Impact of the Zamboanga Siege on Women Survivors: a Post-Conflict Analysis

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International Social Science

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Volume 1

2020

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Research and Publication Unit (RPU) University Research and Development Center Universidad de Zamboanga Main Campus, Tetuan Zamboanga City, Philippines Region of Southeast Asia Email: [email protected] www.uz.edu.ph Landline: 991-1135 local 255 ______

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contents articles

The Implementation of RA 9147 among the Coastal 1 Communities of the Municipality of Manay Jan Michael L. Belena

Patient Turnover, Nursing Workloads and Outcomes 21 of Care: Its Impact on Quality of Care John Mark Lingcon Cherryl L. Alinsub

Impact Assessment on the Effectiveness of the Magsasaka 36 Siyentista (MS)-Led Community-Based Banana Farming System in the Province of Davao Oriental Anna Mae F. Teoxon Edito B. Sumile

Nurses’ Attitudes toward Nursing Research 59 John Mark Lingcon Jean Claude S. David

Impact of the Zamboanga Siege on Women 77 Survivors: A Post-Conflict Analysis Roel F. Marcial

Functional Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities 90 of an HEI vis-à-vis Industry Requirements Satisfaction Arnold B. Galve

Behind What the Eyes Can See: Understanding the Problems 107 and Concerns of Junior High School Counselees towards an Accountable School Counseling Program Remy Rose Poblete

Dimensions of Learning Organization and the 129 Predictors to Organizational Performance among Universities in Zamboanga City Grace Ann Lagura

An Exploratory Analysis of the Development of 142 Philippine Regions Starr Clyde L. Sebial

Collective Efforts and Interdisciplinary Approach to 154 Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Conservation and Use in the Philippines Xavier Greg I. Caguiat Mary Leigh B. Palma Marilyn Ferrer Nerissa D. Santiago Malvin D. Duldulao Henry Jimenez Jonathan M. Niones Pernelyn S. Torrenas Juliet P. Rillon Maria Corazon J. Cabaral Giley DC Santiago Roel R. Suralta

Learning by Doing: Challenges and Opportunities in 175 Capacity Building of Undergraduate Students in Agriculture at PhilRice Leonilo Gramaje Joanne D. Caguiat OE Manangkil EC Arocena NL Manigbas JC Berto Xavier I. Caguiat

The Enduring Silence in Violence in the Nursing Workforce: 192 An Emerging Phenomenon Ma. Nelia P. Silloriquez

Social Networking and Second Language Acquisition: 214 Exploring Facebook as a Tool for Teaching and Learning English Mona Froida M. Langoh

Barayti ng Wikang Filipino sa Balita o Lathalaing 227 Panshowbiz sa mga Pangunahing Peryodiko Arche R. Tudtod

An Analysis on Error Production among Chavacano 244 Spanish Learners Joseline S. Alvarez

Analyzing War Experiences of Combat Soldiers in the 260 Marawi Siege Using Field Theory Christoper F. Sasot

Pagsusuring Panleksikograpiya sa mga Salitang Bakla 283 ng mga Piling Freelance Cross Dresser Gay Prostitute Arche R. Tudtod

Influence of Anti-Smoking Campaigns among 333 Students in Northern Iloilo, Philippines: A Case Study Fernan P. Tupas

Paying School Fees through Wastes: Experiences and 345 Health-Related Challenges of an Eco Scholar Mauro Allan P. Amparado

Environmental Awareness and Practices of Science 353 Students: Input for Ecological Management Plan Danilo V. Rogayan Jr. Eveyen Elyonna D. Nebrida

The Mindanao Death March: Establishing a Historical 371 Fact through Online Research Robert John I. Donesa

Lived Experiences of Pupils Living Far from School 385 Elmo P. Ador

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF RA 9147 AMONG THE COASTAL COMMUNITIES OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF MANAY

Jan Michael L. Belena Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

ABSTRACT Republic Act 9147 or the Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act became one of the protections for the wildlife in the municipality against illegal poachers. Thus, evaluating this law would be helpful especially to the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO). Marine species provide important ecosystem services such as the provision of food, medicines, and livelihoods. It focused on three (3) aspects, namely; Advocacy, Activities, and Penalties. The research was conducted on the Office of the MENRO in the Municipality of Manay. The researcher did additional research and focus group discussion on the different activities being made by the agency for the implementation of the law specifically the Article 3 Sec. 27 of the RA 9147 along the coastal community namely; Central, San Ignacio, Holy Cross, and Zaragoza all in the Municipality of Manay, Davao Oriental. For triangulation purposes, separate survey questionnaires were answered by the community. The result showed that the community had knowledge of those endangered marine lives; however, they were not equipped with the right information about the prohibited acts under Article 3, Section 27 of the Republic Act 9147. Handfuls of chokepoints were also identified by the implementers and community such as the lack of IEC and insufficient budget for the implementation of the law. As a recommendation, there should be an intensified information education campaign, safeguarding of the marine protected areas, sufficient budget, strengthening the Bantay Dagat and the checkpoints for wildlife here in Manay.

Keywords: Manay, wildlife, Bantay Dagat, IEC, MENRO

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Introduction

The seas and oceans are the significant storehouse of carbon dioxide and are instrumental in its capture. Food, medicines, and livelihood are some of the important ecosystem services that marine species can provide. However, there is no specific law that covers the protection of all marine wildlife before not until the creation of RA 9147 or the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act. This act covers the protection of all the wildlife resources in our country, especially the threatened and exotic species, as specified in Articles 2 and 3.

The law was enacted to protect our country's fauna from illicit trade, abuse, and destruction. The law was sponsored by then Rep. J.R. Nereus O. Acosta and was approved by former President Gloria Macapagal – Arroyo in the year 2001. After RA 9147 was enactment, all line agencies were directed to implement the law. It is Executive Order No. 192 that mandates the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to be the primary agency tasked for the conservation, management, development, and other proper use of the country’s environment and natural resources, specifically forest and grazing lands, mineral resources, which includes those in reservation and watershed areas, and public domain lands, the licensing and regulation of all natural resources as may be provided for by law in order to ensure equitable sharing of the benefits derived therefrom for the welfare of the Filipino now and in the forthcoming generations. The LGU was mandated under the State Ownership of Natural Resources (Regalian Doctrine) that: All lands of the public domain, waters xxx wildlife, flora, and fauna, and other natural resources are owned by the State. (Const. Art. XII, Sec. 2, par. 1) and; Under the State responsibility that: The State shall protect the nation's marine wealth in its archipelagic waters, territorial sea, and exclusive economic zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment to Filipino citizens. (Const. Art. XII, Sec. 2, par 2) in which the Municipal Environment and Natural Resource Officer (MENRO) shall take charge of the office and shall perform the function under Section 17 of the Republic Act 7160 otherwise known as the Local Government Code of 1991 to manage, conserve, preserve and protect the environment and natural resources of the municipality.

