied.. Further hydrographic surveys and channel marking by ITTA could also extend the areas presently served. The new fertilizer factory at Ghorasal,with an annual output of 360,0001AAMnn tons,v+.O- wilw.4 11 r-. 1. h_.1^-.4e,.v±y 1- nAon Wwate.. e _ tasortov@_--cm^.^ forfotAAi4ss4 ddstr1buuon of fertilizers throughout the country and will be an important factor in the growth. of this mode of trnansport i-r the .e-4i
T ocal T-r-rnr*
3469 TLa1 nspo.ra rta4t 4i by both land anA water. LanA ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- - al |* I._osL&-s-1z; , -cLLv&E Uy UV #LI s osu olk WL.J lk transportation is more important during the dry season and water during the wet- seasor., al'thbough. thL ere is year=rour.d dependent-e on water alor.g the W~ ~J..~. ~ ~ ~ ~ .L~ aa yaOA. L ULL" UpLu _L. CJWi~~.LUILr, LLLC eastern border of the Region. The 1965 sample survey of village transporta- tior. by it r.cluded L.LL LJ region.C±IL covereAV u~. a A.larger areaL thanLLI1L theLLL Cen.tralUL LL. Regior,,i% J±n t ICUL Faridpur, Comilla and part of Ragpur Districts, but it gives some idea of local transport pattLerns iLn thle "Aegion. LLLere are seen to e abuout one fifth of the number of bullock carts per village than there are in the Northwest Region, and five to ten times the nUumber existing throughout most of the rest of the country (Table 10). The high number of boats per village - about the Importan.ce of water transpo-rt. ar- mre--t cluU 1OJ.LVJ - ~showsLLV LLI ±UIpU LdhU d~ L~1~~ T'----ere are more boatS per village only in the Coastal Belt. The figures reflect the importance o' Jute in the Centra'L Region. The local transportation system is adapted to shipping over 0.5 million tons of Jute annually for export, and this has to be moved at the local le-vel. Climatic and geographic conditions require
1/I ct timAt_ of t.hp trn-rnnna mrnrom.nt of noiit-.u bnoa trhf- c w- .vprn'+Ae to- that of the mechanized inland fleet has ranged from 75% to as high as 89%. that the movement be by water and hence the relatively large capacity of the village boat fleets. Motorized land transport is very rare in the rural part of the Region, with only onetruck operating for every fifty villages. The average distance from a village to a metalled road was 9.9 miles; to a steamer/launch ghat 13.7 miles; to a railway station 14.9 miles; to a telephone 9.8 miles (Tables 11 and 12). Local transportation in the Region is balanced between wet season and dry season facilities, but for bulk movements at the local level, facilities are better developed for the wet season. The capacity for movement during the dry season could be increased considerably by increas- ing the size of the trucking fleet operating in the rural areas and by improving the rural road network.
Industry
3.50 A major part of the industries of Bangladesh are in the Central Region. Of factory industries nearly half are in this Region becamse of the concentration in Narayanganj, Demra, Dacca and Tongi and about a quarter of cottage industries. In the Dacca area most of the industrial factories are in Narayanganj and Demra to the southeast, Postgola and Islampur in the south, Tajgaon and Tongi in the north. The jute mills are located in the Narayanganj-Demra area, along the Sitalakhya river. There are ten jute mills, employing over 30,000 persons. Along the Sitalakhya are a number of boat-building yards. There are also four textile mills in this area, and Narayanganj is an important centre for hosiery products. Along the Buriganga, in Dacca city (Postgola and Islampur areas), are a number of leather and rubber factories, tanneries, match factories, cotton textile mills and a big flour mill. In the indus- trial areas of Tejgaon and Tongi, to the north of the city, are a variety of industries, ranging from confectionary products and cigarettes to tele- phone equipment and PVC pipes. The total industrial labour in the Dacca region was about 69,000-in 1961.
3.51 There are three iute mills in Ohorashal and tw. jlute mills in Narsingdi, both in Dacca district. Ghorashal, on the Sitalakhya river, hnc develnoAe intn non nf the major in.dustrial tonT.s of the coultiy. An Urea fertilizer factory with a capacity of 340,000 tons per year, and a 4 large power -lant have been nut up there. A few m 1ln .lncrnm. i5 a ama sugar mill at Charindur. There are two other sugar mills in the Region oat V4arno--4 nd at flew,angan4 4, Mvmoena4nr1 AJitr-ict. South of Mar4ir.dA4 dozens of villages specialize in handloom cloth weaving. A yarn mill 4 at Kaliganj suppl-es a good part cf trei4r A.nan-A Another arenn i h+-,a well-developed cotton handloom industry is around Tangail there are two cotton ...ill's i, Tangail district. Furt,h-1-,er northF, 4n M-.en gh-. TDisetri4,- t-h- only big industrial units are the two sugar mills. This is the major jute grow- ing d4strlct of Bngladesh and there are four pucca jute ballng presses at Sarishabari and one each at Gouripur and Nikli. However, there are no
JuLe ILLL.L. iL tLhis prir.cipal jut growing area. Thr ar 16 p jute baling presses in Narayanganj, 3 in Dacca and 1 in Narsingdi. Narayanganj .Ls, oU course, thL=L iadJ a r l aII±UU pU L adllU the principal jute traaing market of the country. 3.52 Handloom cotton weaving is important in the Baburhat area of Dacca dist-ricnt (South of Narsin ad I Rn ta-tllr nf Ta-ngaqiI tdistrict- and BaJitu o-f Kishorganj in Mymensingh district. Embroidering of fine cottons is a Qnpn'-1m1-if nf 1YmPrA Pi1t% 'Rn_ki1i-na i4ni-rnt-m speciality-- - f Dc city. -a--buildin--g is importantt- ir.4 this Region.-- InT 1950 there were over 1,300 enterprises engaged in building country-boats. The largest units are in an.d around Narayan.ganj, Narsingdi and Bhairab Bazar. Brass and Bell-metal utensils are made on a cottage industry basis at Dhamrai and Sa-bhar ir,Dacc--a district , Tslam.pur in M.,nig ditic n Kg,aii Tangail.~J~.SSS.i?S.S.L ~ YSSL~LIOLL6LL UA..D LL IL . LLLU 1\.ditLILCLic LI. Tangail district. - 1.1.
iv. TH.E S0LIm^uST REGION
A. The Setting
Location
4.01 The western boundary of the Southwest Region is the Indian border .fromt(he Ganges river tLo thL.Je BLay ofU BDenLgal. I.LLn the north 'LtsbLounUds are the Ganges and Padma Tivers, in the east'it is the Meghna river and in the south the Bay of Bengal. Its greatest length from north to south is 150 miles and its greatest breadth from east to west is 140 miles. The area of thLe Reg'O i8 -5O4 q. miles - 2. of Lhe LoLal area of Lthe country.
History
4.02 This Region was very largely forested till quite recent times. The swampy areas of the delta were also more extensive than at present. The high, moribund areas of the delta in the north of this Region were active deltaic areas till a couple of centuries ago. All these factors combined to make it an area difficult to settle in. In the earliest accounts of this area a tribe known as the Vanga is mentioned. The name Bengal is derived from them. During the Turco-Afghan period large parts of this Region were brought under control of Sonargaon and Gaur and the limits of settlement were pushed south beyond Bagherhat and Bakerganj by settlement in the northern reaches of the Sunderban forest. Settlement in the north of this Ragion stretches back to the Pala period and even earlier. Various artifacts of the Pala and Sena periods have been found in the Faridpur district. Gaurnadi in northern Barisal district was an important trade center in that period.
4.03 Rice, sugarcane and palm-jaggery were important products Qf this Region until the growth of indigo export in the 18th century. For about a century and a half, until the end of the 19th century, this Region was the main indigo growing area of Bengal. From about the middle of the 19th century jute began to supplant indigo and became the main cash crop by the end of the century.
Administration
4.04 The Southwest Region presently contains the whole of the Khulna Administrative Division and includes Faridpur district of Dacca Division of Bangladesh The districts in this Region are: Kushtia, Jessore, Khulna, Patuakhali, Barisal and Faridpur. Patuakhali and Barisal districts were formed out of Bakerganj district in 1969. The nL=ber of sub- divisions in each district are Kushtia 3, Jessore 4, Khulna 3, Patudkhali 2, Barisal h and Faridpur 4. There are I10 thanas distributed as follows: Kushtia 12, Jessore 20, Khulna 22, Patuakhali 10, Barisal 25, Faridpur 24. All development departments have officers at each tier down to the thana level. B. Human Resources
The People
4.05 As in all the other regions the overwhelming majority (99.4%) of the people are Bengalis. In the south of Patuakhali district there is a small group of Arakanese descent, numbering about 5,000 in 1961. The 1961 census enumerated 36,220 persons claiming Urdu as their mother- tongue. Thts is a fair approximation of the number of Muslim Bihari refugees, most of whom came in between 1947 and 1952. Many of them came into the Northwest first and then moved to the Khulna area for employment. As in other regions there are also small groups of Hindi-speakers from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. They came in as blacksmiths, cobblers, gardeners, milkmen, railway coolies, etc. In 1961, 2,819 persons spoke Hindi as their mother tongue. A large proportion of the Muslims in this region, especially in Kushtia, Jessore and Khulna districts, are Bengali-speaking refugees from West Bengal, most of whom also came in the period 1947-52.
Demography
4.o6 This Region is one of the least densely populated of the four Regions, with an average of 849 persons per square mile in the Khulna Division and 1.271p in Faridpur District in 1961. About a sixth of the Region is covered by the Sunderban forest and has a very sparse population which brings the average density figure down unrealistically. With the exclusion of the forest area average population pressure would be the same as in the Northwest. Total nonulation of the Region is estimated to be 19.0 million (1971). The probable district-wise distribution, before the mass migration which started in April 1971, is as follows!
1971 estimated District Population (million)*
Kushtia 1.7 Jessore 3.1 Khulna 3.5 Patuakhali 1.7 Barisal 4.4 Faridpur _1S6-
901
*Assuming 2.9% rate of population growth from 1961.
4.07 Population density in the Region Averaged about 1,000 pdr sduare mile (1961) in the East and Southwest, with the. excepition of Bhoia island She southern Darts of Patuakhali district. In the west and northwestern portion of the Region population density averaged less than 700 per square mile (1961). The areas of high DoDulation density are in the active delta of the Ganges- Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers, whereas the lower populations are in the Moribund delta areas. The pressure of the rural population on the cultivated area varies quite considerably within the Region. Rural density Per square mile varied from a low of 919 persons in Kushtia district to a high of 1.778 persons in the adjac.ent district of Faridpur. It ililustrates the very different farming conditions in the moribund and.active deltas. 4.08 The variation of population density across the Region is indicated by the fnllntwing table adapted frnm tha 1961 Gr.nsus:
TDiq t-ri rt- Rual oncity!sq.m -mile
Faridpur 1,274 fl,r4acol Patuakhali ) 1,218 Khulna Jessore 929
T,Lbor -1- Force.
4.09 -LLIg manlan ifln easter Faricpur aistrict (Madaripur SUD- division) and northern Barisal district has led to a steady emigration to Dacca and Inuina cities. Seasonal migration from this area is important for the Haor and the coastal areas. Much of the boro rice crop in the Haor area of Mymensingh and Sylhet districts (Eastern Region) is planted and harvested by migrant labor from Madaripur. The extra labor needed for the aman rice crop in the coastal and island areas of Patuakhali and Barisal districts also comes from this area. The relatively low population density of Jessore and Kushtia districts attracts immigrants from Noakhali, Faridpur and Barisal districts. The labor in the industrial and port areas of Khulna and Chalna come largely from Barisal, Faridpur, Noakhali and Pabna districts. This Region therefore has a definite labor surplus in the east and northeast and a shortage of labor (at least for development purposes) in the west.
Urbanization
4.10 This is the least urbanized Region. In 1961 only 3.8% of the people lived in urban areas. Khulna is a small city but not as dominant as Dacca or Chittagong. Till the mid-1950's Khulna was smaller than Barisal, but the development of industries pushed it ahead. By early 1971 the popula- tion was probably about 250,000. The seaport for Khulna is at Chalna, 20 miles down the Pussur river, the labor colony for which is nearby at Mongla. Barisal declined by 20,000 people between 1951 and 1961 but by 1971 it seems to have gone ahead again and its population was estimated at about 100,000. The high growth rate of Jessore and Khulna was in some measure due to the heavy influx of Muslim refugees from adjacent areas of West Bengal. Despite the low percentage of urbanization towns are well distributed and there are more urban areas than in any other Region. The population in some of the more important urban areas is listed below, and the 1951 and 1961 census returns may be compared. - 47 -
Urban Population % Difference Urbuan a'.rea 196 v7.J. '9Lg-61V
DU Lu'lra 42,22 +-F-20 2 Barisal 69,936 89,894 - 22 AIC.e ICI nee-,.1. 1 % .Iesor *tU, JUU 4,L,+'U T :F O Faridpur 28,338 25,556 + ll Madaripur 25,328 21,693 + 17 Kushtia 24,952 21,628 + 15 Satknira 20,169 14,758 + 37 Patuakhali 12,325 10,289 + 20
Literacy 4.11 The literacy rate for this Region is 17.7%, which is slightly higher than the national average and second only to the Eastern Region. The literacy rate varies very markedly within the Region as can be seen from the table below. In 1961 Kushtia district ranked lowest of all districts in literacy and Khulna ranked second only to Chittagong. Khulna city had a literacy rate of 46.1% in 1961.
District Percentage literate (1961)
Kushtia 11.7 Jessore 16.3 Khulna 21.9 Barisal 21.3 Patuakhali 17.2 Faridpur 15.1
4.12 There are no universities in this Region. The coastal areas of Patuakhali and southern Khulna are poorly served by schools. - 4U -
C. Physical Resources
Physiography and Soils
4.13 The land relief in the Southwest Region is characterized by a gentle downward slope in a southeasterly direction. Elevation varies from 55 feet in the northwest of Kushtia District to sea level along the southern boundary. Land gradients are small, averaging 0.5 feet per mile in the northern part of the region. The land in the southern part is nearly level. The Region is interlaced with streams, tidal channels and swamps.
4.14 The northern half of the region is occupied completely by the Ganges River Flood plain. This flood plain has customarily been divided into 'active' and 'moribund' deltaic areas. The term moribund has been applied to the south-western part of the floodplain, mainly Kushtia, Jessore and northern Khulna Districts, where the local rivers have been cut off from their parent Ganges and now carry only local drainage. The term active delta was applied to floodplain areas traversed by rivers still connected with the Ganges and serving as its distributary channels. Physiographically, the differences between the supposedly moribund and active areas are not important. Most parts of the so-called 'active' delta are, in fact, not flooded from the Ganges and its distributaries but by accumulated rain-water. Also, most of the Ganges distributaries carry only a small monsoon-season flow and appear to have been stable in their channels for a long period, certainly since Remuel mapped them in essentially their present courses 200 years ago. The maior changes that have taken nlace since then have taken nlace along the Arial Khan channel in the Central Region and in the northeast of Faridpur dirztrirt-
A 1 Th^ flnnfinlaina AR whnl rnmpnrise n tvni_rq1 mpnndpr flnoidninin ------~ - -_- -___ - r------~--- r--- landscape of ridges, basins and old channels. In general, the physiography is smooth, but it locally comprises rapidly alteratirng linear low ridges and depressions, especially in the west. The Ganges channel itself is 4 conrstarn.tl y ^har.n eroAdi.g onA dep- iting large areas of all,-i- on its banks and char land each year. Ganges alluvium is calcareous (although
1^ _ 4 o.,me 01A er r 4 Ane Au .c . e 1..A;1 n 0ra l A a es a rC ni. U OOL* .. La_Gy COJS OSJUov .t~ S-'-ESJ.L OL__ 5-0 tO.L.> LL*-- S.O_-S. -av *v_ soils predominate in basins and on the greater part of most ridges, but silts arn.d%A.U UL.Uoccasionally Ja.L.JLY OCULL.0ULUJsar.ds oc upyhihe LLrL&L-&- & .J5A,~A- ..LOS.~j~LS.LULLLJ.-ig-rss particulal- 4in WetJerr.- Kushtia and Jessore. The substratum is mainly silty, but is sandy in places i.L the west. Flooding iL LUai.LLLy Udeep, bu.t bU-ecomes sha.Llow ir thLLe w0t (wLLere some ridges lie above flood level) and is mainly by rain water except near
LtLe GLa .'gesan itJ.ts iLstILLUL r tarLyh- LLLLL Il.
4.1 N14orth ofL Khulna andu nort,h-west ol BmariLsal , Aheorar.c4epoit of the Gopalganj-Khulna Peat Basins occupy a number of low lying areas UbeLWen1 thle G3ar,g es L.LVUUoodp.Lin.LLU LaLd L..L LLfLoodpCL.LLL toU LLLh soUthLI. LhLe area stands only one or two feet above sea levol and rivers and creeks occupy pere.-,uiaLLy Wet basins UUL LtLLy ae cUVeLrU Wy cl.Lay iLLL plLIcs T. mainly deeply flooded by fresh water in the monsoon season but by somewhat sa-l L-Le water r,ear K.u..'L - 49 -
4.17 The Ganges Tidal Floodplain and the Sundarbans occupy most of the lower half of the Rsegion. The Ganges Tidal Floodplain occupies most of Barisal and Patuakhali Districts and most of Khulna fistrict north of the Sundarbans. The landscape is criss-crossed by innumerable tidal rivers and creeks. Few parts are more than half a mile away from a channel- The areas between channels appear almost level but are, in fact, slightly basin-shaped. They are tidally flooded, mainly by sweet water, in the monsoon season, but most areas stand above high tide level in the dry season. Some areas in the south and west are flooded by slt water at high Spring tides in the dry season, and a few basin sites remain perennially wet.
4.18 The sediments are mainly non-calcareous clays, but they become mnre ailty in the east and usually have a buried peat layer in the west. The rivers are saline throughout the year in most of Khulna District. In Patuakh.ali District, they are mainly fresh in the monsoon season, but become saline in the dry season. In the north of Patuakhali District and in 'aris-I District, they remain fresh throughou the yhear(except orn te east coast of Bhola island). Seasonal flooding is mainlv shallow and by fresh river water or rain water. Howev-erj aiXiwet al1 the extreme South and West area is exposed to cyclones and accompanying storm surges bringing in salt water, at high spri.n tides4
4.19 The Khulna Sundarbans are part of the Ganges t'dal lloodplain which has remained under mangrove forest. The landscape is similar to that of the 4l 1 dpla0.Ln thle r.ort' wLt.L the tidal ri-vers anda creeks and tidal salt water flooding for most or all of the year.
4.20 The southeastern border of the region, which includes Bhola Island forms part of the Young Megnna Estuarine Floodplain a landscape which occurs mainly in the Noakhali District in-the Eastern Region. The relief is mainly very flat and intersected with creeks. The shape and position of the smaller estuarine islands (chars)w'e constantly changing as is the outline of Bhola Island. Almost all the deposits are young with little sign of soil development, and consist mainly of finely stratified silts. Tidal flooding occurs on the outer fringes except where protection is afforded by coastal embankments. The whole area is susceptible to occasional flooding by salt water when cyclonic storm surges over-run the area. Most of the soils are at least very slightly saline in the dry season.
Climate
4.21 The Southwest Region has a hot suimmer and a mild winter and the Region can be severely affected by the cyclones that originate over the Bay of Bengal. Temperatures rise steadily from January to April, remain fairly steady from April to October and then fall to reach a low in December and January. Mean summer temperatures are in the middle eighties with mean daily maxima reaching the middle 'nineties in April. Historical minimum temperatures of 38°F have been recorded in January throughout most of the region, although in Barisal the lowest temperature recorded in over sixty years of records is 48 0F. 4.22 Mean relative humidity is high throughout the year - the average varies from 70% to 90%. The high summer humidity during the hot monsoon months continues until September when it falls slowly to reach a low in February and March. Annual evaporation varies from 45-55 inches within the Region being lower in the northeast of the Region. Maximum monthly evapora- tion is in April and May (5-6 inches per month) and is lowest in December and January (2-3 inches per month). Rainfall is heaviest in the southeast of the Region where the mean annual rainfall recorded is 120 inches. The north- west of the Region is much drier with an average annual rainfall of 60 inches; this highlights the considerable difference in annual rainfall across the Region. April rainfall is significantly higher in the east of the Region than the west. November to February are very dry months.
4.23 ADart from the severe storms which occur in the Region. winds are generally very light, particularly in the southwest of the Region, but wind sneeds of un to 150 m.n.h. can occur during cyclonic storms. The cvclonic storms form in the southeast of the Bay of Bengal and move in a northerly or northeasterly- direction- and can seriouslv affect the coastal and inl2nd areas of the Region. Storm surges associated with the cyclones can inundate large areas with salinp water and cause cnns-idPrahIP nrnnprtv damag and loss of life. Of thirteen cyclones recorded dwring the years 1960-1970, three have particularly affected the Southwest Region. The Region is well covered with rainfall measuring stations and comprehensive meteorological stations are located at Faridpur, Tessore, Satkhira, Khulna and Barisal. - 51 -
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential
Present Land Use
4.24 The Southwest Region nresentlv includes 30% of the cultivated area of the country, 28% of the cropped area and has 26% of the population. The nresent agricultura1 nrar-tices in the north of the Reaion are influenced by the time of occurrence, depth and duration of annual flooding in the wet season and the wmo-unt of so4i1 moisturp avanuilnlh e duiring the dry seaPsn. Tn the south, soil salinity is a limiting factor during the dry season and wet seaso. crops can on!-,, be lanted after the rain has lahdthe -il, although the construction of coastal embankments has reduced the area affected by dry season salinity. Most of different kinds of crops grow in Bangladesh'1n are to be found in this Region. A small surplus in foodgrain is produced here, but considerabl- less land is devoted to Jute than In heo Central nden-rth- western Regions.
4.25 The percentage of country production of some of the more iumportan.t covmmodities is -as foll-ows:
.&flLm %O L 0 4L U.S,C D~~~~~~IoAuc 4 . 4 A-n. -4-- 4- 1) - A 4
Cor.u- ..ot-y . .. %'SC LL'LfLLV %
R'Lce 270L Bar,ana 26If~I~I Wheat 30 Rape & Mustard 21 Jute 16 Onion 3 Mango 23 Sweet Potato 14 Sugarcane 29 Waterm-elon 29 Potato 10 Tobacco 9
Cropped Area 28%
4.26 As elsewhere in Bangladesh , present land use in the Southwest Region is mainly determined by land levels in relation to flooding, but the greater droughtiness of the western border areas and extensive salinity in the south provide additional limitations. The more permeable, droughty, ridge soils in the west are mainly used for broadcast aus followed by a rabi crop. Mangoes and Khejur (sugar) palms are also important. Seasonally flooded land in the west is mainly used for transplanted aman, partly preceded by aus or jute, and displaced by deepwater aman in low-lying basins. Wheat and pulses are widely grown on such land in the rabi season. Within the Ganges-Kobadak Project Area, irrigation is provided to ensure improved yields of aus, jute and aman crops, but only a relatively small area (10,000 acres in 1970) is irrigated for boro (locally wheat) production in the dry season.
4.27 The eastern half of the Ganges river floodplain is deeply flooded. In the less deeply flooded north, mixed aus and aman are widely grown and usually followed by a rabi crop. Jute is also an important crop in this area. Deeply flooded basins, especially in the south, are mainly used for deep- water aman. Extensive peat land remains under reed. swamp. Tidally flooded land in the south is almost entirely used for a single crop of transplanted aman, but this is preceded by aus (locally jute) in the northeast and in Bhola, and more locally by transplanted aus in perennially wet basin centers. Yields in Ehulna are reaucea Dy salinity in years of low or late monsoon rainfall, but this is much less of a problem further east, except immediately adjacent to the Patuakhali coast. Cyclones and associated storm surges periodically cause serious crop damage and loss. The extreme southwest of the Region, the Sundarbans, remains under mangrove forest.
4.28 Jute is the major cash crop of the Region, produced mainly in the north. Onions. garlic and rhillies nre imnnrtrnt cash cronn ir. thisi aren too. Chillies and sunnhemp are important in the east of Barisal, including north Bhol. Bara sal is alqso a iirnluiQ prodntr-in-n nran for rice. Betel- nuts are an important crop in the south, but production has been severely affected by a ranidlv spreading d-iaonce for whIch no control measure i8 yet in sight. Betel leaf (pan), sugarcane, khejur palm and coconuts provide other cash rrrpns in vunrinui parts of the region.
4.29 Farm. sizes ar generally bigger In the northwest of the Regior, than elsewhere and farms are highly fragmented as they are throughout the Cnlnt+r, Fa-m.r 4Yhn aveanrag.--cres ar.d in Tessore A.4 acres whereas elsewhere they are close to the national average of 3.5 acres. Most of the land is o-w.er-fa-med but ablout.0tJ of -le lardmers have a part of their land sharecropped,. except in Kushtia where it is about 60% of the farmers..LO.UttO. 'Phe.LLIL percer.tagepC of th-e lar.d tbat is sharecropped -`ares ------h L .L 5 'Jt -LLI .iU-L LHL. Lb bILa L Uj tU VatLes dCLU.5b L[LIt region from 22% in Kushtia and Khulna to 16% in Faridpur compared with … r ilc'? %tZ ~. … I -. Lthe ntta.uIna average ut ±lu%?. uore o' thLe landiJjs rented in lTBarlsa.L ana Patuakhali than anywhere else in the country. Rented land here accounts fLor 5% o'. th/-e 'Llanucouipared with a national average of only 27%.
4+.30 Most of tne farms are divided into separate fragments and the degree of fragmentation is particularly high in Kushtia and Jessore where as many as 57% and 5j% respectively of the farms are reported to be in more than 10 fragments, compared with 33% in Khulna and only 22% in Barisal and Patuakhali. The average for the country is 29%.
4.31 The present intensity of land use in different parts of the Region is indicated by the present cropping intensities. Cropping intensities vary from over 160% in the northeast of the Region in Faridpur, to 110% in Jessore (see table below). This must be compared with over 200% achieved in part of the Eastern Region and 250% under intensive project development. Agri- cultural development in the Region is inevitably strongly linked to the food- grain demand in the Region and in the nation as a whole. The Region is marginally in deficit overall, particularly in the northeast of the Region in Faridpur. Foodgrain is distributed by the Food Department across the Region. Estimates of district-wise production of foodgrain as a percentage of demand together with the present cropping intensities are presented below. Assumed demand was 16 ounces of foodgrain per day. As in the other Regions the higher deficit areas have higher cropping intensities. Percent District Production of Demand Cropping Intensity for Foodgrain percent
Jessore 100 110 Khulna 97 124 Barisal ) Patuakhali) 96 149 Kushtia 86 146 Faridpur 59 161
Development Potential
4.32 The highest potential for early and rapid development in the Southwest Region undoubtedly exists in LDU's 2, 6,1/ the eastern part of 7 and in 8. At a conservative estimate, 1.3 M acres of land in these units is suitable for conversion to IRRI transplanted aman without supplementary irrigation. With irrigation in addition, an estimated 1.2 M acres of the same land could also be used for IRRI boro. This is one of the easiest parts of the country to provide with low-lift pump irrigation-, since few areas are more than half a mile from a freshwater tidal creek. Caution is required in developing to the ultimate potential, however, until it has been ascertained to what extent abstraction of water within the area and upstream might cause a dangerous salinity incursion into the area.
4.33 Elsewhere in the region, a further 1.1 M acres of land is suitable for IRRI transplanted aman production, but almost the whole of this lies within SW3 where irrigation will probably be necessary - from the Ganges- Kobadak Project or from tubewells - to ensure a satisfactory crop. With irrigation, too, a gross total of almost 4 M acres is suitable for IRRI boro/ transplanted aus cultivation, mainly in SW2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the eastern part of 7 and the north-western part of 8. When IRRI varieties suitable for broad- cast aus and deepwater aman conditions become available, considerable areas in SW3 and 4 might benefit. Yields in SW3 might be hazardous because of uncertain pre-monsoon rainfall where irrigation is not available, and flooding might occasionally damage aman yields in SW4.
4.34 Long-term development in this Region depends, ultimatelyv on decisions taken regarding water transfer from the Ganges-Brahmaputra, both to Drovide an additional irrigation source and to control salinitv intrusion in the southwest of the Region. So far as irrigation is concerned, ground- water is now considered likely to be readily available for irrieation north of an approximate line from Jessore to Madaripur. Sweet groundwater may well occur south of this line; bTht needs to be confirmed. Rivers are tidal in the dry season throughout almost all units except SW1 and 3, and could supply considerablv more low-lift nutmn irrigation than they do at nresent (suinhirt to the proviso that the amounts extracted not jeopardize freshwater supplies in RW6 And the north of 7 And 8).
1/ L.D.U. stands for Land Development Unit -- see Technical Report No. 2. - For location see Map. - 54 -
4.35 With irrigation, 0.9 M acres of floodplain ridge land -- mainly in SW3 -- would be suitable for perennial crops such as sugarcane and bananas, as well as for tobacco, vegetables,betel leaf, broadcast aus and jute. Fruit trees such as mango and lichi could be grown on such larnd and might benefit from irrigation for establishment. On seasonally flooded ridges with permeable soils, amounting to a further 1.3 M acres in SW2, 3, 4, 6 and 8, broadcast aus and jqpv could be followed by rabi crops similar to those grown on ridges or highlands A/
4.36 For full development of deeply flooded land in SW4 and eastern parts of SW3, embankments and pump drainage will ultimately be required. Most of the land could then produce two transpl nted rice crops per year. It might be impossible to maintain adequate drainage of deep basin centers, particularly towards the low-lying border with SW5, and such land would be restricted to the production of a single crop of boro. Also. ridge soils too permeable for transplanted rice, would need to grow such crops as sugarcane, bananas, and kharif and rabi dryland crops. Irrigation would be needed to compensate for lack of flooding on most of the drained land and lowering of the water table on high ridges. Anart from the difficulty of cornnstructilng embankments along the erosive banks of the Ganges and the Arial Khan, the
current uncertainty of future irrigation supplies from the -anges provides a constraint on large-scale polder development in this area.
4.37 The peat basins in SW5 would be difficult to bring under continuous cultivation. Complete drainage wouild cause the neat to shrirnk, and parts of it to harden irreversibly so as to become unsuitable for cultivation. The peat soils are thomselves poorly eui-teo for rcultirzat±on, but hasin margin soils with a clay topsoil could be used for boro cultivation using low-lift pump irrig2tion from tidal creeks
4.38 Table 5 indicates the acreage of land in each LDU suitable for IRpJ aman and boro, wheat, groundnuts, cotton and sugarcane and Table 6 pre- sents the same information on a percentage basis. These estimates represent gross acreages, exclusive of settlement and water. They assume that irriga- t4ior wJ11 be availh1 (north of the saline limit). Drainage is not assumed; this would considerably increase the proportion of land within empoldered areas for all the rrops indirnted. The estimates are considered conservative, representing the land best suited to production of the crop (with appropriate inputs). It is probable that a higher nronortion of land within SW6 and 7 might eventually prove suitable for IRRI aman, especially when the IR-442 variety becomes available. On the other hand. confirmation is necessary as to whether yields of improved Mexicanwheat varieties will be satisfactory south o± uVhtI,a. Trials with rahi cotton are also required to indicate whether post-monsoon season humidities and winter temperatures are suitable for high yielding production in this Region
1/ Conditions are possibly marginal for obtaining high yields from £LLpLU-ve 'rtux'cari wheat varieties, except in tUe extreme nortnwest of SW3. Water Projects and Programs 4.39 The gross area of the Southwest Region is 9,304,000 acres. Much of the agricultural land is flooded during monsoon. and the deDth of flooding dictates the cropping pattern used by the farmers. Generally land flooded by more than 3 feet requires the farmers to adopt a croppine pattern which limits potential crop yields, and flooding greater than 6 feet. one which severely limits potential vields. About 21% is normally flooded by more than 3 feet of water but only 6% by more than 6 feet of water. The more deeply flooded lands would benefit most from flood protec- tion.
4.40 The whole of the cultivated area would benefit from irrigation since this would enable a greater intensity of cropping, but little effort has been made in the past to locate irrigation supplies in areas of snnAifically high land canabilitv since evaluation of land capability has only recently been completed by the Soil Survey of Pakistan. 4.41 Thus both floods and droughts are limiting factors on agricul- tural production, but the southern part of this region is also subject to saline tidal flooding which is occasionally particularly damaging when the area is affected by the very high tides and storm surges that occur during cyclonic storms. Water development programs and studies have been orientated towards mitigating these physical factors. Flooding is normally very deep in the northeast of the region in Faridpur District from the high monsoon discharge of the Ganges-Padma River. In the west, in Kushtia and the part of Khulna north of the Sundarbans, 20% to 30% of the land is flooded by more than 3 ft of water but flooding is seldom as much as 6 ft. In the south, the depth of flooding is controlled by the proximity of the sea, and the depth of flooding is not a limiting factor on agricultural production - salinity dueto tidal flooding is more the problem.
4.42 The dense network of waterways makes a considerable amount of water readily available for dry season irrigation throughout much of the interior. As in the rest of the country small scale exploitation of these surface supplies has been accomplished by the provision of low lift pumps to groups of farmers under the Thana Irrigation Program. Considerable potential remains in this region for an increase in the number of LLP's fielded although water transport and inland fishing are particularly important here and these activities can be adversely affected by extractions for dry season irrigation.
4.43 Considerable potential for groundwater exDloitation exists in the northern half of the region but little has been achieved in groundwater development here in the past. Present plans are to sink wells on a non- intensive basis for groups of farmers under the TIP. This plan will provide both irritation facilities and additional information about aquifer con- ditions. aquifer conditions. Usable groundwater in the southern half of the region is practicaily non-existent. Tne major efforts in large scale development projects in the country have been made in this region, namely in the Phase I of the Kushtia unit of the Ganges-Kobadak project, and the Coastal Drabank- ment project, both of which have been under construction for some years. The former has provided gravity irrigation facilities in the northwest of the region and the latter a considerable measure of protection from tidal salt water fiooding in the south of the Region (see below).
4.44 Details of specific water development and control projects and programs are included in volume 2 of this report but a short perspective is included here. The gross area of the Southwest Region is 9,304,000 acres. Much of the agricultural land is flooded during the monsoon season, and the depth of flooding dictates the cropping pattern used by the farmers. Generally land flooded by more than 3 feet requires the farmers to adopt a cropping pattern which limits potential crop yields, and flooding greater than 6 feet, one which severely limits potential yields. About 1,500,000 acres are normally flooded by more than 3 feet of water and of this nearly 800,000 acres are normally flooded by more than 6 feet of water. The more deeply flooded lands would benefit most from flood protection.
4.45 The solution in the long term to the provision of irrigation facilities for these areas which cannot be served by low lift pumps and tubewells is not yet clear. Much of the northern half of the region can nrobablv be served bv tubewells - the actual extent will be more clear as information becomes available from ongoing investigations, but supplies in the south will have to come from diversion of part of the flow of the Ganges or Lower Meghna River. Salinity in much of the Lower Meghna -is-at nresent relatively low during the dry season but a reduction in the low flow discharge due to an increased use of the water upstream which is nartieularly likelv to hapnen in India, could result in a significant increase in dry season salinity due to a resultant northward movement of salt water along the main str em of that river. This wonld have a damaging effect on existing low lift pump facilities as well as maVe the diversion of fti-rther snpplies from this river unproductive. Thus in the long term if the south of this region is to be fully developed, -irigationwater may have to be suiinlied from the Ganges, possibly by constructing a barrage across that river and diverting some of the flow down the G-horaitRrRi Completed Projects
4.46 Small scale irrigation projects completed in the Region include the installation by mid-1970 of 3,421 2 cusec capacity low lift pumps and about 100 tubewells by ADC through the TIP, providing irrigation for about 175,000 acres. Of the LLP's fielded in the country 19% have been fielded in this region although the region contains 27% of the cropped land. Fielding in Kushtia has been particularly limited since gravity irrigation facilities are available here from the Ganges Kobadak project. - -'I5'7 -
Fielding in Barisal and Patuakhali has reportedly been delayed by a certain lack of demand due to difficulties in forming pump groups in snite of a nlentiful supplv of surface water for exploitation. The general location of pumps, in the Region is shown by the following
Sonuthwe st Reaion - LLP Fielded bv mid-1970
Distjrict No. of Pumns Fielded Cultivated Area: Sq. Miles/Pum,
Jessore 413 4.6 Xiusqh t.ia 116 7-3i Khulna 358 4.4 Faridr 824 2.1 Barisal 1,188 1.5 Patuakhali 522 1.c
Irrigation hyrtubewellsI in regionregionthe is preent.ly very limited.
4.47 TwTo lAage scale development projects have been substantially completed in the Region. The Coastal Embankment Project has involved the largest innvesment -n development procts In the cu ntr up +.to+.he present time - nearly $200 million. The project was launched in 1960 wit+h the pnpose of providing protection for coastal farm. lands from saline water intrusion over much of the coastal area in this region and in the Easen Region. y 1 o -- 1, of nt had been constructed providing protection for an estimated 2 million acres in the 4 coa,stal oareeas, o.f. 'nhabout 1.1 M- 11- on acr,es w.as n K1-1lna Tis+t-r ct+ north of the Sundarbans and 450,000 acres in Patuakhali District. TrriJg-ti -A4-hin been Jntroduced- on abou 7,000 .L. .1... VXIJIon fl.I W4L." theVCUL protected9. .V'..,V'4¼1 0.4.areas .4 . bad*'.A-- --- ± .44...¼1.4.. 41 411441 acres in the Region under the TIP by 1970.
4.48 The Ganges KoVadak Project is a large scale development project
.1.±for north14 1414 %J4.-P41 theVJL1' ILVr.LLU1Region-4 conisin0J.J.41L1A.4 Vof ninJL4 O4.4 -- pratJ0J .LU~ phase ofV40444. L.developr.ent. .4L4tJi.± 4 The Phase I of the Kushtia Unit has been under construction since 1959.
The project-±1L~j.JJ1 0~~0 01area .40 04.of 141.LOVsI" w-i.L1.L 14 .isL L .100 4oaeA4.0 .11 t-P,4n14.. 101V.L V4IIV.40 '4.4.oft;ePeion;- 4or-.e-1411A4 A=1.4.LA.11) it is intended to provide gravity irrigation, drainage and flood control over 1L20, 000 acres in PhLase I and 230,000" acres in 'lase II. The t net acreage served would be 220,000 acres. By 1970 Phase I was substantially com-pleted, and supplementary irrigation d-ring the wet season was being provided for about 70,000 acres, although technical difficulties limited dry season irrigationl to abo-ut 10,000 acres. Diffic-ulties with the gravity irrigation system and technical problems with the primary pump stations hlave slowed the rate Of develUopmlent. T1hiL project rhas UaUz:miaU_-ut::a the serious problems associated with direct diversion from the main rivers (Lin -LbL Ucasetha upigti - lthelre lis beUIe a. OUL-LUUb siltatUoLn prbUULemL aU the inlet to pump stations on this project) as well as the difficulties associatUedU WYitUh conventio rav-iVJy irL.L1iation.L1 ±11 DinBIJ.MU. U= to the high fragmentation of land holdings. 4.4 UndeTThe TIP 4ontnue^ncAso Ao Is 4.-47 U1 ± LJ.L j, ~ 4 UIU'J~Ai- . .JIIVJ16.1~,VWJ 4.Lfi eld.1-4.A ~LJV- lifLL U FUJiILjJ in~ theVLLUJ' Region, and is also making a major effort to expand facilities for irrigation by tubewells in the northern half ofL the P.Lgo Wih h LLP program, particular emphasis is being placed on the Barisal area whIere considVerabkle supplis of suarlace wat-er are availabl,-e for explOitaMVion, and EPADC plans to field 10,000 pumps here during the next few years which -W.L__ _lrrigateIv--1 at.,. 'leastu-. i...... r',r acr-es. ApartA,n., fr.., 4P...hs1 - ',pM's$i44- 4s estimated that a further 19,000 pumps can be located in the Region. Thus only a small part of the potential for tne introduction of these pumps has been realized. Much of the area covered would be in the Coastal Mmbankment project area, and would take advantage of the protection provided by the embankments.
4.50 In the northern half of the Region, irrigation groups are also being formed to use water from tubewells which are being sunk by local contractors for ADC. The Fourth Five Year Plan called for 4h,u tiuDe- wells to be sunk in the region before 1975 and althouigh it is doubtful that such an ambitious target will be achieved, tnere will be an increasing number of tubewells in operation in this Ibgion during the next few years.
4.51 Work on the Coastal Embankment Prj ect Phase I is expected to be completed by June 1972, by which time the protected area will be 1.27 million acres in Khulna District and 0.54 million acres in Barisal and Patuakhali District. Work on the Phase I1 Kushtia unit of the Ganges Kobadak Project is expected to continue on three pump stations and distri- bution andflood protection facilities. No further major projects are scheduled to start in this Region in the near future.
Transportation
4.52 The Southwest Region is served internally by arterial water, rail and road transport. Arterial movements in the region are focused on the important seaport at Chalna. Communicatiorsare well developed by water transport to the Central and Eastern Regions, and there is good access to the Northwest Region by rail via the Hardinge Bridge across the Ganges River. Local transportation is predominantly by waterway since a close network of channels and khals throughout the Region makes movement by land extremely difficult and expensive except in the northwest of the Region where road transport is more important. Traffic to and from the Region is to a large extent characterized by the movements through the Chalna Achorage, which handled 40% of the country's import and export traffic in 1969/70. Important commodities handleda.at the port are jute, foodgrains and coal. About 70% of jute exports and 35% of foodgrain imports pass through the port. Traffic generated within the Region consists mainly of agricultural commodities, particularly rice. Jute is important in Faridpur District and mangoes and sugarcane in Kushtia. The general implications for the transportation sector of the present produc- tion and requirements of foodgrain are indicated by the following table showing the estimated percentage of foodgrain requirements produced in each district. District Production oI Foodgrain as % of requirements (i965-1970 average)
Jessore iO0 Khulna 97 Barisal 96 Kushtia 86 Faridpur 59
4.153 Tnus the soutn of the Region is generally in surplus while the north is in deficit and there is a general northward movement of product to balance this. The south, particularly the markets in the Patuakhaii and Pirojpur subdivision, supply nearly 60C of the requirements for metropolitan Dacca and important quantities to the industrial population in the south of the Central Region. There is also a northward flow to the deficit areas in the Region. Imported foodgrain is distributed throughout the Region by the Food Department, with the largest quantity being distributed in Khulna. Since there are no fertilizer factories in the Region all fertilizer requirements must be imported. In the long term the Region will be supplied from factories located in the country but until this is possible these commodities will be imported through Chalna for distribution by rail and waterway.
