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The Role of the Parietal Lobe in Visual Extinction Studied with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

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The Role of the Parietal Lobe in Visual Extinction Studied with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation The Role of the Parietal Lobe in Visual Extinction Studied with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Lorella Battelli1,2, George A. Alvarez2,3, Thomas Carlson2,4, and Alvaro Pascual-Leone1,5 Abstract & Interhemispheric competition between homologous areas ize those brain regions active during attention-based visual track- in the human brain is believed to be involved in a wide variety ing and then applied low-frequency repetitive transcranial of human behaviors from motor activity to visual perception magnetic stimulation over identified areas in the left and right in- and particularly attention. For example, patients with lesions in traparietal sulcus to asses the behavioral effects on visual tracking. the posterior parietal cortex are unable to selectively track ob- We induced a severe impairment in visual tracking that was jects in the contralesional side of visual space when targets are selective for conditions of simultaneous tracking in both visual simultaneously present in the ipsilesional visual field, a form of fields. Our data show that the parietal lobe is essential for visual visual extinction. Visual extinction may arise due to an imbal- tracking and that the two hemispheres compete for attentional ance in the normal interhemispheric competition. To directly resources during tracking. Our results provide a neuronal basis assess the issue of reciprocal inhibition, we used fMRI to local- for visual extinction in patients with parietal lobe damage. & INTRODUCTION iological contralateral bias becomes evident when two Theories of visual attention have postulated the presence visual stimuli are simultaneously presented one in each of two networks in the brain, located in the right and hemifield. Under these conditions, the contralesional left parietal cortices, which drive attention to the corre- stimulus is extinguished by the ipsilesional stimulus sponding contralateral hemispace. There has been a long- (Duncan et al., 1999). Recent fMRI (Geng et al., 2006; standing debate about the extent of interhemispheric Corbetta et al., 2005; Fink, Driver, Rorden, Baldeweg, competition between these two networks (Mesulam, & Dolan, 2000) and animal (Rushmore, Valero-Cabre, 1999; Kinsbourne, 1977). In particular, an activation- Lomber, Hilgetag, & Payne, 2006) studies support this orienting hypothesis has been suggested in which each notion. However, there is no direct evidence in healthy hemisphere generates a contralateral attentional bias observers that homologous areas in both hemispheres when stimulated by an external stimulus by inhibiting interact in a mutually inhibitory manner under condi- its contralateral counterpart (Reuter-Lorenz, Kinsbourne, tions of sustained attention. Understanding this mutual & Moscovitch, 1990). In a seminal paper studying cats, inhibition could have considerable implications for treat- Sprague (1966) introduced the concept of inhibition ment and rehabilitative strategies for patients with pari- between homologous areas in the two hemispheres, etal lobe lesions (Fecteau, Pascual-Leone, & Theoret, but similar effects have rarely been reported in humans 2006; Oliveri & Caltagirone, 2006). studies. However, evidence for interhemispheric com- A particularly important aspect of sustained attention petition has come from neuropsychological studies on is the ability to keep track of multiple moving targets parietal neglect patients, which suggest that visual ex- simultaneously. Tracking enables us to compute spatial tinction is likely caused by an imbalance between homol- relations between objects, to navigate in our environ- ogous areas in the two hemispheres (Corbetta, Kincade, ment while avoiding moving obstacles, and to monitor Lewis, Snyder, & Sapir, 2005; Vandenberghe et al., 2005; multiple moving objects, such as keeping track of our Driver & Vuilleumier, 2001; Vuilleumier, Hester, Assal, & children at the playground. Studies investigating atten- Regli, 1996). More specifically, a unilateral cerebral lesion tive tracking have suggested competing interactions may have the effect of disinhibiting the contralateral between attentional resources in the two hemispheres. healthy hemisphere. Consequently, an exaggerated phys- Patients with right parietal lesions are unable to track two targets when presented in the left and right visual 1Harvard Medical School, 2Harvard University, 3Massachusetts fields simultaneously, while they perform normally when Institute of Technology, 4Utrecht University, The Netherlands, tracking one target either in the left or in the right visual 5Universitat Autono´ma de Barcelona, Spain field (Battelli et al., 2001). Although the deficit is more D 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21:10, pp. 1946–1955 pronounced in the contralesional visual field, ipsilesional ics Toolbox (Brainard, 1997; Pelli, 1997). The displays con- deficits in patients with right parietal lesion have also been sisted of a central fixation point (a black circle, radius = reported (Battelli, Cavanagh, Martini, & Barton, 2003; 0.158) and eight moving items (black circles, radius = Duncan et al., 1999). This finding is likely related to visual 0.38) presented on a gray background. Four of the circles extinction, a common neuropsychological deficit after le- moved within a 9.48 Â 9.48 region inset 28 to the left of sion to the parietal lobes, characterized by an inability to fixation, and the other four moved within an equal size detect a contralesional target when another target is pres- region inset 28 to the right of fixation. Items moved at a ent in the ipsilesional field (Driver & Vuilleumier, 2001). constant speed, repelled each other to maintain a mini- Within the parietal lobe, the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) mum center to center spacing of 1.58 and ‘‘bounced’’ off may be particularly important for attentive tracking. fMRI of the invisible edges of the square region in which they studies have shown that the IPS is active during visual moved. tracking (Culham et al., 1998), and the activity in the IPS (among other areas) varies with the change in attention- al load (i.e., activity is higher as the number of targets to Procedure be tracked is increased). In contrast, the nonparietal area In the half-field condition, subjects tracked two target MT+, although strongly activated during visual tracking, circles (in either the left or in the right visual field), and does not change activity with attentional load, suggest- in the full-field condition, subjects tracked four target ing that it is activated by the motion per se but not by circles (2 on each side simultaneously) while keeping attentional allocation (Culham, Cavanagh, & Kanwisher, their eyes fixated on the central fixation point through- 2001). These results suggest that IPS activity is more out each trial in both conditions. These conditions were directly involved in tracking performance. first equated for difficulty by adjusting the target speed The present study provides a direct measurement of in a preliminary threshold session. the interaction between homologous brain areas using TMS as a ‘‘virtual lesion’’ technique to test the role of a brain area in a specific task. We demonstrate that a Threshold session. On the first day of testing, we equat- TMS-induced temporary inactivation over the IPS causes ed all conditions for difficulty by determining the speed extinction-like behavior in normal subjects during atten- at which observers could perform the task with 75% tional tracking. Experiment 1 shows that the IPS is directly accuracy. At the beginning of each trial, the fixation point involved in visual tracking, and that the two hemispheres was presented for 1 sec, then eight circles appeared (4 on are in competition when attention is split between the the left, 4 on the right), and a subset blinked off and on two hemifields. Experiment 2 rules out an alternative at 2 Hz for 2 sec to identify them as targets for tracking. explanation based on the number of items tracked. Then all of the circles moved without crossing the midline for 3 sec. After the items stopped, one of them was highlighted in red (50/50 target or distractor). The EXPERIMENT 1: AN ‘‘EXTINCTION’’ EFFECT observer then indicated by keypress whether the red item DURING FULL-FIELD ATTENTIONAL TRACKING was a target or distractor, with a response time cutoff of 3 sec. After the response, the fixation point turned green Methods for a correct response or red for an incorrect response Observers for 1 sec. The next trial began immediately following this We tested a total of 11 healthy participants (3 authors feedback. and 8 naı¨ve observers) in Experiments 1 and 2. All par- Subjects first performed a practice block (16 trials) in ticipants were 26 to 38 years of age, and had normal or which the circles moved at 5 deg/sec to learn the task, corrected-to-normal vision. All participants were checked and then a test block in which the circles moved at one for TMS exclusion criteria (Wassermann, 1998) and gave of eight different speeds (5–26 deg/sec) on each trial, written informed consent to the study which had been with the speeds randomly interleaved over 7 blocks of approved by the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center’s 32 trials each. It took approximately 45 min to complete Institutional Review Boards. The study was conducted in this session. This threshold procedure was used to iden- the Harvard–Thorndike General Clinical Research Cen- tify the speed at which two targets or four targets could ter at BIDMC in order to provide the safest environment be tracked with 75% accuracy. Different threshold speeds for the subjects. Eight individuals (4 men and 4 women) were obtained for each individual subject, and different participated in Experiment 1, including two authors and speeds were obtained for two half-field targets and for six naı¨ve observers. four full-field targets. Main experiment. In the main experiment, the re- Stimuli sponse cutoff time was reduced to 2.5 sec and the feed- Stimuli were displayed on a Macintosh G4 laptop using back duration was reduced to 0.5 sec, so that the duration Matlab (MathWorks) in conjunction with the Psychophys- of tracking could be increased to 6 sec. A 3-sec duration Battelli et al.
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