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As one of the LGU's in the Southeastern part of the Davao region with a total coastal area of 15,000 has. with the presence of two Marine Protected Areas, Manay takes its part in implementing RA 9147. With its long coastline of an approximate of 38 kilometers, the municipality had coastal wildlife such as the corals and seagrasses which form a big part of the protected areas. Also, the sightings of the endangered Pawikan, Dugong, Dolphins and Thresher Sharks were common in the area. In 2010, there were reports of apprehension of violators of this law. Violations of illegal collection of the unique bonsai-like mangrove which was locally known as Bantigue as well as the hunting for Pawikan or Green sea turtle for a meal and its carapace were apprehended. In 2014, another case was filed which includes the illegal hunt of Pawikan at Purok Cabodte, Barangay Zaragoza.

Disturbing coastal wildlife may have a great effect on the socio-economic status of the municipality. In some LGU in the province of Davao Oriental, wildlife nesting sites of the Pawikan became a tourism magnet thus could be one of the activities for the community. After 16 years of implementing RA 9147, it was of great interest to study the implementation of the law in the municipality by the agency concerned.

Framework of the Study

Marine wildlife such as coral reefs, dugong, dolphins, and pawikan are some of the wildlife that can be seen in the municipality. Coral reefs are habitat to a diversity of marine life. They are known to be famous for their natural products that supplies fishery resources into local communities. However, recent apprehensions of wildlife violators were present that can be a threat to the wildlife status in the municipality.

A concept of knowing the implementation by the Implementing Agencies or "Implementers" which is composed of the different line agencies in the government, in particular, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources (MENRO) which oversee the law. The participation of the "Community" which was those coastal communities who lived in harmony with the marine environment will validate well if the line agencies such as the MENRO have

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implemented the law in the place. With the validation, the researcher would tell if the MENRO have enough implementation of the law.

The study also looked into three (3) aspects, namely; Advocacy, Activities, and Penalties. According to Haddad, (2017) Environmental Advocacies in East Asia takes place in a context that the environmental organizations in East Asia would employ similar advocacy strategies even they operate in different political conditions. It was a challenge to the line agencies to juggle the implementation of the law vis-à-vis with the political will of the executive.

There were different activities that can be related to the protection and conservation of the wildlife in our country such as what the people of Liguasan Marsh who felt the need to protect and conserve the marsh as it was threatened by deforestation and other unsustainable practices which are resulting in the decline of the species of fish in the area (WFP, 2012).

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the country’s environment arm, had penalties embedded in the RA 9147 specifically Chapter 3 sec. 27 in which the researcher would like to know if the penalties were imposed. The study also seeks to find out the chokepoints encountered along the way on its implementation especially on the Implementers and its recommended solutions.

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

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Objectives of the Study

This research aimed to evaluate the implementation of RA 9147 (Article 2, Sec. 27) specifically;

a. How does the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office of the Municipality of Manay implement RA 9147 specifically the Article 3 Section 27 of the Republic Act 9147 in the coastal communities of the Municipality of Manay? b. What were the choke points in the implementation of RA 9147? c. What possible actions could be done to strengthen the implementation?

Methodology

This section describes the overall aspect of the research used in the study and explains how data were selected.

Research Design

The study design was of a Quali-Quanti Research. The Quantitative part of the study was that of the questionnaires made for the community and the fishermen of the identified coastal puroks which were used for the triangulation purposes. The Qualitative part, on the other hand, was in the form of a question that was answered simultaneously with that of the respondents and especially with the MENRO staff.

Sampling Techniques

The researcher used questionnaires to be answered by the respondents which were made separate from that of the community and the implementing agencies. There were also guided questions for the Focus Group Discussion to be made.

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Data Collection Method

The researcher got permission from Hon. Antero L. Dayanghirang Jr., ME, Mayor, Municipality of Manay. After the permission to the Local Chief Executive, the researcher went to the Office of the Punong Barangay of Barangay Central, Zaragoza, Holy Cross and San Ignacio which were the areas for research. The researcher also coordinated with the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) and the office of the Municipal Planning and Development Coordinator (MPDC).

Data Analysis

The results of the collected data were analyzed by the method of percentage weight per question. The data presented with the use of pie and table charts so that it is clear to the readers.

Results and Discussion

The research was conducted at the Office of the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources in the Municipality of Manay. The researcher did research and FGD on the different activities being made by the agency for the implementation of the law specifically Article 3, sec. 27 of the RA 9147 along the coastal community, namely; Central, San Ignacio, Holy Cross, and Zaragoza all in the Municipality of Manay, Province of Davao Oriental, Philippines. For triangulation purposes, separate survey questionnaires were answered by the community. The table below shows the respective purok populations for the included subjects as well as the computed number of possible respondents. There is a total of 12 puroks included in the research, and the research used the Slovin’s formula with 10% margin of error and cluster and stratified sampling to get the total number of respondents for triangulation. There was a total of 85 respondents from the four coastal barangays who were selected purposively to answer the questionnaire. Seven people from the four coastal barangays were invited for the Focus Group Discussion.

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Table 1 Barangay Population and Respondents

Total Number of Puroks Barangay Purok Population Respondents Included per Barangay* Central Proper 390 Bagsak Kapugtukan 161 6 43 Jabongan 383 Libtong 380 Baybay 434 San Francisco 752 Zaragoza Cabodte 166 1 7 Holy Cross Centro 547 1 7 San Ignacio Montenegro 65 Molina 211 4 28 Magbojos 675 Pagandahan 152 Total 4,316 12 85

Source: MPDO Manay *Solved using the Slovin’s Formula and a 10% margin of error

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Demographic profile for the study of the Community (Triangulation).

Figure 2 Distribution of Respondents According to Age (Community)

Age Bracket for the Community Respondents

15-30 = 32 31-40 = 20

41-50 = 19

50-60 = 12

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The researcher grouped the respondents according to the following age ranges: 15-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60 and 61-70. The first bracket of 15-30 years old represented the “Youth” age group, wherein most of the respondents in this age brackets were schooling or those who were waiting for job hiring. Hence, Stewart (2016) states that the youth were actively engaged in their own development and the youth were considered participants rather than recipients in the learning process.

The bracket 31-40, who represented the “Working Age Group”, confirmed that task characteristics and secondarily, knowledge characteristics were the most relevant factors in the perception of psychological work ability among aged workers, Alcover C-M and Topa G (2018).

The age beacket 41-50 years of age bracket were generally the least satisfied of all, with unhappiness most pronounced among those aged between the next age bracket, Gayle (2016).

For 51-60 years age bracket, these people in the “Early Midlife Group” reported more experiences of unfair treatment than the older age groups but were less likely to attribute their experiences to age discrimination, Giasson (2017).

The last bracket of 61-70 years of age was for the "Old Age", that the dimensions of loving and being, took on a different meaning and the material things in the having dimension became less important. The differences point to another meaning of the quality of life in old age. The emphasis is on health and independence, contentment and peaceful life, personal integrity in terms of a moral and a caring attitude, Nillson et. al (1996).

The figure above represents the number of respondents for the community according to their age brackets. Majority of the respondents were of 15-30 years old with 32 respondents. It is followed by 31-40 with 20 respondents followed by 41-50 with 19 respondents then 51-60 with 12 and the smallest is the 61-70 bracket with 2 respondents.

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Scoring Procedure

Each of the answers was tabulated by the researcher and had a comparative analysis to both sides of the Community Respondents and the Implementing Agency. Each of the questions was answerable by Yes (1) and a No (2). The table 3 shows the number of community respondent who answered the questionnaire as well as the following implementations done by the Implementing Agency.