Rail
4.54 Rail transport is limited by the difficulties of building rail- roads in the Region where the landscapes are relatively low and subject to flooding. The dense network of waterways are continuous barriers to railroad construction necessitating the construction of large numbers of bridges and culverts. As a result the rail ooverage in the Region is the lowest in the country there being an average of one mile of railway for each 51 square miles - less than half that of the Northwest Region and considerably less than in the other Regions. There are 290 route miles in the Region, consisting exclusively of BG track so that problems associated with dual gauge operation experienced elsewhere do not occur. In the northwest of the Region a high capacity double track line runs from Darsana on the Kushtia-West Bengal border, to Kushtia and the Hardinge Bridge at Paksay. This line is part of the old Calcutta-Assam line and traffic has been used considerably more in the past than at present. The line extension fran Darsana south to Khulna is of major importance since it is the link between the important port at Khulna (and hence the seaport at Chalna) and the national rail system. There are plans to extend the line further southwards to Mongla to give the rail system direct access to that port. In the north, Goalando, Faridpur and two landing stages on the Ghorai River are connected to the system. The railway track is generally well ballasted and in good condition. Traffic is orientated towards movements to and from the seaport in the south, particularly jute exports from the Northwest - 600-S -
gJLU ar, the ttRguion ±LUiUse, win iufoograLin (-wheat) ana TueiL imports. Traffic has been more dense in the past than at present and there is ounslderable cupacty a-vailable for exxpansion in traffic volume.
Highways
4.55 he Region has about 4uu mies of ail weatner paved roads and in addition about 100 miles of paved roads were under construction in 1970. The length of paved road per square mile is less than anywhere else in the country and even on the completion of ongoing projects throughout the country the coverage in the Region will be about 307o less than elsewnere. (Table 9) Tfhe roadi system is more developed in
4.u -P A6U - _ ' u_n _ _: _ _ __ A X _ __n _ _ I __ - _- - _, _ . I . . I. I I tLhe west of th eti RegLVIo, particUlarly In tne northwest wnere tne lana -ishigher and deep flooding is less of a problem.
4.56 From Khulna, a trunk road runs via Jessore to Kushtia, and road access to the Northwest Region is provided by a ferry across the Ganges near Hardinge Bridge. Access by major roads in the southern and eastern halves of the Region is limited to a trunk road running between Faridpur and Barisal. In the north of the Region an east-west road is linked to a ferry crossing at Goalando which provides road access to Aricha in the Central Region. The cyclone prone areas in the south are accessible by road to a very limited extent except on Bhola Island where there is good dry season access by road in the interior of the Island. Fiveroad ferries are operated in the interior of the Region - three are on the Faridpur-Barisal road, one across the Atrai on the Faridpur-Chadanga road and one in the southwest across the Kobadak River. Eight important water crossing points are under study to determine optimum crossingmethods. A relatively small percentage of the motor vehicles registered in the country are registered in the Region - about 5 - 10% of the country trucking fleet, and most of these vehicles are connected with jute and sugar industries in the northwest of the Region. Development of arterial road transport in the Region is limited by the geography of the Region which is more favorable to water transport. Movement by road is more possible during the dry season than the wet seasonbut the expense of building all weather roads and the year round navigability of many of the channels limits the importance of transporta- tion by road.
Waterways
4.57 Water transport is the most important mode of transport and the Region has the best coverage of navigable water channels in the country for arterial and local movements. The combined Brahmaputra- Ganges Rivers and the Lower Meghna River on the boundaries of the Region are traffic routes of importance, and the centqey of the Region is accessible to deep sea going craft with a draft of 18-19t'feet via the River Pusur. The development of the port of Chalna is a factor of major importance to the pattern of traffic movement in the region. From 1966-67 to 1969-70 traffic through the port increased from 1.6 million tons a year to over 2.3 million tons and much of this increase was due to imports which were
/A sandbar at the mouth of the Pusur limits vessels to a draft of 19 t9 ' in Febrtmrv and 2h17" in Julv. shipped onnwards through the Region by -water t-ansport. rrom Chaina anchorage, (which is, in fact, located at Mongla, 10 miles south of Chalna, butu it is usuallyy referred to as Chalna) there are at present two main routes out of the Region for arterial traffic, to the main PadlMa waterway. Both these routes resuit in a considerable detour by the IWT in that the route mileage by water from Chalna to Dacca (for example) is over 5u greater Than that by road, i.e. 260 miles by water- way and 170 miles by road - it is only 80 miles in a straight line. By r-ail the uistance wo-uld be about 320 miles via the Brahmaputra ferry to the north.
4.58 The main route, which requires a long detour to the north via Bardla Funs via Khulna, Bardia, Kaukhali and Barisal along the Atai, Nabaganga and Madhumati Rivers. An alternative is the more exposed southern route down to the mouth of the Koche River near Char Doani and then up the Kocha to Kaukhali, but this route is not safe during a great part of the year for much of the inland fleet. For the northern route dredging during the dry season of the shoal which developssouth of Bardia in the Madhumati River, is necessary. In the wet season the so-called "Bil Route" provides a short cut for smaller vessels from Bardia to the Padma River. This route avoids the southern diversion to Kaukhali but the intake from the Padma is often closed during the dry season. Apart from the important waterway routes connected with arterial movements, the Region has a considerable mileage of routes of local importance, mainly located in the eastern half of the region. In the 1967 IWTA classification of waterways NEDECO identified nearly 850 arterial route miles of waterway serving the Region throughout the year. The coverage of route miles per square mile is better than the other region.(Table 9)
4.59 Apart from Chalna Anchorage, two other important inland ports are located in the region at Khulna and Barisal. The port at Khulna, on the Bhairah River, extends for about fourteen miles along the river including the Khulna shipyard and the industrial area of Khalispur and Daulabpur. There are numerous IWTA and private facilities, noticeable facilities belonging to the jute industries located there. The port is important as a distribution and forwarding port for cargo passing through Chalna port. At Barisal the port is on the Barisal River and extends for about 3 miles along the right bank. Since the port is not connected to the railway system, it relies mainly on the surrounding waterways for connection with its tributary area.
4.60 Water traffic in the Region is particularly heavy on the Chalna- Khulna route, which must take nearly all the traffic passing through Chalna since the rail system does not yet extend to Chalna. Traffic on the important northern route from Chalna to Barisal is heavy throughout the year. Prior to 1965 there was in addition a considerable amount of Indian cross tvffic passing through the Region via Khulna and Raimargal in the southwest to Calcutta, which in 1959-60 totalled nearly 1 million tons. IWT can be expected to grow rapidly in the hbgion in view of the presentl- governbment- po'li cy 4to develo 4the seaor atCala4nd-i h
present overcapacity of the IWT fleet there is still considerable capacity -ava;'"able for regional eertd-- 4- Iofydeeopmn the a.>L-icu- sector. The construction of a short cut between Mongla and Kumarkhali
whicnA_L%Ujh waIs recoImILenuded by IUW.JJL0J' LII tVI.LL -. 1L7%Jf L9V6.port, Uo Utih WVV1. -woUid reduce the route mileage from Chalna to Dacca by 60 miles from 256 miles to 196 miles and wold be an i-Lpor-tant factor firincreasing the efficiency of IWT operation in the Region particularly in the dry season.
Local Transport
4.61 Local transportation in the south of the Region is predominantly by wc--aer but -landcL L aru -Lb isimore ixnporunub in the north and particularly, the northwest of the region. A dense network of channels covers the region and in the southern tidal areas the channeis are open throughout the year. The 1965 sample survey of village transportation highlights the distinct dif-erences within the Region in iocal transportation.Xia-L" 10U) ±i,e "Western Rice-Pulses Area" of the survey covered Jessore and Kushtia districts within the Region (but also included part of Pabna in tne north- west Region) and the Coastal Belt included the coastal area of the Eastern Region. The survey shows that in the average village in the northwest of the Region there are about six times the number of bullock carts existing in the south - 9.92 per village in the northwest and only 1.50 per village in the south. However, there is an average of 144 boats per village in the south compared with 14 per village in the northwest.
4.62 Local transport in much of the region is less seasonal than elsewhere and there is good year-round access at the local level. The inland fishing industry is well developed and many of the boats serve the dual purpose of local carriers and fishing boats which adds to their utilization. There is more of a seasonal modal shift in the northwest of the Dgion between land and water movement but in general dry season movement is more favorable in the north of the Region and wet season move- ment in the south. Motorized land transport is undeveloped in the rural parts of the region. According to the 1965 survey, the average distance from a village to a metalled road in the'northwest was 7.7 miles; to a steamer/launch ghat 27.0 miles; to a railway station 11.8 miles; to a telephone 7.23 miles. In the south the average distance reported from a village to a metalled road was 21.83 miles; to a steamer/ launch ghat 11.95 miles; to a railway station 40.4 miles; to a telephone 24.27 miles.(Tables 11&12) Telecommunications are particularly underdeveloped in the coastal areas compared with the rest of the country (Table 13). Agricultural produce transported at the local level is predominantly rice in Jessore, Khulna, Barisal and Patuakhali and these areas presently export rice to deficit areas particularly Dacca. Jute and sugarcane are more important commodities in Faridpur, and sugarcane in Kushtia. Improved road communications are needed in the sugarcane areas to facilitate the movement of that commodity to the sugar factories. Improvements in local transportation capacity can be achieved rapidly by mechanization on both land and water, and by improvement of the rural road network in the region. Industrv h.63 Factory industries in the Southwest are concentrated in and around Khulna city. The industrial suburbs of Khulna are in Khalishpur, Daulatour and Gopalpur, stretching north along the road to Jessore. Most of the factories are between this road and the Bhairab River. In this area there are seven lute mills, a 30.000 ton capacity newsprint mill, two cotton textile mills, two match factories, nine pucca jute baling presses, twelve kutcha lute baling nresses. oil mills and several sawmills. Southesqt. of the city is the country's largest shipyard./ There is very little industrial activity outside the Khulna area. In Jessore there are no laree units. In the Kushtia district there are two sugar mills at Darsana and Jagati, and two cotton textile mills and several oil mills at Kushtia. In Faridpur district there are two pucca jute baling presses at Goalendo and one at Oharmugria. At Barisal there is a floatina drr-dock and a shipyard for inland, water vessels. There is also an oil mill (vegetable oil processing plant) in Barisal and in NA1kchiti. Tn Pabtialkhaii di t.'r_t there is a s <1 1 match factory at Khepupara. Small oil and rice mills are found in many towns. This completeA the snarse pintmre nf fa'rn.nrListria in this PM'on.
4.64 Tn oottage iniviAtr1es too; it rdoes not do much better. The south and east of this Region is an active delta and therefore boat- building is important. There were 2,314 boat-bhuilding establishmnents in this Region in 1961, concentrated in Barisal district. Gur (jaggery) making is important in Jessore, Kushtiaj northwest Khiulna and northwes+ Faridpur. Gur is made from sugarcane and Khejur-palm juice. Cotton handloom weaving is i.mportant in parts of Rajbari and Maarinpur sub- divisions of Fairdpur district. Brass and Bell-metal ware is made on a cottage basis in Palong Thana neA MQAdriJi,r.
/ Ships up to 1,000 tons can be hauled on side slipways T. THE EASTERN REGION
A. The Setting
Location
5 .0I 1,e EasterLi Region covers tne Wnole eastern third of the country from the foothills of the Meghalayas in north Sylhet to the border of the i._114-IJx ouIAUJL UCzUtagong. ine Tipura State or India is like a big enclave within this Region. That part of the Haor basin which is in LU1L1ensig1h distriCt is also in this Region. From north to south this Region is 270 miles long, and from east to west it varies from 20 to 100 miles. Lne total area is 17,032 sq miles, which is 31% of the total area of the country.
History 5.02 The oldest archaeological site in this Region dates back only to the ninth century. From various literary and other evidence it is known that this area was settled later than the other parts of the country. At first the Kingdom of Samatata, based presumably at Mainamati near Comilla, held suzerainty of much of this area. Later history shows us that it was fragmented between various petty kingdoms. Muslim influence came in through Arab traders visiting Chittagong and Sandwip and later through mis- sionaries such as Hazrat Shah Jalal of Sylhet and Hazrat Bayazid Bostami of Chittagong. During the reign of the Turco-Afghans in the rest of Bengal from the twelfth to the sixteenth century this area was only under nominal control. Much of Chittagong was within the Kingdom of Arakan and Bengalis rose to important positions in the Arakan Court.
5.03 From mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century the area was in con- stant turmoil as the Arakan and Bengal kings fought over the land. The Portuguese pirates who appeared on the scene at that time usually helped the Arakan kingdom and joint Arakanese-Portuguese raids penetrated as far as Dacca. The tide turned after the defeat of the local Turco-Afghans by the Moghuls, who later reconquered Noakhali and Chittagong. Sylhet existed as a semi-independent Muslim principality till the coming of the British. In many ways this area was, and still is, a frontier area. Boat building was an important industry in Sandwip and for several centuries it supplied ships to the Ottoman navy. The main export from this Region was cotton goods, till jute ousted it in the mid-nineteenth century.
Administration
5.04 The Eastern Region presently forms the Chittagong Administrative Division of Bangladesh. The western part of the Haor Lowlands is in M~ymensingh district of Dacca Division. There are five districts in this Region: Sylhet, Comilla, Noakhali, Chittagong and Hill Tracts. The number of subdivisions in the districts are: Sylhet 4, Comilla 4, Noakhali 2, Chittagong 3 and Hill Tracts 3. There are 100 thanas, distributed as follows: Sylhet 32, Comilla 21, Noakhali 13, Chittagong 22 and Hill Tracts 12. All ipve1opnment departments have officers down to the thana level. The Hill Tracts are under special regulations whereby outsiders are not allowed to settle and thhreby encroach on tribal lands. The svstem of each villaze having a headman is recognized and the government usually works through thpm = - 66 -
B. Human Resources
The People
5.05 Even though 97% of the population is Bengali, there is greater variety here than in any other Region. In the nineteenth century labor was imported from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and even Andhra for the tea gardens. They have evolved a mixed dialect known as "coolie-language," which is recorded in the census as Hindi. In 1961 there were 76,007 per- sons speaking Hindi, 1,339 speaking Marathi and 3,169 speaking Oriya in the tea garden areas of Sylhet. Many of these Hindi speakers are Santals and Oraons, and they speak among themselves in their own language. Sylhet district also has small groups of Manipuri, Khasi, Mikir, Lushai and Tipra. Comilla and Noakhali districts have very few non-Bengalis. In Chittagong district Arakanese and Burmese was spoken by over 6,000 persons in 1961. Most of them were in Cox's Bazar subdivision. Small groups of Tipra live in the hill areas of this district. In the Hill Tracts are 11 different tribal groups; namely Chakma, Tanchanga, Tipra, Jhumia Mogh, Marma, Mru, Mizo, Bom, Pankho, Khami and Chak. Most of the groups are small and all the 11 groups totalled about 360,000 persons in 1961. Each of these tribal groups have various sects. The Chakma and Tanchanga speak their own dia- lects of Bengali. The Jhumia Mogh and Marma speak Arakanese mainly, and sometimes Burmese. The Mizo, Bom and Pankho speak very closely related dialects and the Bom and Pankho are often included in the Mizo group. The Tipra, Mru, Khami and Chak, each have their own distinct dialect. In 1961 there were 34,683 persons who spoke Urdu as their mother tongue. Thirty thousand of them were in Chittagong city. In addition, there were 7,496 persons who spoke Punjabi. Pushto, Guirati or Sindhi.
Demography
5.06 The Eastern Region is the least uniform Region. with considerable differences in the human resources of its various parts. The total population based on the 1961 census was 1h.7 million (which gave it an average population density of 862 persons per square mile.) The 1971 estimated population is 19.5 raising the density figure to more than 1,100 persons per square mile. The probable district-wise distribution, before the mass migrations started in April 1971, is as follows: 1971 estimated District Population (million) Sylhet 5.0 Comilla 6.3 Noakhali 3.h Chittagong 4.3 Hill Tracts A 19. - 67 -
5.07 The Region as a whole is densely popl ated, but there are two areas of relatively sparse population. The annually deeply flooded. Haor basin, which covers part of Mvmensingh and qv1lhet districts, has an average population density of only 450 persons per sq mile (1961). The other big area of sparse poDulation is the Hill Tracts district and. the adiacent hill areas of Chittagong, where the average population density is only about 50-8o persons per sq mile (1961). This, of course. conceals the fant thhnt the cul-tivable l indtnt-he valleys and the hillsides are crowded,and. that there are large areas under bush or forest. in contrast to these nlaces are the distri-cts of CoMiJ.lla a.nd Noakhali with average population densities of 1,700 to 2,000 persons per sq mile in 1961. Parts of Noakhali. districts are as thickler poplated as Munshig-nJ sub- division of Dacca, with densities ranging to 2,1a2 in Ramganj, 2,500 in Begumganj and 2;526 in Chhagalnaiya Thanas. q.08 The cultivated landJ/mian ratio varies ve-re ea+yr w4+hin +he regisn and is lower in S'ylhet than in the Hill Tracts because much of the land in the hills is not cultiivated at presents Population pressur'e --- ^cu'v ed .d is higher in Chittagong district than in any other part of Bangladesh. This forces many persons into Ghittomon ci or ¶intoocc-a+-ions 141ke fiShin, salt=r - and bamboo extraction. Even then rural poverty is very severe in this district. In Noakhali district there is a big cont-rast between. the nJr'-And, with its population density of over 2,000 persons per sq mile, and the islands and newer accreted areas such as Ramgati and H1atia, wdth -op-3.tion dersities of abouv 7 w . The density per square mile of cultivated land in 1961 would be much higher and population increases in the past decade woul d add subst-ant-ially to the density figures presented.. An indication of the district-wise variation in the density of the population is given by the followong table adapted 4.vr,mIe I'll cerXus.
Density Pner 'q J-J." (1961)
Sylhet 779
Noakhali 1,387 Chittagong 1,191 Hill Tracts 82
Labor Force
5.09 The labor requirements of this Region are met from within the Region, except in the Haor area which draws seasonal la'bor fromrladaripur for tli;ing the land, planting and then harvesting the boro crop. Further development of winter crops in t-his area wil undoubted r r r ore seasonaqlor m outside. There is some movement, for permanent settlement, from Noakhali to southern Sylhet and the nort-hern valleys of the HiLl Tracts. T,here is also a steady tickle of people from Chittagong into the Hill Tracts. The tribes of the Hill Tracts are pro…ected by leg4Eslation -eventing setl enr f uoi&a'sde-rs wvi.t at district., but some manage to get in and stay there. There is emigration from this Region, especiallly from Noakhalli a.nd Com.4lla districts to Dacca ard' Khulna cities and from Noakhali district to Jessore, Kushtia, Rajshahi and Dinajpur districts. An estim.ted 60% nof t+he instri. labor - Dacca andu KlheaLra is .Lrom Nuoakhali aStriCt and adjacent areas of Comilla. The only substantial migration overseas from BAnrldesh is from S-lhet disstr4ct. There are abou' 100,000 persons from Sylhet in Great Britain and. small groups in many other countries. Most of this migration is from seven thans int cer .+rl V-lhe4- __ a**p**.-n-- , Taa=t'pr Duwnva yneSa r - - v Wagannat1hpur., B.LLJwanah, Sy.LhJet. Saadura Galapganj,, Beani. Bazar and. Maulvi Bazar. .10in T-nU InAl 1. 1701 - - *.) . -LAL 9.7'. IALJ/ W UV 14@ I/0 J.* V.KU-I Y.kJI.kL&J.aLVJAJI WCXQ LUU1 GJCU"Z1Ut. . Y t:d.LJ4 .7 I fI the proportion had possibly increased because of the growth of Chittagong
G C v| W '.f 1AA>>L JJ±J LOL.LU.L VU.L .J 1 J 1 7ul a CU JLJ.UUL3C&UJ. LUULI Uv%JUUVV in early 1971. The industrial areas of Chittagong had grown quite substan- U±.JL J -J.LLY LILIV I= 17LJ -1 1 UUU UU VU -U- UL1U IA±gLil P±.L-( L.L-W Lai ±-LLUL UI 1IA)IL-LeVL,L t Noakhali area does not have any urban area of city size, most of the rural- urbar, mo-verLien.t being towards Dacca ar,d Chittagong.
Urban Population % Difference Io'wn 1961 1951 1951-61
LAUJh agorig 3793)41 294,046 144 Comilla 54,504 47,526 +15 -- I~~~~~~~~r01 0 ^I. -^ . 40 Brarmianbaria 1444,78I4 3 + Sylhet 37,740 33,124 +14 Cnandpur 34,837 32,048 + 9 Maijdi (Noakhali) 19,874 16,677 +19 Kaptai 11,967 less than 5,0w0 *
Literacy
5.11 The literacy rate for this Region is 19.3%, which is the highest for any Region. Tne Mlteracy rates for Comilla, Noaknali and Chittagong districts are well above the national average. The Haor area has a very low literacy rate, as in the adjacent Mymensingh district, and therefore the literacy rate for Sylhet district is low. The Hill Tracts has a higher literacy rate than Kusahtia or Mymensingh and about equal to that for Rangpur district.
District Percentage Literate (1961)
Sylhet 15.3 Comilla 20.6 Noakhali 20.1 Chittagong 22.2 Hill Tracts 14.7
5.12 A large number of persons learn only to read Quranic Arabic for their prayers. If these persons are counted as literate then the literacy percentage goes up by 5 to 10%. In Chittagong and Sylhet an additional 10% of the population is literate in this sense. There is a new university in Chittagong and the Merchant Marine Academy is also located there. The Engineers Training Academy for WAPDA is at Kaptai. The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development is located at Comilla. - 69 -
C. Pnysical Resources Physiography and Soils
5.13 The land relief in the Eastern Region is irregular but character- ized_by a downward slope in a westerly direction. Hills rise to 200 ft above sea le-vel in bte southern part of Syihet and up to 3,000 ft in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, whereas the western boundary, on the Meghna flood- plain is generally below 10 ft. and the soutnwest boundary, in the southern part of Noakhali, below 5 ft. Land slopes are irregular ranging from very steep (45°) in parts oI the Chittagong Hill Tracts to almost level land in the southwest. The long eastern boundary of the Region is bordered by hills, and in the south the Chittagong Hill Tracts occupy much of the area. The northeastern hills are generally less than 200 ft high, are steeply dis- sected and have mainly sharp or rounded summits. The rock is mainly sand. In the Hill Tracts, the ranges are generally aligned in a north-south direction, and reach as high as 3,000 ft on the border with Burma. The rocks are mainly shales and silt stones, and the steep slopes are subject to landslip erosion.
5.14 In the north of the Region, the Northern Piedmont Plain is a gently sloping landscape shared with the Central Region, consisting of mainly loamy sediments subject to shallow or intermittent flooding and clay basins subject to deeper flooding. The area is subject to flash floods.
5.15 The Sylhet Basin adjoins the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain in the Central Region. It comprises a large depressed area occupying the western part of the Surma Kusiyana floodplain. The relief comprises broad basins and ridges with locally irregular relief near the Kusiyara River. Flash floods are liable to occur in the pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons and the whole area is flooded up to 15-30 feet deep in the monsoon season. Basin centers (haors) remain wet throughout the dry season. Surface deposits are mainly heavy clays.
5.16 The south of Noakhali and the offshore islands form the Young Meghna Estuarine Floodplain, almost level alluvial land within the Meghna estuary. Erosions and new depositions are constantly in progress in the area. As a result of river deposition large areas of new land have developed in the south of Noakhali since 1950- a process which has been encouraged by the construction of embankments. The relief is mainly smooth and there are few Khals. The sediments are highly silty, finely stratified and slightly calcareous. Flooding is mainly shallow, fluctuating tidally. and is by rain water or sweet river water. except in the immediate coastal area which is affected by exceptional high Spring tides and on occasion by cyclonic storm surges.
5.17 Below the hills in Chittagong lies the generally narrow strip of land making up the Chittagong Coastal Plain. The plain is cut by the Halda, Karnaphuli and Saneu Rivers, and these rivers' floodplains form part of the area. The area consists of gently sloping mainly loamy alluvial form -70-I7f -
adnoining the hills and extensive, l-vel clay plains adjoini-ng tche1 th" rivers. Most of the area is subject to shallow flooding and to flash floods fror, the hil'lsQ,1 . tf11 i cl,a,I ppro e. Tn the south of +th plain the Chakaria Sundarbans, a mangrove forest, are located at the mouth of the Mm a4hn _ ier.
5.18 East of the Sylhe-+ 'b-n Js +he E-tern Su v..us-; -- Floodplain. This floodplain comprises broad, almost level, ridges merging into broad wards the west. The basins are deeply flooded and are subject to flash 4 floods in tahe pre=r.oansond monsoon sea-- D4ns ARid-gdeo - -e heaw-- silts; basin deposits clays, with peat locally. Some small hill and pied- r,o-.areasIIL.JIU.J O.D nearLJ00J. aid.L.U tovI 4theVIJ 1O nort .J.U± of%J.L SylheIJJ.._1V0U-4 ..LJ.. wih:W.LUZIJ.L&LJ-4ie 4 U10.Lheara O . 5.1,19 otesuh rss fCl,'' n olhl eititara.eocp
2.17 .LV tJlit, 0UL4U1,UL l11VdU V-I- 1jVMI±±4.a d.ULL llVd.kId.L.L± U_L0 U.LV Ut;L, dl'" UUUPL"± U by the various floodplains associated with the Meghna River. The Old Meghna r D £ Ucw-lSlX r 1UUUL±ItL LWtLll UUUU.UVLJ4±d II1UDDU UUV. UU' c.Lv UVL.).u±.iDA11g Wi d It-UJIVU ±LVUJ landscape, with little difference in elevation between the broad ridges and basins. Flooding is sha' o-w in the easb, becoming deep towards tne wesb, and is tidally influenced in the extreme south. The sediments are predomi- nantly highLly siIty and finely stratified, wiuh clays in some basins. The landscape differs markedly from those of both river and tidal floodplains. It ls smoother anu lacks the abandoned channels of river meanuer floouplains, and it lacks the frequent tidal creeks of a tidal floodplain. There are a few rivers in the unit and most oI the drainage is provided by artifical khals.
5.20 Along the western boundary the Middle Meghna Floodplain occupies a low-lying landscape of broad islands and many broad meandering channels. It represents part of the Old Brahmaputra channel which has been partially buried by Meghna River sediments. The Meghna sediments are mainly silt and clay, but some sandy Old Brahmaputra ridges occur in the north. Flooding is mainly deep. Basins drain slowly and flood early.
Climate
5.21 Tlwhe climate in the Eastern Region varies considerably across the Region due to the varying physiography and large physical extent of the Region. The northeast of Sylhet,for example, experiences very heavy rain- fall, averaging about three times that recorded in the north of Comilla--the south is a cyclone prone area but the north is relatively unaffected by cyclonic storms. But in general throughout the Region mean summer temperatures are rather less than the country average, in the lower eighties, and mean winter temperatures in the middle sixties in the north and the upper sixties in the south. Historical minimum temperatures are in the upper forties on the low-lying ground whereas temperatures below freezing often occur in the higher parts of the Hill Tracts during the winter. Mean relative humidity is high throughout the year. The mean low of 65% occurs in March while 90% is the - 71 -
average throughoub mOs b theui yea-.* aver.age daluumL iveJU.Ldapr on.is recoreue to vary from h5-55 inches across the region, being 5-6 inches per month from March to Miay and ailing to 2-3 inches In December a-d January-.
5.22 Very heavy rainfall occursacross the Region. The arnual average varies from 220 inches in the northeast of Sylhet district to under 80 inches in the north of Comiiia district;j120 inches is the annual average in the south of Noakhali district and 150 inches in the southern point of Chittagong district. April and October raixu ails are noticeably higher in tnis region than the others. The southern part of the Region is more prone to cyclone storms than an-y other par of tihe 0ountry. Between 1960O anda i97u the Region was seriously affected by ten of the 13 severe cyclones occuring du-r-ing tat perio'. TI low-lying land in tne coastal area is in continuous danger of flooding by the storm surges associated with the cyclonic storms.
5.23 Insolation in Sylhet and Chittagong is noticeably less during the summer than in the rest of the country averaging four hours per day in June compared 5• to 6 hours elsewnere. Average wind speeds recorded are rela- tively high even apart from the cyclonic storms. The Region is well covered with rainfall measuring statiols except in the north of Sylhet district where there is limited coverage. Comprehensive meteorological stations at Sylhet, Srimangal, Bramanbaria, Comilla, Noakhali, Rangamati, Kaptai, Palenga, Chittagong and Cox's Bazar. - 72 -
D. Present Land Use and Development Potential
Present Land Use
5.24 The Eastern Region presently includes 19% of the cultivated area of the country and 23% of the cropped area, and has 29% of the population. Present agricultural practices are primarily influenced by the time of occurrence, depth and duration of flooding during the wet season and the amount of soil moisture available during the dry season, although soil salinity is an important consideration in the coastal areas which are subject to salt water flooding during the dry season. The high density of population in the central part of this Region has contributed to the highest cropping intensities in the country occurring here. In Comilla District the average is about 200%.
5.25 Most of the different kinds of agricultural commodities are pro- duced in the Region, and apart from rice, vegetables are of considerable importance. This is the least important region for jute, and little is grown here, except in Comilla District where nearly 11% of the national production is grown, compared with a total Regional contribution of 14%. Most of the tea produced in the country comes from Sylhet District in the north of the Region.
Eastern Region
% of National Production of Agricultural Commodities
Commodity % Commodity %
Rice 28 Banana 20 Wheat 4 Rape & Mustard 11 Jute 14 Onion 10 Mango 11 Sweet Potato 32 Sugarcane 5 Watermelon 24 Potato 20 Tea 99
Cropped Area 23%
5.26 The region is characterized by wide contrasts in land use, ranging from dry season grazingonlJ. in extensive areas of the Sylhet Basin, and jhum (shifting) cultivation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, to multiple cropping of rice and rabi crops throughout much of the densely populated Comilla and Noakhali districts. The most intensive land use is found on the old Meghna flood plain. In the higher east, aus followed by transplanted aman is the main practice. In more deeply flooded areas to the west, aus and deepwater aman are sown intermixed. In both areas, jute or millet (kaun) replace an important proportion of the aus, and rabi crops are widely grown. IRRI boro has become an important crop following the installation of large numbers of tubewells near Comilla and low-lift pumps along the middle Meghna. Young flood plain land in the Meghna estuary is mainly used for transplanted aman; aus is grown in addition in - 73 - years when dry season soil salinity is not too high. Piedmont land and the hi ghest parts of the Surma=lYushlyara flooA plair. are m.a4nly used for 1.115 LU.LLLC L. LO. JL~ LLU LJ.. aaA_ L..y. .L'JJ jJL.* CA ILlJ.C.L-Y .5_IO& aus and transplanted aman with little jute or rabi crops; flash floods frequen.tly cause crop Ada..Lage.
5.27I More dLeeply floodedU pJar.ts oJf t.LLC SU.1LL1LaA.L0L&.L.y CLflC o p.JIJAJ.Lain produce deepwater aman, which frequently suffers flood damage. Basin cen- ters here,as ir.& thle A-3 L,.1lhet bai'eLxesveyue LL LSLS CWSL.L.weill as L.±11LII a J1±1ining .Y.LL0u Uas.LL ar= Me.-RuenSINL-CVly u~sCe for boro where irrigation can be provided, but large areas remain under grasslanu usedU fLor dUry seaso, ca.ttLe graziLg. Lea 'Ls w'dUeLy growLn on low hills in parts of Sylhet, and to a much lesser extent in Chittagong. Most hill land is -under tall grassland, bamboo rUscr-ub, wihL orest mainly confined to reserves. Shifting cultivation is widely practised in the LhLttagorLg H1±ll Tracts. At anLy one tlue, UboUL ±U-2V/. 01 theLofl lU is UnUer cultivation, producing a mixture of crops such as aus rice, maize, sesamum anu short staple cotton. After one or two years of cropping, the land reverts to grass or shrub regrowth for a few years -- now generally too few for auequate feriliLy to De restorea -- uncil ir is again clearea, Durnea and hand cultivated. Associated valley land is used for transplanted aman, partly for aus in addition.
5.28 jute and cnillies are major cash crops on the old Meghna flood- plain, and intensive vegetable production is practised around the Lalmai Hills (near Comilla) and near Chittagong. Ginger, turmeric and pineapples are widely produced in hill areas, and cashew, rubber and other tree crops have been introduced on an increasing, though still small scale, in recent years. Tea is the major cash crop in Sylhet hill areas. Average farm sizes vary considerably across the Eastern region, but in the center, in Comilla and Noakhali districts, the farms are smaller on the average tfian any- where else in the country. Farms in Sylhet District average 4.0 acres, whereas those in Noakhali and Comilla average 2.0 acres and 1.8 acres respectively, compared with a national average of 3.5 acres. Most of the land is owner-farmed but apart from in the Hill Tracts, 20%-30% of the farmers have a part of their land sharecropped, although the percentage area of the land that is sharecropped is noticeably less in this region than elsewhere. Compared with a national average of 16%, only 3% of the land is sharecropped in Comilla, 9% in Sylhet and Chittagong, and 13% in Noakhali.
5.29 Most of the farms are divided into separate fragments but perhaps reflecting the relatively small farm size the degree of fragmentation is less than the country average. Whereas 29% of the farms in the country are reported to be in 10 or more fragments, for example, the percentage in Comilla is only 20%, in Noakhali and Chittagong 22% and Sylhet 28%.
5.30 The present intensity of land use in different parts of the Region is indicated by the present cropping intensities in the Region. Cropping intensities here are the highest in the country and reflect the high population densities on the land, particularly in Comilla and Chittagong districts. Agricultual development in the - 74 -
Region is inevitably strongly linked to the foodgrain demand in the Region and in the country as a whole. The high deficit in the southern part of the Central Region, for example, provides a ready and accessible market for the produce of this Region. Estimates of district-wise production of foodgrains as a percentage of demand together with present cropping intensities are presented below. Assumed demand was 16 oz of foodgrain per day. Much of the area is considerably in deficit in spite of very high cropping intensities.
District Percent Cropping Intensity Production of Demand Pe-cent -for Foodgrain
Sylhet 100 152 Comilla 69 202 Noakhali 67 178 Chittagong 63 1/ 194 Hill Tracts 2/ 2/ Development Potential
5.31 The highest potential for development in jhe East Region exists on the old Meghna floodplain (LDU's E4 and 5)3 . Not only are there approximately 0.35 M acres of land in the east of this area well suited for IRRI aman production without irrigation, but this floodplain -- more particularly south of the Titas river -- also provides what is probably the easiest single area -- c 1 M acres -- in the ¢nrint±v to empolder and drain (by pumps in the north, by tidal sluices in the south). Alternatively, in advance of full nolder develonment. irrigation might be provided to this area by double-stage pumping from rivers connected with the middle Meghna river into the network of khalq whinh interlare the area. The middle Meahna river has stable banks and is tidal, so provides an assured water supply. This fo-rm of irrigation deuelopment woiild permit TRRT horo/transnlanted aus to be grown on up to 1.2 M acres. The Chandpur Project under construction, and the lnrnilla-NI'nkhali Wnter Transfer Pronert iinfder rPnn-.ars-ance stuy are designed to exploit the high development potential of this area.
5.32 Most other land in the Region is handicapped for develop- ment 1byrnaitiral haainrdsc nf vnaruingy degareec nof sev,erift-. Althioiuh TRRT naus and aman varieties could be substituted for existing local varieties, long7 teairm y4ieldA ex.pcntatrins wouTld be lowyer than el eauriare btcniau of poriindic - .. …....'~~~~~~~~~------…I----
1/ Tn-ar nF rnl---w, a,arota1a t nt- n ,-,n"cidai-n I 4r "V manM=- 41, fnd-irniAcTN 1/l La_e ir.formatlon suggests that a considerable ipoeeti odri production has been achieved in Chittagong in the recent past through
9 A - - - A 1 nF M111
_/ TY)TT st-As for Lar.dA neeln-man"t TT.4- Paoee hnicl Repnort No. 2. For location see Map. damage from flash floods, high intensity rainfall and, near the coast, cyclones. Complete protection againrst these hazards would be difficult to provide. Nonetheless, despite theee hazards, conversion to IRRI trans- planteu aman wil±l almost certainly b e practical on an estimateLd 1.65 Ml acres of land, mainly in LDU's El, 2, 7, 8 and 10. Conversion to broadcast IRRI aus might also De practicaL on most or tnhs lana, although Lne nazara or flash flood damage is generally greater with this crop than with aman.
5.33 The Sylhet basin (E3) and adjoining parts of the Surma-Kushiyara floodplain (E2) suffer deep, rapid and early flooding wnich make hazardous or prevent both deepwater aman and boro cultivation. Effective flood protec- tion by polder development is presently considered impractical in this low- lying, high rainfall area which, in addition, receives uncontrolled flood- water from adjacent hill areas which are mainly outside Bangladesh. areas of this land could be protected against early flooding by the erection of diversion bunds -- already in existence in some areas -- but shortage ot surface water and uncertainty of groundwater supplies for exploitation by tubewells presently provide the major constraint limiting extension of boro cultivation to the gross area of 1.7 M acres of land considered suitable for the crop. Conversion of existing deepwater aman land to IRRI varieties -- when they become available -- may be less attractive to farmers in this area than it might be in E4, 5 and 6 because investment in the associated inputs required -- fertilizer, plant protection -- would be less secure in view of the greater hazard of flood damage.
5.34 Intensification of crop production in the hill areas is limited by the prevalent steep slopes, excessive rainfall and lack of-suitable material for making retaining walls if terraces. were to be built. Tree crops need to be encouraged in place of jhum cultivation, but accessibility and marketing of produce provide major problems. The possibility of produc- ing tea and coffee by small-scale producers on the East African pattern deserves to be examined. There are, in the aggregate, considerable areas of deep soils on low, not too steep, hills in the Hill Tracts where these crops might possibly be grown by such techniques. Provision of irrigation to establish tea and coffee plantations would be an advantage.
5.35 Table 7 indicates the acreage of land in each LDU suitable for IRRI aman and boro, wheat, groundnuts, cotton and sugarcane, and Table 8 presents'the same information on a percentage basis. These estimates represent gross acreages, exclusive of settlement and water, assuming that irrigation is available.l/ Drainage is not assumed, but where it could be provided, it wouid consiaerably increase the proportion of land suitable within the empoldered areas for all the crops indicated.
1/ Later information suggests that yields of improved wheat varieties might not be satisfactory south of about latitude 240 N: i.e. in LDU's 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10. This must still be checked by agronomic investigations. - 76 -
E. Development Implications
Water Projects and Programs
5.36 The extensive Eastern Region has such varying physiography, eleva- tiLoL danU cli ateL tL[It .li-itaiLunS to agricuLural producLion uue to nangeabe physical factors are very different across the region. Generally, floods, drought and saline tida; riooaing are aii iimiting factors in some part or the region. The deepest flooding in the country occurs in the Sylhet Basin in tne nortn of tne region. nere tne riooding is so deep tnat not even float- ing varieties of rice can be grown during the monsoon season in some areas, although sufficient moisture remains in the soil during the dry season here for a boro crop to be grown without supplementary irrigation. The center of the region in Comilla and Noakhali is subject to serious flooding (over 6 ft deep) over 20% to 30% of its area. Production in the coastal areas of Noak- hali and Chittagong is affected by saline tidal tlooding trom the sea.
5.37 A considerable amount of surface water is available for use for dry season irrigation, particularly in the north of the Region, and the area deeply flooded during the wet season in the central part. As in the other regions, small scale development of these surface supplies has been accom- plished by the provision of "'low-lift pumps": to groups of farmers under the Thana Irrigation Program. Exploitable groundwater appears to be available to only a very limited extent, except in Comilla District and in certain parts of Chittagong where a number of wells have been sunk successfully. Pros- pects in the north of the Region appear particularly limited. An ongoing program of exploration will provide much of the information necessary for a proper appreciation of the potential for development for groundwater.
5.38 Large scale pumping of water from the tributaries of the Meghna to provide dry season irrigation requirements has particular application in this region, particularly in the central part, since most of the land is close to the main rivers and hence accessible to the pumping of the dry season backwater from more stable tributaries. Some degree of flood protec- tion has already been achieved in the ongoing Chandpur Project area in the center of the region, but deep flooding is still a seriously limiting factor through much of the Region, and complete development of the agricultural potent- ial is dependent upon the provision of defense against flooding. Local flood protection and drainage has been achieved throughout the Region by numerous embankments and channels constructed under the Rural Works Program.
5.39 It is difficult to provide economic protection from the very deep flooding from the Meghna in the north of the Region. One limited solution proposed is the construction of embankments which would be expected to be overtopped annually, but would provide sufficient protection for the com- pletion of the boro and aus crop, but the economic and technical aspects of these "submersible embankments" still need a great deal of study. Protection throughout much of the center of the region can be provided by polders. Protection from saline tidal flooding is being provided by the construction of coastal embankments throughout the area affected in this way, and a con- siderable measure of protection has already been achieved. Judicious dyke building in the southern part of Noakhali has also reclaimed about 200 sq mi of land by encouraging silt deposition -- a most important development in - 77 -
view of the intense demand for agricultural land. Further possibilities of land reclamation in this way need to be studied.
5.40 Irrigation facilities for the intensive develoDment of this region north of Chittagong can be provided by pumping or diversion from the stable trbhutaries of the Meghna River. The salinitv in the Lower Meghna is pre- sently relatively low but future development both inside and outside the comn+.try will reqiilt in a rtdiii-ion nf the low flow discharee and this could result in an increase in salinity during the dry season. This could affect exIsting pronerts (Ghandpur for exnmple) and nronosed nroiects (romilla. Noakhali). There is a need for further investigation of this problem.
flomnlet-ed Proiec
5.41A'm1.all canle irriat-ion nrroIernt-t in ihe reacioin i-nrlltrle t-he instal- lation by mid 1970 of 6,139 two-cusec capacity low-lift pumps and about 250 tubewells providi.g irrigation. for bout 320,000 acres. Of i-the t-nl number of LLP's fielded in the country, 34% have been fielded in the reiorn althoh this containrs only 23aVnof nhecropped -arena of the com.t+rr This reflects the ready availability of surface water as well as the posi- tive effect of e f -o4 1 a Academy,9wflch is located in the regon .inf encouraging the adoption of new agricultural techniques. The general loca-
Ltion of thLe -FuA=FS .LLLthe reagion is shown b=eloWW. A considA erable rl.er of pumps have also been fielded in the part of the Sylhet Basin that is in vly-u ensi'ngh. Most ofL the -ubewel's locatedAin .hue regilon have b-een constructedA £J.yUL~L1O.LJ.L,LL.VILPO L L.LLLL A ULA W.L..LO .LL L..a U .LL L.LIS 1 ~.~ L taLV u .JL 6~ILU L. % in Comilla District.
Eastern Region - LLP Fielded in mid 1970
No. of Pumps Cultivated Area: Di's triLct Fie.lded Sq miles/p-ump
-y.LLhet 1,900 1L.1L0 Comilla 1,832 0.81 x_ 1_s_ _1 s ItnnIi na LAUdaIa±.Ld | JU. OU Chittagong 1,715 0.48 Chittagong Hill Tracts 372 0.68
5.42 The Karnafuli Multipurpose Project located on the Karnafuli River in tne Cnittagong Hill Tracts was compieted in i962. inis is essentially a hydro-electric development although there were subsidiary benefits in flood control; navigation and fishing. The extensive impounded reservoir has made a large part of the interior of the Hill Tracts accessible to water transport. This project was not directly connected with agricultural development, on tne contrary a considerable amount of agricultural land was inundated by the re- servoir and hence rendered unusable.