Implementation of the MENRO Manay

The MENRO of Manay was keen on the observation of the RA 9147. With these, a handful of different activities, advocacies and penalties were observed. Meanwhile, just like the Municipality of Tubigon in Bohol province, it encompasses a variety of ecosystems that were vital to its social and economic development. Despite being a ‘first class’ municipality, the local economy remains highly dependent on agriculture, fishery and the tourism industry. The continued strength of each of these is directly linked to the health of the municipality’s natural resources. Tubigon’s citizens, especially the poorer people, are reliant on ecosystem services for sustenance, livelihoods, and recreation. Yet these services were never systematically valued, and maintenance of the health of the ecosystems was never budgeted for Tubigon. Therefore, it required a tool for simple and effective monitoring and evaluation of the conditions of its ecosystems, to inform its development directions and strategies (Antonio et al. 2012).

The solution – as Tubigon municipality saw it – was to adopt the ecoBudget process. It has been hailed internationally for its successful implementation and has become a role model for numerous municipalities in many parts of the world. The sustained information and education campaign, regular dialogues, partnerships and alliances with stakeholders have addressed erroneous perceptions and prejudices. These also helped a lot in the evaluation process and in adjusting targets and readjusting initiatives.

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The table below shows the activities done by the office from the year 2015-2017.

Table 2 Implementation of the MENRO (Coastal)

ACTIVITIES FREQUENCY Coastal Clean Up Twice a year Information Education Campaign Quarterly The apprehension of the violators Once a year (as the need arises / with (PNP) reports) Source: Annual Investment Plan 2016-2017 / MPDO / MENRO 2017.

It shows that there were limited activities of the implementation of the RA 9147 especially the Article 3, Sec. 27 provision of the law. The limited activities can greatly affect the current status of wildlife in the municipality. However, based on the inquiry done by the researcher to the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO), a handful of activities were done by their office to the municipality especially to its coastal areas. Among these are: Coastal IEC which was done per barangay in a quarterly basis. Checkpoint by the PNP Manay was done once a year or if there were a report and Coastal Resource Assessment which were done once every two years or if there’s a budget for the matter. The coverage of the CENRO Manay was from the municipalities of Tarragona, Manay, and Caraga.

Advocacy

Implementation of Advocacy

Transportation of wildlife may be dangerous to the wildlife itself as others may die regardless of whether travel is between or within countries, Adams (1994). However, wildlife can be transported under suitable conditions. Table 4 shows the Implementation of the Advocacy projects as known by the community.

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Table 3 Implementation of Advocacy

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ART. 3, SEC. 4 OF RA 9147 IN YOUR AREA ADVOCACY Naka attend/hibalo ba ka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad?

1 2 1. Information Education Campaign per purok 43 42 2. Radio Campaign gamit ang Radio Natin 4 81 3. Nakadawat ug Pamphlet 39 46 4. Naay checkpoint nga nahitabo para sa mga halas 22 63

On the research done, there were 43 or 50.42% of the community who attended the IEC per purok and the remaining 42 or 49.42% of the respondents didn't attend the IEC.

On the Radio Campaign Matters, only 4 or 4.70% have heard any Radio Campaigns for the law through the Radio Natin while the remaining 81 or 95.3% did not hear any of the radio campaigns.

There are 39 or 45.88% of the respondents who responded that they received pamphlets from the implementing agency. The remaining 46 or 54.12% of the respondents said that they did not receive any pamphlets given.

Only 22 or 25.88% responded that they have observed checkpoints in the municipality, in particular in Purok Pag-asa in Barangay San Ignacio. The remaining 63 or 74.12% of the respondents said that they have no observations of checkpoints of such.

Findings of the Study

Based on the result, the following are the findings of the researcher.

1. The Information Education Campaign was not enough as it was done only on a quarterly basis. Thus, there are 4 coastal barangays in Manay and with 25 coastal puroks. The community's awareness of such laws can contribute to the conservation and protection of marine wildlife.

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2. With a very low response of 4, there was really a need for having a radio campaign as one of the strategies on how to spread awareness to the law.

3. Pamphlets were printed materials that served as information campaign material that can spread awareness. Thus, creating such can be a great help to spread awareness to the community in the municipality.

4. Transportation of wildlife may be dangerous to the wildlife itself as others may die regardless of whether travel is between or within countries (DB Adams, 1994). However, wildlife can be transported under suitable conditions. The low observation of the checkpoint done in the municipality can be alarming in that violators can escape the municipality discreetly with the wildlife with them. Thus, increasing the checkpoints in the area can help in safeguarding the wildlife in the area of the municipality.

Activities Implementation of the Activities

Community perceptions of coastal resource management may differ from community to community (Wagner, 2012). The presence of acceptance to the Marine Protected Areas can provide community benefits for increased fish production and eventually income to the fisherfolk communities. The table below shows the Implementation of the activities as known by the community.

Table 4 Implementation of the Activities

ACTIVITIES (sa mga Implementing Agency) Naka attend/hibalo ba ka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad? 1 2 5. Coastal Clean-Up 66 19 6. Information Dissemination sa mga Threatened Species 22 63 7. Pag-bantay sa mga Marine Protected Area 15 70 8. Pag-bantay sa mga pagpanunog/pag squat sa mga lugar sa baybay 10 75

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There were 66 or 77.64% of the respondents responded that they have attended the coastal cleanup done by the MENRO while 19 or 22.36% didn't attend such cleanup drives.

Marine life is diverse in the Philippines (Philippine Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series, 2012) especially that the country’s coastline is long and can provide habitat to different marine life.

There were 22 or 25.88% of the responders who have not heard of the IEC on threatened species while 63 or 74.12% said that they have attended the IEC done especially on the threatened species.

The 82.35% of the respondents responded that there no observance of those guarding mechanisms in the municipality while the remaining 17.65% of the respondents said that they have observed bantaydagat activities in the Marine Protected Areas.

Coastal land squatting was not known as there were only 10 or 11.76% of the respondents who said that there were squatting in the municipality while 88.24% said that there was no squatting in the municipality.

Findings of the Study

Based on the result, the following are the findings of the researcher.

1. The result showed that coastal cleanup, as one of the MENRO’s activities, was effective as it was attended by many of the respondents.

2. The low attendees of the IEC per purok can greatly affect the implementation, it can be attributed to very low awareness of many wildlives that were present in the area. Thus, strengthening the IEC was very essential.

3. Marine Protected Areas should be areas of safeguards, MPA served as a nursery to the schools of fish as well as a feeding ground to larger marine mammals. The low observance of

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the safeguarding was a concern not only to the mammals affected but also to the coastal communities themselves. Bantaydagat activities should also be strengthened.

4. Squatting was not known in the municipality. It can be attributed by the close monitoring of those landowners of the coastal lands. However, coastal areas with no developments were enjoyed by the community for a beach and for picnic purposes.

Penalties Implementation of the Penalties

Marine life is diverse in the Philippines (Philippine Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series, 2012) especially that the country's coastline was long and can provide habitat to different marine lives. Illegal Wildlife Trade is considered to be one of the threats especially with the wildlife (Phelps, 2016) which includes and not limited to fishes, fungi, charismatic mammals and others. The table below shows the Implementation of the Activities (MENRO and PNP) as known by the community.