5.43 The Coastal Embankment Project Phase I has been under construction in the region since 1960. The project area covers the coastal areas in the country. Of an estimated 2.3 million acres to be provided with protection -78 -
from saline tidal flooding, 540,000 acres are located in Noakhali and Chittagong Districts, and much of this area had been protected by 1971. Irrigation within the protected areas had been introduced to a very limited extent by 1971.
gnLoing Pr j ects
Iff ) . } . TT..__1 mT_ _ .. _._ _. . t u4 Vn'Uer ljr,-Luiu ADX, cuiibinues ileLaeo low-llrt pumps in the Region, and is also making an effort to expand facilities for irrigation by tubewells. an estimla,ed '14,000 extra LLP's can be fielded in tne region without major engineering works. The main emphasis on tubewell construction is expected to be in Comilla District where it was proposed to sink 1,600 wells during thc period of the Fourth Five Year Plan. In total it is hoped to complete 2,600 ,ubewells across uhe region by 1>75.
5.45 The Chandpur Project area is located west of the town of Comilla. The project has been under construction since 1963 but various planning pro- blems have delayed major construction efforts until quite recently. It is a multipurpose project covering an area of 127,000 acres. Sixty miles of peripheral embankments provide flood protection and one pump station and an outlet regulator provides for irrigation and drainage. Low-lift pumps are used for on-farm irrigation. Before the civil war, the project was scheduled to be completed by early 1973.
The Future
5.46 Five projects for intensive development are at present being studied in detail. These projects would be implemented by WAPDA. Important issues with these proiects, which are all multipurpose irrigation and flood control projects, are the phasing of the sequence of construction of the irrigation and flood protection elements, and location of project and sub- project boundaries in relation to the specific land capability.
5.47 The Karnafuli Project I consists of the first development phase of the Karnafuli Prolect. The nroiect area of 131.000 acres is located north of the Karnafuli River in Chittagong District, and the first phase consists of the intensive develonment of about 40;000 acres in two senarated units, the Halda Unit (35,000 acres) and the Ichamati Unit (5,000 acres). Both these units would be nrovideid with flood nroteetion and irrigation.
5.48 The Muthuiri proiprt- is locatpd in the north of rhittagong District. due east of the town of Maijdi. Initial development is proposed in a 41,400- acre nro.,rt area -- muihuri T T. uevlopnmnt is nronosed to be in two nhases: Phase I would be the provision of irrigation facilities, and Phase II flood protection by the ornatrueti-on of eirmbankments The conmnpete develonment of _-- …- _… ------_ this area will ultimately require the transfer of water from the Meghna River to supply the requirenmnts of irriontinn. This transfer would he via the Dakatia River and a link canal, and it would also be of importance for the provision of irrigation facilitie-s to muih of the agri e-ultural land in Comilla and Noakhali districts. The initial development proposed would not depend on this water transfer but on a large reouaitnor aross the Feni River; and gravi- ty distribution through natural channels. Low-lift pumps would be used for on-farm irrigation - 79 -
5.49 The Dakatia Sub-prolect is part ot the larger Comilla/Noakhali project area which occupies much of Comilla and Noakhali districts. The sub-project area is 79,000 acres, and it is proposed that irrigation faci- lities be provided by constructing a regulator across the Dakatia River, and one primary pump station, for distribution through natural channels for on- farm irrigation by low-lift pumps. The development of the main project area would ultimately depend on the construction of the Meghna water transfer scheme described above, but this would not be necessary for the sub-project. Flood protection of this area is proposed at a later phase of development.
5.50 The Upper Kushiyara Project is located in the northeastern corner of Sylhet District, east of Sylhet town. It is an irrigation and flood pro- tection project covering 80,000 acres, with embankments providing flood pro- tection and pump stations providing for irrigation and drainage. Low-lift pumps would be used for on-farm irrigation.
5.51 The Khowai Project is located around the Khowai River in the southern part of Sylhet. The total project area is 80,000 acres, of which 40,200 acres comprising the southern half present fewer technical problems for development. Protective embankments along the rivers affecting the area are proposed, and a barrage across the river would divert part of the flow to satisfy the demands of irrigation for the southern half of this project.
Transportation
5.52 The extensive Eastern Region is served internally by rail, road and water transport. The port of Chittagong in the south of the Pegion, is the major origin or termination point for traffic in the country. Traf- fic and arterial movements in the fiegion and indeed the whole country are dominated by traffic movements between this port and Dacca by the three principal modes of transport. Local transportation in the interior is by both land and water, with water transport becoming more important during the wet sea- son particularly in the Sylhet Basin which is one of the more important areas in the country for local water transport. Motorized land transport is more developed at the local level in this region than elsewhere.
5.53 Apart from traffic passing in transit through the region from and to Chittagong. important traffic regionally generated includes large quantities of stone from the quarries in Chhatak. in Northern Sylhet; fertilizer from the urea factory at Fenchugani in Sylhet; iute from Comilla District, and the output from the steel and TSP plants and other industries in Chittagong. The Region is a net importer of fooderain althoueh rice produced within the Region is exported to other regions particularly the Dacca area of the Central region. The eeneral imnlications for the trans- portation sector of the pattern of foodgrain production and requirements is indicated by the following table showing the estimated nercentage of food- grain requirements produced in each district. - 80 -
Production of Foodgrain as % of requirements District (1965-70 average)
Sylhet 100% Comilla 69% Noakhali 67% Chittagong 63% Hill Tracts 900%
5.54 Thus the north of the region is generally in surplus while the south is in deficit. Rice is exported from Sylhet to the northern areas of Dacca district and Chittagong via the normal marketing channels. Although Comilla is a severe deficit area, 5-6% of foodgrain requirements for metro- politan Dacca are supplied from that district. Imported foodgrain is dis- tributed throughout the region by the Food Department. The Eastern region is close to the sources of supply of fertilizer. Urea is distributed by rail from Fenchuganj and by water from Ghorasal in the Central region. TSP and HP is distributed by rail and water from Chittagong.
Rail
5.55 The Region is well served by rail transport although it compares unfavorablv in miles per sauare mile of track coverage with much of the rest of the country (Table 9). The topography in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the south is not suitable for railway construction and this large relatively unpopulated area distorts the picture presented by the statistics. There are h20 route miles in the Region consisting exclusively of MG track so that problems associated with dual guage operation experienced elsewhere do not occur. The most important rail route in the countrv connects Chittagong with Akhaura. Much of the traffic passing through Chittagong port is moved along this line from and to the rest of the countrv West of Akhaura the main line is double track to Bairab Bazar where it crosses the Meghna to the Gentral region. And to the north a single traek extends to FAnnhiugani Sylhet and Chhatak Chandpur and Noakhali are connected to the main line by branch lines. and minor branch lines servA the area Past Of Ghittagong and the southern part of Sylhet
5.56 The track is generally poorly ballasted in spite of the fact that the main somrce Of m,innly of hallast to the ciunt is in th-e regaion at. Bholaganj in Sylhet. A ropeway for ballast and building aggregates has rpnentlv been nomnleted nonnncting Rholapani and rChha+k and when thi; i; in full operation it should improve the supply of these materials to the countrv. The important line between Chittagonng and Akhaiura has been under improvement for some years, and the completion of this improvement scheme should improe fthe pnarcitv of this line connsidrably. Rail traffic in the region is particularly susceptible to competition from road transport due to the high traffic densities on the railroads which is a cause of delays. On the main traffic route to Dacca the distance by road from Chittagong is 25% less than by rail, but completion of line capacity- improvem.ent works underway should enable the rail system to satisfy increased traffic demands for some years. - 81 -
Highways
.J* -J5.5711 I ne ei1 reg±UIeg'n Lhast-LL about UU 7120 m.'es_UIL± UJ.ofL all-weatherLAL muainLU~L roadsadiLJus anI nL addition about 80 miles were under construction in 1970. The present length of paved road per square mile Ls considerably better than the avergve for the coun- try (Table 9). The highwav between Chittagong and Dacca is the most important in the coutlry in terms of tratfic; it runs via reni and Comilla and crosses the Meghna by ferries at Daudkandi. Sylhet is particularly well served by surface roads probaDly because tnere is a good source of supply U. Luau sUL- facing material in that district at Bholaganj. The district headquarters in tne Region are connected by aii-weatner roads. Tne roaa running south of Chittagong to Cox's Bazar and Teknaf is important because it is the only arterial route to the southern part of Chittagong District.
5.58 Access by road to the Central region is provided at two points across the Meghna, at Daudkandi and Bhairab Bazar, although the latter crossing is seasonal. Tnere is no road access to the Southwest Region. A considerable percentage of the vehicles registered in the country ope- rate in the Region although most of them are registered in Dacca. About 20% of motor vehicles registered in the country are registered in Chitta- gong and 5-10% in Sylhet. Arterial road transport in the Region has been developing rapidly in recent years and there is evidence that part of this growth has been at the expense of the railways. Most ot the small railway branch lines in the Region are paralleled by all-weather roads and there is an increasing tendency for this short haul traffic to be diverted to trucks. Development is still limited by the lack of road coverage and of motor vehi- cles, but in view of the good road communication within the region to the port of Chittagong road transport may be expected to be of increasing importance.
Waterways
5.59 Transportation by water to the Region is well developed between Chittagong, Chandpur and Dacca for seagoing craft with a draught of up to 12 feet. The Meghna River is an important traffic route and there is year- round access for smaller craft to the northeast of the RAgion via the Surma and Kushiyara Rivers. In the 1967 IWTA classification of waterways, NEDECO identified nearly 460 miles of waterway serving the region. Most of the routes are along the western boiders of the region. An exception is the route between Chittagong and Chandraghona along the Karnafuli River which is important for the paper mill located on the river. Daudkandi in the west of Comilla District is also connected to the arterial waterway system. Traffic in the Kushiyara River was quite heavy prior to 1965 when it was a route for Indian cross traffic but in recent years the traffic has become less dense. The Surma is a particularly important route for country boats carrying build- ing materials from Bholaganj.
5.60 Sixty percent of the country's imports and exports pass through the port of Chittagong and about 15% of the port traffic is forwarded or de- livered by IWT. Petroleum products and. foodgrains are important imported. com- modities handled by IWT and jute is an important export commodity. The capacity of the port is about 4.5 million tons a year. Diversion of traffic to Chalna has resulted in a decline in traffic through this port over the lasr rive years, from over 4,000,000 tons in 1966-67 to 3,551,000 tons in 1969-70. The inland port at Chandpur is situated on the Dakatia River at its confluence - 82 - with the Meghna River. The port extends for two miles on both sides of the river andA thorea a n.lmerous public and private facl1ities. There is considerable capacity for development of IWT in the Region, but most of the important routes are already well ser-ed by rail .-and -aand these coLlLFpet with IWT. The limited draft in the upper reaches of the rivers in the north of the Region makes cout boat mechanIzatIon n 4 'potana factor in this area.
Local Transport
5.61 Local transportation is by both land and water transport. Water transportLA.O..1~.~A.L. .L.is J.ALM4motn jJ'VL-h L. 4I4 thoghu6LL& V.LrLLJ LLUL. L.LLC Y=CI.yea in+L L.LI=the LSyhe ±LI=L. basinUC&d.LJ.LI, the1LLLZ western_Wf - L:L LI coastal areas of Noakhali, and the area around Chittagong, but land trans- po 'Ls .r mre prominent elsewere, particularly inL LtLL hiheLL.LrLL LUJb Ul. the Region. In the wet season water transport is important in much of Noak-
LI~±hali- LUL and '.j0IVILL±±d.LCorll_JI a JJ±LDi-str-ict. L±.LL~ The±LLL .L7VJ196 Z5:UIIIJ±LUssmple bULVC'surve U1.ofvlaeta V±L±L.Ug% L.L. iI~Lb UL.Ltat'on highlights the differences in local transportation methods used within the 1±egiIon (.TabU.Le ILn) te nortL ,eLLI r e very few bullock carts buL a large number of boats; in the Chittagong area boats are relatively unimport- ant but carts and particularly trucks are used. 'MIotorized land transport in the rural areas of Chittagong is better developed than anywhere else in the
LUniU-r wLth an average of one truck operating for every five villages. In the north of the Region, there is an average of only one truck for each twenty-flve villages.
5.62 Average distances between villages and arterial transportation facilities vary considerably across the region but an indication of the difference is given by the statistics compiled in Tables 11 and 12. Com- munications are seen to be particularly limited in the coastal areas of Noakhali. Agricultural produce transported at the local level is pre- dominently rice although jute is also important in Comilla, where over I00 .000 tons is marketed annually. As in the rest of the country - anization is an important factor in the future development of local transport. Industry
5.63 Though there is a certain amount of concentration around Chittagong, industrial activity is more dispersed in this Fegion than in the Central or Southwest Regions. The tea industry is concentrated in southern Sylhet, with a few factories in north Sylhet and northern Chittagong District. Of the 110 tea factories in Bangladesh 98 are in Sylhet and 12 in Chittagong District. Apart from tea, the major industrial units in Sylhet District are an 80,000 ton capacity cement factor at Chhatak and a 90,000 ton capa- city urea fertilizer factory at Fenchuganj based on the important natural gas deposits there. A 20,000 ton capacity paper mill at Chhatak is under con- struction. In Sylhet town there is a small match factory. In Comilla Dis- trict the main industrial units are a jute mill at Hajiganj, a textile mill at Comilla, two pucca jute baling presses at Ashuganj and three presses at Chandpur. In Noakhali District the only major industrial unit is the jute mill at Choumohani, where there are also a few oil mills. In the Hill Tracts District there is one tea factory and two plywood factories near Kaptai and - 83 - close to the Chit tagongbodr a-t rGh%ar.drnaghona are a lanrge paper,vTmil of 30,000 ton capacity and a rayon mill. Further south there is an industrial estate at Harban.g, which is almost an enclave in Chittagong District. At this industrial estate there are a match factory, two textile mills and a cigarette factor.,. In Chittagong District the only factories outside of the Chittagong city and its suburbs are the tea processing factories in the tea estates, an.d a ttile mill close to the in.dustrial area of r .dra-gona.
4 56 The 4ir.ds tA-ria4.1-eas of rhttg.4-r.g 4. ai4city s x A4differer.t sites. These are at Sholashahr in the northeast, at Kalurghat on the Karnafuli Riear i.L the. sout-ast, in. t'he P.at.enga penir,sula betweer. 01-e sea an,d thLLLe aJarn.afulli River, at Kattali, Kumira and Sitakund on the west and northwest, following the road and railway to Dacca. The major industrial area is in atenga, where there are a steel mill, two TSP fertilizer factories and an oil refinery. v;l- - .S:.. S 41,1_X,___- _-li a t Ch ------_-ct- 1-_ - _ L_ _ _ ±LLe O.L J UL. LU.L.LO L '.aL LLLaVULL6 aLv .14L LLLC C%. LULrSlidL aLlU OLLUas dLLrL -a areas. The Kalurghat area also has saw mills, tanneries and a glass factory. The TattaiL--U1Ira areas hLave cotton textile LUills, a ciLgarette actory, pharma- ceutical factories and units for making paints, dyes and industrial chemi- cals. The mHain industrial unit at Sitakund, some 20 miles north from down- town Chittagong, is a motor vehicle assembly plant, mostly dealing in trucks.
BAUrGLAI)ESE[ - SECTOR STIJDY
ESTThIATED ACREAGE SUITABIE FOR SP:ECIF:rED cROP S BY LAND DEVELOPPIENT UNIT
Northwrest Region
Crop ('000 acres)
Land Total Area IRRI IRRI14 Kharif Rabi Rabi Development of Unit Aman Boro/lAus Wheat Groundnuts Groundnuts Cotton Sugarcane Unit (000 acres)
NW 1 212 22 27 120 24 131. L3 NWJ 2 8';8 24j9 469 444 162 487 1,23 , , NT 3 1,5C07 480 8340 762' 515 877 310 I6 NWT4a 480 95. :359 210 75 247' 17 60 NM 4b 2C)1 97 1L41 140, 92 142 -- 77 NW, 5 645 6 :350 275 10 3431 1 7 NY 6 79 28 59 35' 47 59 28 N7 739 2 29 4 6 8 2 MN8a 21.0 -- :162 1. 1 14 -- NWr 81b 34 -- 24 ------NW 9 941 176 659 488 294 471, 2 3222 NW 11 39 .5 307 104. 8 loci 7 19 NW 11 a . 4CL4 -- 10 -- -- 16c0 -- -- NW lIb 234 -- -- 67 27 98 4 45 NTWl12 2C6 112 103 88i 76 88 '78 76 NW 13 1,4518 846 970 9 3 9' 3 9 NW 14 180 32 38 ------_
TOTAL: 8,04.72/ 2,15O 4,547 2',747 1,34 O 3,234. 805 1,46 8
1/ Transplanted aus -- irrigated.
2/ 1ross area of' the Northwest Region is approxir.ately 8.5M acres. This inclutdes water in the main channels of the Ganges and Bra bmaputra/Jamima rivera. 2' HJ HD BANGLADESH - SECTOR SIUDY * STIMATED PROPORTION OF LANTD SUIIABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS
BY LAND DEVELOPAMNT UINIT
Northwest Regrio
Crop (% of total area)
_nd Total A:rea IRRI TRRI Wheat Kharif Rabi Rabi Sugarcane Developmrent of Urit Amari Boro/Aus :/ Groundnuts Groundnuts Cotton
NW; 1 2:L2 10 :13 56 11 62 6 16 .N 2 5,8 2 552 19 7 1 7 YJ 3 1,507 32. 56 50 34 58 21 26 NIW 4a 480 20 75 14 16 51 . 12 IN.W hb 201 4h8 70 70 48 70 - 38 MU. • 61+5 1 .54 3 2 53 (0.2) 1.1 Nw 6 79 35 75 L5 60 75 - 35 WJ 7 39 c 75 10 15 20 - \W,i 8a 210 _ 80 (().6) (0.7) 7 - N;5W8b 34 70 - NW 9 9h1 19 70 53 31 50 26 34 Nli 10 359 1 85 29 2 28 2 5 NW. lla 4104 3 (0.1) - 4O - - NJ 1Lb 234 (0.1) 29 12 1h2 2 19 NW 12 206 55 51 43 38 1h4 38 38 NWS 13 1,L,5 66 .6 .2 .6 .2 .6 NrW 14 1o0 18l 21 - - _ -
TOTAIJ 8,047 2J 27 57 34 17 140 10 18
/ Transplan4ted aus - irriGated. 2/ Gross area of the Northmiest Region is approximately 8.5 M. acres. This includes water in the rmain channels of t;he Ganges and Brahmaputra/Jarntna rivers. BANGLADESE - SECTOR STUUDY
E3STIMTED ACREAGE SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS BY LANID DEVELOPIENT UNIT
Central Region
Crop ('000 acres) Lana Total Area IRRI IIRI ]Miarif Rabi Rabi Development ofl Unit Amaa Boxm/Ausl/ iheat Grxdundiuts Grcundauts Cotton Sugarcane Unit ('000 acres)
C 1 b94 6 26 164 4 173 4 30 C 2 201. 111 L58 39 3 14 3 1.2 C 3a 696 352 535 326 :L18 325 136 212 C 3b 266 92 1]92 118 -- 118 19 71 C 3c 312 209 222 145 67 145 77 96 C 3d 137 50 1L06 50 1 46 33 C 4 132 40 18 110 79 110 79 108 C 5 182 58 48 122 38 123 37 E12 C 6 191 57 ]51 32 14 32 3 1.5 C 7 389 121 306 139 43 139 49 63 C 8a 158 5 111 49 -- 49 -- 2 C 8b 83 -- 60 34 2 35 __ 2 C 9 723; 38 499 338 __ 326 1 1 C.10 142 -- 1]21 7 -- 15 -- - C 11 33 -- 28 1 __ 2 -- - C 12 61 -- 21 21 -- 43 -- C 13 1,018 188 376 379 305 379 319 357 C 14 36 -- -- 9 9 11 9 9
TOTAL: 5>,25J4?/ 1,327 2,5978 2,083 6583 2,,085 736 1,093
1,/ h^ansplanted aus -- irrigated.
2/ Gross area of the Central Region is approximately 5.5M acres. 'rhis includes part of the water in the main Brahmaputra/Jamuna, (anges and Mleghna rivers. BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTTIMATED PROP3RTION OF LAiND SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CRO]S
BY LU.ND DEVEMORMEMIT UNIT
Central Rego
Crop (,9 of total area)
Land Total Area IRRI IRRE 1,1heat Kharif Rabi. Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Aman Boro/Aus / Groundnuts Groundnuts Cotton
_Unit ('300 acres)
C; 1 475 1 6 35 (0.B) 36 (0.8) 6 C; 2 -201 55 79 19 :1 7 1 6 C(3a 696 51 77 47 17 47 19 30 Ct3b 266 35' 72 44 - 44 7 27 C 3c 312 67 71 46 211 46 25 31 C 3d 1 37 36 78 37 (0.7) 34 - 24 C4 :132 31 lh 83 60c 83 60 82 C(5 -2 32 26 67 21 67 20 h5 c 6 :L.2 30 79 17 7 17 2 8 C 7 .39 31. 79 36 U1 36 13 16 Ct8a :158 3' 70 31 (0.2) 31 - C 8b 83 - 72 41 3 h2 - 3 C 9 721 5' 159 47 - 45 (0.1) (0.1) c 10 142 B5 5 - 11 - ,Cli 33 - 86 - 6 - - ,12 61 - - - - C 13 1,0(18 19 37 37 310 37 31 35
C1_ 36 - 25 25 331 2 _ 25
TOTAL 5 J57 25h ho 13 38 lh 21
Vg Transplanted aus - i.rrigatecl. Gross area of the Central Region is approximatelr 5.'5 M. acres. This includes part of' the water in the main Brahmaputra/Jaxanma and Ganges and Meghna rivers - CD BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTLINATED ACRDIGE 'SUITIlBLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS
BY ]LAND DEVIITOP14ENT UNIT
Southvuest Region
('rop ('000 acres)
Land Total Area IRRI IRRI 1 ;eat Kharif Rabi Rabi Sug~- Development of Unilt Aman Boro/Aus V Grouandrnuts Groundnuts Cotton tUnit ff0OOacres)
Sw 1 2'30 6 13 24 - 36, - SW 2 2h2 71 143 97 - 12Lh - - 'SW 3 2,2:31 1,0 h.8 1,584 1,338 870 1,071. 870 870 S'. 4 1, 599 80 991 160 - l48c - - CS 5 562 197 - _ ;W 6 '99 279 753 195 2h2 - _ SW 7 1,456 714 175 _ Sw 8 317 252 136 - - 256- SW 9 2:38 - _ SW iCI 1,u O - -
TOTAL 9,30h-"o 2,1.50 3,992 1,814 870 2,2059 8r70 870
1/ Transplanted aus - irria;atedl. 2/ Gross area of the Southwiest Region is appro3dLmate1y 59.9 M!. acres. This inclcludes water in the G.nges and M.eghna rivers, and in estuarine channels. BANGLAD:ESH - SECTOR STUEY ESTI..TED PROPORTION O'F IAND SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS
BY LAND DEVELOPIENT UNII'
Southwest Region
Crop (% of total area)
Land Total Area IWRRI IhRRI IAkeat Kharif R8bi Rabi Sugarcane Deve:lopment Of Unit Aman Boro/Aus,./ Groundmiuts GroundnuLts Cotton 1Jnit (100) acrs)
SW 1230 2 4 8 12 - - ISW 2 242 29 9o0 •1 - - IS 3 2,231 L6 70 59 38 48 28 38 c'i L1,9 5 6; SW 1 ',99 62 10O_30- - - - sw 6~ '(' 2 3; -- ';.^I 6 9'29 30 8:1 20 26 - - ISW7 1,145-4 49 12 - _ _ _ ;sw8 :317 79 h2 _ 80 - SWH 9 2'33 - *.-____ SW 0CI 1. 450
TOThL 9304 ' 26 13 19 9 23 9
1J Transplantedi aus - irrigated
2/ Gross Prea of the South-imest Region is approidimately 59.9 N. acres. This includies water inthe Ganges and Meghna rivers, and in estuarine channels.
NOTE:
1. See notes at; end of 'Anmncx 2, Table 1, Page 1. 2. ProjportiLons are rounded. off to the nearest whole percent,, except wheret they are less than one percent, in which case the figure is given in brackets to the nearest 0.1 percent.
0" BMNGLADESH' - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMPST!ED ACRFAGE SUITABLE FOR SPEfCIFIED CROF'S
EIY LAND DEVEDDPMET]NT UNIT
Eas tern RMiLon
Crop (tOOO acres)
Land Total Area, I RRI IRRF: Iheat Kharif Rabi Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Aman Boro/Aus, / G roundnuts Grounidnuts Cotton Unit __'OO0 acres)
E 1 30h 106 82 122 ho 55 0 55 E 2 1,1.81 202 791 t2h 25' 22 45 E 3 1,219 - 91h 61 - 61 - E h 1, L1 168 997 803 61 81.6 61 61 E 5 300 176 212 182 1 155 1 1 E 6 300 - 1.42 103 - 122 - E 7 269 201 h45 140 _ 29 - 13h E 8 871 610 610 566 5566 -- E 9 64 - - - - E 10 810 _/ 376 17 - - _ _ E Ila 5'44 66 68 55 46 49 48 5] E 1lb 3,64h 91 91 - 9:L 591 - 91
TOTAL 10,917 21 1,996 4,o69 2,b.56 239 2,198 :172 038
U/ Transplanted aus - irrigated g Includes llanpura islands of Barisal District S/ Gross area of the Eastern Region is approx.mately 11.35 M. a.cres. T'his includes water iin the Meg-hna river and estuary. BANGLADESH *- SECTOR STUDIY ESTfTED PROPORTIO1,i OF LUND SUITABLE F'OR SPECIFIED CROPS
BY LANI DEVELOPIvOZT UfNIT
RASTERN REGION
Crop (:%of total area)
Land Total Area IRRI. IRRI 1/ WTheat Kharif RabiL Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Amnan Boro,/Aus - Groundnuts GroLndnuts Cotton UJnit ('Oo acres) ?.13 0h1 35' 27 LLO 13 18 13 18 E'2 1,:L81 17 67 36 - 22 2 h ,3 L.L19-7 - 5 - E4hl, 1 l 12' 71 57 4 58 4 4 5300 559 71 60 (0.2) 52 (0.2) (0.3) E,6 ,00 IL74 34 _1 I 7 0 75 .5h 52 - 11 - 50 E? 8 371 70 70 65 65 - - 9 I , - - - i5 10 8510: 46 2 - 30 - - E 1i1L3 1a1 12Z 10 89 9 9 3,16-- - . - _ 2 . _ 3/ TOTAl 1i,917 1 31 19 ~ 2 19 1 3
11 Transplanted aus - :irrig-ated. 21 Includes Manpura is:Lands of Barisal District. 31 Gross area of t'he &asterrn Rcegion is approxingtely 11..35 M. acres. This i:ncludes water in the Meghna river and estuary.
H oD RXiGIONAL COINPARUSON OF TRANSPOEI?ATION COVERAGE: ARTEP.RIAl ROUTiES
Northwest Region Cenitral Region Eastern Region Southwest Region
:miles sq. miles miles sq.miles miles sq.miles miles sq. miles per mile -- Per milen - per mile per mile
Rail
Broad Gaage (HG) 280 1zJ3 . 288 51
Meitre Gauge (NIG) 336 40 320 29 416 LL -_
all + BIG 616 22 320 29 46 41 288 51
Highwayzs
Surfaced Main Roads 416 32 272 35 720 2h1 392 3,8
Under Construction 160 328 - 80 lOC -
Total including U.C. 576 23 400 23 800 2:L 492' 30 1/ Wa t e, mray Is2/
Class I 2* 40 - 171 272 -
Class II 0 l60 _ 1613 . 128 -
Class III 168 288 _ 2 432 -
Total 192 -m 488 _ 456 832 - V/ Note: Classification by IWTA as follows: Class I - Main arteries of traffic flowr; Class II - Important traffic V roLtes., Class II:1 - Routes oif Regional Importance. 2/ Major routes usualy occar oln boumdaries of regions and ars tlms counted more than once. L/ REGI'ONAL COMPARISON OF :[UAL TRANSPORTATION MOD)ES
Namc o(St m. 4O. As in Jlunc 1965 (pcr samplc villagc) X Namne of Stratura. of ______o sample .5 villagcs. Auto- Rick. Htack. al . Buis. Car. rick. 'Truck,. shaw. Cyclc. ncy Cart. Pulkee. BoalL shaZw. carii- age. 1 2 3 14 1S 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
I CoastalBelt . 4CI .. .. 017 0*10 0-43 4-00 .. 1-50 077 144-07
ll Eastern Hilly.Rcgioz . . l 109 .. 0-09 0-18 ,00 1-63 . 1-27 7 -54
I'll North-E astcrnTc3aI.oroArcas IS ...... 0-10 .. 1 05 .. 0O31 .. 16-63
XV CentralRicc-Jute Area3 7 r Cl03 .. 010 OO.2 0*72 3-04 0O16 9*35 0O66 104*54
V Northcln Ricc-Potato-Suzarcac .2 .. .. 0-04 .. 2084 013 52*32 017 7 80 *.Tobaccoarcas.
VI VtcstcrnR.cc-Pubscs, Arcai 14 ...... 0)07 6-35 0-78 9-92 0O82 14-00
0-08 .. 0~C-09 0-065 -0-45 6 0-4 1 -2 79 Avciango…- -I.~~ a'..OS - -- '-- * -- - D.|C ------…… 9|....00 12 0-52 1 … S610-4
V/ Source: East Pakistan Mastesr Survey of' Agriculture. -Report on Fi:rst Round East Pakistan BureauL of Statistics 1965.
2/ Strata considered may be compared with regions delineated here as follows: Nortlhwest Region: predom:inantly Stratum V. Central, Region predom:inantly Stratum IV. Eastern, Region : rorth, Stratum II; Coastal Areas Stratum I; Chittagong and Hi:ll Tracts Stratum 1]. Southwlest Region: Northwest, Stratumn VI; northeast, Stratum V; Coastal Areas Stratum I.
CD MM0IONAL ODNPARISiDN OF LOCAI. TELECO1MNICAM:ON
(Distance in miJLes)
2/ Nearest Telegraph Off'ice Nearest Telephone Office ';tra- Nameg of Stratum Nearefst Post Office Jrom the Vinage from the Village from the ViUa!g tum_ No. By a]_L- By fair- By other Total By all- By fair- By other -Tbta'l By all- By fair- By othLer Total weather weather paths distancle weather weather patths distance weather weather paths distaaeo road road road road road roadl
I Coastal Belt 0.114 0.99 0.36 2.49 o.86 8.08 8..23 17.17 0.96 8.59 L14.l2 24.27
II Eastern Mill2y Region 0.55 0.45 -- 1.00 4.52 1.82 0,95 7.29 7.84 1.73 - 9.57 iII North-Eastern Tea-Boro Areas 0.64 1.05 1.67 3.36 iL.38 1.26 5.13 7.77 | 4.02 1.60 6.65 12.29
IV Central Rice-Jute Areas 0.33 0.99 0.27 1.59 :1..42 3.58 0.79 6.67 4.19 4.26 1.21 9.84 V Northern-Rice-Potato, Sugar- cane-Tobacco Areas 1.17 0.55 o.o6 1.78 41.57 2.30 0o.06 6.93 5.87 2.59 0.06 8.52
VI Western Rlice-Pulses Areas 0.84 0.36 0.25 1.45 7.07 0.52 0.21 7.80 6.50 0.52 0.21 7.23
0.49 o.86 0.39 1.73 2.33 3.80 2,70 9.19 4,.09 4.26 41..31 12.B0
1/ Source: East Pakistan Master Survey of' Agriculture. Report. on First Round East Pakistan Baireau of St,atiatice 1965. 2/ For com,parison with regions used in textzt see note 2 Table 10.
(a iLf Regiomal ComparLson of Village Accessibilitv to Ma1or Transportation E'acilities (Distance in Miles)
Stra- / Nearest Metalled Road from the Nearest Steamer/Launch ghat from NearestlRailway Station from tum Name of Stratum village the village the village No.- …………… By all- By fair fly Total By all- By fair- By Total By all- By fair- By Total weather weather cother distance weather weather other distance weather weather other distance road roa,d j aths road road pa.ths road road paths
I Coastal Belt 1.09 10.18 10.56 21,,83 2.55 6.03 .3.37 11.95 1.94 13.11 25.35i 40.40
II Eastern Hilly Region 8.09 2.00 1.91 12,00 16.50 l.59 0.18 18.27 20.90 2.98 0.91 24.79
III North-Eastern Tea- Boro Areas 4.89 2.B6 10.69 18.44 6.44, 1.31 4.02 11.77 0.65 4.44 5.48 10.57
IV Central Rice-Jute Areas 4.77 2.98 2.11 9,86 6.85 4.95 1.87 13.67 7.44 4.74 2.68 14.86
V Northern Rice-Potato- Sugarcane-Tobacco Areas 4.42 3.74 1.08 9.24 72.60 1.70 0.06 74.36 7.36 2.84 0.081 10.28
VI Western Rice Pulses-Areas 3.44 2.90 1.36 7,70 25.45 0.96 0.59 27.00 10.68 0.71 0.36 11.75
Average 4.04 4.55 4.60 13,19 16.69 '3.87 1.97 22.53 6.59 5.85 7.21 19.65
L/ Source: East Pakistan Mas3ter Survey of Agriculture. Report on First Round East, PakiLstan Elureau of Statistics 1965.
2/ For comparison with regions used in text see note 2 Table 10
'-1
HCD aT% r nrsTrMr^%T ^M 'nTrnTo 'l AT T f'=Tt'VO ('f n I qN Table 13 LJ.L ±IU.D V Iv1 W i Vr L-UJj.jL) J2t±jJJU 'j V ±'JAL 1% vvJIJ
.511 tU11ii 1970
District No. of PCO:s Sq. Mi./ Co
Northwest Region
Dinajpur 20 130 Rajshahi 37 120 Bogra 13 110 Rangpur 31 120 Pabna 17 110 Central Region
Mymensingh 54 93 Tang2il 22 60 Dacca 49 59
Eastern Region
Sylhet 30 160 Co.- d'."Lla 35 .71 Noakhali 39 48 VILL'tuagong 30 Yu Hill Tracts 13 390
Southwest Region
Kushtia 24 57 jessore 36 70 Khulna 31 150 Barisal 37 75 Patuakhali 20 75 Faridpur 40 67
BAGLADESH 578 98
1/ Source: T & T of Pakistan
RESTRICTED
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION
BANGLADESH
LAND AND WATrIU REbOut-CES SECTORtU± SriUD
VOLUME II
THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
LAND CAPABILITY - POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 2
December 1, 1972
Asia Projects Department
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUME II - THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 2
LAND CAPABILITY1/ - POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
Table of Contents
Page No.
I. INTROD'UCTION ...... esessseeeseessosooeeee...... 1
Land Capability Evaluation ...... 1
IIo LAND CAPABILITi i FACTORS ..o...... o.. 2
Land Development Units ...... o... 2 Hydrology ...... o oo...o.o...... 3 Soils ...... 5 Relief * ...... 7
III. PRESENT LAND USE *..o...... ***... . .oooo*********eoo****** *o. 8
IV. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL ...... 12
V. DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY ...... o...... 1 7
ANNEXES
ANNEX 1 - Development Strategy - Areas of Concentration (By LDU s) ANNEX 2 - Details on Agricultural Development Possibilities
ArrL'DICES Table 1 - Bangladesh - Sector Study Summary Estimates of Acreages Suitable for Specified Crops - Notes Table 2 - Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops by Land nAvlnnlnpmn1t Tfnit -- Vant+a7m RPe.4 Table 3 - Bangladesh - Sector Study - Estimated Acreage Suitable for SzpeciYmeA CropJs u- Lard De,elY. snt U. U - 1T--46.. 1WB D -U- Table 4 - Bangladesh - Sector Study Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit -- Central Region
1/ This reporto -was prepared by R. nrM tanu uG Stern, Using matueral provided by H. Brammer, FAO, working under the FAD/IBRD Cooperative Program. Maps were compiled and prepared by W. Drewes from FAO/IBRD materials and other reports. Table of Contents (contd.)
Table 5 - Estimated Acreage Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit -- Southwest Region Table 6 - Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit -- East Region
TaDie 7 - Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit -- Northwest Region Table 8 - Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Croos br Land Development Unit -- Central Reglion
Table 9 - Estimated Proportion of Land Suitable for Specified Crops by Land Development Unit -- Southwest Region
SUMMARY MAPS
Map 1 - Areas Best Suited for Concentrated Extension Effort for IRRI Rice Varieties and Jute
Map 2 - Land Suitability for Broadcast IRRI Aus
Map 3 - Proportion of Land Suitable for Transplanted IRRI Aman
Map 4 - Additional Crop Production Possible from Introduction of Irrigated IRRI Rice
Map 5 - Proportion of Land Suitable for Cultivation of Oilseeds
Map 6 - Flooding Conditions and Drainage Potentials
Map 7 - Land Development Units Table of Contents (cont.)
ANNALYTICAL MAPS
MAP I - BANGLADESH - Political Divisions
MAP II - BANGLADESHI - Population
MAP III - BANGLADESH - Hydrology
MAP IV - BANGLADESH - Transportation
MAP V - BANGLADESH - Land Use Associations
MAP VI - BANGLADESH - Land Development Units
I/ See separate map packet to Report
BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY
VOLUME II - THE RBIIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 2
LAND CAPABILITY - POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
T. TNTROTrTTnTON
1.01 This chapter describes and analyzes the land factors which infuen.ce lan,d use and agricult-ural d nr%enna. -nrposibiiti+J h iJn Bangladesh. It is based.largely on soil and land. capability data provided hynr +thePAO/TTWMID no4oa+ssi ted SoiwWn-tr1 P'r4ec+t Tqhe oinlr-roo v"^vA4d%Q a JP t...~ C fl . ------,J6, ~4. J'I. L- -o j -d -. 6 L -J0j basis for a rational agricultural development strategy to increase 4 2ngandesh~, ,.i +iric 'ntrlproductio as d.elvt,Ani ral r and~ ecr.vlc5s as possible.