Table 5 Implementation of the Penalties

PENALTIES Naka attend/hibalo baka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad? 1 2 9. Ginadakop ang mga nagabaligya ug mga halas. 79 6 10. Gina-turn over sa MENRO ang mga halas nga nakit-an 39 46 11. Ginadakop ang tigpatay ug mga halas 72 13 12. Naga pandakop ug mga violators pinaagi sa usa ka 36 49 operasyon

On the table above, there are 79 or 92.94% of the community who responded that violators of wildlife traders were apprehended by PNP MANAY.

There were only 39 or 45.88% of the respondents who would turn-over the wildlife to the MENRO while those who would not turn over the wildlife were 39 or 54.12% of the respondents.

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Most of the community or 84.70% of the respondents said that wildlife killers were apprehended. However, though some of them knew that it’s illegal to catch and to kill wildlife yet they don’t know the law that governed them.

There were only 36 or 42.35% of the respondents who have known of any apprehensions done by an actual operation in the municipality.

Findings of the Study

Based on the result, the following are the findings of the researcher.

1. Illegal wildlife trade was a concern not only locally but also with the international wildlife conservation organizations, thus, the high percentage of the community who have known about the apprehensions of those illegal wildlife traders can validate that there is a strict implementation of the law in the area.

2. Taking good care of the law can be made possible to those who would love to do so but according to the law, a gratuitous permit should be secured. Most of those who responded that they would not turn over wildlife did not know about this thing and that should have campaigned to them.

3. The killing of wildlife was a concern not only locally but also with the international wildlife conservation organizations, as the Philippine Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series of 2012 included hunting as one of the threats of the marine mammals by which over-fishing is also a contributor for their decrease of population in the wild. Thus, the high percentage of the community who has known about the apprehensions of those killing of wildlife can validate that there is a strict implementation of the law in the area.

4. Operations by the PNP can be of confidentiality; however, the PNP in coordination with the MENRO should increase the number of operations in the area.

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Focus Group Discussion (FGD Results) Awareness to the Law by the Community

The community FGD was done in the Purok Centro of Barangay Holy Cross. This place is located near the coast such a good location when it comes to its location and the importance of marine life to their everyday living.

It was started by asking the community of the current state of the coastline area in the municipality, both of them answered that the coast was in a very good state. They also added that some of the wildlife such as dolphins and whales were seen in the area. However, some of them did not know that these mammals and sea creatures were considered wildlife; all they knew was that the fishermen were prohibited to catch these animals. The status of the wildlives was known to the community as endangered but only for that wildlife that were shown on Television such as dugongs and dolphins.

The decreasing number of the population according to the community was brought by the vastness of the Pacific Ocean. Other wildlife made Manay as their feeding area. The community also noted that the waters off the coast of Manay were the feeding grounds of the wildlife.

There were government agencies that the community knew when wildlife was found, these were; the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO), Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO), Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). However, only DENR and the BFAR had made efforts such as campaigns made in different communities.

Though the community has knowledge of those endangered marine lives, they were not equipped with the right knowledge about the prohibited acts under the Article 3, Section 27 of the Republic Act 9147 or the Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act. What the community had observed about the found wildlife in their areas was they set that wildlife free as found. It would be beneficial to both

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marine wildlife and the coastal communities as they also benefit in each other's existence.

The Chokepoints of the Implementation The Chokepoints Identified by the Implementer and Community

In the identification of the chokepoints in the implementation of the law, the researcher interviewed both the implementers and the community.

Implementing a law can somehow have loopholes or chokepoints along its way of implementation, as it can have many challenges and could rise from the soft part of the implementation up to the hard part of the implementation. Problems in the implementation can be classified into Education, Engineering and the law enforcement itself (Oliva, 2007). The researcher intends to get the response of both sides, especially in this matter.

Most of the communities stressed the lack of information about the different wildlives off the coast of the municipality. They were stressing the thought that if a person has a bigger knowledge about the wildlife, then they can help in the implementation of the law in their area. However, the story of the implementing agency spells a different word. Budget is one of the main problems in the implementation of the law. With the lack of budget, the IEC's efforts of the department can also be affected as it can also affect the presence of a physical office that can be put into consideration by the chief executives. The presence of a wildlife rescue office can secure found wildlife for security purposes.

The Solutions for the Chokepoints Possible Solutions to the Problems in Implementing the Law

The community, during the FGD, stressed that the need to have an intensive information education campaign can be a great help. Creating and the formation of the hotline and pamphlets was also an effective way of information dissemination. The community also wanted to make the implementation of the law stricter and imposed the law anytime.

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Meanwhile, the implementers suggested that there should be a presence of stable programs, project, and activities that relate to coastal wildlife. In addition, there should be enough budget not only in the level of the municipality but also with the coastal barangays that they could give a pie in their budget that could be allotted to environment-related activities along the coastal areas.

Conclusions

This study of the implementation of the law Republic Act 9147 or Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act by both the Community and the Implementers is very significant nowadays. It seeks to conserve and protect wildlife in their respective habitats wherein some of them are of endangered and near to extinction. However, through its passage and became a law, dozens of perpetrators were caught for not following this law.

The method of the research was a mixed method, wherein the researcher gathered Secondary data from the line agencies, an FGD (Community and Implementer) and a triangulation using a survey method. The technique in selecting respondents was random sampling using the Slovin’s formula (with Stratified) on a specific area in the Municipality of Manay; namely Barangay Holy Cross, Zaragoza, San Ignacio, and Central.

As per result, both of the parties observe proper implementation to the law RA 9147. It is evident, especially they have parallel answers by the implementers. The community also validated some of the provisions of the law of its equal importance such as the illegal use of dynamite fishing, coastal squatting, and wildlife trading that can be of great effect to the wildlife. Slow moving implementation is also observed as one of the chokepoints for its implementation.

A couple of gaps, issues, and concerns are also presented by the respondents who attended the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) especially those who are living in the community which is of great effect in the laws' implementation.

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References

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Balanay, R. M., Yorobe, J.M., Reyes, S.G., Castanos, A.M., Maglente O., Panduyos, J. & Cuenca C.C. (2014). Analyze the Income Effects of Mining with Instrumental Variables for Poverty Reduction Implications in Caraga region, Philippines. p 21.

Bautista, J. (2014, May 15) Stubborn Chinese Poachers. The Manila Times Online www.manilatimes.net/stubborn-chinese-poachers/96902/

Chenkitkosol, W. &Yamao, M. (2004).Recent trends and challenges of coastal resource management projects in Thailand.IIFET 2004 Japan Proceedings. pp. 2-7.

Crawford B.R., Dutton I.M., RotinsuluC..& Hale L.Z. (1998). Community-based Coastal Resources Management in Indonesia: examples and initial lessons from North Sulawesi.

Fortes, M.D. (2013).A review: biodiversity, distribution, and conservation of Philippine seagrasses. The Philippine Journal of Science, 142 (Special Issue), pp 95-111.

Gayle, D. (2016). People aged 40-59 are least happy and most anxious, report finds. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/feb/02/middle-aged-people least-happy-most-anxious-ons-wellbeing-report

Giasson, H.L., Queen, MS T L, Larkina, M, Jacqui Smith, J,. The Gerontologist, Volume 57, Issue suppl_2, 1 August 2017, Pages S160 S168, https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx070

Haddad, Mary. (2017). Environmental advocacy: insights from East Asia. Asian Journal of Political Science.1-19.

Kongresso ng Bayan, (2002). Retrieve from http://www.bic.searca.org/feature/RA- 9147.html

Kushner, B., Waite, R., Jungwiwattanaporn, M. & Burke, L. (2012).Influence of coastal economic valuations in the Caribbean: Enabling conditions and lesson learned, A Working Paper. The World Resource Institute and Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership.pp 10-12.

Marine Wildlife Watch of the Philippines 2014. Philippine Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series: Marine Wild Fauna Watch of the Philippines, Inc. p 86.

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Nickerson, B.J. (1994). The Environmental Laws of Zimbabwe: A Unique Approach to Management of the Environment. Volume 14 2ndIssue.

Nilsson, M., Ekman S.L, Ericsson, K., Winblad, B. (1996). Some characteristics of the quality of life in old age illustrated by means of Allardt's concept. Scand J Caring Scie 1996;10(2): 116-21.

Oliva, R.V., (2007). PHIL. ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE 2 PROJECT (ECOGOV2): PHIL. FOREST AND WILDLIFE LAW ENFORCEMENT, SITUATIONER AND CORE ISSUES.

Phelps, J., Biggs, D., Webb, E.L.. 2016. Tools and terms for understanding illegal wildlife trade Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 14 (9) : 479489.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.1325

Republic Act 9147 Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act of 2009 Primer

Russ, G.R., Alcala A.C., Maypa A.P., Calumpong H.P. & White A.T. (2004).Marine reserve benefits local fisheries, Ecological Applications, 14 (2). The Ecological Society of America. pp. 597-606.

Samonte-Tan, G.P.B., White, A.T., Diviva, M.A. &Caballes, E.T. (2007). Economic Valuation of Coastal and Marine Resources: Bohol Marine Triangle, Philippines. p 335.

Slade, L.M. &Thani A.K. (2014).Assessment and priority setting for marine and coastal resource conservation in the Pemba Channel Region for FFI.p 51.

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World Food Programme. (2012). Philippines: Protecting The Environment, Protecting The Future. https://www.wfp.org/Rio%2020/blog/philippines-protecting- environment-protecting-future

PATIENT TURNOVER, NURSING WORKLOADS AND OUTCOMES OF CARE: ITS IMPACT ON QUALITY OF CARE

John Mark Lingcon Cherryl L. Alinsub Calamba Doctors’Hospital; Calamba Doctors’ College, Global Medical Center of Laguna, Philippines

ABSTRACT A descriptive non-experimental type of research was used to determine the patient turnover to nursing workloads through outcomes of care. The study was conducted from a selected hospital in Laguna and was composed of (66) registered nurses as respondents selected through purposive sampling. Data were gathered through a survey questionnaire created from a round table discussion. Researchers used frequency count and weighted mean to describe the occurrence of patient turnover, to determine nurse respondents’ compliance to nursing workloads, and to define outcomes of care. Meanwhile, Pearson’s r test of correlation was used to answer how patient turnover impacts nursing workloads and the effect of nursing workloads to outcomes of care. Also, a regression test was performed to solve for the p-value noting whether to accept or reject the stated null hypothesis. The results of variables patient turnover and nursing workloads had a computed Pearson’s r coefficient of (r = 0.94) and a regression p-value of (p = 0.01) less than the level of significance (α = 0.05) suggesting that there is a strong relationship between patient turnover and nursing workloads; a faulty patient turnover results in performance of nursing workloads to fail. Also, the study noted a computed Pearson’s r coefficient of (r = 0.88) and a regression p-value of (p = 0.05) equal to the level of significance (α = 0.05) for variables nursing workloads and outcomes of care proposing that there is a significant impact of nursing workloads in outcomes of care to patients; inconsistent nursing workloads result to poor outcomes of care. The findings of the study lead to recommend that processes in patient turnover should be tailored in a manner that it will not greatly affect nurses’ performance of nursing workloads. Processes should not take much of nurses’ working time and increase working demands. Furthermore, nurse managers may assign charge nurses to facilitate processes (completing the charts, securing consent) to admissions, transfers, HAMA, and discharges, and once done they may endorse it to staff nurses. In this way, staff nurses will get to focus on their respective patients only.

Keywords: Patient turnover, nursing workloads, outcomes of care, quality care

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Introduction

Life is full of surprises, unknown with what may be thrown at us; there are good days with a fair share of bad days. Then there are moments that we hope could last forever, and then there are moments that we wish could end sooner. Sometimes, life takes us back with surprises that we are not equipped to deal with, whether good or bad.

The nursing profession is a life filled with uncertainties, dealing with diverse patients with the same diagnosis but with different presentations is no joke. Admission, discharge, transfer of patients added with a pile of doctors’ orders to be carried out make nursing world a chaotic profession for many. Still, many Filipino nurses embrace this profession, passion or calling is the reason we see, and that is why the world views Filipinos as great nurses.

Filipino nurses, despite being the most sought after healthcare professionals abroad, tend to provide poor quality of care here in our country. Many may agree that this is due to the limited working environment; however, Filipino nurses are known to be adaptive and resourceful, and thus, scarcity is not an issue in delivering quality care to patients. In professional experience, lowly delivery of care seems to be associated with nurses’ failure to manage time wisely. Time management in nursing is the dictum to deliver quality care; however, it is not practiced most of the time since there are tons of nursing workloads to consider which are greatly affected by fast-paced patient turnover.

Hospital managements, mostly if not all, are more concerned with what task is done and not with how it is done, and the reason why the delivery of quality care is taken for granted. Hospital management does not have an eye on the ground as to what are the nursing workloads, how it is affected by the influx of patient admissions, transfers and discharges, and more so if quality care is achieved. These result in nurse job disappointment and patient dissatisfaction.

Preceded, are few heavy-weighted reasons for hospital management, through the nurse managers to further their understanding to patient turnover and how it affects nursing

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workloads that may alter delivery of quality care. Understanding patient turnover is not limited in knowing patient census, but more so, in learning what a patient goes through before and after admission/transfer/discharge for the management to track where in specific processes does a patient experience disappointment and to create a plan in addressing it. Glitches in patient turnover increase nursing workloads thereby adding the demands and resources for care to patients putting quality of care at the losing end. High patient turnover makes the nursing work environment more crowded and chaotic because nurses must provide concentrated nursing care to an increased number of patients and families within shorter time frames. [22] Thus, patient turnover should be considered an important factor in the allocation of nursing personnel and in-patient outcomes.

While many researches were conducted to understand phenomena affecting delivery of quality care, little attention has been placed to patient turnover, its relationship to nursing workloads and how it impacts outcomes of care to patients. Previous studies focused on nurse staffing as the predictor of the outcomes of care to patients. A study focused on the effect of nursing staffing to patient outcomes based on patient turnover levels. Meanwhile, this study did not assert nurse staffing as a concept to affect outcomes of care to patients, instead, it determined whether outcomes of care is affected by the patient turnover, nursing workloads as the bridging concept between the two. While other studies utilized patients’ satisfaction to assess outcomes of care, this study gathered nurses respondents’ perception on how the outcomes of care are with the nursing workloads they perform. It is to check nurse respondents’ insight in which areas of care delivery they believe patients are disappointed with. Previous researches focused their study of patient turnover in admissions, transfers, and discharges. However, this study included HAMA as one of the sub-concepts of patient turnover as researchers believe that patients who go for HAMA are both a concern and a challenge to the healthcare field. Instead of gathering the ratio of the number of admissions, discharges, HAMAs and transfers to the total number of treated patients to assess patient turnover, this study gathered nurse respondents’ perception on what processes/procedures of patient turnover patients experience poor service.