1.02 Present land use in Bangladesh 4is very closely adapted to the en.viDronmi,,e. TbAe crops grown arn-lc44 '6t -an ..ethodsA- pr- 4-4acieare ~.LL.LCUJAI1V~UO LL1~L.. Jj.O ~. 'Jl11~4J~J ~ .L VCL.6UU J11A ILCZULJAjSUJ. k.L C6%, UA.~,%; =4 mainly determined.by climate, hydrology and. land levels in relation to
J.L JUJ.Lkr * %JLV'FJA4LG J-LVr&LQ.L%0Iq L. C@.. L -JJ..LC6lJWU UVJ kJU1JU..L.C6U.L~Ji~V1 L h, The notable increase in aus rice and. rabi crop acreages in recent years,
WilLLt ULIjLA5 1.03 Land. and-water resources also determine the potential for .2 - --I ---- -A. . - .! ..L.2~ - - - .Luuure agricultUrd.J U' VVt:peLtUF 1 U i.L. W[her-e 1J7U.,_c Li UI1n UL e LxiLL.LUg crUps can be increased.; where new high yielding crop varieties can be introduced.; whiere draLinage andour i.r1JgationL are needed;. what crops and Urop rOtlabiOnu are suitable for irrigated. and/or drained soils of various kinds, etc. In fact, the major purpOSe of. land capability- evaluation in Bangladesh circumstances is to facilitate identification of suitable areas for agric-ultural intensification. Land Capability Evaluation 1.04 The Soil Survey Project has completed d.etailed reconnaissance surveys over 70% of Bangladesh. However, sufficient information has been obtained, for the remainder of the country (through airphoto inter- pretation and exploratory surveys) to extrapolate the results of the survey to the entire area of Bangladesh. The survey provides information not only on soil conditions but also on present land use and.on physical factors limiting agricultural development, such as surface relief, drain- age, aeptn ana nature or seasonal rlooding, erosion hazard, etc. This information has been interpreted to determine the suitability of individ.- ual soils for production or particular crops, with and without irrigation. In brief, the classification recognizes five classes of land, as follows: I - Very good land, with almost no limitations for agricu.ltal-L. pIoduUCU1 h141uglJoUt the year II - Good land, with slight limitations throughout the year or a m[-ioduerate ',ILitti,LUli UdurJ'ng UILn IruaJUr cropping season of the year III - Moderate land, with -moderateU mitatiols througlout the year or a severe limitation during one major cropping seasornL IV - Poor land, with severe limitations throughout the year V - Very poor or non-agricultural land, considered uWsuitable for arable crop production 1.05 The land classes are subdivided into major subclasses differ- entiating non-flooded land (D) from seasonally i±ooaea lana (w). Tnese major subclasses are further subdivided into ordinary subclasses which indicate the nature of the main factor, if any, which restricts agricul- tural use or crop yields. These subclasses are indicated by small letters, as folvlows: d - droughtiness; e - erosion hazard (on slopes); s - salinity; t - toxicity to plants; w - wetness (in the monsoon season on major sub- classes D lands in the dry season on major suTbclasses W land); x - hazard of river erosion or burial by new alluvium; z - hazard of crop damage or loss by rapid rise or flow of floodwater (including storm surge hazard). The classification considers the land as it is at present and the relative ease or difficulty of overcoming existing limitations, especially by irrigation and drainage. It thus provides a uniform basis for evaluating agricultural and water control development possibilities throughout Bangladesh. II. LAND CArPABIL.TY FACTORS Land Development Units 2.01 The physical data collected by the Soil Survey Project together with the derived land capability classification have been used to differ- entiate natural regions and subregions. Four regions -- Northwest (W), Central (C), East (E) and Southwest (SW) -- have been separated primarily on hydrological considerations: for the greater part, the channels of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, Ganges and Meghna rivers, but the western boundary of the deeply flooded Sylhet basin for the northern part of the boundary between the Central and East regions. The major regions have been further subdivided into a total of 49 Land Development Units (LDU's). Each LDU represents a natural subregion with distinctive physiographic, hydrological and soil characteristics. It is contrasting with its neighbours in these characteristics. Since land use and land capability in Bangladesh are strongly determined by these physical characteristics, each LDU thus provides a distinctive combination of development opportunities and physical con- straints. Th# LDU's are shown on Analytical Map VI and described individually in Appendix 2. The delineation and description of the LDU's -- supplemented with more detailed hydrological, climatic and socio-economic information -- provide a rational physical basis for agricultural development planning at the indicative level. / In addition, a reduction of the Analytical Map VI showine the LDIUs follows the Summary Maps attached to this report. ftydrology 2.02 Hydrological factors assessed under the S-urv-ey determnne whether wetland crops (such as rice and jute) or dryland crops (such as tree crops, sugarcane, kharif vegetables) are grown in tne monsoon season, or even whether kharif crops can be grown at all. In particular, depth of flooding determines the kind of rice tnat can be grown. Broadcast aus (essentially a dryland crop) is grown on highland and floodplain land that is not flooded deeper than a1bout 1-3 feet before harvest in July. Transplanted airan in grown on poorly drained highland (where water is retained within field bunds) and on land not flooded deeper than about 1-3 feet after transplantation in July-August. g Deepwater (broadcast) aman is grown on land flooded deeper than about 3-o feet -- or even less on the Ganges fioodpiain where peak flood levels are too late for season-bound aman to be transplanted -- but it cannot be grown in deep basin centers wnere flood level rises too rapidly. On flood- plain ridges and basin margins normally flooded up to 3-6 feet, aus and deep- water aman are commonly sown intermixed. The aus is harvested in July and the aman continues to grow with the rising floodwater to be harvested after the floodwater recedes in November. More rarely, jute is substituted for aus in this mixed cropping practice. Boro rice has traditionally been grown on land too deeply or rapidly flooded for even deepwater aman to be growns but its production is restricted to areas where water remains naturally throughout the dry season or where irrigation can be provided. Deep basin centers where irrigation is not available, or where flooding occurs too early for boro to be harvested in safety in April-May -- as in parts of the Sylhet basin (LDU's E3, C7, and adjoining parts of 06, El and E2) -- remain under grassland which is used for dry season cattle grazing. 2.03 The depth and nature of flooding also influence jute cultivation. Ideally, jute requires a fine seedbed and so is best suited to soft silty floodplain ridge soils. The plant tolerates flooding, but sustained flooding damages the fiber quality and total submersion kills the plant. Jute should, therefore, be planted on land where it can be harvested before deep flooding commences. The higher quality olitorius jute is mainly grown on ridge soils that are flooded late or only shallowly. Capsularis jute, which is tolerant of deeper flooding, is often grown on such land, too, because it has a shorter growing period, and can thus be followed by transplanted aman (where flooding is not too deep). Despite the above statements, jute is often grown under far from ideal conditions: on clay soils; on land where it may have to be harvested by diving from boats in up to 10 feet of floodwater; or on riverside land subject to rapid flood-flow, riverbank erosion or burial by thick new alluvial layers. Jute grown for seed, which is harvested late in the monsoon season, may be grown on deeply flooded land, but fiber quality is a secondary consideration in this case. lJ Flooding can be deeper where the water level fluctuates tidally so long as in4-dation is not cont4-uous and the crop has not reached flowering stage. Deepwater aman varieties are transplanted in some basin areas, mainly in the V4JVVth VO4--A. so-- Jin soVmeLCreas tr&splnte ar,_CL01JCL1VAaL seed'n1gs u.p to 1- f_eet long are transferred to the fields in September-October as the water receded fropm .toderanon ger la floo c alend 'doulea tranltg plantation on higher land -- so-called 'double transplantingt. - 4 - 2.o4 The d-ation of - Eeasonnnise - 4 ,n,,an+ snc~e tbis determines the kinds of dry season crops, if any, that can be grown: boro ri^e; non" orela 1 n+e . nA Asw 1 -4 crops;-i owr shbort- anor long-te4-a * a _.I,.. * - -, -L.J.. I J.-*ffl Y ... . .JJ .I J O J. k U U~14.11 S.W& _1WA' U-AI dryland rabi crops. Soil drainage and moisture holding capacity are also - Vportantin, these cases* FJoLr rabi cott4-on, 4thLe Id sho 'IJL%AJ not .,JI0..n Wet after end-September; for tobacco and early rabi vegetables after end- 4 4 Octo-aer; fPor .ae - -A must-ard P4ter. -JA v --A for.Ar4 other vwU.A4 ALJ. Wvi J &O.U OLL.4. £ILd. IJ.. IJA C.. LI LILL"-14 oveAIlbJer d..LLL iJ.L 1liIlJ Id JLLierL dryland rabi crops after end-December, although kaun (setaria italica 1 iILI~L.~OLIL L]II.L.J.~ U~ L LIO OVLWIL UVIAd) V UALLCa.-JV 2.05 .,'us, lLooaing characteristics are of ia ifiac o C_ 11i.LJL, I..JULLLIJ.Lu IdI±L U.J 1 I)4 Y.LIdCL -LgL±±UW.LuuLu .LLr planning future agricultural development, especially in relation to the se.Leci.LUU of. d.U-a Zu±i,JdU±l oLr vllVtL.LVU LrULL rice Vd-'iL s aWU LUtdLi- ification of areas where benefits from drainage might most easily be obtained. zEs,Aiar derivedUs fromLi silv sLurvey records LndiLCa_b shE]e areta Uo. LdILU inL selected flood-depth classes, appear in the Table below, and are described lriu more UeUUv.e ±11 &jneX _L_. .e, These flood-depth classes indicate the area of land best suited for aus, transplanted aman and jute (4.1 foot and !-3 feet flooding), ig-noring soil suitability. 1/ They also indicate the area and distribution of land that wouid benefit from drainage. Since the main purpose of drainage under Bangladesh conditions is to increase the area suitable for transplanted rice production in the monsoon season and, in a general way, embanmienrt and pumpinrg costs increase with the pumping head required, the areas that will be least expensive to drain will be those with most land in the moderately deeply flooded class (3-6 feet flooding). REGIONAL DISTILBLUTION OF FwIOD-DEPTIH CLASSES Area (000 acres) and proportion (%j Settlement _egion Total Area in flood-depth class Region Total Area - (000 acres) < l,ft. 1-3,ft. 3-6 ft. 6Vft. NW 7357 3131 (42%) 2357 (32%) 671 (9%) 566 (8%) 631 (9%) G 4643 iR88 (26%) 1260 (28%) 752 (16%) 1064 (21%) 399 (9%) E 5461 524 (10%) 1334 (24%) 1546 (28%) 1458 (27%) 600 (11%) SW 7739 1Ji35 (19%) 4158 (0h%) 1167 (15%) J, 72 (6%) 496 (6%) Total 25193 6278 (25%) 9109 (36%) 4136 (16%) 3q60 (1ih? 2126 (9N 1/ This analysis excludes hill areas, sunderbans, active floodplains, channels of major rivers, and urban land. _oils 2.06 h csoil fctors presently of m.ost imnportanPce are drainage and moisture holding capacity. As stated above, these factors partly determine wh.ether rabi crops can be grown or not, how early they can be so^n and whether long-term crops (such as wheat) or only short-term crops (such as mustard and khes arri be gro-m. e s pe-_or A,yy seaa9oni. + St., te of silty Tista floodplain soils in Bangladesh (LDUts NW3 and 4a) makes it possible-p.^v.,to na anrA -e 4n ths aa 4v%i",n *n-A ho t.r44wv%+wt.r+i4vng for pre- 1-J OLAI -I j - -I. A.&I O.- --. ~a..-I -*1J - -Jla.I*'... -- r- monsoon showers tomoisten the soils, thus giving local farmers an advantage of sevrafl wee.k's over farmeArs elsewhren who ,a, haver to Aait + +4 1 April, and sometimes May, before the soils are moist enough for plowing and 4 sowi.ng. Ta--na as well as -4AAId Meghr.A oln-d A nk- a ansl can also be sown relatively early, whereas Old Brahmaputra, Ganges, Surma- 4 1 Ir- , - . ...4 -A --- 4- (¶.4 11 -9--4.N -~rA .. l.¶ M...a. .A1,--,, -. A 'Daq4 A +"n-I+ ap. ALLia.-a,6.LLJ pieIdont (hi" -fJoL.Lt..LlJJ1 U.1 especia"P W Ii.-dIA.L h SL. Lar.d-rind Vt.a -so are relatively late so far as sowing of aus and jute is concerned. By the s Ian '1, a.. aP..4. 4.. 1a,-SS W..-e.11 -. 44a-A -Pa. A,-.1-,n ",qAk e_|Ao -1-;4_5| _4 1,_:_5A-A -4-A-_t.4 _-4S DOlIl[ IVA:JlJ U&IJJ0 .LJ Guu. 6J-VUy V] OVID.LJ .L J .X WVL 0O V- . ..J. I JL 0 crops (without irrigation) than most soils on the Jamuna, middle Meghna and old iegina flUoodplains.* UULy U.dra.iLU t.aL f..LVJL.L OU.Lsils, or.LUhje other hand, generally remain too wet in the topsoil during the early part of tihe dr-y season for dryJ.LCdL UIL IJkJ tbe-WLL,UV LJp exceptJVon ra.ie mourA.dsVA or beds. 2.07 Because of the high rainfall and generally near-level topography, ri,os fULLoodplain ar,d terrace so'ls thiatL are not actua''.LLy flooded sllulfe J.m periodic saturation during the monsoon season. They are, therefore, generally not--wel.l W It1L I s-Luted -.J. , .L au~L thL4J~ ZL i.L1[i,, ofIrt0.1.-X theilL,IJtl yearuy for±UX.i' cropsLj- s-Luscptble_LU ~ LL ± to1 -water-- logging, such as cotton, maize, bananas, vegetables and most legumes, unless ilie crops are grown orn raised uus or .rdZrinage ditches are pruv-idU . Broua- cast (dryland) rice and mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa) are the most common kharif crops gro-win on such land, usually followed by an early rabi crop such as mustard, radishes or legumes. Only the best drained land -- including raised homestead land -- is suitable for tree crops, kharif groundnuts, vegetables, and legumes, pineappes, ginger, turmeric and, in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, short staple cotton. 2.08 Tne plowpan=/ which is present in most soils at a depth of about 2-4 inches below the soil surface, is a desirable soil property where trans- planted aman is grown, especialvly without irrigation, but it is undesirable for the cultivation of dryland crops, especially under irrigation. Whilst it is desirable to break up this plowpan for improved cultivation of dryland crops -- by deep plowing or knifing -- this can only be recommended at present if the cultivation of transplanted rice is to be abandoned on the soils or if it is certain that the soils will hold water satisfactorily for transplanted rice lJ The plowpan is a layer compacted by repeated pressure from the flat soled country plow in general use in Bangladesh. It is usually 1-2 inches thick, and sufficiently dense to impede the penetration of water and roots. without the pan (which is the case in some piedmont and high rainfall areas). In some soils, there is a possibility that destruction of the plowpan would reduce the bearing capacity of the soils when wet so that the land could not be prepared for transplanted aman, at least by bullock power. This is a subject requiring investigation, and on various soils: whether the plowpan could be broken up and reformed at a greater depth, say at six inches; or whether, following destruction of the pan, rotations of broadcast aus or jute followed by dryland rabi crops should be introduced, and the plowpan preserved on other land allocated to continuous transplanted rice cultivation. 2.09 Soil fertility is rarely a factor determining choice of crops, but differences in soil fertility influence crop yields. Under traditional management, most floodplain soils produce moderate or poor crop yields with generally low levels of manuring, irrespective of whether they are flooded with rainwater or riverwater. Terrace and hill soils, with lower or exhausted mineral nutrient reserves and/or with phosphate fixing properties, generally produce lower yields than floodplain soils which are generally well provided with weatherable minerals. However, differences in yields between terrace and floodplain soils are probably attributable in part, also, to their relatively lower moisture holding capacities. There is a possibility that the permeable ridge soils in LDU's MNl and 2 are calcium deficient, but this requires testing by field trials. 2.10 Salinity reduces transplanted aman yields in Khulna District and the extreme south of Patuakhali District (SW7), and locally in Noakhali and Chittagong Districts (parts of E8 and 10). It also reduces the area suitable for aus and dryland rabi crops in this coastal zone. The salinity is derived from tidal flooding with saline water at high spring tides in Khulna and Patuakhali Districts and the coastal fringe elsewhere. In interior parts of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip and the southern part of the Noakhali mainland, the salinity is derived by capillary rise from saline groundwater, as well, perhaps, as from periodic inundations by salt water during cyclonic storm surges. Mbnsoon rainfall is generally sufficient to reduce topsoil salinity so that transplanted aman can be grown throughout most of the zone, but crops on the coastal fringe -- where not embanked -- can be affected by saline incursions during exceptional high tides, and sometimes more seriously by late onset or low amount of monsoon rainfall in the drier west of Khulna District. The clay soils of Khulna, Patuakhali and parts of Chittagong Districts are generallv not suitable for rabi croppinz without irrigation, but short-term dryland rabi crops are widely grown on lighter riverbank soils in these d1stric-ts and on the aenerallv siltv soils of:Bhola. Hatiya, SAndwip and the Noakhali mainland. Aus is grown in the four latter areas, although thA nron is affented bv salt in vears of low or late Dre-monsoon rainfall, and also for a few years following saline storm surge incursions. 2.11 There is generally no alkali problem in the coastal zone, but minor natches of soils with alkali tonsoils occur scattered on floodplain ridges in Jessore District. Toxic acid-sulphate soils occur patchily on the south Ghittagong coAst and in nart of Khulna District. In both cases, the affected soils produce very poor aman rice yields or remain bare. - 7 - 2.12 Soil factors, including botn pnysicai and cnemical properties, will assume greater importance in the future with the more widespread. use of irrigation, drainage, bigh yielding crop varieties and fertilizers. Differences between soils in permeability and infiltration rates, and in their moisture holding capacity, may determine whether or not irrigation and/or drainage are practical or economic, whether rice or dryland crops are grown, and the aimunt of water that has to be provided or removed for optimum crop production (taking into account rainfall and drainage, also). Differences in nutrient holding capacity -- as well as in moisture holding capacity -- affect the kind, amount and mode of application of fertilizers required by particular crops for optimum yields. These soil differences will become increasingly important with the intensification and increased specialization to be expected in crop production with future social, economic and technological change. Relief 2.13 Physiography will also assume greater importance in the future as the requirement for irrigation and drainage increases. Most floodplain areas are not as level as they appear at first sight. They generally consist of a succession of broad ridges and depressions, varying in size and shape, and between which the range in elevation may be variable. In general, the height difference between adjoining ridges and basins varies from about 1-3 feet on the Ganges tidal floodplain (SW6 and 7); 2-5 feet on the old and young Meghna estuarine floodplains (E4L,5 and 10); 5-15 feet on the Brahmaputra, Jamuna, Surma-Kusiyara, middle Meghna and Ganges river flood- plains (1N5, 9, 10; C3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12; E2, 6; SW3, 4); and as much as 20-30 feet on the boundary between the old Brahmaputra floodplain (C3c) and the Sylhet basin (E3). There are usually significant differences in soil texture and permeability between floodplain ridges and basins; soils are lighter and more permeable on the ridges than in the basins. There are also important differences in relief characteristics and in the proportions occupied by materials of different texture, both between major floodplains and between different parts of individual floodplains. These differences, together wzith differences in flooding characteristics, account for the large number of Land Development Units recognized in floodplain areas. Bangladesh is far from being one simple deltaic land mass. 2.14 There are also important relief differences between and within the terrace and hill areas. The Madhupur tract, in particular, includes complex ndixtures of level and rolling relief, part well drained, part poorly drained, and dissected to varying degrees by both deep and shallow valley systems. The Barind tract, on the other hand, is predominantly level and poorly drained, except in the northeastern and western extremities. The hill tracts include steep, rolling and almost level areas, as well as valleys of varying widths. These relief differences strongly influence present land use and future development possibilities. - 8 - III. PRESENT LAND USE 3.01 Throughout Bangladesh the general pattern of cropping is determined primarily by land levels in relation to flooding. Differences in the relative proportions of land in the significant flood depth classes mainly determine regional differences in land use and cropping intensity. Supplementary factors are soil permeability and dry season moisture storage, climate, developed irrigation supplies, population density and proximity to urban markets, sugar mills, etc. 3.02 There are three main cropping seasons--essentially the aus, aman and rabi crop seasons--and optimum land use under present conditions is achieved where flood characteristics and dry season soil moisture storage permit satisfactory crops to be grown in succession in each of the seasQns. This represents a cropping intensity of 300 percent. This intensity is achieved over substantial parts of the major floodplains, mainly on shallowly and moderately deeply flooded ridge soils; especially on the Karatoya- Bengali floodplain (NWS), the Jamuna floodplain (09) and parts of the old Brahmaputra, old Meghna estuarine and Ganges river and tidal floodplains (C3a-d, 4, 5; E4, 5; swh, 6 (eastern half) and 8). Lower cropping in- tensities occur where soil conditions are too dry or wet for a rabi crop to be grown; on non-flooded land where only one crop can be grown in the monsoon season; and on deeply flooded land where either a single rice crop--aman or boro--or none can be grown. Some hill, deep basin and raw alluvial land remains uncultivated. 3.03 The general relationship between cropping patterns and land levels in relation to flooding (land type) is indicated in the table below. This simplified statement ignores soil conditions and other factors which modifv the relationshin in different areas. as described in more detail in subsequent paragraphs. The close relationship between cropping pattern and flooding depth accounts for the complex land use natterns that are found in many floodplain and dissected terrace areas where the undulating land- scape may include several or all of the land tynes within short distanoes in a pattern that repeats itself over a wide area, although complicated in dAetil bacniiqe of differences in soilsj flood haza"qrd and loca,l mu taira1 practices. GENERAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND USE AND LAND LEVELS IN RMT.LTON Tnq'WT1OOnING Tandr q'Npe, M.ain Gropn- Rotatinn o-r Tandr TTse ~~~~~~~~~~------~ M D -W Permeable highland Broadcast aus + rabi crops (not flooded) Permeable medium highland Broadcast aus or jute + rabi crops (n-3 feet < od dpth -9- Poorly drained highland Transplanted aman ± broadcast aus (flooded within field bunds) Poorly drained medium highland Broadcast aus or jute - transplanted (0-3 feet flood depth) aman + rabi crops Medium lowland ridges and ba.sin Mixed aus and deepwater aman + rabi margins crops (3-6 feet flood depth) Lowland (>6 feet flood depth) Deepwater aman oi boro; locally, aus, and medium lowland basin centers rabi crops (khesari_nu1sesl or grazed grasaland 3.0h Permeable terrace and floodplain ridge soils are predominantly used for broadcast aus, often--but not invariably--followed by an early rabi crop such as mustard, mashkalai (nulse), radishes or. more locallv. wroundnuts. This kind of land occurs in almost all LDU's, but often in only small nronortions. Maior areas occur in the followins LDU's: NW2, 3, 4b, 6. 9. 12 04, 12 (Ganges levee), 13, 14 (except on steep slopes) EN; 7 (np.rt.); 8 (nart) SW3. Sugarcane, ginger, turmeric (spice), betel leaf (pan) and.fruit trees are commonly grown on non.-flonARti 1annd- and mes4tan fn441" th Ktm,inel mw ^1i 4tor_a ute+.a (fond on slightly higher areas) generally displace part of the aus. Mangoes are especially grown. in the e+treme ws*t nf +.he fnlaa flnAnAlajn in SW9and sw3_ Khegur (date sugar) palms are common throughout NW9, 10, C10, SW3 and. 3W4. Coconut and betelnuts sare especl y co-mmon on ridges a-ndAriver banks in 5W6, 7, 8 and 9. 3.05 V4iAdo fAa-vp crnK1o are nf+ten 1n on thia land,A Alirtl +drt droughtiness and, in the case of.Madhupur and Barind tract soils (013 and ^.n2), "n.- Ai, +p+AdueC d +et A Cdw+ 1e-+ir TW. 4-ewi-rriatn+ior. 4ia ac high value rabi crops such as tobacco, potatoes and vegetables are usually 3.0 Tn sor.e areas, small raised b-eAs are made t-o -e-eat-e th1e lanA abkove .) * '-"-'JLJ ~ ~ ~%S*i.&.. %AL ~ .. `"*J.~A ui ~J v V0. UL1 ..O.AL %A J~ VL flood level for kharif vegetable production, but part of this land is also used aus-o- wel-as as- forA sua-ae l&dhsotnbeen-SPh used Jn earlier centuries for cultivation of indigo and mulberry (for silkworms). LandI use of LiLs kind is fordlu especial'y In I) ev- Rangpur and BoLra towns); NW9 (Natore a.rea); C8a and 8b (Baidya Bazar and Munshiganj); E5 (WestLivsu of.L ±jajjiiai.Ta,a nfL±±±OjTTills); j sou.L--X~ULL,II-LA bordeUUVUW-L* U0±of1. r,44E4 O4-STL i (Palng) rd.idL1gJj tla.dWIU DVV)Twan anIU 6 (Satla and Swarupkati, especially for guava cultivation). Throughout 'D- _1 _Aehn__1' - 'I __ X::._n___2___ _:_A_> Ban4gladVeA hIomestead l is ari'uo sumilarly raised plautfrms whJIci h are used for a wide range of fruit trees, vegetables and spices. Betel leaf (pan\)U grls.de) -,-I 0n J,l platfLI1.L 3.07 Slowly Dermeable soils on terraces and on shallowly flooded (less than 3 feet) floodplain land are predominantly used for transplanted aman. On the Barind tract (NW12. 13, 1i) and the Ganges tidal floodplain (SW7 and the western part of SW6), only a small proportion of the land is used for an additional cron of broadcast aus. and rabi crons are scarcely grown at all except near homesteads and where minor areas are irrigated around' tanks. On nTPlh&ont la.nd (2, 6! E1. 7; 8); there is a higher pronortAon of broadcast aus, but cropping intensities are generally well below 200 percent except near major towns. Floodplain land of' th-is kind is generally doubhle cropped with broadcast aus and transplanted aman, with jute commonly dis- placing 10-30n n-rcepnt ofr theo aus: such land is widespread in the following LDU's: NW2, 3, 4a, 4b, the north of 5, 6 and parts of 9 C3a, 3b,h 3,I 3d I SW3. Jute is of less importance in C13 (level terrace and high valleys) and E2. VTrlple cfn.oppng ,oP aui or~ Jutea -transpcl nante a,man - rabiv crops ls wide'al practised in E5, SW2, 8 and the eastern part of SW6, but jute is also cor,monir.r followed.by a early rani -ro4 4-w,-i4- an 4--i--nerv ningama.nc Khesari, mashkalai, mung (a type of pulse),lentils, and chillies are the main raui cr-pS gro-va-n. jn theu slua areas wniere irrigation is practised., especially around. Comilla, a boro or transplanted aus crop is usually grown and followed by t--p-x4r,u U. JrarASk9.LCU.LI Jt" WI LWl. no.08_) .00 The1LIU IIIdLJO.Ur,to_ k0L0J IIdZd.Lhazrd UI Ollon-_o th-JIIL" kindA-±IL. U of± ±d.LI.Ulan <21 -r pr-monsoon----V±I IIOIAfltSA season drought, nor'westers (accompanied by strong winds, high intensity rainfall or, more rarely, hail) and sbustained periods of heatvy .,monsoon season rainfall, affecting aus and jute; heavy monsoon rainfall or, more rarely, drought delaying transplantation of aman; flash floods in areas adjoining the northern and eastern hills (C2, 6; El, 2, 7; E5, 8), in NlM and 2, and parts of NW3, 4a, 4b, 6 and 13; late lLooding dailLaging or delaying transplantation of aman in Elo, SW2, 6, 7 and 8; and cyclones damaging aus and/or aman in E4 (south), o, i0, SN2, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Unseasonal heavy rainfall in December-January occasionally destroys dryland rabi crops by reflooding the soils. 3.09 Medium lowland (flooded up to 3-6 feet deep) is mainly used for mixed aus and deepwater amanl/ but for deepwater aman alone in basin centers. This practice is most widespread. in tne following LDUIs: NW5, 9 (basins), 10, lla. llb Cl, 8a, 9, 10 (ridges), 12 ESW 4 This cropping practice also occurs in more shallowly flooded basins of tne I1/ rrl seeAd n-ofbko+1 nrcare broadas+ toge+her in Mn-Ih-A-,i41 The to aus is harvested4 in June-July, after which the aman continues growmt with, +hearng9 f ater,a- to be -nr-vnested in Nove,T.brL- o -1-il December on the recession of the floodwater. Ganges floodplain in NW9, 10 and SW4 where the lateness of the Ganges flood (late August-early September) prevents transplanted aman from being grown. 3.10 Most medium lowland ridges are also used for a dryland rabi crop. Jute is widely grown, partly displacing both mixed aus and aman, but some- times intersown with aman in place of aus. Transplanted aman seedlings up to 2 feet tall are sometimes planted in September-early October as the ilood water recedes, usually following jute or a deepwater aman crop lost by flood damage. Deepwater aman varieties are transplanted in somne basin sites, mainly in the north of the NW region. A wide range of rabi crops is grown. Khesari, ma salai and mustard (or rapeseed) aru commonly sown on the wet soil through the standing aman crop, but a single ploughing may be given after ib WIM1 IlUr-vest belUre so-wLig pt o.f tUI tWo latter Urops. Oth1er U.crUos grown include wheat (especially in the north of SW3 and 4), lentils, linseed, grams, sbemp lespecicaly in ' an'd.e C. larley,L\ k'au,-n. (It4alian m1ilJ4 and cheena (Panicum miliare). Where irrigation is practiced, boro rice -is- 4 .4-.,4.avAfor..4the n .-4 -cA.a r- or crops se.-neanu ch14f4as or potatoes are grown after the aman crop is harvested. 3.11 Early or rapid rise in flood level occasionally damages crops, especially s, on. this land. Additional hazards are d-ought or eycessive rainfall in April-May; unseasonal heavy rainfall in November-January, damaging or destroying rabi crops by soil w.terlogging; and late cyclones in the southern half of the country. 3.12 Lowland (flooded deeper than 6 feet) is mainly used for a single cron of dArnmwt.er nmnn. hu+. nnrtlv fnllowerd hv n rnhi nrn-n (esp!necianllv khesari) on basin margins. Areas of very deep or rapid flooding are used for a single crop of boro where the land remains perenniallv wet or irrigation is available, but large areas of such land remain uncultivated and are used for drv season 2razing (or fishing. recreation or water storage. where permanentlv flooded). The LDU's where, respectively, deepwater aman and boro are major crops in basin land are shown separately below: Deepwater aman Boro NW4, 7, 10 Nw7. 8a, 8b C6, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10 C6, 7, 11, 13 (deep valleys) E2, 3 (part), 4, 6 El, 2, 3 SW3, 4, 5 - Deep and rapid flooding frequently damages the aman crop, and early flash floods occasionally damage the boro crop. The hazard of early floods prevents boro being grown in large parts of LDU's El, 2 and 3, even where irrigation would be possible. Heavy soil consistence and the uncertainty of pre-monsoon rainfall provide additional problems for aman cultivation. 3.13 In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, well-drained hill soils are mainly used for shifting (jhum) cultivation in which, at any one time, about 5.-10 per- cent (or more) of the land is under intermixed crops of aus rice, maize, sesamun, short staple cotton, etc., and the remainder under grasses and shrubs in various stages of the fallow regrowth cycle. Deep, more gently sloping, hill soils in Sylhet, and more locally in Chittagong, are under tea gardens. Tree crops such as cashew and rubber have been introduced in the chittagong hi-l areas in recent years, but are still on a small scale. Forest reserves are mainly under bamwoo, with varying proportions of forest. IV, AGRICIu±uRL DNMOPMErTaPOTENTIAL 4.01 Although only 2% of the area surveyed.by the UNDP/FAO Soil Survey Project is Class I land, the physical potential for agricultural development in Bangladesh is considerably high for adapted crops such as rice and jute. There is scarcely any part of the country where consider- able increased. crop production could not be achieved.by provision of appropriate inputs. The recent appearance of high-yielding rice varieties suitable for introduction over the greater part of the country in one or two seasons of the year makes possible a revolutionary change in agricultural development strategy. Enhanced knowledge of groundwater resources also increases the development prospects over wide areas where irrigation potential was previously uncertain. The areas and.proportions of land.surveyed by the Project and falling within the various land capability classes recognized by the Soil Survey Project appear below: Areas-and Proportions of Land Capability Classes Areas Within % Class I 0.43 2 Class II 6.58 34 Class III 5.75 30 Class IV 2.54 13 Class V 1.42 7 Non-Agric. Land 2.78 14 Total 19.50 100 4.02 High-yielding IRRI rice varieties exist that are suitable for cultivation on land traditionally used for boro and transplanted aman cultivation. Breeding and testing arelcurrently in progress on varieties which are confidentlv exmected by BRRIJ specialists to be suitable for replacing a substantial part, at least, of traditional broadcast aus and deermater aman varietiAs. althouih the yield notentials under the conditions where these varieties could be grown are appreciably less than in the ease of born and transplanted aman substitutes. The regional distribution and.acreages of land. suitable for introducing the various high-vi1d±ng rice v.arietiea are discussed below. For TRRT broadcast aus and deepwater aman, the precise cultivation requirements are not yet known. Tt is asslmed that they will 'h broadnv similar to the requirements for traditional varieties, but that introduction of the improved varieties (toget.her with the es-sential innuts) mav not be worthwhile on areas where drought or flood.hazard.presently jeopardize production of these crops. / Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. 4.03 IRRI transplanted aman is suitable for introduction on an estimated, IS acreDssu DV1Ds -'e.Ldooi c;aoeisticsar ..reso tricting. The LDU's where a major proportion of the land is suitable for .LL1IvUU; U I,ULJAL Ii.L I,LLLa UIUJ GL4W J.*U.L%;U VDU UW. JWa u UMA"eU a UIIIWL VWL '. acreages in each LDU is given in Table 1. NW2, 3, 4a, 4b, 5 (ridges in north), 12 (depressions), 13, 14 C2,3a 3b, 3c, 4,Id ',13 TJoYdebpar, Sabhar -ar, 0riF-r mu, E2, 4 (ridges in east), 5, 7, 8, 10 ',n,. -' £- ** 0 Sw7 3, 6, 7, U In a-3 ILvu:s except possib-1- Vm^b6, 9, bh eateF hal1of 13adL. LL.)LU SW3.,1 it is assumed that a satisfactory crop could be obtained.without supple- mentary irrigation, especially since IR20 and subsequernt varieties are expected. to mature a month earlier than traditional vari,3ties which them- selves are rarely affected seriously by drought. The gross acreage suitable for cultivation without irrigation is estimated to be 6.2 M. Irrigation would. benefit the crop on the remaining 1.7 M acres, and wouJd undoubtedly provid.e additional security in low rainfall years on the remaining acreage if the irrigation facilities were provided for additional crop production from this land. in the d.ry season. In the major areas indicated as suitable for IRRI transplanted aman, the most recent informa- tion indicates that either surface water or groundwater is likely to be readily available for irrigation. In addition to the areas referred to above, it must be kept in mind that the major proportion of areas that might be empoldered in the future would also be made suitable for producing IRRI trans- planted aman. 4.04 IRRI boro (or transplanted aus)!/ is, suitable for introduction on an estimated 15.6 M acres, distributed about the country as indicated in Tables 1-5. However, the potential for this crop is determined by availability of irrigation water, since on all except a minor proportion of the land, boro/transplanted aus requires irrigation. Areas presently known to have a high potential for surface water irrigation development include, especially, SW2 and 6, the Ganges-Kobadak Project Area within SW3, and areas of COa, E4 and E6 adjoining the middle Meghna river. Further potential for surface water development within C7 and E3 seems probable too. Areas of high potential for development of tubewell irrigation include: NW2, 3, 4a, 4b, 5, 6, 9, 12 and 13 C3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 13 E5 SW3 There seems little doubt, therefore, that, over the country as a whole, availability of water for boro/transplanted aus is in itself not likely to I/ Irrigated. - 14 - provide a constraint over the next 10-15 years so much as the rate at which irrigation facilities can be developed. 4.OS in relation to development strategy, it is important to note the areas where provision of irrigation would permit boro/transplanted aus to be substituted for fallow rather than displace an existing crop or crop rotation. With irrigation, a whole extra rice crop could be produced in NW12 (d.epressions), NW-13, E2 (basins), E3, most of SM,, and. the eastern fringe of SW7: an area of approximately 2.5 M acres (excluding E3 where the ultimate potential for irrigation remains uncertain). In most of the remaining area, irrigated boro/transplanted aman would displace existing broadcast aus and/or deepwater aman crops, together with dryland.rabi crops in some cases. Displacement of these crops would clearly be advantageous where deepwater aman alone is grown or is followed by a low value rabi crop (such as khesari) or where mixed aus and aman production is made uncertain by flood hazard. Substitution of IRRI boro/transplanted aus for secure crops of mixed. aus and.aman where these crops are also followed.by a relatively high value crop such as rapeseed (as is the case on floodplain ridges in NW5, C9 and SW4) may not be advantageous to the fanmer, however, the disadvantage would be increased if he were able to grow broadcast IRRI aus and deepwater aman varieties in the future, as now seems probable. This land would need. to be emupoldered, so that IRRI transplanted aman could be grown in addition to IRRI boro/transplanted aus, for the farmer to derive an economic benefit from abandoning his present cropping pattern on this kind of land. 4.o6 Broadcast IRRI aus varieties are expected. to be released within the next 2-3 years. Two varieties, IRI76 and 272, apparently hold particular promise, with yield potentials two to three times higher than the traditional aus varieties they are expected to replace. Broadcast aus is currently grown on about 8 M acres in almost all LDU's, including jhum cultivated.land in Ellb: part of it as a single crop on highland and medium highland,; the remainder mixed with deepwater aman on medium lowland. It is assumed that, like the traditional varieties, the IRRI varieties could be grown without irrigation, but that they would benefit from irrigation where this could be provided. However, provision of irrigation would make it possible to grow higher yielding transplanted, boro or aus rice on suitable soils. Broadcast IRRI rice would appear to hold particular promise on floodplain soils with superior moisture holding properties, especially in NW3, 4a, 5 (ridges); C9 (ridges); E4 and. 5; and SW2, 4, 6 (east) and 8 (see Summary, Map 2). With irrigation, the crop would be suitable for permeable terrace and ridge soils generally, especially in the following LDU's: NW9, 12 C3a-d, 4, ridges in 5-10, 13 E4 and 5 SW2-5, and. ridges in the eastern part of 6 Until the new aus varieties are tested and released, it is not possible to give a precise estimate of tne acreage suited ior their cutiLvationj with or without irrigation. If it-is assumed that farmers will not adopt the required. inputs of fertilizers and plant protection on the marginal extremes of present aus cultivation--droughty ridges and terrace land; land subject to floodh azard--it seems reasonable to assume that cultiva- tion might be worthwhile on approximately 6M of the existing 8.4 M acres under aus. rnis figure is liable to variation up or down according to future jute production since aus and jute are fully interchangeable on most land. Aus is also competitive for land with kharif oilseed and sugarcane, although to a lesser extent than in the case of jute. In general, land suitable for broadcast aus is similar to land. used for jute but includes some heavier basin margin land. The rabi groundnuts column in Table l gives an indication of the gross acreages and LDU's where IRRL aus might be suitable. 4.07 Deepwater IRRI aman varieties are expected.to become available for general release within the next five years. Already, IR442 holds promise for land.flooded. up to 5 feet deep, and, breeding work is in progress on varieties that might eventually be suitable for more deeply flooded, land.. Deepwater aman is currently grown on about 5 M acres of land. Data are not available to indicate the proportion of land on which the aman is sown intermixed with aus, but it is probable that the mixed crops are grown on more than half the total acreage. Deepwater aman is particularly susceptible to damage or loss by rapid flood.ing. This hazard is aggravated when sowing is delayed due to pre-monsoon drought. These risks will remain as hazards for the IRRI varieties, and.may discourage farmers from providing the inputs that are essential for obtaining increased yields from the improved varieties. Where irrigation can be provided., cultivation of boro rice offers a much better alternative, and two transplanted rice crops could be substituted in empoldered areas. With the extension of irrigation and drainage facilities, therefore, the deepwater aman acreage is likely to decline. It also seems improbable that a crop of deepwater aman could be grown after IRRI boro, at least until earlier maturing boro varieties might become available. The LDU s in which deepwater aman is grown most extensively at present and where IRRI varieties might eventually be substituted. are: NW5, 7, 9 (basins), 10; (also Ila and llb, but with severe flood hazard.) C3a, 3d, 8a, 9, 10, 12; (also Cl and 12, but with severe flood hazard.) Eq, 3, 4, 6 SW3 (basins), 4, 5 4.08 Jute varieties (olitorious, capsularis and mesta) are grown under identical conditions to broadcast aus, with the exception that little jute is grown on piedmont and poorly drained terrace land in NWl3, 14; C2, 6, 13; El, 7 (also, E2). However, some capsularis jute is grown on medium lowland and. lowland., although these provide far from ideal growing conditions for the crop. Since, unless present price policies are changed, the - 16 - fanmer is likely to obtain better returns from IRRI rice than from jute, at least within the next few years until rice self-sufficiency might be achieved., jute may increasingly be relegated.to more marginal land: droughty ridge land.; and daeeply flooded land unsuitable for broadcast aus and.not yet provided with irrigation or drainage which would enable transplanted rice to be grown. This would have the effect of increasing the proportion of low quality fiber produced 1/ and, more serious, increase the variability in production from year to year. 4.09 In vie-w of the vital importance of jute to the econony, every effort needs to be made to ensure that production is maintained. To do thsl LLIn fa1ce..eW.. corLpe-UoJfU V.LfromAJI.Lf r'Lce Jprod-uUU'.Lon1 WALL requ.rie increased.specialization of jute production from the land which is best s-u4teA 4uc i c 'tiatn. I land exist dir ontJn rideJs ~U.16 L,I J VW~ .16U966 V.LjJV~ I, J.1J± .JUL;LI ,LC.ALU =&A.L %.3 MZUU.LJ.LL J LJL L.VU.PU1UJLLJ...LU CS with penmeable or moderately permeable soils, either above normal flood l6evel or or'1yL shz'L.1.L.