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Objectives of the Study

Researchers, nurses by profession working in private hospitals, are motivated in conducting this study to gain knowledge of the effect of nursing workloads on outcomes of care of patients based on patient turnover levels. Results of this study aim to help hospital management, through the nurse managers, to encourage them to devise a plan to address the matter.

Methodology

The study was a descriptive research. The purpose of a descriptive research is to observe, to describe, and to document aspects of situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point on theory development. Thus, descriptive correlation design was used to study the impacts of patient turnover on nursing workloads affecting outcomes of care. The main purpose of correlation research was to clarify the understanding of important phenomena through the identification of relationships among variables.

Participants of the study were chosen using purposive sampling technique and initially targeted to consist seventy (70) registered nurses employed in selected hospital in Laguna. However, due to attrition, only sixty-six (66) nurses participated, 59.09% (39) were females and 40.91% (27) were males. Nurse respondents were mostly millennials/generation Y with 78.79% (52) counts; others were generation X and baby boom generation with 16.67% (11) and 4.55% (3) counts, respectively. In terms of position profile, chief nurse and assistant chief nurse posts were both 1.52% (1) count to each, 6.06% (4) nurse supervisors, 13.64% (9) head nurses, and lastly 77.27% (51) were staff nurses. In terms of their educational attainment, only 6.06% (4) nurse respondents declared to have a master’s degree while 10.61% (7) were master’s undergraduates and the rest 83.33% (55) were baccalaureate degree holders. Also, with 60.61% (40) counts, most of the nurse respondents have only a year to two years of hospital experience, 13.64% (9) with less than one year of experience, 3.03% (2) to each with seven to eight years and eleven to twelve years of experience, 15.15% (10) with three to four years, and only 4.55% (3) have thirteen and above years of experience.

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The main tool of the study was a self-devised 75-item survey questionnaire; 20 items for the patient turnover, 30 items for the nursing workloads, 15 items for the outcomes of care, 5 items for the demographic profile, 5 items for the hospital profile. Questions were brainstormed by nurse managers in a round-table discussion (RTD). The devised survey questionnaire was tested for its reliability and revealed Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of 0.92 for patient turnover, 0.87 for nursing workloads, and 0.78 for outcomes of care. The survey questionnaire was answerable by a five-point Likert scale from “1” indicating never (N) to “5” always (A). Attached to the questionnaire is a cover letter discussing the purpose of the study and assuring the anonymity of the nurse respondent.

Prior to fielding the survey questionnaire, researchers requested permission from the authorities of Global Medical Center of Laguna. Upon approval, information, mechanics and purpose of the survey questionnaire were conferred to the nurse respondents through a meeting. Nurse respondents answered the survey questionnaire after their regular duty hour. Researchers personally administered the survey questionnaire to promptly answer any questions regarding the study.

Subsequently, questionnaires were retrieved. Data collected were summarized and analyzed using various statistical treatments: frequency count and weighted mean were used to describe occurrence of patient turnover, to determine nurse respondents’ compliance to nursing workloads, and define outcomes of care, respectively; and Pearson’s r test of correlation was used to calculate the linear relationship among variables (patient turnover – nursing workloads and nursing workloads – outcomes of care) and whether the relationship, if any, is significant or not. Also, a regression test was performed to solve for the p-value noting whether to accept or reject the stated null hypothesis.

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Results and Discussion

Tables under present the analysis and interpretation to data gathered in this study. Since indicators were stated positively, the higher weighted mean agrees that there is less concern in the processes each sub-concept entails. The legend in the table is a guide for the interpretation of computed weighted means.

Table 1 summarizes the computed weighted means for patient turnover. As presented, sub-concept discharge got a general weighted mean of 2.92 ranking first, sub-concept admission came second with a general weighted mean of 2.82, next was sub-concept HAMA with a general weighted mean of 2.64, and last was a sub- concept transfer with a general weighted mean of 2.55.

Results imply that sub-concept discharge being the first among the sub concepts bring less demands in its processes. While sub- concept transfer occuring as the last, contributes to increase workloads to nurses. Also, while sub-concept HAMA was just added as part of the patient turnover in this study, results show that it stands as a greater impact than admission and discharge.

Despite the ranking, sub-concepts got weighted means with a narrow difference from each other, an average difference of 0.12 and all were interpreted as sometimes, this means that all sub concepts may not be always frantic, yet needed to be understood to improve patient turnover and avoid possible negative impacts to nursing workloads that may result to poor outcomes of care.

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Table 1 Weighted Means of Patient Turnover

Item Weighted Indicator Interpretation Rank No. Mean Admission 2.82 Sometimes 2 Triage is immediate, accurate and effective. 1 Prioritizes patients according to immediate 2.71 Sometimes 3 health needs. Orders for admission and initial treatment 2 are quick to be communicated to the 2.44 Rarely 4 attending physician. Completion of patient’s admission database 3 is easy and simple, this includes consent for 3.03 Sometimes 2 admission. Medical history is systematically taken; 4 laboratory results and diagnostic findings 2.35 Rarely 5 are speedy to release. Initial medical orders are all noted and 5 3.55 Very Often 1 carried out promptly prior to endorsement. Transfer 2.55 Sometimes 4 Order/request for transfer is properly coordinated to the attending physician, 1 2.42 Rarely 3 relative and agency/institution/area where patient is to be transferred. Transfer summary (e.g. medical abstract) 2 and other documents are complete prior to 2.08 Rarely 4 transfer. Orders of medical treatments and 3 medications are fully carried out prior to 3.41 Sometimes 1 transfer. Personnel responsible for patient’s 4 1.94 Rarely 5 transport are prepared anytime. Medical condition of the patient is 5 completely and accurately endorsed to the 2.92 Sometimes 2 receiving agency/institution/area. Home Against Medical Advice 2.64 Sometimes 3 Risks of HAMA are well translated to the 1 2.95 Sometimes 2 patient and/or relatives. Attending physician is properly informed of 2 3.20 Sometimes 1 the patient’s request for HAMA. Consent for HAMA is detailed and easily 3 2.61 Sometimes 3 understood. Few hospital staffs are involved in the 4 2.52 Sometimes 4 HAMA process. 5 Processing request for HAMA is simple. 1.92 Rarely 5 Discharge 2.92 Sometimes 1 Discharge orders (e.g. home medications, 1 3.59 Very Often 1 follow up consultation) are complete. Final diagnosis is complete prior to billing 2 2.36 Rarely 4 out. 3 Auditing and billing out are correct and fast. 2.86 Sometimes 3 Discounts/deductions, if any, are easily 4 3.47 Sometimes 2 conversed to concern party. Vacated rooms are immediately cleaned to 5 2.32 Rarely 5 prepare for next admission. 1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often Legend: 1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 4.50 – 5.00 Always 2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes

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Table 2 recaps the computed weighted means for nursing workloads. As shown, sub-concept documentation was ranked first with a general weighted mean of 3.25; second was sub-concept medication administration with a general weighted mean of 3.06; third was sub-concept assessment with a general weighted mean of 2.90; next was sub-concept discharge planning with a general weighted mean of 2.67; followed by sub-concept health education with a general weighted mean of 2.66; and lastly sub-concept activities of daily living with a general weighted mean of 1.92.

All the sub-concepts under nursing workloads were interpreted as sometimes except for sub-concept activities of daily living which was interpreted as rarely. With the computed general weighted means and interpretation, it may draw out that nursing workloads are affected by the existence of poor patient turnover. Sub- concept activities of daily living is the sub-concept that was greatly compromised while documentation was the sub-concept nurse respondents noted they were more precise to perform. Although other sub-concepts have higher computed weighted means, it is still unacceptable to have sometimes as interpretation for all. For a care to be of quality it should be consistent in all aspects, not just for a certain task, as patients must be dealt with holistically.

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Table 2 Weighted Means of Nursing Workloads

Item No. Indicator Weighted Interpretation Rank Mean Assessment 2.90 Sometimes 3 1 Gathers baseline assessments of 3.26 Sometimes 2 patient to include VS, medical history, and level of understanding. 2 Assesses patient thoroughly prior 2.67 Sometimes 3 to any medication to be administered and treatment to be rendered. 3 Evaluates response of patient to 2.47 Rarely 5 medications administered and treatment rendered. 4 Assesses patient carefully before 3.56 Very Often 1 making any referrals. 5 Correlates subjective data with 2.56 Sometimes 4 objective data (e.g. laboratory results, diagnostic findings).

Documentation 3.25 Sometimes 1 1 Charts initial and transitory 3.24 Sometimes 3 assessment of patient’s condition throughout hospitalization. 2 Notes any untoward medical 3.35 Sometimes 1 presentations of the patient. 3 Records patient’s responses to 3.30 Sometimes 2 medications administered and/or treatments rendered. 4 Documents consent/waiver signed 3.18 Sometimes 4 by the patient and/or relative. 5 Writes and verifies verbal and 3.17 Sometimes 5 telephone orders. Have said orders signed. Medication Administration 3.06 Sometimes 2 1 Verifies doctor’s order of 2.92 Sometimes 3 medication. 2 Checks label, expiration, 2.55 Sometimes 4 consistency, route of medication to be administered. 3 Prepares, personally, medication to 4.41 Very Often 1 be administered. 4 Adheres to the seven rights of 3.03 Sometimes 2 medication administration. 5 Acquires knowledge about the 2.39 Rarely 5 effects, side effects and interactions of medications to be administered. Activities of Daily Living 1.92 Rarely 6 1 Assists patient in movement in bed. 1.91 Rarely 3.5 2 Assists patient in transfers and 1.97 Rarely 2 locomotion. 3 Assists patient in dressing. 1.70 Rarely 5

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4 Assists patient in personal hygiene. 1.91 Rarely 3.5 5 Assists patient in feeding. 2.11 Rarely 1 Health Education 2.66 Sometimes 5 1 Informs patient of hospital policies 2.55 Sometimes 4 and safety evacuation plan. 2 Provides brief discussion of 2.65 Sometimes 3 patient’s health status, nature of health condition, and medical options to adhere. 3 Discusses to patient importance of 2.76 Sometimes 2 medications and/or treatments ordered. 4 Educates patient of what to expect 2.83 Sometimes 1 after a medication is administered and/or a treatment is rendered. 5 Teaches patient of efforts to take in 2.53 Sometimes 5 achieving optimal condition (e.g. diet, activities/exercises). Discharge Planning 2.67 Sometimes 4 1 Identifies health care needs to be 2.64 Sometimes 4 continued at home. 2 Teaches about self-care at home. 2.80 Sometimes 3 3 Completes discharge instructions of 2.85 Sometimes 2 patient to include medications/treatments to be continued at home and follow up consultation. 4 Assists in referral to health 2.02 Rarely 5 agencies/institutions for out-patient rehabilitation and support. 5 Ensures complete medical 3.05 Sometimes 1 documents needed by the patient prior to discharge.

1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often Legend: 1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 4.50 – 5.00 Always 3.49 Sometimes

Table 3 outlines the computed weighted means for outcomes of care. Ranked first was the sub-concept patient complication with a general weighted mean of 2.74. Next was sub- concept length of stay with a general weighted mean of 2.61, and last in the rank was sub-concept patient safety which garnered a general weighted mean of 2.57. All the sub-concepts were interpreted as sometimes, and these suggest that all sub-concepts share fair chances of being a concern as gauge for having good outcomes of care. In this concept, the higher computed weighted mean suggests higher risk it may pose an affect on the outcomes of care in as much as indicators were stated negatively. Sub-concept patient complication was seen to be of great concern by the nurse

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respondents while sub-concept patient safety was the least. However, nurse respondents reported that patient identification is an issue and this may put the patients in danger. But despite the ranking, it was obvious that all three sub concepts share narrow a mean difference which entails that all three are concern factors to outcomes of care in the existence of increased nursing workloads due to poor patient turnover.

Table 3 Weighted Means of Outcomes of Care

Item No. Indicator Weighted Interpretation Rank Mean Length of Stay 2.61 Sometimes 2 1 Patient stays in the hospital in short 3.97 Very Often 1 period of time. Usually 1-2 days of hospitalization. 2 Short hospitalization time is just 2.36 Rarely 3 enough to manage patient’s medical condition by the attending physician. 3 Hospitalization depends on the 2.83 Sometimes 2 severity of the patient’s medical condition. 4 Nursing plan of care is well executed 2.23 Rarely 4 in short hospitalization time. 5 Short hospitalization time ensures 1.64 Rarely 5 delivery of quality of care to patients. Patient Complication 2.74 Sometimes 1 1 Patients develop other medical 2.70 Sometimes 3 condition while in the hospital. 2 Patients are readmitted after few 2.76 Sometimes 2 days. 3 Patients failed to adapt to the course 2.56 Sometimes 5 of treatment. 4 Patients mistrust health care 2.64 Sometimes 4 provider. 5 Patients transfer service after 3.03 Sometimes 1 hospitalization. Patient Safety 2.57 Sometimes 3 1 Medication errors are common. 2.42 Rarely 3 2 Patient identification is an issue. 3.53 Very Often 1 3 Injuries secondary to fall are 3.00 Sometimes 2 common incidents. 4 Medical equipment are substandard. 2.08 Rarely 4 5 Practices emergency evacuation 1.83 Rarely 5 plan.

1.00 – 1.49 Never 2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes 4.50 – 5.00 Always Legend: 1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often

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Shown in Table 4 are the computed Pearson’s r and p value for patient turnover – nursing workloads and nursing workloads – outcomes of care.

For patient turnover – nursing workloads, computed r = 0.94 indicates that there is a strong relationship between patient turnover and nursing workloads. Since the computed coefficient has a positive sign this suggests that as the patient turnover improves so as the nursing workloads, however, when patient turnover declines nursing workloads are compromised.