-y .LJ.UoUdIeLd bJyJ the time thVe cr.okp is cutL i LJ Provision of irrigation would.be an advantage, both to regularize the ra+e-. g -- .- +^to.I, _r.d. s.i .i M-J., but m-.os J-U-44u41e V l a AJ .- 1T1 and 4a remains moist enough in the dry season for irrigation to be innecesse- y. Rotation of 4Jute wi+v. a ,ry,la.nd r ab crop=-so o-r-g a this was not harvested,too late, like wheat, to interfere with early sowing of 4ute--wouA ca more permenhle soil +-ins thant.har.i n4-- hee the crop is grown on land used for transplanted.aman. The most suitable areas for intepn3ified 4ut production lip +TithithexaistiAng j4ute production areas, chiefly in the following LDU's: NW3, 4a, 4b, 5, 9, 10 c3a-d. h. 5. 9 E4, 5 SW2. 3. h (in north) l.lO Oilseeds production needs to be greatly increased. Sufficient land is available--at least 10 M acres (gross)--on which the various oilseed crops could be crown. Irrigation would be beneficial, but not essential, on most of this land.. There is no reason, therefore, from the land resources point of view, why Bangladesh should not produce all the vegetable oil that it needs instead of importing 60% of its consumption as it does at present. The major requirements for increased production are: an intensified.plant breeding program to develop high- yielding varieties; provision of plant protection measures; and provision of processing facilities. The major crops suitable for cultivation are mustard, rapeseed and groundnuts (both kharif and rabi). Eventually, soyabean and. cottonseed oil might become available. In general, as with jute, oilseeds would perform better on permeable soils not used for transplanted aman, especially if they were to be irrigated. 4.ll The areas best suited for oilseeds production are on penmeable, non-flooded., terrace and flood.plain ridge soils, where both kharif and, rabi oilseeds might be grown: NW2, 3, 9; C3d, 4, 13; SW3. For rabi season production, seasonally flooded ridges and basin margins in the following LDU is would. be suitable: / nis is not necessari±y iasaavantageous since the demand for nign quality fiber is, in arnr case, restricted. - 17 - NW5, 7, 9, 10, 3a, 3lb Cl, 3a-d., 41,5, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 10, 12 E4, 5, 6, 8; small parts of 2, 3, 10 Sw2, 3, 4, 6 (eastern half), 8 4.12 Other crops suitable for cultivation in Bangladesh include: wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, millets, various pulse and fodder legumes, tropical and. temperate vegetables, various spices, tobacco, long-staple cotton, together with perennial crops such as sugarcane, bananas, pine- apples, papaya, betel vine (pan), fruit trees (including mango, lichi, cashew), coconuts, betel (areca) nut, tea, coffee, rubber, ginger, turmeric and cassava. Promotion of these crops is needed,both to diversify present production--especially necessary once rice self-sufficiency is achieved!- and. to provide additional export commodities or import substitutes. Irrigation will be needed for some of these crops, and the acreages suitable for particular crops could be considerably increased with the implementation of polder projects. The acreages suitable for wheat, cotton and sugarcane in each LDU are given in Tables 1-5. The areas where the various crops might be grown are indicated in the following section. V. DEVELOPMENT STRATE3Y 5.01 The foregoing sections indicate the considerable potential for increased. rice production possible from introduction of IRRI rice varieties in all regions of Bangladesh. Substantial increases can be obtained from introduction of aus and transplanted aman varieties without the need. for supplementary irrigation. Provision of tubewell and low-lift pump irrigation, supplemented by double-staee pumpinr from maior rivers where practical, will considerably increase the acreage suitable for IRRI varieties, especially in the boro season. Ultimatelvy the develnpment of polders will still further enlarge the area suitable for IRRI varieties in a1l seasons of the year. In addition. soil, land carahilitv and h.rro= logical information indicates that there is ample suitable land available that could be irrigated where necessarv for cultivation of high value or strategic crops such as jute, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, vegetables, fruits, tea. coffee. etc. ClearlY. the nrom-tion of the new high-*e-lding IRRI rice varieties and. cash crops required. to diversify the agricultural economy will require considerable extension effort 58 well as provision of fertilizers, plant protection, grain stores and processing plants (including grain driers). These considertions have led to an agricultural development strategy whereby a rapid increase in production can be obtained. with the greatest eeonomv in inputs through selection of areas of conCent-a- tion where extension efforts and provision of essential inputs can produce maximum benefits. These areas of coneintration are set out by TWJs in. Appendix 1. The rationale for the priorities ind.icated. is explained. below. 5.02 IJan(K, IR747 and suDbsequent varieties) can be intro- duced without irrigation on approximately 6.2 M acres (gross). Within this area, an estimated 3.35 M acres is also considered suitable for IRR! broadcast aus (IRiI76, IR272 and subsequent varieties) without irrigation. See Summary Maps 1-3. Concentration of inputs in the latter area will produce the most rapid. increase in production (provided. that storage, transport and marketing facilities are also assured). Fortunately, the areas of highest priorities are all areas within easy reach of road, rail or water transport routes. Tne fact that these areas are also rice surplus areas at present means that especial attention with needwto be paid to marketing as an inducement to produce the additional production required. by the economy. 5.03 Concomitantly with promotion of IRRI aus and aan cultivation in areas where irrigation is not essential, concentrated efforts are also required in support of the expanding irrigation program. Areas deserving the highest priority in this respect are those where provision of irrigation will allow a high-yielding transplanted rice crop to be produced where none is produced.at present. For the tubewell program, this essentially means the Barind tract (especially NW13) where an extra crop of boro or transplanted aus could replace the dry season fallow that normally follows the existing transplanted aman; irrigation would also benefit IRRI aman in dry years, especially in the western half of the tract, presently considered marginal for the IRRI crop. For the low-lift pump program, irrigation would-make a second transplanted rice crop possible following transplanted aman (IRRI in the future) in most of SW6 and. the least saline parts of SW7. In C6, 7, E2 and E3, extension of low-lift pump irrigation would allow IRRI boro to be grown in areas that are presently uncultivated subject to water availability. 5.04 Second priority in irrigation development is required in areas where IRRI boro or transplanted aus could be substituted. for an existing broadcast aus and/or deepwater aman crop. Such land is mainly in potential tubewell development areas, but a considerable area in LDU E4 might eventually be developed by low-lift pump irrigation supported.by primary pumping from the middle Meghna. Substitution of IRRI boro offers the maximum advantage in areas where the existing aus and aman crops regularly suffer damage or loss by drought or flooding, or where only deepwater aman can be grown. On floodplain ridges with moisture retaining soils and suffering little damage from flooding, substitution of irrigated.IRRI boro offers little advantage to farmers already producing mixed aus and aman (or jute) followed by a cash crop such as mustard., rapeseed, sunhemp, etc. 5.05 In addition to the early prospects for expanding IRRI trans- planted, aman, broadcast aus and boro varieties, BRRI specialists predict that IRRI varieties (including IR442) suitable for deepwater aman conditions will become available within approximately 5 years. Although the yield potential of these varieties will be less than expected. from transplanted rice varieties, their introduction with appropriate inputs would provide considerable benefits in deeply flooded areas where the flood hazard is not too serious to discourage farmers from risking investment in the required inputs. Eventually, much of this crop might be replaced by irrigated boro, or by both transplanted aman and. boro in empoldered areas. Nonetheless, it offers encouraging prospects for the medium term until these capital improvements might be made available. 5.06 Parallel with the need to expand. rice production is the urgent need. to step up jute production. In the face of competition from IRRI rice--especially broadcast aus and boro where irrigation is available--it might be difficult to maintain the present jute acreage; alternatively, jute production might be relegated. to marginal land.unsuitable for IRRI rice varieties. Research and extension efforts need to be applied to promoting high-yielding jute production on the most favorable land. for its growth: irrigation would.be beneficial to permit early sowing; fertilizer and plant protection facilities need to be made more rapidly available; and, in particular, the farmer needs to be assured a fair price for his crop that would make it fully competitive with the rice he could. produce from the same land.. 5.07 Parallel also with the need to expand. rice production and intensify jute production is the equally urgent need to expand oilseeds production so that the country might reduce or eliminate its present d.ependence on imports. Mhstard. and. rapeseed are widely grown at present, but groundnuts could. be grown much more extensively, both in the kharif and rabi seasons. These crops could generally be grown without irrigation, but would. undoubtedly benefit from irrigation on the higher ridge soils. The most urgent requirement for expanded. oilseed production is agronomic research to produce high-yielding varieties and to test varieties already produced in other parts of the world. An additional prerequisite is provision of oil crushing mills which will guarrantee the farmer a market for his produce. Both these aspects deserve early and decisive attention. 5.o8 The strateyv Droposed above--selection of areas of concentration where maximum impact on production can be achieved.with the lowest cost inputs. eraduallv exDanding to secondarv and. tertiarv areas of low-cost d.evelopment--has the additional advantage of spreading benefits widely, though not uniformly. throughout the conintrvy Eventuallv. howaever as the population expands, additional production will be required from deeply flooded. areas that can presentlv produce onlv broadnast rice variet.ies; a single transplanted rice or remain uncultivated.because of early and. rapid floodine. About half this land is flooded d.eener than 6 feet. the greater part of which lies within the Sylhet basin (E3) where empolderment is nresentlv considered. imnractinal and where the adenuafv of irr_gation sources remains to be established.. The areas with least problems for e=m=polderment and complementarv irrigation fronm srface water snurces are Comilla-Noakhali (E4 and 5 south of the Titas river) and. C8a (Dacca District between the Lakhya and mTiddle Meghna rivers)_ rnmilla-Wnalhnli is already the subject of two IDA-assisted.studies; the Chandpur Project and the Comilla-N-oakhali Water Transfer Proiectt The TnI-assisted T1nea- Narayangani-Demra Project lies within LDU 08a, but no studies have yet been commissioned for the greater nart of this unit. 5.09 Other polder projects under current study or which may come under future study lie mainly within areas of more contrasting soils and relief where distribution of surface water irrigation might be more difficult than in E4., E5 and C8a. They also adjoin the changeable channels of the Ganges and Brahmaputra-Jamuna, with consequent risk to the embank- ments and difficulty in providing intake and.outlet channels that will not suffer erosion or siltation. The arrival of the high-yielding IRRI rice varieties--with their tremendous potential for increased.production in areas where either irrigation is not essential or can be provided by relatively low cost methods--is particularly fortunate since it allows rapid expansion of production on the 70 percent of the country where flood protection is not essential and also gives additional time to study the serious technical problems that remain to be solved before costly pold.er projects can be taken up on a large scale. AN1JEX 1 Page 1 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY - AREAS OF CONCENTRATION (BY LDU' 5) F--2rt 1- I" 20 + In was -ithout ir-.-igat ion Nte.L J3, 4a, 5 (,-idgesin noUhAU, 12 (depressions) C2, 3a, sb, 3c, 3d, 4, 5, 13 (Joydebpur, Sabhar and Sripur Thanas) E2*,1 4 (ridges in east),f 5, 7'** SW2, 3 (within G-K irrigated area), 6 (eastern half) 7, 8 *Hazard of flash floods reduces priority. ** B In. AUS can be replaced by Boro / T. IR AUS with Tnbe well irrigation. See Priority 6 Priority 2: IR 20 alone without irrigation Additional to Priority 1 areast NW 13 (eastern block) E 8, 10* SW 6 (western half) *Hazard of damage or loss by cyclones, excessive monsoon rain- fall or flash floods (E8 only). Prior 3: Additional transplanted rice crop. (boro) with irrigation By tubewell: NW 13 (whole unit; irrigation would also assure an IR20 aman crop in western half). SW 3 where ground water available By low-lift pupM: SW 6 (western half and basins in eastern half); locally in C6, 7, E2, E3, if adequate water available and site not affected by early flooding. Priority 4: Substitution of IR BORO for deep water AMAN C SW 5, E4. Priority 5: Broadcast IR aus without irrigation Additional to Priority 1 area: SW5 (ridges), 6, 9 (basins), 10, 12 Ridges in C8a, 8b, 9, 10, 12 (Ganges levee), 13 (deep terrace soils and high valleys). ANNEX 1 Priority 5: Substlitution oI irriated IR boro 'or tr. aus' ior non- IrrigRatea MroNacasO iK aus NW3, ha, 4b, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 (poorly drained sites) 10, 13 (poorly drained sites) piv 2 1, e, 7, A SW2, 3, 4, 6 (eastern half), 8 (if irrigation water available). Priority 6: Substitution of IRh42 for deepwater amaran* MN5, 7, 9 (basins), 10 01)._)C3a, 3d.,IA IQV8z, 8b,h-Al 7,C 1QU,-i 1r' 1 09 n~ slve~ . E2, 3 (locally), 4, 6 CVT.-JU J -II ,- - cty.JL..L.LyVA AV ±U.I~V..L * ubjectu to av-,aLlabliyL--L. oxL photo-.periLodicL varIet-. rFL A_L ±{,,y tu;l [LpIovteueIiI, ±11 JUA.e cu LVUU.LU1I (parallel win 1-6)I -uute is present.Ly gr-Uwn Uo UIAIbhia-u±ale anda maVg±r.iL. laIU. For speediest improvement in yields, inputs should be concentrated on good land in the follo-wing Lwu X:; mu.) - "ridge-'). 'LO (r/dgesA 1'J3, 4a, 4b, 5 (ridges), 9 (ridges), 10 (ridges) C3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 4, 5, 9 (ridges) E4 (/ridges), 5' SW92, 3 (ridges), 4 (ridges in north) Priority 8: Promotion of oilseeds production Mparauie± with 1-7) High ridges in INWl 2, 3, 9 in kharif and rabi seasons '; Fi; C3d, 4, i3- it;; ;; ;; ; it I 1" S 13 if if if I On seasonally flooded ridges, in rabi season only, in: mN 5, 7, 9, 10, lla, llb Cl, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 5, 7, 8 a, 8b, 9, 10, 12 E4, 5, 6, 8; small parts of 2, 3, 10 S.ir2 3,, 4, eastern part of 6, 8 irrigation would be beneficial, but not essential. In general, oilseeds would perform better on permeable soils not used for transplanted aman. ANNF.X 2 Page 1 DETAILS ON AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES Introduction The following pages contain summary descriptions of the physical factors influencing agriciltural development in the units shown on the accompanying Land Development Units map, together with a statement on agricultural development possibilities in each unit. Particular emphasis has been placed.on development with the aid of irrigation or drainage wherever relevant. The Land Development Units map is based on the soil maps of Bangladesh compiled.in the past ten years. Each Land.Development Unit shown on the map represents a physical entity with characteristics permitting or requiring it to be developed in a different way from adjoining areas. These characteristics includ.e not only soil properties, but also the relief of the land and hydrological conditions affecting agriculture. Conditions are not necessarily uniform within the boundaries shown: soils, relief and hydrology are complex in many parts of Bangladesh. Also, the boundaries themselves represent broad transitional changes in some cases rather than sharp lines on the ground.. The map and the accompanying evaluation must be regarded as prelimi- nary. They are based. on reconnaissance soil surveys covering 70% of the country and on extrapolation by air-photo interpretation and exploratory surveys in the remaining area. An index map inset on the Land Development Units map indicates areas surveyed up to the end of 1969. The account is preliminary, too, because of the limited. experience available at present of irrigation, drainage, new crop varieties and other agricultural improvements on the major soils of Bangladesh. It must therefore be expected that the present account will need modification as further soil survey and agronomic information becomes available. With these limitations understood, it is believed that the Land. Development Units map will be of value in indicating areas with potential for particular kinds of agricultural development. If reauired. more detailed information about particular units can be obtained by referring to reports published by the Soil Survev Prolect for areas that have been surveyed or to the chapters on Geology, Physiography, Hydrology and Soils (preliminary edition issued. by the Soil Survev Prolect). References to these sources are given in the description of each unit. Statements made regarding suitable crops and crop rotations are based on the following assumptions: (a) IRRI varieties Dresentlv beine multiDlied.will shortlv be available to suit boro, aus and aman seasons. ANNEX 2 Page 2 (b) IRRI boro is suitable for land not normally flooded more deeply than 1 foot during 4 months between December and April-May and not using excessive amounts of irrigation water during this period. (c) IRRI aus is suitable for land not flooded more deeply than 1 foot between mid-February and June-July and not using excessive amounts of irrigation water during this period. (d) IRRI aman is suitable for land not normally flooded more deeply than 1 foot in July-September and retaining water on the soil surface up to about the end of October (either naturally or by means of irrigation). (e) Wheat should be sown in November on land free from flooding by this date. For satisfactory yields, irrigation is needed. Moderately permeable soils with good moisture retention are preferred. Except possibly in Land Development Units NW 1 and 2, wheat is not regarded as well suited for rotation with transplanted rice. (f) Sugarcane and bananas should be grown on non-flooded land with relatively permeable soils and good moisture retention if satisfactory yields are to be obtained. Waterlogging can kill bananas and seriously reduce sugarcane yields and sugar content. (g) Rabi cotton can be grown on permeable soils that are free from waterlogging by end-September. Irrigation is needed for high yields. Essentially similar conditions are required for tobacco, potatoes, rabi vegetables and rabi groundnuts. At the end, a tabulated statement is given indicating, for each Land. Development Unit. the estimated acreage suitable for particular crops of interest. including IRRI boro/aus and, aman, local transplanted aman varieties, sugar- canp and groundnuts. Based. as they are. on reconnaissance and exploratory survey information and on still inadequate knowledge of agronomic requirements of some croDs. including ranidlv develoning IRRI rice varieties. these estimates must be regarded as having indicative rather than definitive value. It is to be oP=ected - and honed - that more detailed survevs and increased agronomic experience will allow these estimates to be improved in future years. ANNEX 2 Page 3 DescriLption of Land. Dvelopment Units The units shown on the Land Development Units map are described. in summary form on the following nageSAThese units are based on the units shown originally on the 1:1 million General Soil Map of East Pakistan, but.the boundaries d.o not coincide in all cases. In some cases, adjoining soil units may be similar in respect of agricultural development potential and can be treated. together for development purposes. In other cases, soil units may be subdivided. because of differences of some other factor - e.g. relief or hydrology - which affect agricultural development possibilities within different parts. For agricultural development purposes, Bangladesh can conveniently be divided into four maJor regions, based mainly on hydrological considerations. These development regions are:- I. Northwest - Rajshahi Division minus Brahmaputra/Jamuna charland. II. Central - Dacca Division minus FaridDur District. eastern part of Mymensingh District within the Svlhet basin and extreme eastern part of Dacca District within the middle Meghna floodnlain! nlus Brahmanutra/Jumuna charland of Rajshahi Division. III. Southwest - Khulna Division plus Faridpur District. IV. Eastern - Chittagong Division plus parts of Dacca T)ivision within the Sylhet bnsin and. middle Meghna floodplain. Within the four regions, the land development units are generally treated in ordier nf neomrrenne frnm north to sou+h, aCexnt that. fonodplain units are generally described.before terrace and hill units. For the benefit of those desiring to have more detailed information. about particlar uvnits, refoernces are given to General Soil Map units described. in the chapter on the soils and to tsoil asurviaieny Prorctydsie ofpBarngal czrsil reports the Soil Survey Project of Bangladesh. ANNEX 2 Pagee NW:l Northern part of old Himalayan piedmont plain General soil map unit 16. Thakurgaon report soil associations 1, 2b, 9, 10, 11, 12a, 14a, 14b, 17, 25, 34. Relief. Almost level. Locally irregular along old channels. Soils. Deep, black, mainly loamy. Permeable. Apparently difficult to puddle satisfactorily. Rainfall. 85-100 inches. Drainage. Soils saturated. or shallowly flooded by raised groundwater-table in monsoon season. Mainly slow to drain in early dry season, remaining moist for most of dry season. Higher ridges (about 30 of area) become droughty in dry season. Area north of Pachagarh and old channels elsewhere are subject to flash floods. Present land use. Mainly transplanted aman. locally preceded by aus or mi4let (kaun). Development possibilities. Two alternatives: (i) Substitute IRRI anan for transplanted aman (without irrigation), tCxm-nt on droiwjhtv ridpes. (ii ) Prnvifde gravity drainnge -vytam nnd produne sugarcalne, rntationn of aus-wheat, etc, (with irrigation). Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is readily available for tubewell irrigation. Recharge conditions appear to be good. -Mn_,mimn, disthqrge in the Karatoya is about 100 cusecs (at Pachagarh) and less than 20 in other rivers. Additional remarks. (a) The present transplanted aman crop does not require irrigation ow nc-r.os of these soils (b) The soils are peru eable an.d rnot well suited for flnoo i-rrigation of rice. Irrigation of broadcast aus and. jute might be possible, but the eco.nom-rics of providing irrigation solely for thsae crops would need study. (c) Areas artifically drained would not be suitable for transplanted (dr) For dry-land crops totbe gr'wn nf+er transplanted ain (or TRRT aman), surface drainage would need to be provided, or the fields ridged or made up in.to beds. .Felds ould t+hen need. re-levplling for the following transplanted rice crop. ANNEX 2 Page 5 (e) Site selection for irrigation is needed. to avoid sandy soils, areas of irregular relief and.depressions subject to early flash floods. Distribution canals would.need. lining. (f) For provision of gravity drainage in the monsoon season, a feasibility study would be required. This should take into account possible consequences on adjoining river regimes and the possibility of providing protection from flash floods entering the unit from adjoining Indian territory. (g) An agricultural experimental station is needed in this unit to investigate agronomic and irrigation requirements of the distinctive Black Terai Soils. (h) The boundary with unit NW2 is a transitional one. ANNEX 2 Page 6 NW2: Southern part of old Himalayan piedmont plain GeneraI soil map unit 15a. Thakurgaon report soil associations 2a, 3-5, 7-8, 12b-14a, 15-22, 25-33, 35. najpur Sadar Subdivision net yet surveyed. Reli-ef. Mainly broad, smooth, flloodplain ridges and. shallow depressions High ridges occupy about 10%. Local areas of irregular relief. Soils. Deep, brown and dark brown, mainly loamr soils occupy about 50% on ridges. Grey, dark grey and black, mainly loamy soils occupy depressions. Mbst soils are permeable and, are apparently difficult to puddle satisfactorily. Some soils in the south overlie more slowly permeable Barind clay. Rainfall. 75-85 inches. Drainage. Ridge soils lie above flood-level, but most are saturated or shallowly flooded within field bunds in the monsoon season. Most depression soils are seasonally shallowly flooded, but some are flooded deeper than 3 feet and/or subject to flash floods. High ridge soils become droughty in the dry season. Other soils drain slowly and remamn moist for much of the dry season. Present land use. Mainly transplanted ainan, partly preceded. by aus or jute. Ans and rabi crops on high ridge soils. Sugarcane locally. Development possibilities. (i) Without irrigation. Substitute IZRRI aman for transplanted aman on lower ridges and in depressions not subject to deep or sudden flooding, followed by rabi pulses, barley, groundnuts and then by broadcast aus, jute. On high ridges (except where very sandy), kharif and rabi groundnuts, kharif cereals, kharif vegetables, kharif pulses, ginger, turmeric, early rabi crops; improved sugarcane with proper use of fertilizers. (ii) W4ith irrigation. IRRI boro/aus on depression soils. Wheat, earlier sowing of broadcast aus and lute on lower ridge soils. Sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, wheat, rabi vegetables, tobacco, rabi cotton, earlier sowing of broadcast aus and mesta, on high ridge soils (except where very sandy). Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is readily available for tubewell irrigation. Recharge conditions appear to be good. Minimum discharge in the rivers is variable, but has been as low as 300 cusecs in the Karatoya-Atrai; h0 in the Tangan at Thakurgaon and 160 in the south; 310 in the Purnabhaba near Dinajpur; and almost nil in other minor rivers. A NNEHX 2 Page 7 Ad,ditional remarks. (a) The present transplanted. aman crop does not need irrigation in depressions and on most ridge sites. (b) Present limited experience suggests that most ridge soils use rather excessive amounts of irrigation water for transplanted. IRRI aus. Most of these soils are better suited.for irrigated wheat and. other dry-land. crops. The possibilities of growing broadcast M.R! aus and,of improving the puddling of the top soil for transplanted. aus need to be investigated. (c) The possibility of organizing groundnut and cotton production to support oil-extraction mills, cotton ginneries and textile mills deserves consideration: (see remark (b) under unit NW3). (d.) Site selection for irrigation is needed. to avoid.sandy soils, areas of irrigular relief and depressions subject to flash floods (for IRRI aus and aman crops). Canals would need lining on ridge soils. (e) Area suitable for dry-land crops (e.g. wheat, sugarcane) could. be expanded if gravity drainage were provided to extensive level highland.areas, mainly in the north. Feasibility study would.be needed.: (see remark (f) und.er unit NWl). (f) The boundary with unit NW1 is a transitional one. ANNEX 2 Page 8 iTW3: Niorthern part of Tista floodplain General soil map units 6a and 7. Tankurgaon report soil associations 6, 25, 24. Revised Rangpur Nilphamari and Sadar Subdivisions report soil associations 2-14, 17-19. Kurigram-Gaibanda report soil associations 5, 7, 10, 11, 16, 17, 21, 24-28, 30. Relief. Broad, high, floodplain ridges and almost level lower areas in soil map unit 6a, with locally irregular relief in the extreme north and along river channels. Relatively lower, smaller, ridges in soil map unit 7 and generally narrower depression areas between them. Soils. Brown loamy soils occupy about 25 percent on ridges. Lower areas have grey silty soils in soil map unit 6a and mixed grey and dark grey, mainly silty soils in soil map unit 7. Brown ridge soils in soil map unit 6a mainly overlie sand at 1-3 feet, but usually not within 4 feet in unit 7. Brown soils are permeable. Grey and dark grey soils mainly have a plough- pan impeding internal drainage. Rainfall. 70 inches in the south, 85 inches at Rangpur, possibly 100 inches in extreme north. Drainage. Ridge soils lie above flood level, but some have a high water table in the monsoon season, especially in soil map unit 7. They become droughty in the dry season, especially where shallow over sand. Grey and dark grey soils are shallowly flooded by rain water within field bunds, and are occasionally (or rarely?) affected by flash floods from neighboring rivers. They remain moist throughout most or all of the dry season. Present land use. Mainly aus and rabi crops on ridges; mainly aus or jute followed by transplanted aman on lower areas. Hand-irrigated tobacco is important on ridge soils near Rangpur. Potatoes and vegetables are important in the south of Rangpur and in Bogra. Development possibilities. (i) Without irrigation. Kharif and rabi groundnuts, kharif cereals, kharif vegetables, kharif pulses, ginger and tumeric on ridge soils (with open field drains where necessaxy). Substitute IRRI aman for transplanted aman on lower soils (except sandy soils and depression centers subject to flooding more than 1 foot deep in July-September). (ii) With irrigation. Aus followed by tobacco, rabi cotton, potatoes, vegetables. oilseeds. on ricde soils (excent where very shallow, and with field drains where necessary). Sugarcane, pineapples (with field drains), wheat, on deen ridge soils. IRRI aus and aman on lower soils (excent where sandy, and in depression centers subject to early or too-deep flooding). Broadcast aus followed by wheat on lower soils if not used for transnlanted rice crops. ANNEX 2 Page 9 Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is readily available for tubewell i..-. igation. M;rmn., m4 discha¶rge 4, nr_v.ers i. flonrcAay (r.ot mecn,.asurd) Dudh.kumar 2,500 cusecs; Dharla 2,000; Tista 4,000; Ghagat (near Rangpur) 25; Jamw.esa 20;r Dreanza4 10; arLA Earateya=At-a4a aign)20 IJ-r season flow in the Brahmaputra exceeds 100,000 cusecs. Additional remarks. a) On grey and dark grey soils, aus and jute are normally sown in March Without L'il)e fda)erWs ne.edirg to0 wait)lfoLr pre-monsoon rainf '1.L. "I soils also retain water satisfactorily for the transplanted aman crop. Irrigation i. lxui±Ly nieedUeu on ulthes soils if it Ls des. -d UV rLepLace b-oadcast aus by transplanted IRRI aus. b) Brown ridge soils in soil map unit 6a, except where very sandy, are parx uc-axLy well suibed lor grounu.uut, potato, vegetabules, tobacco and rabi cotton production. The possibility of organizing groundnut and cotton production along similar lines to thnat in which tobaceo production is5 urga- nized in this area deserves consideration. Production of groundnuts and cottonseed in tnis area and in unit 10w2 could supply several oil-extraction mills (as well as cotton ginneries and textile mills). c) Flow in the Gangadhar, Dud&kumar, Dharla, Tista and Brahmaputra would be difficult to exploit for pump irrigation because of the constantly shifting river banks and channels. d) Site aelection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils and soils with sand at a shallow depth, areas of locally irregular relief, depressions subject to flash floods and areas near major rivers liable to suffer river erosion or burial by new alluvium. e) Canals on ridges would need lining. Excessive irrigation or seepage on ridges could lead to problems of waterlogging in adjoining depressions (more likely to be serious with canal irrigations than tubewell irrigation). f) Irrigation from the proposed Tista barrage could possibly be better used on the Barind tract (units NW12 and 13), where groundwater resources might be inadequate to meet potential irrigation requirements, rather than used in the present unit where groundwater resources appear likely to be more adequate for local needs and where the need to line canals would increase costs. ANNEX 2 Page 10 NWN1a: Southern D^art of Tista floodDlain NWiLbs Little Jamuna floodplain These units are generally similar to unit NW3 except that brown ridge soils occupy a minor part of the area and seaaonial floodirn in sliahtly deeper. General soil man units 5a and 8a. Revised Rangpur Nilnhamari and Sadar snbdiv-iqi^ns repnnrt 90il aqqn1atirnS 14-16, 19. Kurigram-Gaibanda report soil associations 2a(part), 6, 8-10, 12-14a, 15a, __ __ r 99 2RA 2). 9Q R16, Rha- re2poart so…il o 3133, Part; of lnit NWL.Ab ;n Bogra and T4Ena4r Df4stvr4cts n+ot yr+ siyernr. 4 PR1e Af TTrAnr .- "+1,r v-A 9+- nn.v.-.ArAC! A 1 n1 1at, bnc4na T1ATn1 1.nn ; _A_n_ iU|J v ,.- * V - 6--'A U- UC . I.,a k'J.fltj * AJ- L LJ -.. lar near river channels, especially because of old man-made platforms near S,o s. C-4rey and -k, gaey,-.. si;14- so.'wP -e4ble U*~'.L~UOJVLJ.L-a .. L J 3.LV U IVV .+L, . V.UL .L V ridge soils locally in unit NW4a. Rainfall. 75-85 inches in unit NW4a. 60-70 inches in NW4b. Drainage. Mainly shallowly flooded in monsoon season. Tista floodplain soi.Ls remain ristL for .ostl or all 0U,LofL seaso.I. "UtU.LV UJOIALULI.& L.LVUUFL.LIA soils become dry late in dry season. Both areas are subject to occasional (or rare?) flash floods. Highest -d,ge soils and IaI-1"rUtlade platform,Is lie above normal flood-level. Present land use. Mainly aus or jute followed by transplanted aman. Aus- rabi CrOps, oV SugarclULU, vegetables, on higher ridges anrd man-made plat- forms. Development possibilities: (i) Avithout irrigation. Substitute IRRI aman for transplanted aman wnere flooding depuns are less tnan 1 foot in july-September (mainly in soil map unit 5a and on ridges in 8a). (ii) With irrigation. Substitute transplanted IRRI aus for broad- cast aus, except on highest ridge soils. Aus-rabi dry-land crops on higher ridge soils. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater for tubewell irrigation is expected to be readily available, but supplies need to be confirmed. Conditions for direct recharge of groundwater appear to be poor except in sandy soils anci near rivers. ANNEX 2 Page 11 Minimum discharge in rivers is: Dharla 2,000 cusecs, Tista 4,000; Ghagat (at Gaibandha) 65; Little Jamuna nil. Dry-season flow in Brahmaputra ex- ceeds 100,000 cusecs. Additional remarks (a) In unit NW4a, aus and jute are normally sown in March without the farmers needing to wait for nre-monsoon rainfall. These soils also retain water satisfactorily for the transplanted aman crop. Trrigation is mainlv needed on these soils if it is intended to replace broadcast aus by transplanted IRRI aus. (b) Irrigated wheat could be grown on the higher ridge soils. Culti- vn+Atn of whe on lower siteAs noffe-r no advantage! thesA soils are better suited for transplanted rice production. For wheat, th.e plough.pan requi*red for transplan.ted rice wouldA onbe broken up and it might not be possible to reform this for a folloW4 ng +ra,nsplAT+ante rgM rop (c) Flow in the tf.arla, Tista and Bra.bmaputra -r_ver wuldte di ffi- cult to exploit for pump irrigation because of the constantly charg;ng r-ver baIrbs and chanunels. 4 4 (d) CZ4 4. -ec I for 4irriga,in -ed on a-.a4 + ar- s4mal I aree1 a of4' sandy soils, areas of locally irregular relief, depressions sub- 4 4 4 4 n. +n r0 apid ris of -PIoo levele rve aneas neara4. wriers 4.S ~. UOrJ.LSJ. .4.4 ~.S4 4 J.L.''SS J5~V. 'A -4 C4 US04A.4. AUC4644 4.L.6V~4 liable to suffer river erosion or burial by new alluvium. (e) Canals might not need lining, except on the highest ridge soils. AI}NEX 2 Page 12 NW5: Karatoya-Bangali floodplain rTAnRral soil map units 5G and 12. Pabna renort soil assoniations 30-44. Knrigram-rlaihanda rponrt. soil associations 2a(part). 20(nart). Pal-rt. in Bogera q+H cr-t+not. vyt. -s1rrPvAeyd Rbelief. Broad floodplain ridges and basins, 1At--a1V irreguar near river channels. Soils. Grey soils in soil map unit 5c, mainly dark grey soils in 12. MainWlu ln-myr norT-i s anri cla-ys in hbainq. Po -1Ii-rhri+y 'noarnIIvslow because of ploughpan. Drainage. Seasonal flooding is mainly deeper than 3 feet, except on the hitAic+ "4eArmo !mA;4,n inln+ 'NTrA Plr;Amn c2r ;1a qVIv 1ir +; m,;4 urin*' g±1gd 6 - * W* Sr,4.. during first half of the dry season. Basin centers are slow to drain, but generalIy becom,e d-y before end of d-y sea OPLU lI At_=72 A.--s. Preer,la.d se.M-ainl'+ m.xed aus ard deep-wvater a.-w,a and sovme Jute,, followed by dry-land rabi crops on ridges. Deep-water aman, partly followed IJby rabiJ. crops,, in basls1. ute, su.snhem.-,p an d. r,.stICardIWe are maI-,Lcashll crops. De-velopr,.1ent possiLbiliti .IZ. (i)J with1 irrigation. boro or aus Ln basLnsasru an' on lower par's of ridges. Wheat and other rabi crops on ridges and basin margins. Tobacco, potatoes and rabi vegetables on the highest ridge sites. Aus, deep-water aman and jute could be sown earlier. (ii) With flood protection and pump drainage. Combined with irrigation, this would greatly expand tne area suitable for transplanted rice (including IRRI aus and aman), sugarcane, bananas, wheat, other dry-land cereals, jute, kbarif and rabi vegetables, potatoes, kharif groundnuts (without irrigation), and rabi cotton, Deep basin centers in the southwest mignt remain too deeply flooded for RRILaus and aman, but could produce IRRI boro. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be confirmed. Recharge conditions are doubtful, but may be poor except on sandy ridges and along river channels. Minimum discharge in rivers is: Bangali, less than 200 cusecs; Karatoya, nil at Bogra, 125 at i1llapara; and lower Atrai 200. Dry-season flow in the Brahmaputra (Jamuna) exceeds 100,000 cusecs. ANNEX 2 Page 13 Additional remarks (a) Provision of flood protection and pump drainage deserves feasi- bility stuqy. Flooding is mainly by accumulation of rain water unable to drain into adjoining rivers flowing at high monsoon levels. There is little overland flow from the Jamuna except along established spill channels, (now mainly blocked by the Brahmaputra right-bank embankment). (b) The Jamuna is constantly eroding its right bank and could possibly break into one of its spill channels, especially in the vicinity of Serajganj. This deserves study before further flood-portec- tion embankments are planned. (c) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils (mainly on high ridge summits and along the Bangali and Karatoya channels), raw alluvium near the Jamuna, irregular relief and basins subject to late drainage and/or early flooding. Canals would generally not need lining except in areas of sandy ridge soils. (d) If large areas were pump drained, large-scale canal irrigation from the Jamtma would probably be necessary. (e) Small-scale pump irrigation from the Jamuna might be difficult because of the constantly changing river bank and channels and the problem of annual siltation of canals near the river banks. ANNEX 2 Page 14 NW6: Middle Atrai Floodplain General soil map unit 5b. Rajshahi report soil association 29. Relief. Mainly low ridges and shallow basins, often irregular. Soils. Mainly young alluvial silts, but sands occupy about 20 percent. Soil patterns are often complex. Permeability slow except in sands. Rainfall. Probably 55-6o inches. Drainage. Ridges mainly stand above normal flood level. Depressions are seasonally shallowly flooded by rain water, but occasionally more deeply by flash floods from the Atrai. Drainage is slow in the dry season, and depression soils remain moist for most or all of dry season. Some basin centers remain permanently wet. Present land use. Mainly aus or jute followed by transplanted aman. Aus- rabi crops on higher ridges; deep-water aman or jute in deeper depressions. Development possibilities. Large-scale development possibilities are limited by the complex relief and soil patterns, irregular distribution of sandy ridge soils and the susceptibility of the unit to flash floods from the Atrai. With small-scale irrigation, non-sandy ridge soils could pro- duce IRRI aus and aman; depressions could produce IRRI boro or aus, except in deeper depression centers. Sandy soils could produce kharif groundnuts, millet, ginger, turmeric, pigeon peas, etc., without irrigation, but would need heavy use of fertilizers. Possible irrieation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be confirmed. Recharge conditions appear to be good. Minimum discharge in Atrai is variable, but has been as low as 130 cusecs. Additional remarks (a) The Atrai is connected with the Tista (in Tndia) and acts as a spill channel in years of high Tista flood levels. The long- term possibility that the Tista mright divert part of its normal flood flow into the Atrai needs to be kept in mind. (b) Frequency of damaging flash floods needs to be determined. (c) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, slow-draining sites (for rahi drr-land onros)- dpnressions sub- ject to early flooding (for boro or IRRI aus) and areas where irrAolalr rl if woiil ri makA watm.r distrihitinon diffi ul-t. Canals crossing sandy patches would need lining. (d) External drainage is controlled by water levels in units NW7 and 8a. Any larga-sRalph irrigation or drainage develnpments in the latter units would have repercussions in the present unit. and shomld 'h considered in feasibility studis= ANNEX 2 Page1- NW7: Lower Atrai Floodplain (',nnraln nl 1 map iin¶ t Rbh- R-,n4Qhahi -ranrn+. 'qnil qqqnre1aAnni 30- Re!4ef - r.plex of nrwr_de A-d amnll de-^ bas4Js. Soi4Is Mm4vJnr a419+vyr P%Y%vd4Avgesa &-dA cInlyays in ha 4" ce+r.ts. PO?%mOah4lI +ytr generally slow. Rainfall. Probably 55-60 inches. Drainage. Mainly deeply, and often rapidly, flooded in monsoon season. 4 - ;- wi A-n 4-, A- ae3son,,- -- A n- bas n cen+a.ter rrnin pena na flooded. Present land use. Mainly single cropped: deep-water aman and jute on ridges anUd basi, r.LmLarg±Lins;.V-. bIbas0 ikVVJn ir.-L cer.tLIeIrJs. vpmant possi Vi' v^. Lgesa dSVW4.AJjJLfLI=U .L mfLae i4fiL.Lc.L.LL.L.J' y the complex relief, slow drainage of the basins and their rapid flooding ir, bhe r,onsoon seasor11 WVitVd.UL. smIall-scale irriLgat' oUIn fromLL UtbWe.L.Ls, InU' aus and aman might be grown on the higher, non-sandy, ridge soils. Tube- wells migIlt 'we needed `Uo UpP.LURIVALI LUW-.Lft p'WLP L_-.gak, L.LbVLILmJ. for.LV expansion of boro cultivation. Detailed local information is needed to ,_. ,_ L____… . t e£L, - ._. . rnn_ L_ -- 1__ Uauerr..Lw1n -.In aeLe UreUaslero IU_a uoro, aus aUd aman. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies availa.ble for lane tube- well irrigation need to be confirmed. Local recharge conditions appear to be poor, but recharge may take place laterally from adjoining units Nhw6 and 13. Minimum discharge in the Atrai is 140 cusecs. water supplies stored in bils need expert assessment. Additional remarks (a) External drainage is controlled by water levels in unit TvW8a. Any large-scale irrigation or drainage development in the latter unit would have repercussions in the present unit and should be considered in feasibility studies. (b) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid patches of sandy ridge soils; sloping or narrow ridge sites; and basin sites where water recedes too late or rises too early for boro (espe- cially IRRI boro) to be grown safely. (c) The long-tenr possibility that the Tista might divert part of its normal flood flow into the Atrai needs to be kept in mind: (see remark (a) under unit NW6). ANNEX 2 Page i_Tit- NW8a: Lower Atrai Basin NW8b: Lower Purnabhaba Floodplain General soil map unit lla. Rajshahi report soil associations 34-38. Pabna report soil associations 45, 46. Relief. Almost level in unit 8a. Low ridges and broad basins in unit 8b. Soils. Mainly heavy clays, cracking widely when dry, impervious when wet. Rainfall. Probably 60-65 inches in unit in NW-5a. 50 inches in NW8ib. Drainage. Deeply, and often rapidly flooded in monsoon season. Slow drain- ing in dry season; lowest areas remain permanently wet. M4any bils in unit 8b. Present land use. Mainly deep-water aman. Some boro around bils. Grass- land on uncultivated areas (about 40 percent of unit 8b). Development possibilities. With irrigation, boro could be grown over most of the unit. IRRI boro and aus might not be suitable in the lowest sites where water recedes late and early flooding is liable to occur. Possible irrigation sources. Minimum discharge in the lower Atrai is about 100 cusecs. In the lower Purnabhaba it is nil. Irrigation water will have to come from tubewells, bils (and tanks) or an external source, therefore. Conditions for groundwater recharge within the units are poor, but recharge may take place laterally from adjoining Barind tract areas (unless these are heavily pumped for irrigation). Bil resources need expert evaluation. The feasibility of excavating large deep tanks for storage of monsoon season water (and for fish production) deserves study. Also, study is needed of the feasibility of large-scale pumping of water from the Jamuna up the Gumani (lower Atrai) river, or from the Ganees along the Baral river and its distributaries, so that irrigation water could be distributed to adjoining parts of unit 8a using smaller pumps. ADNEX 2 Page 17 Additional remarks (a) Provision of flood protection and punp drainage to these units will nrobablv be impracti_cal in the near future. Tn uni t 8a; this is because this area acts as a sump for drainage from most of the Barind trant (unit 12'L a large nart of the lanqes floodplain (unit 9) and the Atrai and Little Jamuna rivers, which can involve enorm.ous volumes of water during pen odri of heavy monsoon rainfall and flash floods down the Atrai and T.it+le .Tamina ri vper.- Tn mii-t Rh, +-he oneb-renrr e of the unit along the international border provides a problem. (b) Heavier tillage equipment and animals (or tractors) are needed to cultivate +he heavy clays satisfactoriJ.y (c) Almot+. all areas are siv+lhe for irrigation., but depressions subject to early flooding and small areas of irregular relief nnri l1; h+._QM.rl co; need o 'hbh aor4 -ide c-;st sOecti+4on ANNEX 2 la ge -I NW9: Lower Mahananda and High part of Ganges Floodplain Gene_U.-al soi-l M-Ap LULiUt L13a andI L4. Rajshahi report soil associations 1-6, 8-12, 15-28. Pauna redport soil associationzs 4-7, 9,10, 12-;5 17, 18,2 Relief. Broad Mloodplain ridges and basins, locally irregular. Ridges along Mahananda and Pagla rivers near Chapai Nawabganj stand high above normai flood level. Soils. Clays occupy about 80 percent, mainly in basins and on lower ridges. Loams occupy relatively higher ridges. Most ridge soils are calcareous. Basin clays usually nave acid topsoils. Loamy soils are permeable. Clays mainly have fine structure below the cultivated layer and permeability may be moderate. Rainfall. 50-60 inches. Drainage. Basins are mainly deeply flooded in monsoon season. Ridges are mainly shallowly flooded, but many in soil map unit 13a (west of about Pabna) stand above normal flood level. Basin centers are slow to drain in dry season, but almost all soils eventually become droughty. Present land use. Deep-water aman in deeper basins; mixed aus and deep- water aman or jute in shallower basins and on low ridges; aus or jute fol- lowed by rabi crops on higher ridges; and mango orchards on highest ridges near Chapai Nawabganj. Little transplanted aman is grown in this unit. Development possibilities. (i) Without irrigation. Kharif and rabi groundnuts, kharif vegetables, kharif cereals, kharif pulses, ginger, turmeric, early rabi crops, improved sugarcane, on non-flooded ridge soils, preferably with provision of field drains and proper use of fertilizers. (ii) With irrigation. IRRI boro or aus on most clay soils. Alterna- tively, broadcast aus or jute followed by wheat (and other rabi dry-land crops) on lower ridges and basin margins. Non-flooded ridge soils could produce sugarcane, bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, vegetables, oilseeds, tobacco, rabi cotton, etc. (iii) With flood protection and pump drainage. The feasibility of provid- ing drainage control to the area downstream of about Rajshahi de- serves feasibility study. Combined with irrigation, this would make large areas of clays on lower ridges and basin margins suit- able for IRRI aus and aman. IRRI boro could be grown in basin centers. Sugarcane, bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, etc., could be grown on the loamy and clay ridge soils. ANNEX 2 Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell 4_ieriAein needto be confirmed. Rechnargea neAtions man be sati sfactorv through the loamy ridge soils and well-structured clays. Minimum discharge in t-he rivers" is:- rLnnr.e abou 40000 mcusecs;- TiThnnnndan 365~ a+. 'P1MhaQn71 750 at Godagari; Baranai 50; Baral 10. Additional remarks (a) The reason why so little transplanted aman is grown at present is not clear. Tt mray be due to+the fact that the Cangesa f ilA 4 late (late August and early September) and the highest sites 4 avail- nID]ea LPa,r 4-nv e,C n+ n n4' +1a .4-4 ,taknn , A- -ani, - ,r ^- +1, iny abl fo tansplanting at the +uir,.e beco,,.e droughty before +Uea crop could mature. (b) Construction of Farakka barage may reduce dry season discharge in lower ihanandaand Baral rivers as well as i-n Ganges. (c) Early- decision is req.uired on relati-ve allocaton of Ganges water for irrigation in Nd and Sfi regions. (d) The feasibility of large-scale pumping of water from the Ganges river up the Baral and Ichamdati ri-vers deserves stuuUY (as sug- gested for unit NW8a). If practical, the southeastern part of the unit might be irrigated from this source. Part might be irrigated direct from the Ganges. (e) Small-scale pump irrigation from the Ganges might be difficult because of the constantly changing river banks and channels and the problem of annual siltation of channels near the river banks. (f) Because surface water supplies appear to be inadequate to meet potential irrigation requirements, nigh priority is required to assess available groundwater resources. (g) Present flooding is mainly by rain water unable to drain into adjoining rivers flowing at high monsoon levels. 'There is little overland flow f'rom the Ganges or other rivers. (h) Investigations are needed to establish satisfactory techniques of irrigating wheat and other dry land crops on the clay ridge and basin soils. Irrigation along furrows (or corrugations) or between narrow raised beds may be needed to effect adequate in- filtration and prevent crop damage by surface waterlogging. (i) Irrigation requirements of loamy ridge soils are likely to be high. Thorough puddling of friable clay ridge soils will be needed for irrigated transplanted rice. (J) Field drains would benefit perennial and kharif dry land crops grown on all but the highest non-flooded ridge soils. ANNEX 2 Pae qeu (k) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, raw? allvi; , are a of ir4- ele & A b 4ect to early flooding. (1) Canals on ridges will probably need lining. Canals crossing hepa clays seos Aecuse kept soil cra ck _ing u seepage losses because Of soil cracking. ANNEX 2 NWlO: Low part of Ganges Floodplain U~L±t~.Ld j.. u.L.. jIieLj LULLJJI' ... soi …tn->ma urtl 3b.fl\ l Pabna reportar 01i. asociations 7a, 8, 11, ;6, 19-22, 25, 26. Relief. Broad floodplain ridges and basins, locally irregular. S,iis Clay UcUupy about 80 percen_, ainly- in basins and on lower ri2dges. Loams occupy higher ridges. Most ridge soils are calcareous. Basins clays usually [ave a cd t opsoils. LOaHW s0119 atre permeable.* Clays mainly have fine structure below the cultivated layer and permeability may be moderate. Rainfall. 60-65 inches. Drainage. Basins are mainly seasonally deeply flooded and ridges shallowly flooded. Basin centers are slow to drain in dry season, but most soils eventually become droughty. Present land use. Deep-water aman, locally grassland or boro, in deep basins; mixed aus and deep-water aman or jute on low ridges and basin margins; aus or jute followed by early rabi crops on highest ridges. Little transplanted aman is grown in this unit. Development possibilities. (i) With irrigation. IRRI boro or aus on most clay soils. Alterna- tively, broadcast aus or jute followed by wheat (and other rabi dry land crops) on ridges and basin margins. (ii) With flood protection and pump drainage. Provision of drainage control to this unit adjoining the lower Atrai and the Jamuna river would probably be more difficult than in unit NW9. If found feasible (together with provision of large-scale irriga- tion) IRRI aus and aman could be grown on clay ridge and basin margin soils, and IRRI boro in basin centers. Sugarcane, bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, etc., could be grown on ridge soils. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be confirmed. Recharge conditions may be satisfactory through loany ridge soils and well structured clays. Minimum discharge in the rivers is: Ganges about 40,000 cuse¢s, Jamuna more than 100,000 cusecs; Gourmani-lower Atrai 200 cusecs. Additional remarks (a) See remarks a-c and e-k under unit NW9. (b) The feasibility of large-scale pumping of water from the Jamuna up the Gourmani (lower Atrai) river deserves feasibility study (as suggested for units NW8a and 9). Part might be irrigated directly from the Jamuna. NWlla: Active floodplains of the Brahmaputra, Tista, NWllb: Active Ganges floodplain General soil map units 1 and 2. Revised Rangpur Nilphamari and Sadar Subdivisions report soil association 1. Kurigram-Gaibanda report soil associations 1, 2b, 3, 4, 14b, 15b, 23b. Pabna report soil associations 1-3, 27-29. Rajshahi report soil associations 1-3, 4c. Part of unit lla inBogra District not surveyed. Relief. Irregualar ridges and depressions with many channels. Soils. Mixed sands and silts. Some friable depression clays in west of Ywllb. Rainfall. Probably 90-100 inches in north of unit N'Wlla, decreasing to 65-70 inches in south. 50-65 inches in unit NWllb. Drainage. Seasonally shallowly to deeply flooded by river water. Sands become droughty, but silts and clays may remain wet or moist throughout the dry season. Present land use. Early aus and jute, deep-water aman, cheena, mustard, pulses and other rabi crops. Some bare or grassland areas. Development possibilities. Large-scale development is impractical because of the risk of river erosion and burial by new alluvium each flood season. Boro could be grown in some depression sites with low-lift pump irrigation. Possible irrigation sources. Adjoining rivers. Perhaps shallow tube- wells in areas distant from open channels. Additional remarks. a) Good rabi and early kharif crops are grown on some silty Brahmaputra/ Jamuna and Ganges new alluvial land. Yields could be increased by proper use of fertilizers. AINEX 2 Ger.e-altn 1 .2 ITt-ha4e-.Ba-ntac810i h Le7n U.LTU. U.Lau IteV L_UJ fl .0"J6jU.L A ±jLJ.L±LIdU4_ dJlU DatL IUUU.LV±.LIJ.JILt5 LIZJU.LU bV±.L.L~A±JI 20-23 . Kurigram-Gaibanda report soil associations 31-33. Part in Dinajpur District not yet surveyed. Relief. Almost level highland. Locally dissected south of Phulbari uiJJnaipuI) . Soils. Deep Red-Brown, Brown Mottled and Grey Terrace Soils. Permeabiiity is probably moderate, except in Brown Mottled and Grey Terrace Soils with compact ploughpans. Rainfall. 75-65 inches. Drainage. High terrace edges are moderately to well drained. Brown Mottled Soils on terrace interiors are imperfectly drained. Grey Terrace Soils on lowest interior sites are seasonally shallowly flooded by rain water. All soils become droughty in the dry season. Present land use. Aus or mesta and early rabi crops on higher sites. Aus and transplanted aman on lower sites. Development possibilities. With irrigation, sugarcane, kharif and rabi cereals, oilseeds, vegetables, tobacco, possibly rabi cotton, on higher soils. Aus and IRRI aman on lower soils. IRRI boro in the few deep valleys. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation are probably good. Recharge conditions are good. Part of the unit might be canal-irrigated from the proposed Tista barrage. Additional remarks. a) IRRI aus and aman could be grown on higher terrace soils, but these soils are better suited for dry-land crops. b) Cultivation of IRRI aman on Brown Mottled Terrace Soils and of IRRI aus on these and on Grey Terrace Soils could require excessive use of irrigation water unless the topsoils are thoroughly puddled. c) Field drains would improve conditions for perennial and kharif dry- land crops on the higher soils and for early rabi dry-land crops on Brown Mottled Terrace Soils. d) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas of irregular relief. Canals should not need lining if properly puddled and maintained. ANNEX 2 Page 24 .LIW.LJI; Leve~l BarLL ta,ct 4 Gral e som map 4n+tOla. Pabna renort soil association^ L5. 47. Revised Rangpur Nilphamari and Sadar Subdivisions report soil association 23. Kurigram-Gaibanda report soild association 34. Part in Bogra and Dinajpur Districts not yet surveyed. Relief. Mainly level or very gently sloping. Locally irregular near some stream channels. Soils. Grey Terrace Soils with an impervious ploughpan and a slowly perme- able substratum. Rainfall. 50 inches in the extreme west increasing to 65-70 inches in the east and 75-85 inches in the north. D . SeasonaULWly shaLLoUW.ly L.LooUUed y L.J-U WaUteL Wi.tUh-n1 L.Lf-LU IJLU±U1. Areas near the Atrai and little Jamuna rivers are occasionally (? rarely) mo-e delAA1lSr WP1AAde BP 4-1n -SAsPP-4W;_ 4- PI _;--A ^_ P1t_O exceptionally heavy rainfall locally. Very droughty in dry season. Present land use. Transplanted aman, locally preceded by aus. Development possibilities. With irrigation, two transplanted rice crops per vear: IRRT aus and aman. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be established. Recharge conditions appear to be better than previously thought: see UNDP/FAO Hydrological Survey Report on Groundwater Investigations. Minimum discharge in the Atrai is about 130 cusecs and is nil in the little Jamuna river. The major eastern part of the tract could be commanded from the proposed Tista barrage. Additional remarks. a) If irrigation can be provided, tnis unit deserves early priority for development on two grounds: only one crop per year can be grown at present compared with two on most adjoining floodplain land, the large area suitable for non-irrigated IRRI aman (as well as for irrigated IRRI aus). b) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid local areas of irregular relief and depressions subject to flash floods. Canals should not need lining if properly puddled and maintained. c) An agricultural experimental station is needed to investigate cultivation and irrigation techniques and agronomic requirements of these extensive and distinc- tive solls. Investigations are needed not only tO SUpport rice cultivation but also to establish techniques for cultivating dry-land crops on these soils. (Some of this investigatory woryk could be carried out on the upland part oI the new Dacca District Agricultural Farm at Joydebpur where similar soil conditions occur under a r higherUather - r-af-- all j ANNEX 2 Xage 25' NW-1I: Dissected Barind tract General soil map unit l9b. Rajshahi report soil associations 43b, 43c, 44. Relief. Some narrow level summits, but mainly terraced valley sides and valley bottoms. A small area of low rolling nills occurs east Of Cnapai Nawabganj. Soils. Mainly Grey Terrace Soils with a compact ploughpan, but clays on rolling hill areas. Rainfall. 50-55 inches. Drainage. Rain-water is retained within field bunds on terraced fields. Some valley bottoms are subject to shallow seasonal flooding and flash floods. Most soils become very droughty in dry season. Present land use. Transplanted aman on terraced land and in valley bottoms. Rough grazing on uncultivated hills. Development possibilities. Irrigation is needed to improve crop production, but would generally be more difficult to provide than in unit NW13 because of the higher and irregular topography. Where irrigation is practical, two IRRI rice crops per year could be produced. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies need to be investigated. Recharge conditions are probably less satisfactory than in unit NW13 because of lower rainfall and higher loss by surface run-off. None of the local streams has a significant flow in the dry season and the land stands too high above the Ganges and other rivers to be conveniently irrigated from these sources. Additional remarks. a) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas too irregular for convenient water distribution and of valley bottoms subject to flash floods. b) The feasibility of constructing storage reservoirs in valleys deserves examination, either for use of the water locally or within adjoining parts of units NW9 and 13. ANNEX 2 Page 20 Cl: Active Brahmaputra-Jaiuna floodplain General soil map unit 1 and northern part of 5c. Jamaipur report soil associations 1, 2. Tangail report soil association 1. Dacca report soil associations 54(part), 55(part). Relief. Irregular ridges and depressions, Soils. Mlixed sands and silts. Some silty Grey Floodplain Soils in soil map unit 5c. Rainfall. Probably mainly 65-75 inches, but more than 80 inches in the north and near Munshiganj. Drainage. Mainly seasonally deeply flooded by river water. Sands become droughty, but silts remain wet or moist throughout most of dry season. Present land use. Early aus and jute, deep-water aman, cheena, mustard, pulses and other rabi crops. Some bare and grassland areas. Development possibilities. Large-scale development is generally impractical because of the risk of river erosion and burial by new alluvium each flood season. Boro could be grown in some depression sites with low-lift pump irrigation. Perhaps wheat, vegetables, tobacco, with irrigation from shallow tubewells in areas most distant from active river channels. Possible irrigation sources. Brahmaputra-Jamuna, old Brahmaputra and other east-bank distributaries. Shallow groundwater for irrigation by small tube- wells. Additional remarks. a) Good crops are grown on most of the silty alluvium. Yields could be increased by proper use of fertilizers. b) Conditions are relatively more stable in soil map unit 5c, and would justify higher capital investment in irrigation, etc., where suitable soils occur. c) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas where the river bank is actively eroding, raw alluvium, sandy soils, depressions subject to early flooding and areas of irregular relief. ANqEX 2 Page 27 C2: North Ivmensingh piedmont plain General soil map unit 19c. Jamalpar report soil associations 12-18. Netrakona and Mymensingh Sadar North report soil associations 35, 36. Relief. Gently sloping to almost level. Some extensive basins in the south. Soils. Mainly loamy on ridges, but heavy clays in basins. Ploughpan in ridge soils impedes permeability. Some well drained sandy soils near streams. Rainfall. 100-140 inches. Drainage. Mainly flooded by rain water within field bunds. Basins are shallowly to deeply flooded. Occasional flash floods from the hills occur. Present land use. Mainly aus and transplanted aman. Deep-water aman, locally boro, in basins. Aus and rabi crops on highest soils. Development possibilities. IRRI aman on non-sandy ridges without irrigation. With irrigation, IRRI aus could be grown extensively in addition; also IRRI boro in basins. Alternatively, wheat and other rabi dry-land crops could be grown on ridges, but preferably not in rotation with transplanted rice. Possible irrigation sources. Surveys are urgently needed to assess ground- water supplies available for tubewell irrigation. Conditions for lateral recharge from the adjoining hills appear good. Minimum discharge in the Bhugai river is about 60 cusecs and negligible in smaller streams. Additional remarks. a) This unit has large areas suitable for IRRI aman. as well as for irrigated IRRI aus and boro. These crops are all exposed to damage by flash floods from the hills. The feasibilitv of nrovidinr diversion bmiads and drains as a protective measure deserves study. b) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils near hill wtreamsl AnA basins leinint to early floodsns (if uprotected). Gnvals will probably need lining, except in basins. ANNEX 2 .Page C3: High parts of old Brahmaputra floodplain C3a: North Rvmensingh C3b: West vymensingh C3c: South Nvmensingh C3d: Northeast Dacca General soil map units 5c(part), 8d(part) and 12(part) Unit C3a. Jamalpur report soil associations 5a, 5b, 6. Netrakona and Mymensingh Sadar North report soil associations 3, 5-10, 13, 14, 16, 18-20, 22-24. Part in Kishoregani Subdivision not yet surveyed. Unit C3b. Jamalpur report soil associations 4, 6-8a! 9. Tangail report soil associations 2, 3, 5-10, 20. Unit CTc. Netrakona and MKvmensinkh Sadar North report soil associations 14, 15, 17. Part in Mymensingh Sadar South Subdivision not yet surveyed. Unit C3d. Dacca report soil associations 41, 43, 46-48, 60. Relief. Mainly broad ridges and basins. Locally irregular along old chnnneT1. Soils. Mainly Iamns on ri:rIec, clays in basinsq. Manv small sanv patches on ridges in C3d. Ploughpan impedes internal drainage in most soils. Rainfall. Probably 90 inches in the south of C3a increasing to 100-150 inhoes in +he north and no-rthewst; 70-80 in G3b, 80-0q in G3G; nna 75-80 in C3d. Drainage. Seasonally flooded by rain water, mainly within field bunds on r;AV'n,t 1C+ mCr%n +'hon X fan+ Anon in hIa,ino qnil- moinlvr fr1rniih+.Vr in Ir-r season, except in western part of unit C3b (soil map unit 5c). Basin centers dirmian slowlyr ar.some remaln per.ma-vnlnnly- *r.et Rani-jz ro rder units C2 and C6 are subject to flash floods from the northern hills. Present land use. Mainly aus, jute and transplanted aman on ridges, and on bas..n m-argns.v n north-1. As -A Adeep=water nma. ordeep-r omon, alone in basins. Boro in some basin centers. Development possibilities. (i) With irrigation. IRRI aus in addition to non-irrigated IRRI aman on most4r1iue soils. TDDT booo u a.s xetpr-s erbqld with unit C6. Alternatively, wheat on ridges, preferably on soils not used for a transplanted rice crop. Sugarcane, kharif and rabi d_y=land crops on non-flooded ridge soils. Kharif and rabi groundnuts could be grown exlensively W±IVhou irr.igation ANNEX 2 Page 29 (ii) With flood protection and pump drainage. IRRI aus and aman on basin margins as well as ridges. S'ugarcane, knarif and raoi crops more exten- sively on ridges. (See also remark (a) below.) Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation deserve early investigation. Recharge conditions appear probably poor, except in the north of unit C3a, along the old Brahmaputra channel, near the edge of the Nadhupur tract (unit C13) and in unit C3d. Minimum discharge in reivers is very low: nil in the old Brabmaputra, 60 cusecs in the Bansi and 30 in the Bhugai. The feasibility of diverting water from the Brahmaputra into the Bhugai, old Brahmaputra, Bansi and other channels needs examination. Parts of unit C3d might be irrigated from the Lakhya and middle Meghna rivers, in both of which water extracted for irrigation could be tidally replenished. Additional remarks. a) Pump drainage of large areas of this unit might not be advantageous since this might increase the acreage requiring irrigation for transplanted aman cultivation. Areas in the south and west are transitional to units C8a and C9 and might be included in capability studies for these areas. b) Sufficient land is available for sugarcane cultivation in unit C3a to support two sugar mills (probably at Gouripur and Shamganj). Similarly, sufficient suitable land is available for kharif and rabi groundnuts to support several oil mills, especially in units C3a and C3d, possibly also in C3b, but this requires confirmation by field survey. (unit C4 adjoining C3a, and unit 13 adjoining C3d, also have extensive areas suitable for irrigated sugarcane, non-irrigated kharif groundnuts and irrigated rabi groundnuts which could supply mills in the present unit.) c) Provision of field drains on non-flooded ridge soils would improve conditions for sugarcane and kharif dry-land crops. d) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils (especially in C3d), areas of irregular relief and depression centers liable to early floods. Canals would generally not need lining (if properly puddled and maintained), except on patches of sandy ridge soils (especially in C3d). e) The boundaries between these units and adjoining units are mainly merging ones, except in the case of the boundary with units C13 and E6. AiTNEX 2 Page 3_ C4: High old Brabmaputra ridges General soil map unit 15b. Jamalpur report soil associations 10, 11. Netrakona and Mymensingh Sadar North report soil associations 2, 3. Relief. Broad and narrow, high floodplain ridges, with lower ridges and inter-ridge depressions between them. Soils. Mainly brown loamy soils on high ridges and grey loamy soils on lower ridges and in depressions. Ma5nly permeable, but soils used for trans- Dlanted rice have a ploughpan. Rainfall. 80-100 inches. Drainage. High ridges stand above normal flood level. Lower ridges and depressions are mainly shallowly flooded in monsoon season. High ridge soils become droughtv. especiallv where sandy. Grey soils generallv retain moisture well in dry season. Present land use. Aus and rabi crops in higher ridges. Aus and transplanted aman or deen-water nmmn on lower sites. DTeveopnment noeeihiliHe- (i) Without. iTrionti,nn. Ohn high ridg-R (eynent where verv sandv). kharif and rabi groundnuts, kharif cereals, kharif vegetables, kharif pulses, ginger, tunrio, 0enrlv -hi rncrps, improved. sugarcane with proper use Of fertilizers. Substitute IRRI aman for transplanted local aman on lower -ridrge and -trVeJT shallowrlyir floodedl dpreosions.o (ii) WJithir_t^. qiSn-ngar^ar.e bar.ar.as, pnineawppla, w4heat, ranbivetals tobacco, rabi cotton, earlier sowing of broadcast aus on high ridge soils (xe v 9YnA5 s iJheat,- e~&lier-. swiv-r- of broadcast a_s d jute on lower ridge soils. IRRI boro or aus in depressions. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is expected to be readily avail- able for tvublewell irrigat.ion. R1 0echaOrgecondit ions appear too be good.'' M rJ flow in the adjoining old Brahmaputra channel has fallen as low as nil. Additional remarks. a) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils and areas of 'local'ly irreg-s'ar re_liefL. G0 0.0.LV L~J .JLJJ U) VJdSJ..LO IJ.L.L L_LU.60 WSJ.L"U ±.C0UV 5 u) x tVLt,nL _ d.ILU Xr1.±.d.L.L.L ULJ.LdY.L±U.U U4-.JJ90 5.2- V..JWL WJL5, 5L¼'004L.L CAIJ ILC1 _ would benefit from provision of field. drains to remove excess monsoon-season rai.iL .±fa.j. OU aLU,.LV. 6 AUA.UL¼.U0 ¼''4.5.A . U.)iA.~L1±Ve Ltva0 OIU. Ud,JW.L~_ .LU.L 0U.LLU. 5 .6)9-lJ 5.5.4 oil mills which could be set up either in this unit or in adjoining -unit C3a. Al,I'EK 2 C5: Old Brahmaputra floodplain complex This is a complex unit comprising landscapes and soils similar to those in units Cl, 3 and 4; but in areas too small to map individually. General soil map unit 6b and part of 8b. Jamalpur report soil associations 1-2, 5b, 8a, 8b, 10, 11. Netrakona and Mymensingh Sadar North report soil associations 1-5, 11, 12. Small parts in Mymensingh Sadar South and Kishoreganj Subdivisions not surveyed. Relief. Mainly irregular ridges and depressions, but some extensive areas of smooth ridges and basins occur. Soils. Well drained sandy and loamy soils on highest ridges, mainly north of the old Brahmaputra channel. Mainly seasonally-wet loams on lower ridges and in depressions, with some clays in basins. Soils mainly permeable, except where ploughpans are strongly developed and in basins. Rainfall. 80-90 inches Drainage. Hign ridges stand above normal flood level. Lower ridges and depres- sions are mainly shallowly flooded in the monsoon season, but some depressions are more deeply flooded. Hign riages become droughty in dIy season. Other soils mainly retain moisture well, and some depression centers are slow draining. Present land use. Mainly aus, jute and transplanted aman. Aus, jute and early rabi dry-lanud crops on igh ridges. .Uevelopment Possibil iLtie> -0. Large6t-tJdl= det:JveJlopet:; pJotssiblitiesLV.C are limitedU bLy the complex landscape. With tubewell irrigation, higher ridge soils would mainly Le suibLe J. for sugarcae, wheat, tJobiacco, rabi cotton., potatloes, oilseeds, vegetables, etc. Iharif and rabi groundnuts could be grown extensively without irriga4o-4 AIel.natVe relatively hever Idlower ri--e basin-margi soils could product IRRI aman without irrigation, and IRRI aus in addition with irrigation. IPI as or boro could be gro n _ centes. Possible irrigation solurces. Groudwater is exnected to be readily available for tubewell irrigation. Recharge conditions appear good, both vertically and laterally from the old Bra anm+ e-hwn-nl TDr-season flnw in +he old BrAh itra has fallen to nil in reGent vears, but the water stored in the channel provides a convenient source for low-lift pumns where irrigrable soils adjoin the river bank. Additional remarks. a) This unit would need to be included within anv feasibilitv studies under- taken for large-scale drainage or canal irrigation in adjoining units C3a and 3c. b) Bank erosion, channel shifts, rapid flow of floodwater and risk of burial by thick fresh alluvial deposits provide hazards for development within the monsoon- season channel and on land immediately adjoining it. c) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, eroding river banks, areas of raw alluvium, areas of irregular relief and sites subject to rapid flow of floodwater (for kharif crops). ANNEX 2 Page z C6: North Mymensingh piedmont basins General soil map unit llb and outlying part of 19c. Netrakona and Mymensingh Sadar North report soil associations 16, 25, 29, 31-34, 36. Relief. Mainly deep basins separated by both high and low ridges. Gently sloping at foot of northern hills. Soils. Mainly heavy clays. Sandy along Someswari river channel. Mainly loamy at foot of hills and on high ridges. Rainfall. 100-150 inches. Drainage. Most of the unit is seasonally deeply flooded. Higher ridges and hill-foot strip are flooded. only within field bunds. Flood. levels are liable to rapid fluctuations due to flash floods from the hills. Most areas become drou-htv in the drv season. except basin centers. Present land use. Mainlv clee-n-water aman. with boro in basin centers. Aus and transplanted aman near hill foot and on high ridges. Development possibilities. With irrigation, IRRI boro extensively in basins and IRRI aus on higher margins. IRRT amnan witholt. irrigation on hill-foot land. and high ridges, and IRRI aus with irrigation. Wheat could be grown with irrigantionn on higher ridges and basin margins, but pnreferbhly not on the heaviest clays or in rotation with transplanted rice. Possible irrigation sources. Surveys are urgently needed to assess ground- water rpnnliea availabhle foPr lhwall ir.riation. Conditions for lateral recharge from the hills appear good. Minimum discharge in the Someswari is aboutni 230 Gusecs and in the Bhurgai about about 0. Expert assessment of potential irrigation supplies stored in basin centers (haors) is needed. Additional remarks. a) Diversion bunds and drains are needed in the north to protect boro and a) -i on - iigion is needed to avoid oils river and near the hills, areas of irregular relief and basin centers subject to earlJ.J flVJU- d..L.LJ. \WJL G F VU.6 VU./ *LLJ.5JVLL. LO D0 W V5-L pJg VL J L LU neG 1 4 7 except locally on sandy patches, but cracking of heavy clays in basins might V.ide a problem 4.i the wereJ4 not--_I- 1canalc. -p ANNEX 2 raze rr 07: Low nartR of old Brahmanutra floodnlain MmGnarnel 90il mn- n --- ' .trl(ptn-r--) nr-- r- Net+.rw,ko And TVTrmrn8;,nh Rmnr' on-r+.h vpn-rt onil s 16 1Q-91 24, 26-28, 32, 33. Dacca report soil association 59. Part in Kishoreganj Subdivision not yet surveyed. Relief. Broad floodplain ridges and deep basins. Soils. Mainly loams on ridges and clays in basins. Most soils have a stong".-gydeve-loped p-l o,,-U-ar. ime4r-.t-,aldriri PLairfal-1 I rbal 80-100+, inches. D-ainaxe..L M.a.V J.lJJ.y sjeao.aLly deepl.y± f.ooded.LLL Ui.hest are o L1~~~L.LJJ..L .L%J" d,.L.L. ~ 'AL C"KJ.LJ. "LY 010JL.Jw flooded. Basin centers drain slowly and some remain permanently wet. Other soil.sU.L± becomeU .LuL drogtU..0LA61UY-UJLU r.-sao. U.ULy WVtVL PrLesent Lar.du use. M aialy deep-water- amar., wilh me -.s --a-.d -.- hihr ridges. Boro in wet basin centers. Development possibilities. With irrigation, IRRI boro or aus over most of the unit. Alternat-vely-, wheat arud other dry--laud crops on ridges, followed by broadcast aus or jute. Possible irrigation sources. Surveys are urgently required to assess ground- water supplies available for tubewell irrigabion. Conditionrs for dir-ect recharge appear poor, except near the old Brahmaputra channel in the south. None of the small rivers crossing the unit has a significant flow in the drUy season. Additional remarks. a) Pump drainage would be more difficult than in adjoining units C3a and 3d because of the deeper basins and greater proportion of clay soils. If drainage is eventually found necessary and feasible, ridge soils could be used for irrigated sugarcane and kharif and rabi dry-land crops, iower sites for IRRu aus and aman, basin centers for IRRI or local boro varieties. b) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid patches of sandy ridge soils, areas of locally irregular relief and basin centers subject to early flooding (for IRRI aus and boro). Canals would probably not need lining, except on the highest ridges. ANNEX 2 r.venn t4l CA i T),q.(r-. CAnz.A!a Xnrtrh of T)'hn1Pqwnri -rivp-r C8b: South of Dhaleswari river This unit has been subdivided because of different development prospects in +.hp areoa repm-iivrly north and south of +he T iowe.n-ri river. Gepneral soil mapn units Rc8 Onrl 9 3)nn -ran oi _onini-n_ TT_i (,* _Q vi _o i 7_ )I- n D^eca~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.soi asocaios reporUi G8a:- lr 21 39, 4244 47, 4q 50, 52, 60. Unit G8b: 45, 52, 53, 68- Relif . -Ams level, --bo f----a- and- bass Exten-e ir gular areas near Baidhya Bazar and Munshiganj because of man-made cultivation platforms_ ar.id asso ci_a te-d tarLke, s; al1s o n.a then (lt1-4 tle) rah_ put c^relWM Soils. M-,l,Y loms on r-Aes &nd c b s Soils L _- slo,wlly p,r meable, except on higher ridges adjoining Lakhya and (little) Brahmaputra ch LrLe 1 s - 'nv,fall 7585lchs *an Manl seso '.ly.~,-~-U.F f Ly U b.%LJJ ccwLuLL..La,Ay Ura. L.L± WaterU.L andU local run-off. Basins drain slowly, but most become dry before end of dry season . Present larnd use. Mainly deep-water aman and some j-ute. Vegetables onl man- made land near Munshiganj; aus and early rabi crops near Baidhya Bazar. Development possibilities. (i) Unit C8a. With irrigation, IRRI boro in basins and IRRI aus on basin margins and lower ridge sites. This area would De reLatively simpler to provide with pump drainage than unit C8b because it is bounded by stable rivers. With pump drainage and irrigation, extensive areas could produce IRRI aus and aman, alternatively, non-flooded ridge sites could produce sugarcane, bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, vegetables, etc. (ii) unit C8b. With irrigation, IRRI boro in basins and MI±±aus on higher land. Pump drainage would be more difficult to provide than in C8a because the Dhaleswari and Ganges rivers bounding three sides of it have unstabie banks and channels: (see remark (c) below). If considered practical, crops similar to those indicated for unit C8a could be produced with irrigation. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be assessed. Conditions for direct recharge appear generally to be poor, but may be satisfactory near rivers. Tne Lakhya, middle Meghna, Dhaleswari and Ganges rivers are tidal and could provide ample irrigation supplies. Additional remarks. a) TFe Dacca-Narayanganj-Demra Project lies within this unit and provides a pilot demonstration area for large-scale pump drainage and irrigation development. ANNEX 2 rage .: b) With small-scale irrigation from tanks or small tubewells, vegetables ar.d~ banana r'i1+i trin coulrl e inni amm onr theIiT-mnad 1 Dfland n-" 'nriAWTr Bazar and Munshiganj. c) The banks of the Dhaleswari and Ganges rivers are unstable. Those of the T-Vkira, a.,vr e Man4 vvz are sta . Teac s -- -A be considered in siting embankments, permanent structures and small-scale -- pS. C ara 1s n ear , a IDh1esw3rr ad Ganges r. vers wouldA suect-b o annual siltation, but not those elsewhere. d) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid raw alluvium and erod4- a'1-1s 4lr-e Dhaesar an-1-1-- ier,loalyib-a .LJtu -Es jcJdL.~0 -OU. ,. L± L OL 0 L.. AL±U ~ 0 .LLV V L' J. .. U.9 relief and basin centers subject to early flooding. e) The boundary between units C8a and C3d is a merging one. ANNEX 2 rage Jo C9: Southern part of Jamuna floodplain and part of old Brahmaputra floodplain General soil map units 5c(greater part) and 12(part). Tangail report soil associations 2-4, 6, 7, 9. Dacca report soil associations 49, 54-58, 61-63, 70. Relief. Broad floodplain ridges and basins, mainly smooth, but locally irregular. Many old channels. Soils. Mainly loamy on ridges and clays in basins. Soils are generally well-structured, but have a ploughpan impeding internal drainage. Rainfall. 65-80 inches. Drainage. Mainly seasonally flooded deeper than 3 feet. Most soils retain moisture well for most of dry season. Basin centers drain slowly and some remain wet throughout dry season. Deep basins, old channels and areas adjoining rivers are liable to rapid rise of flood water. Present land use. Mixed aus and deep-water aman followed by rabi dry-land crops is the major practice. Deep-water aman alone or followed by khesari in deeper basins; aus or jute followed by rabi crops on parts of the ridges. Development possibilities. (i) With irrigation. IRRI boro or aus could be grown extensively in basins and on lower parts of ridges, wheat and other rabi dry-land crops extensively on ridges and basin margins, tobacco, rabi vegetables, on the highest ridges; and aus, deep-water aman, jute could be sown earlier and protected against drought. (ii) With flood protection and pump drainage. Combined with irrigation, this would greatly expand the area suitable for sugarcane, bananas, wheat, other dry-land cereals, jute, kharif and rabi vegetables, potatoes, kharif groundnuts (without irrigation), rabi cotton and transplanted aman (inclu- ding IRRI). Deep basin centers would probably remain too deeply flooded for IRRI aus and aman, but might produce IRRI boro. (See remark (a) below.) Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need to be confirmed. Conditions for direct recharge appear to be poor, except possibly in the north and along major river channels. Minimum discharge in the Brahmaputra-Jamuna exceeds 100,000 cusecs. In the Dhaleswari-Kaliganga it is 4,000 cusecs, in the Bansi about 60, but almost nil in other channels. The lower Dhaleswari is tidal in the dry season. Additional remarks. a) There is considerable overland flow of water from the Jamuna in this unit. Construction of embankments to prevent this flooding would raise flood levels in adjoining rivers, the consequences of which deserve ANNEX 2 r5ge 7.7g careful study: see Thijsse reports. Conditions for flood protection and pump arainage appear to be more favora'ole nortlh oI the Lohajanj river (north of Tangail). b) The Jamuna and its major distributaries have unstable channels. This needs to be considered in planning embankments and otner permanent struc- tures in their neighborhood. c) If large areas were pump drained, large-scale canal irrigation from the Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Dhaleswari-Kaliganga rivers would probably be necessary. d) Small-scale pump irrigation from the Brahmaputra-Jamuna and its major distributaries mignt be difficult because of the constantly changing river banks and channels, and the problem of annual siltation of canals near the river banks. e) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, raw alluvium, irregular relief and basins subject to early flooding. ANNEX 2 G-eneral~~~lsoil 1b ApIA Relief. Mainly smooth, broad, floodplain ridges and basins. Locally irregular. Soils. Mainly clays, with loams on higher parts of ridges. Permeability is probably moderate in structured clays and in loams. Rainfall. 65-75 inches. Drainage. Seasonally deeply flooded except on highest ridges. Basin centers remain wet in early part of dry season. Ridge soils become droughty in dry season. Present land use. Mainly deep-water aman, often followed by khesari or mustard. Development possibilities. (i) With irrigation. IRRI boro except on loamy ridge soils and in basin centers. Ausi juite nnd enrly dry-land rabi crops (w.heant tobacnc) o_n InnTmr riAe goil (ii) With flood Drotection and pump drainage. Combined with irrigation, this would make cultivation of IRRI aus and aman possible on all except loamy ridge soils and basin centers. Alternatively, ridges and basin margins could produce wheat, etc., following aus or jute, and non-flooded sites could produce sugar- cane. Loamy ridge soils could produce bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, oil- seeds, vegetables and tobacco. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need assessment. Recharge conditions appear to be favorable, both directly and laterally by way of adjoining river beds. Minimum discharge in the combined Jamuna and Ganges exceeds 100,000 cusecs. In the Dhaleswari- Kaliganga it is about 4,000 cusecs. Additional remarks. d4/aT) £±1_o ur.iLU±.I..U - -LOis1 floode- --A.i C%d,LJ.11Ualmost JVzu V.±±LU ---LIrv ,_-LY byUJY C6._acu'a-_---. UUULL~aUeU La-L41 waerWC6Ut;.L,4- ILU)Uno UJ over-V--L land flow from the rivers. It appears to be more suitable for reclamation by emb U-met .L U Vr±LIIO.Ld Ullth IAd.JrL LUr.iL C9, theeUfo..L % b) Investigations are needed to establish satisfactorv techniaues of irrigatina wheat and other dry-land crops on the clay ridge and basin soils. Irrigation alongq furrows (or corrugations) or between narrow raised beds may be needed to effect adequate infiltration and prevent crop damage by surface waterlogging. c) Irrigation requirements of the loam ridge soils are likely to be high. Thorough puddling of friable clay ridge soils will be needed for irrigated transplanted rice. d) Field drains would benefit perennial and kharif dry-land crops grown on non-flooded or flood-protected ridge soils. e) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy ridge soils, areas ofLJirregular relief nd ilasLLs sjIect to early floodir f) (Gnq.ls on ridr1 will probably need lininr. Canals crossing heavy clays should be kept continuously wet to avoid seepage losses due to soil cracking on drvinr. ANNEX 2 Pno 39 MIl A-rinl bhll General soil map -nit lla. Dacca report 0oil association 71. P.elief. A'lm^S+ Inrlevlbs Soils. Heavy clvrs, imeioW. when wet, but cracking widely i allowe to dry. Rainfall. Probably 70 inches. Drainage. Deeply flooded in monsoon season. Wet for most or all of dry season except on a few relatively higer -i-ez Present land -a-e. M'a.ily boro%-.-%Deep--wae am&..---. -- As .onratvy .5.I, L~LLU~ ~ * JJ.~J.JL JJL.. L;VVJF WMV'=J. Q,LUQ.LJ. C6LLU.5~0~CIL'L~L~ J. ~J±±.U. LMU L,4 V ~. higher areas. Development possibilities. With additional irrigation, IRRI boro could be grow-n on presenttly uncultivated -ld. rOssible Vii EationsoWuLces. PemanLent -w-ater-supplies in depressionts are already in use for irrigation. Additional irrigation supplies would have to come by pumpi-u from tbhe Gnges and Dhales-wari rivers..Tubewells might be practical on the higher margins. Additional remarks. a) The southwestern part of the unit is being silted up through artificial cnannels cut througn the Ganges levee. Tne long-term possibility needs to be considered of accelerating this process by cutting channels from the IThaleswari-Kaliganga river and increasing the number of those from the Ganges. By raising the ground level and burying the heavy clays with more silty alluvium, the land might be made suitable for dou?ble and triple cropping and eventually for pump drainage similar to adjoining unit C10. b) Provision of flood protection and pump drainage to this unit might not be feasible or economic because of the prevalence of clay soils in an extensive sump.position. It seems doubtful whether monsoon season water levels could be kept low enough for transplanted aus and aman to be grown. c) Heavier tillage equipment and animals (or tractors) are needed for better land preparation. d) Amost all the land is suitable for boro cultivation, either with or without irrigation, but depression sites draining late and liable to early flooding would not be suitable for present IRRI varieties. ANNEX 2 PO6 4'~ C12 ActleGe-lodla. Ge.nerd, soi inapUL m-L 2.C0 DUaca r-epor't soil map ur.itL 's 64-67. ____l__t__ I.iLL±:LL.6U;J r eUsLU Uli UIeU±WoLd-LLq, LbUt ~J1LUU UobL1U on high Ganges levee. Soils. Calcareous sands and silts on charland. Loams and silty clays on high levee. nainfall. 65-75 inches. Drainage. 4lainly seasonally deeply iLooa.ea and drougnhy in dry season. Soils on high levee mainly permeable. Present land use. Early aus, jute, deep-water aman, some rabi crops on charland. Mixed aus and deep-water aman and rabi crops on high levee, together with some jute. Some bare areas and grassland on new charland. Development possibilities. Possibilities for large-scale development axe restricted by the annual risk of river erosion or burial by new alluvium. Use of fertilizers would improve yields of crops presently grown. Possible irrigation sources. Small depression areas might be irrigated from the Ganges for boro cultivation. Tubewell irrigation on the high levee could be used for wheat and early sowing of aus, jute and deep-water aman. Additional remarks. a) Good crops can be grown on silty charland. Yields could be improved by proper use of fertilizers. b) The rate of erosion of the high Ganges levee appears to be slow between Aricha and Bhagyakul. Moderate investment in irrigation might be justified in this area. Canals might need lining. c) Considerable areas are occupied by homesteads on the high Ganges levee in the Dohar-Lohajang area. ANINEX 2 Page MS2 C13: Madhupur tract General Roil map units 18a and l9a. JamaIpuxr rpnort Roil associations 20-22b. T'nrg.il rnnrt Hoi l gor.iationg 11-1r . D-GG- r-or8i 1 associ&tion-s 1-40. Part in M,vFonp-8nJh Sr-_r Sou+h and TJishnr1 -ni %huii-vi9ion8 not vye. srv d The MnAdhpur tract isa complex area. Its various gibrlivi-ioni c-nnot be shown adequately on the 1:1 million map but are shown separately on the 1arge-scale map of the l4adhupmr tract. TUnit Gl'a J-ncludes +.he mstin areas of level 1,inghl-nt wi+.rh d mAdr-tely well-drained, permeable clay soils. They presently produce aus, mesta, kharif grundtnuts, mustard, radishes and jackfr.it. .With irnigation; they could produce sugarcane, wheat and other dry-land cereals, kharif and rabi vegetables, oilseeds,A tobacco .ar.d- poss-bl rai cotton. assorci ated valleys mainly have seasonally deeply flooded clays well-suited for boro soils and with heavy clays in valleys. Present land use and cropping possi- billl_es are simil-ar. eo those&Uv.iC13a, butJ p isnOion+ orr the highland soils would be difficult because of the small extent of indivi- A-, 1 1ev nhITl ^ni +^P Tllrf1 mma+t%C 1- .1 ;-_. nn;,n+; 4 LL ,. . L w V fL i AJJUfl UC * JJS V w Vfs U Vi4. v.V .4. *L.L-(^SflLaAt. O'JJ. _fJ.Jq .L. - v A ^vu.&.4aULt . with adjoining valley soils might be practical, however. Unit C13c includes closely dissected highland areas with mainly shallow soils overel imperLvious clay. These are under for-est, gr-asslanLd or poor cultivation. Associated narrow valleys have silty soils, mainly seasonally lIULJ..±Lowly,taL.owl L.±VUtU.Ullode andWLIU usedWI(UU J.U.LdU.~for_XI-as WLLldLU.and--3 U...LAW±.LW±IaUt. anpae UAdAI--- .L± o- LJ.Lf-LUJ. dee--wate4l-zP)Wt%UL.LT amnan where more deeply flooded. The highland soils are unsuitable for Im.proved agricultur-e (le-velling Wo-uld expose the sterile clay- substratum). IRRI aman, and possibly IRRI aus, could be produced in the shallow valleys with ±rrigation, but irrigation might be dificulU to pro-vde to these narrow, sloping, branching valleys, except by small-scale tecbniques. Unit Cl3d includes mainly level areas of imperfectly and poorly drained highland where aus and transplanted aman are the main crops grown at present. With irrigation, IRRI aus and aman could be grown on most of the land, except better drained ridges and site8 toO deeply flooded for iIRI aman in the monsoon season. The largest area of this unit, between Tongi and Joydebpur, is shown on the 1:1 million map. Unit Cl3e includes the main broad deep valleys with heavy clays susceptbiDle to deep seasonal flooding and often remaining wet throughout the dry season. They are mainly usea for deep-water awan or buoro. With additional irriga- tion, boro could be grown throughout the unit and IRRI varieties grown on the relatively higher areas. Rainfall. 70-90 inches. ANNEX 2 Pni, Jn2 Possible irrigation sources. Irrigation will mainly have to be from tube- wells so investigations to assess avanilable grohnwater reserves are urgently required. Recharge conditions appear generally to be good. Small areas could possibly be canal irrigated from rivers crossing or adjoining the tract. MiniTnmum disar'ge in the BaRnsi is about 100 cusecs, and is less than 200 cusecs in the Turag and Lakhya (although tidal repale-i hmavn -- could,, a-'or take plac t -n +he 1-o-r re-h-kach of th-e la+ter rivers). Surface water supplies retained in numerous small bils in units Additional remarks. -) TT_j,44 -C'z-. ~ 4-, ,e - 4-- e4.,a- ln1--.l i k~-,1q 4-, 4-U-. *D,..a IJJ.J.LU 3 )Q .. yA* V .L .O Vll~ ULJO VA ~.A VU ,LJ.L.~ V ~ O,j.~O '.Cb 4. V ~- 44 11L).J.OA.. ..LJ.J UJ.l ... ' vince suitable for irrigated sugarcane and other dry-land crops. IRRI aus .ndama.. could a 1ls o b.L'egro-JW± o.n t. hiU"1land, .s -butwo- 'dUAhi r4 ha-e irrigation. b) Because of their superior value for agricultural development, units C13a and C13d'LU W - L.oVtU be.L Ud fUoLragrLCL6.iUU.L" usVt,LiUI%VW:$=1 by. IJJ VL1U.ordi.ar.c if necessary. Urban and industrial development should be directed onto units C13b)L ar.d C13L~c whEer-ever possible. A% -, I -:1l _:n - -. 4 . --a1 ,:] _ :u __ : tN1 _ . r X LJ.L'U d.L±U.-'JQU Li/ L±.L~~~~~~~,LL-Ld.LILLWIvanSL.L~~~~~~~~~~LUC ~~LU U.L±4.L. ~~~~~~~~~J±)L.,CUIU. P~~~~~~~~~Lf.I t ~~~CUiVL.~W's.JQU LIALAI.,VL-L LJUU.±U. U r L)tUt:'e used for improved forestry than for agriculture. (On the other hand, part of 4.1- Madh3vl_-uL- Rese-ve Foes and ta .L Io Pa-k1 -I-pe--an -ofhighagri 1).L uIle VaIIII.JLLLL ~ ± 1 .I_UtVtj, aL.LU 11,bU_LLnd,± £CLLX, VUU JPJ9 t±- _L~ULU . L id. L61~i d6UL cultural potential in unit C13a.) d) Irrigation canals crossing highland soils should not need lining if proper'ly puddled anid mainL 1 airnea. e) T-he feasibility of irrigatbirg the small valleys in iuit CL3c from small tubewells needs to be investigated. f) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas of irregular relief. g) Flood protection and pump drainage of deep valleys in units C13a, b and e would probably not be practical or economic. h) An agricultural experimental station is needed in unit Ci3a to investi- gate agronomic and irrigation techniques for use on these valuable soils. kThe old Dacca Faim was situated on soils of this unit. hne new agri- cultural station at Joydebpur lies partly in units C13c and d.) Sabhar Dairy Farm or the eastern part of the Kashimpur Agricultural Estate would provide suitable locations. ANWEX 2 ~~U.LLLIJ ~LJ.L.L .- fd.. Wa,.W Ueneral soil map it-a-IU7la. UaB4Ldkp-ur repol-t soil associations l9a , l9U, 23. MeteMA"Con.a andU -fVqi1UenU4S1L SOdAltU Io^-LU -LeRpo-t ;sol-l assoclaU-tlonL1s 37-9 Relief. MIainly steep low hills. Part in JaCLalpur has a.LI±vBU -level 5umJubs. 0o1ls. Miainly deep, well drainecd, loams, locally s-uony. Rainfali. iOO-150 incnes. Drainage. Hill soils are well arainea. valley soils axe seasonally wet and subject to shallow flash floods. Soils become droughty in dry season. Present land use. Mainly under forest or scrub. Aus and transplanted aman in valleys. Development Possibilities. Improved forestry on hills. Possibly tea on level hilltops north of Sherpur; (sufficient land is available to support one estate). Additional remarks. a) Cultivation of IRRI aus and aman with tubewell irrigation in valleys might be difficult because of risk of damage from flash floods. b) Overhead irrigation would benefit tea, if grown, especially at time of establishment. ANNEX 2 rtage a SW1: Active Ganges floodplain General soil map unit 2. Kushtia Sadar and Meherpur report soil associations 1, 2, 3b, 4b. Faridpur Sadar and Goalundo report soil associations 1, 2. Barisal report soil associations 14, 20a. Part in Madaripur Subdivision not yet surveyed. Relief. Mainly irregular ridges and depressions, but broad ridges and hbasinR in nprtR of north FAridnun,. oils Galcareousi si lts an-d Rsands on chnrland. CaPe.areo1is TaRnis nnd clays in part of north Faridpur. Rain-fall. 55 inches in the west increasing to 70-75 inches in north and eas Farid9pux. Dranie. Minly seasonnlly deeply flooded. Clas retaLni moisture well in dry season, but lighter textured soils eventually become droughty. Present land use. Early aus, jute, deep-water aman and rabi crops in the north. Some bare and grassland areas on yon1-est chrwland. 4 1 4 1 'nirnl nrvrnn+ nnoc,c, , 1; +;9- c T.cvvrya....nnl a Acnral nnnav%-I; 4C nren-nn- on *hana.,a Develo-pment -possb i *J w ' W *- ' a. '| Ch '- VA u. Uej - ' qJ K' 'i OJ 0s of the risk of river erosion and burial by new alluvium each flood season. Small=clkMUO-1. K'-.-. i.,rigavin4'J.44.L0 L.JL of--L boro,1.L4O- ausQ- 0d---±UA Vwheat%-4 - 4U mightUm4U 4~.1 WUU-U prcL_ L, 4J4,OL .LL"l- Careas most distant from actively eroding river banks in north Faridpur. Possible irrigation sources. Low-lift pumps or shallow tubewells might bLue usedd inj a-reas most disuantu from actul`ve;ly Ero0d.ir6 riLvter DbarS. A dditlonal__ - [-e----ks al %.TVVU U ~.L:P$UjJt: 61UWL± Oli UIUVzi U 0.1 ULli.L; -LdA.L±LL t:2LQP U Wl1eLt' .1t._U ±Lk titL[LdUy. Yields could be increased by proper use of fertilizers. b) Canals crossing loamy ridge soils or silty young alluvium would need 1 ining . ANNEX 2 'D_ I.r" _L MG W4>3 Genral80l mamp.C ar.L urit L .2~13c. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~.L L~ ijarisa.l reportL; so-il assoc-L at 1 nso-. 5a,9 14-16.L Par-t in Maadarip-ur Subdi-vision not yet s-urveyed. Relief . Low-floU'Plaln rides aiJd basins. Part 1Lightly irreguLar new alluvial land. Soils. Loams on ridges. Friable clays in basins. Mainly silts on new alluvial land. All soils are calcareous and mainly permeable. Rainfall-. 75-85 inches. Drainage. Mainly subject to shallow £looding in monsoon season. Flood level fluctuates tidally. Soils mainly retain moisture well in dry season. Present land use. Mainly aus, jute, transplanted aman and rabi crops. Development possibilities. Large-scale development is limited by the risk of erosion by the numerous rivers crossing the unit. With irrigation, lRHl boro and aus could be grown extensively in basins, and wheat and other rabi crops on ridges and basin margins. Flood levels are probably too deep for IRRI aman to be grown generally. Possible irrigation sources. Extensive areas are easily accessible by low- lift pump irrigation. Ample groundwater resources probably exist, but investment in deep tubewells would be hazardous, except possibly in areas most distant from active channels. Groundwater quality would need testing for salinity. Additional remarks. a) Embankment and tidal-sluice drainage would generally be impractical because of the constant hazard of river bank erosion. b) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid raw alluvium, sandy soils and actively eroding river banks. c) This unit is exposed to damage from cyclones and associated storm surges. Storm surges occurring in April-May or November-December may flood land in the south with salt water. Sw3: 0-anges-Kobadak Pronirc- aeon (excet tiRn1 flnnAnlcdri are3) (larmcwnl onil mnn-n n-rmi+ IXo - G-neral~~~~~~~~~epxsoil 3a ,(-It Pamn4rAov. nP +a-arnva ,ehal reportFl soi-a-~PAfl 3ssoaP--+ionfn7l n V--n-n o- 45-.,'I Ganges-Kobadak Area. Relief. Mainly broad, smooth, floodplain ridges and basins. Locally 1, ne-l -ar wt -4,A,,n-ar-row. riAd.es a depresA- o&ns - - -- l 2- 4-Lh w.-VS- Many old channels. Soils. Clays occupy about 70 percent of the unit, mainly in basins and on q AS. r ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_; UA|_ t -4 ;_ _- U - I ------_ _A______sands. The proportion of loamy soils is relatively higher in the west than .L ILLUILe4. ean 4s W-h re the- --- rp-4-o --- 4-Aup by ua1- a-i4 4- c -easesn.- JuaifTy soils are permeable, except where they have a strong ploughpan. Clays are weC±±well CtU'ULtLLLUstructurd d.L±U-n mayWdJ:%-- £1&Vtve LIIUt.VttbC:moerat pe=ebiiZ.*J:.:U=ULLL,Y OuaLdi_a1-i_f1 ISd,±IS±t: VUV- a±L&KaX±l patches occur on ridges in Jessore and part of Kushtia. Rainfall. 55-65 inches. Drainage. Many ridges in the west stand above normal flood level and are ltUUtsamode±atel±y well dur a ued. Seasuunal luooding elsawnere is mainly shallow or only within field bunds, but is deep in eastern basins. Flooding is mi-nly by acc-w-u'ated raun water. Basin centers drain slowly in tne dry season. Present land use. Mainly aus and transplanted aman, sometimes followed by pulses, also aus/jute or mixed aus and deep-water aman followed by wheat, mustard, pulses. Deep-water aman in basin centers. Development possibilities. Substitute IRRI aman for present transplanted aman. Irrigation would be beneficial, but not essential, except on loamy ridge soils. With irrigation, IRRI aus on clay ridge and basin soils. Alternatively, wheat on loams and clays (except in basin centers), followed by broadcast aus or jute. Non-flooded ridge soils can also produce sugar- cane, tobacco, kharif and rabi vegetables, groundnuts, rabi cotton. Possible irrigation sources. Eventually, it is proposed to provide canaI irrigation from the Ganges to the whole area. Areas not commanded by major canals couLd be irrigated from deep tubewells. Groundwater reserves need assessment, but appear likely to be good. Recharge conditions appear favorable, especially in the west. Additional remarks. a) Irrigation requirements of loamy ridge soils are likely to be high. Thorough puddling of friable clay ridge soils will be needed for irrigated transplanted rice. b) Investigations are needed to establish satisfactory techniques of irrigating wheat and other dry-land crops on the clay ridge and basin soils. Irrigation along furrows (or corrugations) or between narrow raised beds may be needed to effect adequate infiltration and prevent crop damage by surface waterlogging. ANNEX 2 Page7 c) Canals crossing ridges, especially in the west, may need lining. Excessive seepage from these canals during full-scale irrigation could cause problems of waterlogging in adjoining basin areas. a) Field drains would benefit perennial and kharif dry-land crops grown on all but the highest non-flooded ridge soils. e) Groundwater quality needs to be checked for irrigation suitability in areas where saline and alkali soils occur. f) Saline and alkali conditions could easily be controlled by provision of field drains and adeauate irrigation. g) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, areas of irregular relief and basins subject to early flooding. ANNEX 2 Page 48 SW4: Southeastern Ganges floodplain General soil map units 12 and 13b. Kushtia Sadar and Meherpur report soil associations 4a, 4b, 8. Faridpur Sadar and Goalundo report soil associations 3-11. Barisal report soil associations 12, 13, 15b 16a. Parts in Madaripur and Gopalgani Subdivisions, and in Jessore and Khulna Districts, not yet surveyed. Conditions in this unit are broadly similar to those in unit SW3, except that: (i) The proportion occupied by basin clays is higher: clavs occunv about 80 percent. (ii) Rainfall is 65-80 inches. (iii) Most of the land is seasonally deeply flooded and used for deep- waePr aman, sometimpe fo11owed bhvyrw.hetj psniA _ etc=n -rirlns andA hni-vn margins. (iv) Land adjoining the Gorai-Madhumati and Arial Khan rivers is subject to river fInlioonn. (v) No alkali soils are IQnio.w to occur, some depression soils south of Khulna may be saline in the dry season, however. (vi) This area is not commanded by the Ganges-Kobadak Project but might benefit from the proposed Ganges b-rrage. Development possibilbti4*- With1, TwhL bor,/a clT ridge and basin margin soils, local boro in basin centers, and wheat and other rabi d-yland dropsfo wed by.- 3- or j 1 r soils 4 flh, fesilltC,.ne 41 ofP ,rn'em ire avr.d pmrvirr.a.v.Arr Ithe r.orthen,.n.n-p rt o Faridpur District (mainly Goalundo and Faridpur Sadar subdivisions), and I-,Iir th4of par PTessoreJ_4 {>he-aesKoaa Project1--1 possillwly V11 CLU.JJL.LJ.L.L FJOIA U I.. v 'L4U.Lout+side^ U±."~ -- 4 area, deserves study. With irrigation, this could make large areas suitable Por T4 T ---- -.- for su-arc -A 4dinrease 4h1e- area-J- -le for TP.IT was. .L J3UULUL 1 LCJ. ".L %LJ.L± J .A . CLAUL LCUd.. ~ L~~ CZ dVdL .LdUiM£L L UUU WL_L Foss4ble 4 rrigation sou-a-es. Oroun.d at-4 es rve aval abl for t bewel irrigation require to be investigated. Recharge conditions are probably UU± 14LU-.__U a. -:_r __.~_ __._ L- - _:_ _a._- .- _.__ satdisfactoryUIU.W .lJJlL V dUIV U t ± LJU]r t U AUJ JJas U q u U _LJV|:i- L1L-1.-L>I dLscl.largtv "L VWhe Ut%4rt-s -ls aboutU 40,000% cuasecs abtlove Ulle Gora.lC_ and Arial Khan off-takes. Minimum flow in the Gorai is less than 1,000 cu-secs, in the An-ial liaL 300 ard in other dlstr-ibutales min.or. Rivers south of about Magura and Faridpur town are tidal (but non-saline) in the dr-y seasor . ANNEX 2 Additional remarks. a) Outlying portions of the old Meghna floodplain (soil map unit 12) have been included in this development unit. The northern occurrence has irregular relief caused by construction of man-made cultivation platforms and asso- ciated tanks. The southern occurrence is low-lying and has a merging boundary with the Gopalganj peat basins (unit SW5). b) The Mehendiganj portion of the Ganges floodplain has been included with unit SW2 because the hazard of river erosion in this area limits development possibilities. c) Irrigation requirements of loamy ridge soils are likely to be high. Thorough puddling of friable clay ridge soils will be needed for irrigated transplanted rice. d) Investigations are needed to establish techniques of irrigating wheat and other dry-land crops on the clay ridge and basin-margin soils. Irri- gation along furrows (or corrugations) or between narrow raised beds may be needed to effect adeauate infiltration and prevent crop damage by sur- face waterlogging. e) Canals crossing ridges may need lining. Canals crossing basin clays should be kept continuously wet to avoid undue seepage losses due to soil cracking. f) Site selections for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, areas of irregular relief, basin centers subject to early flooding and areas in the extreme southwest where river or groundwater may be saline. ANNEX 2 SW%: GoDalaani-Khulna peat basins General soil map unit 4L. Barisal report soil associations 17-19. Part in Khulna District covered in FAO renort on soil survev of the Ganges-Kobadak Area. Parts in Faridpur and Jessore Districts not yet surveyed. Relief. Almost level basins. Low ridges along some river banks. Soils. Peat and muck, sometimes with a clay topsoil. Rainfall. Probably 65-75 inches. Drainage. Seasonally deeply flooded with rain water. Remains wet or is + 1 f1 otLA'..A I +hfl mLA L.ro+A_ +JI.,LA tL.d.JIaMin .MLI-.A«A,+ .O. *L to V -"w _'-- - w- h n--- on,f ex evt n*- I_lmL - where part is tidally flooded with brackish water. Present land use. Reed and grass swamp. Some aus, deep-water aman and boro. Development possibilities. These areas are not suitable for reclamation by -A; A,^ .h;_1i Ii LJ..cL.L.LA.0A * 4.SL vroul5W%J..L.A. casenA v _4.vcA t1neosoIJ±.LAu peawIow.U vUI..qh ; nL 1j; -P rn- t.q;hIy1v **J iwer1 nc +.h p 6 land level and aggravating the drainage problem. Soils with an alluvial 1 topsoil car., bJe useA for boro (.whineree not afc f e -c t eIA" b y dry=season- .)± oal..L..LI±Lsea, nit 1 ,i irrigated by low-lift pump if necessary. Additional remarks. a) Soils with mucky surface layers have low bearing capacity and cannot support men and b 'l-A1oclks, or reporteLdly e~ven rice seeli_LJ6 n 1 omecaes U./ ' Luu±j _ .LCU.LrJ "U 1 0. ."Lm 9 LJ. LId"U..U _~L .Ljt C;.ZLk U .LY U4-.LJL4 LU.4-LI U UV L j b) i'I.OILJ layers~ wo-'dLL sLLUJiJX dL.d. hardenU.L irrevrsibl if.dLU. allowed to.-AWUdr. y out, making a poor medium for plant growth. c) The extent of soils with a cultivable clay topsoil needs to be deter- mi"neud. 'L eSe are-eaS offer- suit-ab-le pr-os-pectus for bUor-o. Ud) ls a long-term meas-ar-e, u the f.ibU.L±± iJ ; tobeUA Uned WuJnI: ofUoVpt.LIenJi up canals from the Madhumati and other rivers carrying Ganges waters so as to Uauy silt intO adjo ining peat areas and render them culti-vable. ANNEX 2 Fage 5 SW6: Non-saline Ganges tidal floodplain General soil map unit 5e. Barisal report soil associations 6a, 7, 8a, 8c, 9-11, 15b. Bagerhat appendix report soil associations 1, 3a, 4a. Part in Khu-lna District not yet surveyed. Relief. Almost level basins bounded by low ridges along rivers and creeks. Soils. Mainly heavy clay. Loams on ridges. Rainfall. 80-100 inches. Drainage. Seasonally shallowly flooded by fresh water. Most areas become dry in dry season, but some depressions remain tidally flooded with water of low salinity. Present land use. Mainly single cropped with transplanted aman. Locally, aman is preceded by broadcast aus or jute and followed by chillies, mung, etc. on ridges, or preceded by transplanted aus in some permanently wet basins. Develonment nossibilities. With irrigation. IRRI boro or aus on almost all the land (in addition to the present transplanted aman). Jute, wheat and other rabi crons could be grown on ridles. With low embankmente nnd tidal- sluice drainage, it might also be possible to replace the present trans- pnInted anmn by ITRRT mnn. ProsihblP irrioation mourcees. Fw narts are more than half-a-mile from a fresh water river or creek and almost all areas could be irrigated by low- lift puTmps. All +he riversn and nreeke are tidnl. Water might also be stored behind cross-dams across creeks (see remark (c) below). Additional remarks. a) This unit appears to provide one of the most extensive areas suitable for low-lift pump irrigatio. n- the cou+ntry b) The feasibility of maintaini a _i-.iow floodi-g depth n the monsoon season by constructing low embankments around basins and providing tidal- sluice dr e needs e-Tminatior If feasible, large areas could be m de suitable for IRRI aman. If found feasible, provision of subsidiary bunds and tidal sluices with" basis might be .ecessary to pro-idereglated water levels on all parts of the saucer-shaped landscape. c) It is possible that the duration of high tide in small interior creeks 4 4 4- -mj-•r b-ehns -ff-icientto pe it pump -rriationof all a d-jo-in,n 1-A L, dry season. If this is found to be so, the possibility of storing irriga- d) nw. ro+n I iA srudies are neeAde tn dtrmine ho we etTrActed fIr.-I wtountA,irrA,igation +dr thepnrnesnt saln- e- i+n in-n extracted for irrigation without drawing the present saline limit inland to ANNEX 2 rage 0' an undesirable extent. Similar studies are also needed to ascertain the nossible consequences of large-scale withdrawal of water further upntream in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, including the effects of the proposed PF.rakka and ranneq barragesq. e) Some soils in the eXtreme soquth Show Slisrht tonpoil Salinity in th'e dry season. This would be easily removed if the soils were irrigated. f) The boundary with unit SW7 is a merging one. The saline limit (1nnO mmrlnh) in tlh -riv probbhlv vnripp from Vyner t.r V.-r n.rcordingo t.n dry-season discharge in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system and changes in clirtinr oifrthe Meghnh qruinri,n currents. The ni n- limit mqv mnve inland with completion of the Coastal Embankments in neighboring parts of umit qW7 due to rncreased chaunelization of tidal flow in +he embanked rivers. g) This area is exposed to periodic damage by cyclones and associated sto.nrm smrges. bn eroe sele, aion y-- int gaion is nt. --- to ----- a-eas subject to bank erosion, mainly in the northeast. ANNEE_ X2 SW7: Saline Ganges tidal floodplain General soil map unit 5f. Barisal report soil associations 6b, 8b, 20b. Bagerhat appendix report soil associations 2a, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5. Part in west of Khulna is covered by the FAO report on the soil survey of the Ganges-Kobadak Area. Relief. Almost level basins bounded by low ridges along rivers and creeks. Soils. Mainly heavy clays. Loams on narrow ridges. Soils slightly to moaerately saline in dry season (except in completed Coastal Embankment polders). Occasional patches of acid sulphate soils in southwest. Soils in west often have a peat layer in the subsoil. Rainfall. 60 inches in extreme west, increasing to 80-100+ inches in the east. Drainage. Mainly shallowly flooded by fresh water in monsoon season, except in the south. Tidally flooded by salt water in dry season except where embanked. Present land use. Transplanted aman. Grass swamu in some unreclaimed areas in southwest. Development possibilities. With completion of Coastal Embankment polders, more secure transplanted aman crops. Possibly addition of aus. at least on loamy ridge and basin-margin soils, or of transplanted aus in basin centers. Possible irrigation sources. Possibility of storing fresh monsoon-season water behind cross-dams deserves examination, both for domestic use snd irrigation of transplanted aman or transplanted aus. Flushing of polders with relatively non-saline river water in the aus and smsn seasons ma-V 'e possible in the north. The possibility needs to be examined of closing off lateral creeks in the north of Patuakhali district so as to allow fresh water to penetrate further south between major rivers in the dry season. Additional remarks. a) Provision of subsidiary bunds and additional sluices may be needed within completed Coastal Embankment polders to avoid too depn flooding Of basin een- ters and inadequate flooding of marginal areas. With well-regulated water levels, it might be nossible to sbhstitute TRRT nmnn Vrarietisaa for the present transplanted aman. b) Excessive drainage should be avoided in western areas where soils contain neat 1navers.. .Shrnkaoe of +hese pent 1 arorso wurnildA callse I on-rinw of 1&nd l evels perhaps irregularly. Some of these layers contain sulphides, and drainage could cause develonment of tool G acid-sulphate conditios.s ANIEX 2 Page 54 c) The boundary with unit SW6 is a merging one. The saline limit (1000 mmhos) in the rivers probably varies from year to year with varia- tions in dry season river flow and, in the east, because of periodic changes in the direction of Meghna estuarine currents. The saline limit may move inland with completion of the Coastal Embankments due to increased channelization of tidal flow in embanked rivers; also if large amounts of irrigation water are abstracted from rivers further inland. d) This area is exposed to periodic damage by cyclones and associated storm surges. AINNEX .2 Zage .5. owu; .DLuloa (except extmeUL-- SOut wXenera± 80oil map unifts j(paiu) axnu 5e(pakU). Barisal report soil associations la, 2-5a, 20a. Relief. Almost level Soils. M1Iainly heavy loams in the older, northeastern, area. very silty in the younger areas in west, center and south. Permeability probably slow. Soils very sligntly saline in dry season. Rainfall. Probably 90-iOO+ inches. Drainage. Seasonally shallowly flooded, mainly by rain water retained witnin field bunds. In lower areas (mainly soil map unit 2), water level fluctuates tidally. Soils retain moisture well during early part of dry season, but become droughty later. Present land use. Aus and transplanted aman, mainly followed by chillies and other rabi crops. Development possibilities. Large-scale development is handicapped by the lack of an assured irrigation source and the hazard of river erosion. Pump irriga- tion from the Meghna should be possible in the first half of the dry season, at least in the north of Bhola. IRRI aman should be possible in this area without irrigation, but supplemented by pump irrigation if necessary. Trials with irrigated wheat are also recommended. Without irrigation, rabi groundnuts, barley, millet, and other drought-resistant crops could be grown on soils not used for transplanted rice. Possible irrigation sources. Water in the adjoining Meghna estuary is fresh in the monsoon season but become saline during the dry season. The salt water limit in March, April and May needs to be determined (in both the western and eastern channels) so that the limits of irrigation for wheat and for aus (broad- cast and transplanted) can be established. Prospects for adequate deep groundwater supplies for irrigation appear poor, but need to be investigated. If, or where, irrigation from rivers and groundwater is impossible, rain water might be collected and stored in excavated tanks and used for limited irriga- tion of adjoining land (as well as for domestic supplies). Additional remarks. a) Soil salinity is mainly slight and would easily be removed by provision of irrigation and field drains. b) The Meghna has eroded a large area on the northeast coast of Bhola in recent years. On the other hand, the western (Tetulia) channel appears to be silting up. c) The southern part of the unit lies within the Coastal Embankment Project areas. d) The unit is badly exposed to cyclones and associated storm surges. a) Site selection for irrigation is mainly needed to avoid actively eroding river banks and areas of new alluvial deposition. Also areas witn saline river or groundwater. ANNEX 2 t'age 5b SW9: South Bhola and off-shore islands outside the Coastal Embanlknent Project Area General soil map units 2(part) and 5f(part). Barisal report soil associations lb, lc, 5b, 6c, 20b. Relief. Almost level. Soils. Mainly young alluvial silts. Saline in dry season. Rainfall. Probably 100+ inches. Drainage. Tidally flooded in monsoon season, mainly with rain water or fresh to brackish river water. Present land use. Mainly transplanted aman, especially on Bhola. Many outer islands are under grassland (grazed by buffaloes) or bare. Development possibilities. Constant hazard of river erosion, exposure to cyclones and storm surges, lack of an irrigation source and difficult com- munications severely limit development possibilities. Use or salt-tolerant rice varieties, drought-tolerant rabi dry-land crops together with ferti- lizers could improve production. Possible irrigation sources. Excavation of deep tanks to collect and store rain water on the more stable areas, especially in south Bhola and on major islands south of Galachipa. Additional remarks. a) Construction of maior embankments with tidal sluices not nractical because of constant hazard of river erosion. Embankment of small polders with simnle tidial sluices might be nractical in relatively more stable areas, especially in south Bhola and major islands south of Galachipa. AINNEX 2 SW10: Khulna Sunderbans General soil map unit 3. Barisal report soil association 6d. Most of the area has not yet been surveyed. Relief. Almost level, broken by many tidal rivers and creeks. Soils. Acid sulphate soils, mainly clays. Rainfall. Probably 70-100 inches. Drainage. Tidally flooded with saline or brackish water for most of the yer. Present land use. Ma-rove forest. Devellopment possibilities.Relmtobymb-en&d r g i possible, but would probably not be advantageous over exploitation of forest- reso=rces at present (sen als0 rem-nr (C) below) Possible irr_ation so ces Clos-re of rivers or creeks and storage of fresh monsoon-season river flow or rain water run-off behind cross-dams. Additional remarks. a) Acid sulphate conditions are likely to be most severe in the south- wet a nl. eastU s in Qh.L.LiuIenorthe'asLLti U. U) "tis al:ta isL eAPUhio toL)UV axiLd associated stOEU -sUtes. c) neulamabinLul couldU bUe consideJueud as par-t Of arnLy fu£uux ksculitnem frU±ULU.U LLLUV of some or all of the tidal rivers in order to control encroachment of saiine conditiovns inland. Rnecalaumion wuidua ue expensive and the soils would require heavy liming and use of fertilizers to bring them into use for rice production. ANNTEX 2 Page 50 El: Northern piedmont pLain General soil map unit lib. Syihet report soil associations 11-13, 15. Part in Sunamganj Subdivision not yet surveyed. Relief. MainZly level, but gently sloping at IOOt Of border niiis. Q%oils. PreudomIn.tCUl.y hea-v'y k._claIs. LJoams a-r.dLsaxi'ds nea- f'oot&U of hills arid along piedmont rivers. Rainfall. 100-250 inches. Drainage. Mainly seasonally deeply flooded and subject to flash floods from the hills. Flooding is shallow or in.ternmittent near the hill foot, but some sandy areas (e.g. near Jaflong) stand above normal flood level. Soils mainly horrme Ar i t:I-,-r 'hci+V,-h,+ 1 f h Ocn ,nnYo w + ~~~~~~-u_ a ce - ems _ wet _._ zzv_z_ Present7- lanA use. Mainly grassland with some boro cultivation in the.'hplower part. Aus and transplanted aman, or deep-water aman, in higher areas. Scrub on very sandy higher lands, together with some tea. DeveloDment Dossibilities. With irrigation, exDansion of local boro cultiva- tion on clay soils, except in basin centers. IRRI boro possible on relatively higher areas. IRRI aus and aman without irrigation on the highest. non-sn4v hill-foot soils. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater for tubewell irrigation is probably available, but needs confirmation. Recharge from the hills and along piedmont rivers is probably good. Discharge data for piedmont rivers are not available, but dry-season supplies are probably small. Supplies stored in bils (haors) need expert assessment. Additional remarks. a) Diversion bunds and drains are needed to protect basin areas from early flash floods liable to damage boro. b) Large-scale flood protection and pump drainage to improve conditions for kharif crops will probably be impractical because of the very high local rain- fall and the large volumes of run-off from the adjoining hills to be dealt with. c) Because of the inadequacy of surface water supplies for irrigation, evalua- tion of groundwater resources available for tubewell irrigation is urgently required. d) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy ridge soils, areas of locally irregular relief and depression sites subject to early flooding. Canals would probably not need lining, except locally on higher ridges. Canals crossing clays should be kept continuously wet to avoid undue seepage losses due to soil cracking. e) Reservation of grassland areas needed to supply the proposed Sylhet paper mill may be needed. Marginal sociawl benefit of reertion of land for this purpose versus development for irrigated boro production where feasible needs study. ANNJEX 2 .sa ,, E2: Easlten.. 'S--ma=usiLyara floodplailn Genera-' soill map ur.it Oa. Sylhet6 report 80il a80lainU QY-.L±1E U It'N u ass.ciat± orLsJLJ llJ. P artU" in M--ar ax.-LA H nb-'n 9 bdiA isions v.aty70 surayraA Relief.L ms U-L±J le-.LrWels a exeVAAJ basins. J '4LU al i-U nvjea. flRe.L _ .L. .&ILLJJUUt., ±LtL-VUZ d LL± t:: ±VV11.L uai-lo 4iO UL_L.LY -.LJ.t~'uL d~U llte.L southern part of boundary with unit E3. Soils. Mainly heavy loams and clays. Local areas of loamy ridge soils, raw silty alluvi-um and pea-t (al Udep ubasal Utnb1UVJ. PeRraill-Uy mainlly slow. Rainfall. 100 inches in south, 150-200 inches in north. Drainage. Ridges are mainly shallowly flooded in monsoon season, but more deeply flooded near the bounu.ary Witl unLt E3. DBasIns aXU subJect tO deep, and often rapid, flooding. Most soils become dry in dry season, but some basin centers remain wet. Present land use. Aus and transplanted aman on higner ridges. Deep-water aman on most lower land, but grassland in basins subject to rapid flooding. Boro in some permanently wet basin centers. Development possibilities. With irrigation, iRRt aus on ridges and basin margins, and local or IRRI boro in basins not subject to early flash floods. Alternatively, wheat and other rabi dry-land crops on ridges and basin margins, followed by broadcast aus or jute on ridges. Possibly IRRI aman without irrigation on higher ridges. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need investigation. Conditions for direct recharge appear poor, but lateral recharge may be satisfactory from adjoining hill and piedmont areas. Minimum discharge in rivers varies greatly between years, but has been below 1,000 cusecs in the Kusiyara, as low as 100 cusecs in the Surma (at Sylhet) and nil in the Juri river. Supplies stored in haors need expert assessment. Additional remarks. a) Flood protection and pump drainage would be difficult to provide because of the high local rainfall, large volume of inflow from adjoining hill and piedmont areas, and the prevalence of soils of low infiltration capacity and permeability. If found feasible, the area suitable for IRRI aus, aman and boro could be expanded or, alternatively, sugarcane, wheat and other dry-land crops could be grown extensively. Irrigation would be essential in pump-drained areas. b) Diversion bunds and drains are needed to protect basin areas from early flash floods liable to damage boro. These are most needed in areas adjoining unit El. ANNEX 2 rage 60 c) Because of the high rainfall and probably uncontrollable flooding in tIhe Laif seaso, par-icu-lar attention to development OI rabi crop production is needed in this unit. This is dependent on suitable irri- gation sourLces beit- located and developed. d) Site selectlion for irrigation is needed to avoid areas subject to early flash floods; also, minor patches of sandy soils, raw alluvium and areas of irregular relief. f_iNE X 2 ~E',~~~~~~~~~~~~f I LLY.L.J.U LO43..as : SUrlh+ General 80il map ur.it 1lla a.d noter utiro 2 Nlet-rakona ar.d -venigSaar.Tor4th report4 80il association 28. Par t...L WinLLLU0-.LJ9 L.Cbia.60A.LJ a.dLU. 1L 0.LJ.WsnoreAAJ SLUbi"V4..isiWJon s Jnty s03U..LV-VyeU.. .elief. Extensive level basins separated by broad ridges. Extensive areas of small linear ridges and depressions along the Kusiyara and part of Soils . Predomilantly hea-vy cl±aJys, on both ridges and in basins. Rainfiall. 100 inches in south, 150-200 inches in north. Draina]e. Seasonally very ueeply ifodaed. Fl±ooa levels suojec- ibo rapiad rise in the north. Ridges become dry in dry season, but many basin areas (haors) remain wet or flooded. Rivers are tidal (but non-saline) in dry season. Present land use. Mainly boro in basin centers. Extensive areas of grassland on basin margins. Deep-water aman, some jute and rabi crops on higher areas. Development possibilities. Expansion of boro cultivation with irrigation. Substitution of !RRI for local boro varieties on relatively higher land. Highest ridges are suitable for wheat and other rabi crops. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need investigation. Conditions for direct recharge are poor, but lateral recharge may take place from adjoining hill and piedmont areas. Dry-season discharge in the Surma-Kusiyara system is very variable: minimum is about 2,000 cusecs in the Kusiyara (at Manumukh) but data are uncertain in the Suxma. Rivers are tidal in the dry season, so replenish- ment from the Meghna is possible for any supplies extracted for irriiga- tion, at least in the southern half. Supplies available in haors need expert assessment. Additional remarks. a) Flood protection and pump drainage to make extensive kharif cropping possible are probably impractical because of the high local rainfall, large volume of inflow from adjoining hill areas and the prevalence of clay soils of low infiltration capacity. b) Provision of bunds and diversion drains may be practical in some basin areas to protect boro from early flash floods. c) Because of the difficulty of developing kharif crop production, particular emphasis is needed on development of rabi cropping. Provision of irrigation will be essential for this. AIRTEX 2 rage 62 d) Levelling of irregular ridge and depression areas to improve distri- bution of irrigation supplies may be practical where this wuuld lolt expose a permeable sandy substratum (actually observed in Habiganj area), but the economics of such a major operation seem doubtful and would need feasibility study. e) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas subject to uncontrollable flash floods and areas of irregular relief. Vi), T.nw nn-rt+. f Mo:h-nq_ Pmilnrimn filnnotnlniin G-enernl soil map unit 12(major part) and 8e(part). Gomilla Sadar Nortvh and South rnepr+ soil asocniations 7, 11-1Q. 21-25, 27, 33, 35. Noakhali-Chandpur report soil associations 3-15, 21-27. Part in Brahmanbaria and Habiganj Subdivisions not yet surveyed. Relief. Smooth, almost level, broad ridges and depressions. Soils. Mainly light silts on ridges, heavy silts and clays in depressions. Premeability mairly slow. -POJ.LaLfal.l. 7ffJ-.- .ches. Drai.naje-,e Ma -C;6.lyd-eel r flooded b c aA ra4 *,a+er 4 mnv,cn season, but ridges in east of soil map unit 8e are only shallowly flooded. FIlood: -level tialy4luctuates ext-remG south. Deresin-slowly,- A-drir .1.'J L ~ I I± I1 .LaCIU.CL u UJLO..I .LJ6 ,Cl a ~J.Xd.. CaUC VJl4d.a. Ca_LCJ.L~ .. O. but mainly become dry in dry season. Present land use. Mainly deep-water aman, mixed with aus or jute on ridg'es, arJ usu-lly followed LJby J. jrops. AUJZ/ Ju.It and tU.sLpLOJ9LcAAL.te aman followed by rabi crops on ridges in eastern part of soil map unit 8e. Development possibilities. (i) With irrigation. IRRI boro or aus, except on highest ridge soils. Alev-naL -i-ve-ly, whLeat, aUiU u i1t±r ±7a,) Ugy-±lZ1U c-UoJps f.LJ.UWtedU ubyboadc aus, jute or deep-water aman. IRRI aman without irrigation on ridges in east of soil map unit 8e. (ii) With flood protection and drainage. ±.It aus and aman possible except on highest ridges and in depression centers. Alternatively, sugarcane, kharif and rabi cereals, oilseeds, etc. on ridges remaining above flood level. Pump drainage would generally be necessary, but tidal-sluice drainage could be used in the extreme south. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater supplies available for tubewell irrigation need investigation. Conditions for direct recharge appear poor through the silty estuarine deposits, but lateral recharge may take place from adjoining hill and piedmont areas and by way of the Meghna and Gumti river beds. Groundwater quality needs testing for salinity in the extreme south. Rivers crossing the unit have very low minimum discharge, but the adjoining middle Meghna river probably has a minimum discharge of 10,000 cusecs and supplies extracted for irrigation could be replenished tidally. Additional remarks. a) This unit seems to provide the most suitable area in the country for large-scale pump-drainage and irrigation. The Dacca-Harayanganj-Demra Project in unit C8a provides a pilot model for development under almost identical conditions. AiNEX 2 .ka-oe FML b) Most ridge soils are highly silty and might provide management pro- blems for irrigated drv-land crops due to low infiltration canacitv. surface capping and possible development of an illuvial subsoil 'pan'. Agronomic investigations are needed within this unit. unit E5 or the Dacca-Narayanganj-Demra Project area to work out appropriate management techninues esnpciallv if large-srsle numn drainage srhpmes s.re to hp undertaken. c) High population density and close settlement on the ridges provide otnio-eonnomin pnrobhlms fo-r 1'I--'21 9 r IvnnmP-nm.t d) Sie sle on forn irrvigtion is needed to aroid areas subject to flash floods near the Gumti river and the eastern border hills and eroding rivrr hbnks alonng +the lonwr Menghn a) nnni4-4tna-rn0t-vv -'&hi tb'mr-lov -r'rn-nni1n- n 'ho,i-n Tnn-n-ri-no r'tn,,A 'kma e/ for--- , 1- d --- -n be improved by provision of shallow field drains. These would benefit both -P) - kr-ni A e r -.r4+1, i,4 + ViIC V ; 4f! e nA; ,, a- NVA a E5: High Meghna estuarine floodplain and Comilla basin This unit is similar to unit E4 except that seasonal flooding is mainly shallow. General soil map units 8e(part) and 9b. Comilla Sadar North and South report soil associations 3-6. 10. 34. Noakhali-Chmndpunr renort soil assoniations 2. 5a. 19, 3'A,36. Relief. Smooth; n1most level, broad ridges and denressions. Locally irregular because of man-made cultivation platforms immediately west of LS1ma.i Till8. LOGSYlv irregul1r narrow ridges and denressions alonr the Gumti floodplain. Soils. Mainly silty in soil map unit 8e. Loams on ridges and heavy clays in bhnsin in soil mapn rnit QQh. PermeabilitV mainlv tl1ow. Roile lor^.Sqlv very slightly saline in extreme south. Rainfall. 100 inches. Drainage. Mainly shallowly flooded by accumulated rain water in monsoon season- Tn +.thp astn+.ern half, flonoingno is maninlv wi+hin field bhimr. Tn the center of the Comilla basin and in depressions towards the border with ,i-it EP) mSYminm flood_ depth may exceed 3 feet. Flood I evel ___ tidally controlled in the extreme south. Most soils retain moisture well ,, the A-^ season, --- hea,+y -l- W_ -- flomill11 basin drair s-owly -d then become very dry, cracking widely. Flash floods occur on the Gunti flood- nl'.&drearesrnboder. --- Present land use. Predominantly aus or jute and trTnsplar+e amar followed by rabi dry-land crops. Mixed aus and deep-water anan or jute followed by 4 rabl ^rops, n,L weste A*,AL dn.epessos r H oa.d-irrign- ate vgtrabrIle Co n mon..mo A platforms near Lalmai Hills. Recently developed IRRi boro/aus cultivation (i)~_/ WitTY..UI± iL.irrigation.-4-; ._L' U.LAJ±1. .Li.&Extens4ve U c-1-"-~Lltavati Vd.U~LJ.J or.~ ofJ. .JLLL.~ATD'DT boo/-=(.additionkJWJ4.~/CLOU. C~..6.UU.. _L%ULJ1 to IRRI aman without irrigation). Depth of flooding becomes marginal for .L±U4...L a atUId UwdarLL sLu ile UiJ.Ue w -L Ull U.LbJ.i. J4 a.Ld-. i.4111 th.e cJ.LV L,.L ULC oLmLLla basin. Alternatively, wheat and other rabi dry-land crops followed by Uroadcast IWU-J or jute, exct -.. low-i..LLJ 4 depA-ssio \ AA A} WAA dL .LAAAAU.U protyAA-u ction WAiU pUuJ1U U .L.Lud6e. * U1uL W eAu WALUli _L. L t;WUAUA sugarcane, bananas, kharif and rabi cereals, vegetables, oilseeds, etc. couldU be g-ownL on al±l lanId exceptU U.C siJJ4.;LU11 Lcnt=IULtVJ . ±Lie latterLUWA WUdU be suitable for IRRI aus and aman. (See remark (a) below.) Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater reserves available for tubewell irrigation need investigation. Conditions for direct recnarge appear rather poor, although probably better than in unit E4 because of predomi- nance of lignt-textured ridge soiis. Lateral recnarge presumably takes place from adjoining hill and piedmont areas and along the Gumti flood- plain. Groundwater quality needs testing for salinity in the south. aTAM Minimum discharge in the Gumti river is about 200 cusecs and negli- gible .i other streams. IfT ron-dwater reserves prove satisfactory, +the possibility of providing canal irrigation from the middle Meghna river deseArven feasibilty Irrigation J +vtr eed f--rom t-hi riv would be replenished tidally. Additional remarks. a) This unit offers opportunities for development of intensive irrigated agriculItUre writ'hout theO additionall cost of dra~-no5,e necessa_ryJnunlt E4+ to achieve similar results. Large-scale drainage in the present unit would only-'be needled. if- prod-,io of- r=lX cropsU1he_m deiaben lceo onJ L Ui .0O.U 4.L JL U I_U.C.L 4U .L.d. WJ.- UL.J -4 AI0.LJU '.~4 SJO LJ.01., OA"UO "U.00J.j. ZI.LI 0 .LLJ . 0II~ 'i.-J rice. Nonetheless, western depressions subject to relatively deep flooding could be ncluded n feasibility studies for drainage at the same tLme as adjoining areas of unit E4 are considered. b) Most ridge soils are highly silty and might provide management problems .LoU [ [ ' -| uo UU U_U-- | NlU U -Uprj ULut UU _ UW _L X | VUI'4V F UI1 sUtL.Uk; | kiH U. UL 5U capping and possible development of an illuvial subsoil 'pan'. Agronomic investigations are required to WOrK out appUopriate management tecbniques, either in this unit, unit E4 or the Dacca-Narayanganj-Demra Project area. c) High population density and close settlement provide problems in provi- ding large-scale irrigation or drainage works. d) Soil salinity in the south is mainly very slight and would De easily removed with irrigation. e) The south of the unit is exposed to damage from cyclones and associated storm surges. f) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid areas subDject to flash floods near the hills and along the Gumti and Dakatia (Little Feni) rivers. g) The boundaries with units E4 and 7 are merging ones. AITNEX 2 'F. Mirlrlp Mpnhia floonelini Geneal onil Tn-np rmit 5dl aqnrl par+ of- 8d. Dacca report soil associations 72-75. Comilla Sadr North 3nd Southl repr soilassociati^s 2R. .tTrr1.,1 4li-.vsApr~i repo,.rtsoil assoc~ iationsw 16-.18. D^-n-4 ; r T2_hlnl,,,.l -s-, Q.r,hA 4 rr a; 4 fl nIf+ ¶Cn+ -hll,'trrA,r *.W.S L SJU .J.0L.L.0LU OVW.U.5.0 kJLL I V .A. ..IJV *S. LI J f i U 5..J V ',. Iw'4. Relief. Extensive lo yrq. ba1.s,4 bu someq.4pa s.,rhav high ri.5 Local areas of narrow ridges and depressions. Soils. Clay-s in basins. Sands on high ridges and silts on lower ridges. Rainfall. 75-80 inches. flrainaze. ~~dMainly 11 - deeply. - flooded.__v _ Basin* ---- centers-- - - drain- - slowly, but mainly IPr-eLs4.LUenL,.LJ landd use Mnl deep-wate an.±1u., j u.te adLU -abl.J crop)s on higher silty ridge soils. Development possibilities. With irrigation, IRRI boro in basins. Wheat, tobacco, vegetables, etc. follo-wed by br-oadcast aus or jute on silty ridge soils. Possible irrigation sources. Most areas would be easy to pump irrigate from Meghna chann-els. Tubewells might be used in interior areas, if necessary. Recharge conditions for groundwater appear good. lYinimum dis- cnarge in middle Meg'nna iS proDably anbut 10,000 cusecs, Dbu water extracted for irrigation would be tidally replenished. Additional remarks. a) Conditions for extensive irrigated boro cultivation are very favorable because of suitable basin soils and proximity of river chatnnels. Early rise of river levels and flooding of basin centers may prevent present IRRI boro and aus varieties being grown except on higher basin edges. b) Conditions appear unfavorable for major flood protection and pump drainage works because of the occurrence of the unit on many islands and the risk that concentration of the Meghna flood within narrower channels would lead to vigorous bank erosion. (The Meghna is stable within its present channels and bank erosion is very slight.) c) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy. soils and areas of irregular relief. Canals would generally not need lining, except where crossing sandy or silty river banks. ANNEX 2 Page Oo E7: Eastern piedmont plain General soil map unit 7(northern and central parts). Sylhet report soil associations 12-14. Comilla Sadar INorth and South report soil associations 8, 9. Parts in Habiganj and Brahmanbaxia Subdivisions not yet surveyed. Relief. Gently sloping, locally irregular near streams. Soils. Mainly light loams on higher parts, heavy loams on lower parts. Compact ploughpan impedes internal drainage. Rainfall. 100 inches. Drainage. Mainly above normal flood level, except on lower margin. Rain water is ponded within field bunds. Most areas are subject to occasional deeper flash floods from the hills. Soils generally become dry early in the dry season. Present land use. Aus and transplanted aman. Development possibilities. With iri'igation, IRRI aus except on highest sandy soils. IRRI aman without irrigation, except on lowest sites. Alter- natively, irrigated wheat and other rabi dry-land crops followed by broad- cast aus or jute. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is probably readily available for tubewell irrigation, but supplies need confirmation. Conditions for recharge from adjoining hill areas appear good. Minimum discharge in rivers varies greatly from year to year. but is generally inadequate to meet potential irrigation demand: about 200 cusecs in the Manu and Khowai, but less than 50 in other rivers. Additional remarks. a) With deep field drains, the highest sites adioining hills can be brouiht under tea cultivation where adjoining hill soils are used for tea. Provision of overhead irrigation would generally be advantageous for establish¾ment. b) Periods of sustained heavv monsoon rainfall and accomny,vino- flash floods from the hills provide hazards for both aus and aman cultivation. Feasi- bility of providing protective bunds and diversion drains needs stuyr in the most extensive areas of the unit. c) For wheat and other dry-land crops, especially if irrigated, the plough- pan present in soils used for trans-olanted aman would need to be broken up. Preferably, rabi dry-land crops should be followed by broadcast rice or jute, not a transplanted rice cron. Ro that a n1ouih-pa n dIoe vnot re-form d) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sTll areas of sandyr soils and irregular relief. Canals should not need lining if properly puddled and maintained. except where they cross sa.ndy soilo or soils wit-h sandy substratum. ANINEX.2 .Fage 05y E8: Chittagong coastal plain This unit resembles unit E7 in most parts, but has some basins and level tidal clay areas. The relative extent of the piedmont, basin and tidal clay soils is not yet known, except on the Halda and Ichamati flood- plains. General soil map unit lO(except off-shore islands). Noakhali-Chandpur report soil association 35. Most of this area has not yet been surveyed by the Soil Survey Project. The Halda and Ichamati floodplains, and small areas south of the Kaxnaphuli river and in the northern part of the Chittagong ooastal plain, have been surveyed by the WAPDA Soil Research Laboratory. Relief. Mainly gently sloping or level. Locally irregular near piedmont streams. Soils. Mainly loams, but clays in basins and level areas. Permeability generally slow because of ploughpan or clay texture. Tidal clay soils are are slightly saline in dry season. Rainfall. 100-150 inches. Drainage. Piedmont soils are above normal flood level but are subject to flash floods and normally retain rain water within field bunds. Level tidal clay areas are subject to shallow flooding (probably tidal near the coast) and bile are more deeply flooded. Except for bils, soils become droughty in dry season. Present land use. Mainly aus and transplanted aman, but deep-water aman in deep basins. Aus is transplanted in some areas. Vegetables are grown on lighter-textured soils near Chittagong. Development possibilities. Substitute IRRI varieties for present trans- planted aman on piedmont soils. With irrigation, substitute IRRI aus for present broadcast or transplanted aus. IRRI boro might be grown in basins. On higher piedmont soils, extend vegetable cultivation and other rabi dry- land crops. Possible irrigation sources. Groundwater is probably readily available for tubewell irrigation, but supplies need confirmation and testing for quality (salt and sulphur). Conditions for recharge appear good. Minimum discharge in rivers crossing the unit is variable, but is generally inadequate to meet potential irrigation demand, about 150 cusecs in the M±.tqmqhnri. les8 thnn 100 in the Sany,i. and leRs than 50 in 8maller rivers. Dry-season discharge in the Karnaphuli is probably 4-6,000 cusecs during normanl generator onerations at Knntnl,. bhut thia airecharge^ also hIas to serve Chittagong port. Water supplies retained in bils need expert assessmernt - Aid-itinonal remn-rke fo) Wf+.hi Aate omr f;or tea if adjoi+ni wealhills s f tea.b for fruit trees (or for tea if adjoining hills were also used for tea). ANCNEY 2 Page 70 b) Periods of sustained heavy monsoon rainfall and accompanying flash floods from the hills provide hazards for both aus and aman cultivation. Feasibility of providing protective bunds and diversion drains on piedmont slopes needs study. It may be impractical to protect bils and level tidal clay areas from flash floods, but the possibility deserves examination. c) The ploughpan present in soils used for transplanted aman cultivation would need to be broken up if the soils were to be converted to cultivation of rabi dry-land crops, especially if irrigated. Preferably, rabi dry-land crops should then be followed by broadcast rice or jute (or by kharif dry- land crops on non-flooded sites), not by a transplanted rice crop, so that a ploughpan does not re-form. d) Salinity in the tidal clays is believed to be slight and could easily be removed by irrigation. e) Small areas of acid sulphate (kosh) soils occur near the mouths of rivers south of Chittagong. Some tidal clay soils also have acid sulphate layers buried at a shallow depth. These soils may provide management pro- blems, especially if drained, but their extent is believed to be small. The major area of acid sulphate soils has been mapped within unit E9. f) Site selection for irrigation is needed to avoid sandy soils, areas of irregular relief, acid sulphate soils and, for IRRI aus, sites subject to early flash floods. Canals should not need lining if properly puddled and maintained, except where they cross sandy patches. Canals crossing heavy clays should be kept continuously wet to avoid seepage losses due to soil cracking. g) Special concrete may need to be used for irrigation or drainage struc- ture built in soils with acid sulphate layers. h) This -unit is badly exposed to cyclones and associated storm surges. i) The coastal part of the unit lies within the Coastal Embankment Project area. 747e 71 E9: Chekaria Sundmerbans (.ernerl soil map unit 3. Thin area has o=nly been eAnmined by exploratorv soil survevy to Aiate- Relief Almost level swamp crossed by manv repn tidal cre'rkR. Soilsa Aeid s,il soils. Somemc 1n-mv Acitd Pigamrn+ Soils in mn-m-ivnn areas. Rainfall. 140 inches. Drainage. Tidally flooded with salt water except where embanked and reclaimed. Present land- ze. X fueoret Reclaimed land 4i ma".l, -ed for salt production in the dry season. Development possibilities. Marginal areas might be (embanked, drained and Li V UL±61 U ULLUV.~. U£.LI7A0J.LC7AV%VA JULU tALtU.1 UL.Va.U.L%JA..L WY.L UL.L L~.LVJ:V .-LLUJ.LA CULJU. LL-U VJ.L 6 fertilizers. Forested and salt-pan areas would be difficult to reclaim. Possible irrigation,sources. Matamahuri has a minimum discharge of about ±L:Lv cusecs, U.U UIL±L JLL=Leb1U WUU> UtVUUt.L L U11J-WJ.UULL UtUUU .1-Lt UAL1W1U JU. Groundwater for tubewell irrigation is expected to be readily available, Vuu wou'L'U need confil-LJIng ar.d tlest.irng .Lor sa.LInUjtyWUd LLPIi.Ut ;UUcIUIVnLU. AC3CtoUrU.EL±,L remWaL.LT±: a) Surveys are needed to -'_a he extent of soils thlWat co-uld be reclaimed without difficulty. b) Flash floods from the Matamahuri river and adjoining hill and piedmont area8s povide p oblems fo r Id a-fL Cr Opp iU . AINEX 2 Fage (.2 E10: South Noakhali, Hativa, Sandwip, Kutubdia and lowland part of Maiskhal island Sandwip, Kutubdia and Maiskhal islands have not yet been surveyed. Airphoto interpretation suggests that landscape and land use patterns are similar to those on Hatiya island which has been surveyed. General soil map units 2(part) and lO(part). Noakhali-Chandpur report soil associations 20, 28a-32b. Part in Chittagong District has not yet been surveyed. Relief. Almost level. Occasional old channels in south Noakhali. Soils. Slightly calcareous silts in south Noakhali and Hatiya. Probably similar on Sandwip, but likely to be non-calcareous on Kutubdia and Maiskhal. Mainly slightly saline in dry season. Most cultivated soils have a plouhhpan, and permeability through the finely stratified silty alluvium is probably very slow. Rainfall. 100-130 inches. Drainage. Most of the area is now protected from tidal flooding by the Coastal Embankment. Rain water is held on fields by bunds, but many accumulate more deeply in old channels. Soils become droughty in dry season. Present land use. Mainly transplanted sman. Also aus and rabi cronp (chillies) on some higher parts. Development possibilities. Completion of the Coastal Embankment should decrease dry-season salinity and allow aus, rabi crops anrd possibly jute to be grown more widely, as well as permit better aman crops to be grown. Probably TRRT auns or mm-n could be gromn without irrigation. Further development is limited9 by the 1ackonf nn namireId i-rrignatin-n source and the exposure of the unit to serious damage during cyclones and asoaCted o a+rt%m Purges.Posas_lyr ishaiAi-mrT Tmbalrme+. c3niilrl bhe bhui+ within major embankments to minimize damage if outer embankments are breached; also to provide internal r sQ ibsidiary bhunds and drains, as well as additional tidal sluices, may also be needed to regulate water levels on fi e 1 Ad Auiingr nAora nr onnt;niAinuii heoau,r mnnnonn rainfallI Possible irr-gvation sources. UTTnless deepAndrA ro- siupplie can be located, prospects for widespread irrigation appear poor. Limited irri- gation for rabi cropsn cold be provrided if deep tanks wre e'cavated to store monsoon rainfall; tanks also needed to improve domestic supplies. Additional remarks. a) The risk of coastal erosion by changes in the Meghna estuarine channels is a major hazar-d in atiya, coasvtal oaL^ali and-- presumably Swadwip. Constant watch needs to be kept so that secondary embankments can be built in UJL.U Ub.eLre ally pat Or. Uthe UteLr- embarme UnLbracL.LhLL. ANNEX 2 Poo- 7', b) Breaches in the outer embalnkments, either by normal coastal erosion or by over-topping duirng cyclonic onmisuxges, would allow salt w,,ater to enter and re-salinize the soils. This would be most serious if the saline - vsi,occn ved at the end of the monsoon Wren.nnahe..nthere i uv = ficient fuxther rainfall to wash out the salts. Techniques for rapid 4 4 reclama.tJ=14v of'-n tesoil'snleq,.Av IM.de-r t-es-e',nann, conditionALs4-4 .,,,n ne~edd toVI,.k be workedd,..rAa. out so that they could be applied rapidly in an emergency. A small agricultural station on, say, Hatiya or Pamngati is recommended f'or this pu-pose, as well as for routine agronomic trials on these distinctive soils. c) The possibility of introducing canal irrigation from the middle Meghna into the nortIhenL part of' theIToacUAli maiRLland needs to be considered if' adequate water is available after meeting the potential needs of units E4 a3 TEv. alu Z.7.I~ 77-7n- 74 Pi.1! Nnrthl-rn ana Pan1-.w-rn hill .r___ r(Pinprn_l 0nil m_p umits 17_; 17bh and 119G = Sylhet. Vrepor'rt. soil -ssoi- n 2 !Tnil _~~~~~~~~___lnAn" lVn_--N+ o-nA Zrvii+h__ -..-nr,nv4+ -r--c w__wv_------1a4+nvIe,-n4i 1 0 ~Tno1rllhci or nrreportn + eoil ass4oci4ation. 1. Part*n ea.LL.j , Twabigar.jQ.dJJ Rrahmanbaria IJSubdivisiona, V Oai.&ndO~ Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts Districts have not yet been su v OU.ey eV Cby LA IJ 4.heU±lc bJVJ.L.LSoil IJULSuveyPr-ct.- VLLY ~.LkjLju 1-00.MJUMos of--J.L 4UIL he 'ILUV.-UdCWVJI,hitUg- sTT4ll"LJ.L-L ±LWact-sMr is covered by a report on a soil and land use survey carried out for ADC byIJJ 4theU±.L11 XWForstal 'JL U d,VL Forest4V±* UiU.LJ y--dEginerr d,.L-LU A:L6 _.L UL_J ±.LUT-4----4t4-1U L.L.La U.L'IL_L5 .LItd. U.. P.elief. ±.Ma.JJLy stUep hll.L.LO, generaLlyLLes UlAld 250C fe.. hih i.r. so..L± l map unit 17a, but reaching 1,000 feet or more in soil map unit 17b. Occasional areas of. gentULy r-lli or a'LmostU leveyl relief o Lu i11 Urso Lmap uLnitU LIa and occupy most of 18c. Soils. Mainly deep, well-drained, loams. Locally sandy, shallow or rocky. erm eul. Dro-ughty ir1. U.y seasoUnl. Ila .LLJ L." -L * rJ.U_..i_L±Y 7VJ.LCVA UIL0l~ U.EtkqLLU -L7UUU~L)J..Y i1LIULU VIL IL_L±dLU.L £UcLEWCt E,LU. .LI north Sylhet. Drainage. Above normal flood level, but valleys are seasonally shallowly rresent 'Landu use. Externsively used fo-r jn--uU culuivatiOn of hill± rice, hill cotton, sesamum, ginger and locally pineapples. Fallow areas mainly revert to grass and bamboo. Tea on low hills in Syihet and locaily in Chittagong. Forest on parts of higher hill ranges. Aus and/or transplanted aman in valleys. Development possibilities. Fruit trees, tea, coffee, rubber and other tree crops on lower hills with slopes less than about 30 percent (mainly in soil map unit 17a). irrigation would benefit tea and coffee during establishment but the feasibility and economics of providing this would need to be care- fully examined in individual areas. Slopes steeper than about 30 percent provide problems of accessibility for crop maintenance, harvesting and irri- gation, as well as increasing the risk of soil erosion during crop planting and establishment. The Akhaura terrace area (soil map unit 18c) could be used for sugar- cane, wheat and other dry-land crops with irrigation, together with kharif groundnuts, etc. without irrigation: see details given for unit C13a. Steeper and higher hill areas are best suited for forestry, including bamboo production for use in paper production. Possibly the more accessible areas around Kaptai lake could be planted to quick-growing tree species suitable for pulping, and the wood floated down the lake to Chandraghona mill. ANNEX 2 Prnn, 7C: Substitution of IRRI aus and aman for present local varieties in v-lleys needs detailed local ^n f1,odm dfema+Ur.repth ar.d flash flood hazard in the kharif season. Possible irrigation sources. Possible sources of irrigation for tea 4 1 4- 0-111-.4. UI-.... eea a,-n,rA ye nAaaaanA *k- fl,,,,+ 4n M-nI-n4-n garldens '.LL .LLhetLhaILV been ZVeyd an.d assessed bi . 4. o Services, Ltd. in their report to the Tea Board. In general, irrigation would have to come fr-om Adp -ubewells,a t sall- 'dams coA'd be used 4-o 4-tan4 water in small valleys. Suitable land on the margins of Kaptai lake could IJC L5MUV"U.Y JJ UA"frJO. CZ/ LL C=Va .LLuLa J.LV VJ.. 0%.J-L.L a,LLU .L.anU. LW%-C '.MyZUL_LJ UUJ LLL Uldi %JuLZ.L UdU%U1 U.LJ.L.L Tracts was made by Forestal Forestry and Engineering International Ltd. in L~LU±.thei_-.IW L pI L' .1.0lAd.LJJQ o-Mto .LL. .LYUV.inz ±L11%:.L11966. A."L.LlU-l-T-he- U.U.LLLCe)o14~f i .dr;---- egn-.aly pIe~X~~L A.A remaining hill areas in this unit. b) A consideration of the prospects for tea cultivation in the Chittagong 1"!. m_: L.. _ ._. £'...... n_a __ e ___ _n fl. ni" | |racts was mi1ttUed 10rom I'l1e Furestal Vl.JopanIy5e tIerms o0 rezLerence. Substantial areas in soil map unit 17a are, in fact, similar to the tea areas of south Sylhet and could be brought under tea cultivaion-. Provi- sion of overhead irrigation would be an advantage, especially during establisnment, and this should be kept in mind in site seiection. Tne possibility of organizing tea production within the tribal Hill Tract areas by small growers bringing their tea to a central factory, as tea cultiva- tion has been developed in East Africa, deserves feasibility study. c) The coastal area of Chittagong is badly exposed to cyclones. The rubber plantations presently being established in this area could be sus- ceptible to severe damage by cyclonic winds when the trees reach a mature stage. Tea would be a more suitable crop for these conditions. Rubber might be a better crop on less exposed areas within the Chittagong Hill Tracts and possibly in Sylhet. d) Particular attention needs to be paid to soil conservation, includlng afforestation and promotion of tree-crop cultivation, as a means of reducing both the rate of siltation of Kaptai lake (and other reservoirs that might be built) and the intensity of flash floods affecting adjoining piedmont and floodplain areas. Terracing of hillsides within hill areas for arable cultivation will generally not be practical because of the paucity of suit- able material for making retaining walls. BANIGUE - SECTIOR STUDY SUJNMARY ESTIMATES OF ACREAGES, SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS BY RFG,IONa/ Crop OOO acres) Region Total Area IRRI Boro/ KaRR1arif Rabi Rabij/…- of Region Transplanted Transplanted WhfeatbJ2/Groundnuts GroundnutsPJ Cotton Sugarcane (b0oo acres) Aman Aus NW 1047 2150 4548 2752 1341L 3237 802 1469 (2628) C 5;254 :1326 2978 2082 683 1981 i729 1091 (1 720) E 10917 :1996 4069 2456 239 21442 L72 438 (662) SW 9304 24W50 3992 1 814 870 2209 870 870 ('400) TOTAL 33522e! 7922 15587 95104 3133 9869 2773 3868 a/ Acreage of crops are gross, exclusive of settlement and water. The estimates relate solely to the suitability of soils and land for cIrop production with irrigation (except for Kha-if groundnuts, and for most of the IRRI aman acreage). They do not take into account availability of water for irrigation. arainLge is not assumed. J The estimates relate to the crops individually, not as components of crop rotations, e.g. on most soils, dry land rabi crops cannot be grown if the land is also used for :IRRI aman. C/ There are indications that high wheat yields may not be obtainable south of about latitude 240 iN, but agronornic trials are needed to check this. If confirmed, the acreage suitable would be reduced to thie figure given in brackets. d/ More extensive trials are required wlth cotton tco confirm its suitability for cultivatLon iLn thLe southern half of Bangladesh. It '- e/ Gross axea of Bangladesh is 35,280,640 acres, including water in the major rivrers and estuaries. Source: Soil Survey, by Soil Survey of Bangladesh, and UINDP/'AO. N'OTES '1. Acreages for crops are gross, exclusive of' settlement and wateir. Figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand acres. 2. The estimates relate solely to suitability of the soils and laLnd f'or crop production with irrigation (except for Kharif groundnuts, anLd fcr most of the IFRI samn acreage). T'hey do not take into account availability of water for irrigation. 3. The estimates relate to the crops individually. They do not take into account crop rotations and incompatibility between certain crops; e.g. the unsuitability, on most soils,, of dry land rabi crops if the land is also used for IRRI aman. See notes con the individual crop suitability maps. 4. High yielding production is assumed, with the aid of modern management. T'he acreages suitable for moderate or low yielding production - including areas with occasional hazard of crop failure due to flooding, etc. - will be greater than the figures shown in the tables. 5. There is some evidence that wheat yields diecrease with latitude, and, that high yields may not be obtainable (from existing high yielding varieties) south of abouti 24UN (roughly, the Ganges- Brahmaputra confluence). Further investigations are! still required to be certain ol' the climatic limit of worth-while production. t p2n CY]'-3 at V (DHuz BANiLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED ACREAGE SUITABLE FOR SPEBCIFIED CROPS BY LAND DEVEWOFPMENT UNIT Eastern REgion Crop (ItOOO acres) Land Total Area IRRI IRRI Wheat; Kharif Rabi Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Aman EBoro/Aus 1/ Groundnuts Groundrnuts Cotton Unit (__OOacres) E 1 304 :Lo6 82 122 40 55 40 55o E 2 1,181 202 791 421t - 2;2 45 E 3 1,21.9 - 914 61 - 61 - E 4 1,411 1L68 997 803 61 816 61 61. E 5 300 1L76 212 182 1 155 1. E 6 300 - 142 10:3 - 122 _ E 7 269 201 145 14( _ 29 _ 134 E 8 871 610 610 566 _ 566 - E 9 64 - - - _ - E 10 81.0 / :376 17 - - - E Ua 544 66 68 55 46 49 48 51. E llb 3,644 91 91 - 91 91 - 91. TOT.AL 10,917 1,996 4,o69 ;2,45c6 239 2,198; 172 438 ~/ Transplanted aus - irrigate(d i/ Includes Manpura islands of Bari.sal District 2/ Gross area of the Easterm Raegion is approximately 11.35 M. acres. Th:is inclucies wlater in the Meghna river and es tuaLry. RANGLADESE[ - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED ACREAGrE SUITABLE FOR SPECI:FIED CROPS .BAY D DEVEIOPMENT UNIT Nort2westsRLon Crop ('000 ac:res) Land Total Area IRRI IRRIV Kharif Rabi Elabi Development of Unit AMan Boro/Aus Wheat Groundnuts Grroundnuts Cottor §arcane Unit ('000 acres) NW'1 212 22 27 1120 Z4 131 13 34 NW 2 858 249 469 4114 162 487 123 403 NW' 3 1,507 1480 840 762 53,5 877 :310 386 NW 4a 480 95 359 210 7.5 247 17 60 NW 4b 201 97 14L 1140 92 1142 -- 77 NW 5 645 6 350 275 110 343 1 7 NW 6 79 28 59 35 4'7 59 -- 28 NW?7 39 2 29 4 6 8 -- 2 NW 8a 210 -- 162 1 1 14 -- -- NW 8b 34 __ 24 --- _ __ __ NW 9 941' 176 659 1488 294 471 2147 322 NW 10 359 5 307 104 I8 1CO 7 19 NI 11a 404 -- 10 -- 160 -- -- NW 11b 234 -- -- 67 27 9,8 4 45 NWd 12 206 1L12 103 88 76 88 78 76 NW 13 1,458 8146 970 9 3 9 3 9 NW 14 180 32 38 -- --__ _ TOTAL: 8,0472/' 2,150 4,547 2,7147 1,34 0 3,2314 1305 1,46 8 1/ Transplanted aus -- irrigated. 2/ Gross area of the Northwest Region is approximately 8.5M acres. This includes water i:n thie main ch annels of the Ganges and Brabmaputra/Jamuna rivera. BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED ACREAGE iSUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS BY LAND DEVELOPMtENT UNIT Centra- Regio Crop ('000 acres) Land Total Area IRRI. IRRI IOiarif Rabi Rabi. Development of Unit Aman Boro/Aus- Wheat Groundmnts GCroundnuts Cotton Sugarcane Unit ('000 acres) c 1 494 6 26 1.64 4 173 4 30 C 2 201 ].11 158 39 3 14 3 12 C 3a 696 352 535 326 118 325 ]L36 212 C 3b 266 92 192 1.18 -- 118 19 71 C 3c 312 209 222 1145 167 1145 77 96 C 3d 137 50 106 50 1 46 -- 33 C 4 132 40 18 1.10 79 110 79 108 c 5 182 58 48 122 38 123 37 82 C 6 191 57 151 32 14 32 3 15 C 7 389 1L21 306 1.39 143 139 49 63 C 8a 158 5 111 49 -- 49 -- 2 C 8b 83 -- 60 34 2 35 __ 2 C 9 723 38 499 338 __ 326 1 1 C 10 142 -- 121 7 -- 15 -- -- C 11 33 -- 28 1 __ 2 -- -- C 12 61 -- 21 21 -- 143 -- -- C 13 1,018 188 376 <379 305 379 319 357 C 114 36 -- -- 9 9 U 9 9 TOTAL: 5,2542/ 1,327 2,978 2,()83 6,83 2,C85 736 1,093 1/ Thansplanted aus irrigated. 2/ Gross area of the Central Region is approximately 5.5M acres. This inclu.des part of the water in the main Brahmaputra/JaMna, Ganges and Meghna rivers. c BANGLADESH.. SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED ACREAGE SUITABIE FOR' SPECIFIED CROPS BY LAND DEVELOIMENI' UNIT Southwest Fegion Crop (oo00 alcres) Land Total. Area IRRI IRRI 1 Wvheat, Kharif RaLbi Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Arnan Boro/Aiis 1 Grmundmuts Groundnuts Cotton Unit (0OOC acres) SW 1 280 6 1.3 2. - 36 _ _ SW 2 242 71 143 97 - 124 - - SW 3 2,231 1,04i8 1,58j4 1.,338; 870 1,071 870 870 SW 4 1,599 80 99L 160 - 480 - - Sw 5 562 - 197 - . _ _ _ sw 6 929 279 753 195 - 24.2 - - SW 7 1,456 714 175 - _ - _ _ sw 8 317 252 136CS 256 - - 3W 9 238 - _ _ SW 10 1,450 - - - _ - - TOTAL 9,304 / 2,450 3,992 3,814 870 2,209 870 870 SJ/ Transplanted aus - irrigated. 2 Gross area of the Southwest Region is approximately 9.9 M. acres. T]his includes water in the Gangres and Meglna rivers, and in es tuarine channels. HI BAN'GLADESH - SECTOR STUDY FSTIMATED PROPORTION OF LAND SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS BY LAND DEVELOPMEN1T UNIT EASTERN REGI'ON Crop (% of total area) Land Total Area IRRI IRRI 1/ Whleat Kharif Rabi. Rabi Sugarcane Development of Unit Amaan Boro/Aus- Groundnuts Groundnuts Cotton Unit ( 00) acres) E 1 304 35 27 140 13 18 :L3 18 E 2 1,181 17 67 36 - 22 2 4 E 3 1,219 75 5 - - E 4 1,b11 12 71 57 4 58 14 4 E 5 300 5'3 71 60 (0.2) 52 (0.2) (0.3) E 6 300 47 34 - h E 7 269 7', 54 52- E 8 871 7() 70 65 - 65 - E 9 64 2/ - - _ E 1C 810:: 46 2 - 30 - E.Ila ql 12 13 10 3 9 9 9 E llb 3,t44 _ 2 2 1 2 TOTAL 10,917' 18 31 19 2 19 1 3 1J Transplanted aULS - irrigated. 2/ Includes Manpura islands of Barisal District. 2/ Gross area of the Eastern Region is approximately 11..35 M. acres. This inclu(des water in the Meghna river and estuary. BANGLADESH - SECT'OR STUDY ESTIMATED IROPORTION OF LAN) SUI[TABLE FOR SPECIFIED cROFS BY LAND DEVELOPMENT UNIT No:rthwest Regicon Crop (% of total area) Land Total Area. IRII IRRI Whteat Kharif Rabi Rabi Sugarcane Development of Uni.t An-in Boro/Aus / Groundnuts Groundlnuts Cotton Unit...... L'acres) ______ NW 1 212 10 13 56 1L 62 6 16 NW 2 858 ;29 55 52 19 57 :14 47 NW 3 1,507 :32 56 50 3j4 58 21 26 NW 4a 480 20 75 44 115 51 4 12 NW 4b 201 148 70 70 48 70 38 NW 5 645 1 54 43 :253 (02) 1.1 NW 6 79 35 75 45 60) 75 - 35 NW 7' 39 5 75 10 15 20 - 5 NW Ela 210 - 80 (0.6) (0.7) 7 - - NW Eb 34 - 70 - NW 91 941 :19 70 53 3:1 50 26 34 NW 10 359 1 85 29 2 28 2 5 NW lla 404 - 3 (0.1) _ 40 NW llb 234 * (0-1) 29 12 42 2 19 NW 12 206S 55 51 43 38 44 38 38 NW 13 1,458 58 66 .6 . .6 ;,2 .6 NW 14 180 18 21 - - TOTAL 8,047 / 27 57 34 17 40 I:O 18 9/ Transp:Lanted auLs - irrigated. '/ Gross area of the Nbrthwest Reg-ion is approximately 8.5 M. acres. This i:ncludes woater in the main channels of the Ganges and Brahmaputra/Jarmna riveirs. BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED PROP)RTION OF LAND SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIED CROPS BY LAND DEVELOPNENT 'UNIT Central. Region Crop (% of total area) 'Land Total Area IRRI IRRI WAheat Kharif Rabi Rabi. Sugarcane DeveLopment of Unit Aman Boro/Aus / Groundrrmts Groundnuts Cotton 'Unit ('C0O acres) O 1 475 1 .6 35 (0.El) 36 (0.8) 6 0 2 ,201 55 179 19 1. 7 1 6 .C 3a 696 51 77 47 174 17 19 30 O 3b ,266 35 72 44 44 7 27 C 3c 312 67 71 46 21. 146 25 31 C 3d :137 36 178 37 (0.7 ) :34 - 24 C 4 :132 31 114 83 6c0 83 60 82 C 5 :182 32 26 67 216 7 20 145 o 6 :192 30 179 17 7 :L7 2 8 0 7 389 31 79 36 11 36 13 16 'C 8a 158 3 170 31 (0.2) ,31 - 1 IJ 8b 83 - 72 3 142 - 3 J 9 721 5 69 47 415 (0.1) ((.1) C 10 1L42 885 5 - I - - C 11 33 - 86 4 - 6 _ _ O 12 61 - 3•3 - - - IJ 13 1,0o18 19 '37 37 30 :37 31 35 C 14 - 36 - -25 25 3;3 24 25 TOTAL 22__ '.7 40 13 :38 14 21 11/ Transplanted aus - irrigated. .2/ Gross area of the Central Region is approXima.tely 5.5 M. acres. This includes parlt of the water in the maiin 31 Brahm.aputra/JaIluna and Ganges and Meghna rivers. CD,"x BANGLADESH - SECTOR STUDY ESTIMATED PROPORTIO]N OF LANI) SUITABLE FO]R SPECIFIED CROPS BY LkND DEVE OPMENT UNIT Southwes 1; Rio Crop (:g of total area) Land Total Area IERI 'IRRI Wheat Kha-if Rabi Rabi. Sugarcane Development Of' Unit Ain Boro/Aus 21 GroundnuLts Groundnuts Cotton U'nit <000 acres) SW 1 280 2 4 8 12 - - SW 2 242 29 59 40 - 51 - - SW 3 2,231 46 70 59 38 48 28 38 SW 4 1,599 5 62 10 _ 30 - - sW 5 562 - 35 - - sw 6 929 30 81 20 26 - - SW 7 1,4.56 49 12 - - SW 8 317 79 42 _ 80 - _ SW 9 238 - - - SW 10 1 ______- - - TOTAL 9,304 / 26 _43 1.9 9 23 9 9 1/ Transplanted aus - irrigated. 2/ Gross area of the Southweast Region is approximately 9.9 M. acres. This includes water inthe Ganges and Meghna rivers, and in estuariLne chamulels., NOTE: 1. See notes at end of Aam6x 2, Table 1, Page 1. 2. Proportions are rounded off t;o thie nearest whole percent, except where they are less than one percent, P in which case the figure is given in brackets to the nearest 0.1 percent. 863} ] {''-\;1 I . 89> i fi '- . I ' " 'P ;.9§Cs t,iap 1 , .:;1' -;. -. | BANGLADESH I'''-'';i I |.. [IC-S 1,1 ST '.1ll; 'K il' [ R '.flNt l R XTFO IA\TI \SI'h' L! 1'--,- -'- ! - z --- ,------1 EFF01Ii FOR IIRI RiI-E \ HRIfl 1 NI) It'll -- -- - I C I I L I 0 ,I La.,,"_ _.j _ ; . _ I - ,-1 \L ~, i. - -.- 1, 1 ;r r~ . j 1. I, . [ 22'------*-- -- _ -F~~~~~~~~r- ,pi~~;~~0td .- -la,I-mthlu-I -- - o' -d tm- t.d -' . r t, (I ---th| k | g k \ - a - - _ '- _ ,; <:' E.'-; -aX '' ,>- rR "-- ' L A j " ; | - ' I I1 -rt.n)nd -- r,;;i .p!rt *t! tla I r--ta.sp rtld ~-| i 01u-ro.1 1thft p-p _ =- ---iht. b-e --o -- '- - --I E-rtt~--+Ii t-b f-<'11------;------ I:'ttt tVAt - ha. f . -t .II;, - mat t-_---,. =o-i1 0 A-- ; -. ,_O,i P,.- |t ' rsanp) _s~f Bnoratlne as tabawIell|![ , -CI i; t'l l |~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~riain antransplan1dmn8rfaspnted anddaSd uamdtan plartlymnl _ ,.j -- [ Z Barni'rranspacted ausIwith loJw-Iitt pump sOth tubenwellirrigation). I Iirrigationi aird transp anted aman fyantlyI irrigated with taw-hftn poonp istigatianf. ',-r * Jute Itthanas wrnnoet auenocupinasnore ,w> t han tOtsat tine net cuIscated anna) r _ 11111icitir low-liftSara Pimp Areainolurted 'a OGopoloPreject ; MAP 2 BANGLADESH __ _._ L %. _,SLIIT _ 1-IIILITI ', ;. s_-FOR IRO11W;DC AS IRi \L .1 ''I ; 1-I I I| , ,, ., ,\ l-/ , , ,1 ,,8.,X _ .,. _l______.h ic,FA II I______ j~~~~~ §. jK , | - - i F!9- - 8-;~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s djf -, -C __= _ 1 C - .-- -- ,---- C,~~ ~ ~ -,,*I~J_ ~~~~~~~~~~~-- C 'Qr:**. . S , _ _- Lj'~~~~~~~~; .'_ _ l _-A ,- _ . _ _ ; _ . - __ ---- 1- - -- ' 5~tm i 4 pq -t ., . , .. IRRI-- th0 - . - .- ., I - ______'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i I-----..-l- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ IRO_:58 | *1,''' ' ' lnlysultableft .. '' "'' 4--I''> 't' ' L H _ i B, -1 MAP °°3 BANGLADESH 2 Ij 1l \ | . |! OF- L!,-PROPORTION %ND)%LIIT AIBLE IRRI %N'A! ,1l1l,lls~' e,| FOR I R NNSFL X\NTEL) ______- I ' I' lA.4j i \ |~ ~t ~~~ 'I''iIj - =ej~I | L,-enI a~~~~~~~~~~~a T JI ;t_ #e__- _r_|;-- -- _~~~ = L ____ _ 4_ r _ L~~~~~~~~~~LE .V - _ x8 114 S LEGEND , - WITHOUT WITH. __ IRRIGATION IRRIGATION- i.: --- 50%L or nnore 1.. L"- 'L30% - 50%A:_ 10%_ 30%I - i 1% les ------_ !_ __ NOTE: These esimates are conserative 'IRI-3U7 'j 4 > :ps, *BANGLADESH ADDITIONAL CROP PRODUCTION POSSIBLE FROM '~S -~"--~Th7 INTRODUCTION OF IRRIGATED IRRI RICE 1971 anEsGNDSCALE frE#r 0 0 20 30 40 50 6 0 700 9 0 01 K.00 ETErILs .-- _ 17 I1 'S 1,,c0 _ E SI F 7-,~ ~ ~ I, I'I IJ *t I ,~~~~~ I.:t -2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2' A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rA -22'I LEGENDI A. GOe additional transplaoted rice E. Sabstitution of transplanted rice C. With -rrigation, one additional transr * [ crop possible with irrigation crop for lowervielding crop planted rice crop possibleon about. IRRI boro or transplanted aus Pssiblewithirrigation half of land, displacing a lower possibleon most of area IRR.Iboro or transplantedaus yielding crop onremaining land* II displacingqdeepwaoer amen and/or =1lrrnltu-- broadcasteasonmostatarea IRRI boro ortran-plateda as RII bpossiblearIonacmostoaofaland;r,,reptac-ar- passl en aboat half of area IiilTfIRRI boreor transplanteda.ssn fllowb~on, about ha ltatd rland; II onIabuhlfradisplacing deepwater amn a,nd/or displacing broadcastaus o,n - - IR RI boro or transplantedais mh broadcastacs on aboct half of area remaining land j 'Possible en Partof area;mach IRRgIhoro or transpla-sed aaS- of the areaalready prod_cing [ displacmgdeepwater aman and/er irrigated boro FM broadcastass on, part of area; much of the areaaiready prodac- ing irrigated boro < X /X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ DX f ------; -@ - z : a =| | W; i ' 1- Lf it,' 'X 7-7 a. Z _ |_JS .i .. , > IVZ '''~'-~'''I-;> A~ me ts O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_| --S 9 ; * _s;'L-| _- *;_ _- - _ - r Ar¢-- - -:-h---r-- <>- ,-..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.;> - 41;1 - 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' t. b -- 0 - W - - - 1E SR4 1 .', '2 '4-j 89° [ -- bRC7 MAP 6 _-. j.. .+_BANGLADESH FLOODING CONDITIONS AND DRAINAGE POTENTIALS I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1971 . < 0 9 t 4gA 4 t-<. ., , SCALE -2 0 10 0 00 40 50 50 70 70 00 0lttsS DII A| ;,~ < 9 t , < 0 10 20 30 00 50 00 70 00 90 100 110 l20 KILOMPTiFin ~~~ Jo yr ~~~~~~~~LEGEND l,s'~~~Raegpor\ K ~~#i7S~+.. Nomjor dranae r itt lmpnoomee by medioj ombankmen 1E-4l 40 pompdrainage tfJ8 i <- nH--g~ - m floodproblems (.,, F1 1,\ : Zr>0 .:. b S N);U g ) t 3 ~~~~~Improonmeetbo 0041170droinage poImpdrainagebaod tidal regulators VtF 800 gravitydrainage~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-P~g nm,gwt W'- Ioodnit nomar00im proveiroirt W~~~~ ti , . - t Imrveet b0 loi embnkmentsdan Severely 17 I24; _- -- ~ ;~S . - fl, ,; , 25- OR,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O 74-~~4 4 ADCTubewells~~~~ 0 --'t1. i,1{es .DCcaSuews1v -- I2 -- w s -- ONGOING PROJECTS PROJECTS IN STUDY F.t-eive Projeot In Contrution1 Conide-d fon 170 Actio Pragra ADC Tab-Ioellr GneTV1 40. Gaca Sootbvoe 12. K=bomai (Nerth-mst Region)I Kobadak, Koorhtia nt5 ae l 13. DacNot 6 Moburi~ 10 -ara 2. Coastal 7. Tobewells I llnente b5 Comila -Noakhali 21 ermbankment, S Pkttna b1. S rng| =3. Cbaedpvir 10. Up Peai aJessorun 1B. Dnger K adok,hli,ttle I1 Upper Koslya_ J nt_roe PhaaI BANGLADESH LAND DEVELOPMENT UNITS - K _ R_1 _ _ 2suf~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3040 s c70 80 9 0 MIE L~~~~~~~f ";; - .ss _ CecnirsiRsgion) (Rsnthn,esrRegloni E (EasstrnRegis,,) NW (Norohnns,Region) C SW INo15h.n phdorlpin The bt e nanotdplain 451155GangOEdgIS nodmdpSIin \ a b t , I N0n5 pasof so oglaysld plnnd AdishownmontI-dJa Z YulES t5.lpay 2 1tN,tbMosntingho,ad,smnl pl,s 2 bnsflodignn,arsm 2 Sslhanultbo(op;H,,layanp,cdmon,lanlnn SiaSf5151 b da sal ) 5fdHanh man 002 o B,.osa lnaflissndpln,n 3 fisnpo.KofsdatP o,etAful,e pen.Ol d 4Loat.nnlmnlol hananctlss W Bnaddgl SH sesopsn m TioO,l s,1 OsNrlhMymnnes,nh flt0plt.,t1 I 4 NsnherneFlmdpsis 'a sts,el tgt &50nmfp155 5 HghMegfs, en,e,lm naH.dplsin OnIConist. * Sn,tfleopa, fr,g)gfiss9dplaln H Wn,,Mymnsneln 4 S \ 1 5 Gspsln,ei.XhsInaps,' bRan, bSn, b LOllaiamsagos LdpIsin Ssc2n Myn.nsingb pn,0,inBGesnsm SeAl flosipla,.. 6 M,ddleMegbna HpnJplg1.11 KAasgon,-ganmaJi9dsplaln d Norlh-eaa,Dmms, H S 7 S2dns hansenSItflo.eidpla,n 7 baale,ape.dmn,stplain 6MAd),*1,5, i t doI.in 4 nighold B,sb,apsl.a.idg, loocpt01'l515 anhl H Cflilpstnong,aofplenand S abfs,ealnda s\ - 21I 7 LOwyerAlsfo, fldPlin 5 HIdllrhnaHn,sei,Oodpln,oon,3n B BhfOla p,ntn,sr beaten S aI5 Rholsend nh-sb.,. isatdm oat.inlha Coastal g Cbakanis3gdn,bnns< 9 Hs,inosPknejpla,n 6 Nwlhb,t,nnnoial 12 Y mnglawrr Mnagl.nn,tinsnsngIain\ 3 7 Lsewpa.lbsoH,flo d B a ,saplnssudplen En,besk,ns,lO,sN7 s1,A,sa * L wnrAOniflBuin II Oelaesnandemlsrnoa,))anon N Sodsaa I0 abaseSsndn,b se bLsnwePun,nbfabs flsndpleln H D55550 n S2Olhl.Mo,seoessipad Csostla o LonnenMabanands and 552 p051 ol GangesfodlOtilin 5. No,lhlof flalnos,ni nine, dpleis b SotihsfflDaIsnneslSs,hChlsundhtpHITo It LstsparosfGn,nn,so m 5ahcnaepmlainaeadpl.nsI pslHa M1 > 115, FI.,gnn AssInnoFonsstdpa - ' ,. HnBafl.apa.astplstedPl, H I N b AcOHv:GdGnSs Gongs,9 dimn fissaplan X _ Ulo-lal IZ HOslh-naOflBnlsnednat. IAtnia Geangns.dolain In,. 3 sedBmn,ld Isa,, 10 Madsspa, eHll . n INum lfbBRD38 l4Dbes,:kdBarnd lrasl lOsNorne,la