Researchers reject the null hypothesis (Ho) there is no significant relationship between patient turnover and nursing workloads as the p-value (0.01) is less than the set level of significance (α = 0.05).

Table 4 Computed Pearson’s r and p-value for Patient Turnover – Nursing Workloads and Nursing Workloads – Outcomes of Care

Pearson’s r p value Patient Turnover – 0.94 0.01 Nursing Workloads Nursing Workloads – 0.88 0.05 Outcomes of Care Legend: α = 0.05

For nursing workloads – outcomes of care, computed r = 0.88 directs that there is a strong relationship between nursing workloads and outcomes of care. Since the computed coefficient has a positive sign this suggests that as nursing workloads advance so as the outcomes of care, however, when nursing workloads falloff outcomes of care degrade. Researchers reject the null hypothesis (Ho) there is no significant impact of nursing workloads to outcomes of care as the p value (0.05) is equal to the set level of significance (α = 0.05).

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Conclusions

In this study, researchers wanted to examine the interrelationship of patient turnover to nursing workloads to outcomes of care. Researchers strongly believe that quality of care is dictated by the consistency and coherence of the preceded concepts. As a whole, results show that patient turnover to nursing workloads to outcomes of care share strong interrelationship.

Nurse respondents agreed that faulty patient turnover results in for nursing workloads to fail, and alternatively, nursing workloads are effectively performed when patient turnover is well organized. Results of the study affirm that patient turnover, policies and protocols behind its processes, affects nursing workloads by increasing working demands and time to process admission, transfer, HAMA, and discharge. A study to explicitly examine the effect of nurse staffing on patient outcomes based on patient turnover levels and found out that high patient turnover contributes to increased demands and resources for care, likewise, The Labor Management Institute found that nursing care units with higher patient turnover had a higher rate of overtime for nursing staff and more adverse events. Nursing workload is an aspect of nursing that must not be taken for granted as this may be the determinant of nurse resignation. Some of the reasons why nurses resign are work schedules and stress. Nurses get stressed due to work environment and this includes increased nursing workloads along with poor compensation, long- hour duty, shift changes, not being and involved in the decision- making process. Researchers assert that policies and protocols behind the processes of patient turnover should be reviewed for any inconsistencies in the actual procedures of admission, transfer, HAMA, and discharge. Processes in patient turnover should be concise and simple; also only few people should be involved in the said processes.

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IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MAGSASAKA SIYENTISTA (MS)-LED COMMUNITY-BASED BANANA FARMING SYSTEM IN THE PROVINCE OF DAVAO ORIENTAL

Anna Mae F. Teoxon Edito B. Sumile Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

ABSTRACT One intervention for major concerns in the banana industry is the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS) – Led Community-based Banana Farming in the province of Davao Oriental. The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) funded this project to rehabilitate and rebuild the province’s banana production destroyed by typhoon Pablo last December 2012. This study was conducted to determine the impacts of the effectiveness in terms of physical, economic, and behavioral aspects. The study was a qualitative-quantitative research study which utilized questionnaires, key informant interview and focus group discussions (FGDs) in gathering data. Twenty-six farmer cooperators from the three municipalities namely Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston served as respondents. Results showed that the project has an impact on farmer cooperators in terms of physical, economic, and behavioral aspects as evidenced by the overall means of 4.14, 3.58, and 4.73, respectively. Physical impacts are evidenced by the changes in farms such as land preparation, farm management, and observance of good agricultural practices. Economic impacts are manifested on the farmers’ net profit per month. Behavioral impacts are assessed in terms of the change in the attitude of the farmer cooperators and on how the project had been beneficial to them. Also, results of the FGDs show that active monitoring and inspection cause changes in farmers’ behaviors leading to physical and economic changes in the farmers’ areas. Major problems encountered in the project implementation included the pests and disease infestation in farms, the weather condition in the area when the tissue-cultured banana seedlings were distributed, and the marketing of the harvested bananas. Lastly, in view of its positive impact, this kind of modality is recommended to be replicated in to other areas.

Keywords: Public administration, Magsasaka Siyentista, community-based farming, descriptive design, Davao Oriental, Tarragona, Cateel, Boston, Philippines, Asia

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Introduction

Banana is considered one of the essential crops (Marion & Skwiat, N.D.) cultivated by many Filipino farmers (Calderon & Rola, 2003). The Davao region is known to be one of the top contributors to total banana production with 38.2 percent (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). In recent years, different agencies have developed many technologies to resolve major concerns encountered in the banana industry (Dolojan, 2016). One intervention funded by the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) is the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS) – Led Community-based Banana Farming System in the Province of Davao Oriental. This project is in partnership with the Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology (DOSCST), the Provincial Agriculture Office (PAGRI) Davao Oriental, the Southern Mindanao Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development Consortium (SMARRDEC), and the LGUs of Boston, Tarragona, and Cateel. Its general objective is to rehabilitate the banana-cardaba production areas in the Typhoon Pablo affected municipalities in Davao Oriental. It had a total approved budget of Php 2,790,192.00 and its implementation started last June 1, 2013, and ended on December 31, 2015.

The three municipalities were the most hit by Typhoon Pablo. PCAARRD transferred science and technology (S&T) programs to eleven (11) farmer cooperators from each municipality. Moreover, these farmer cooperators were considered Magsasakang Siyentista or farmer scientists. Their roles involved assisting the communities stricken by Typhoon Pablo and address issues and concerns concerning the province’s rehabilitation actions on banana production.

Banana production yield in 2011 reached 9,165,046 metric tons which is 0.70% greater than the previous year’s production volume. Davao Region was the top producer of bananas in the country which contributed 42% to the total saba production. Of its five provinces, Davao Oriental is ranked third in terms of production area planted in hectares and number of bearing hills from 2006 to 2010 (BAS 2012).

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In the year 2012, Typhoon Pablo or Bopha (international name) devastated the Philippines (Santos, 2013). It affected the agricultural sector of the province of Davao Oriental. The damages caused by typhoon Pablo almost amounted to Php 37 billion, of which 26.53 billion came from the agricultural sector”. (Romero, 2012).

The Office of the Provincial Agriculture (PAGRI) reported the production for 2012 to decrease after the occurrence of Typhoon Pablo in the province. In this regard, the MS-led Community-Based Banana Farming project intended to apply the Science and Technology (S&T) interventions in the rehabilitation of the banana plantation in the province of Davao Oriental. This study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS) – Led Community Based Banana Farming System in Davao Oriental.

Framework of the Study

In this study, the Logic Model was used to conceptualize the success or failure of the project depended on the project’s inputs and process. The inputs included trainee qualifications such as age, sex, civil status, occupation, and monthly salary. It also included a series of training conducted by the training staff. Lastly, inputs included the project’s budget. The process included the different pieces of training and activities devised to transfer Science and Technology (S&T) intervention techniques to the farmers. The outputs consisted of the results produced through those activities. Lastly, the outcomes consisted of the benefits or changes that resulted from the project such as the different impacts of the project to the farmers in terms of the physical, economic, and behavioral aspects. Included also in the outputs are the knowledge and skills developed after the series of trainings. The Logic Model was used to determine if the desired outcomes of the projects were achieved or not. An analysis of the inputs, outputs, and outcomes was done to the project ready to be evaluated. It helped in showing relationships between the project’s objectives, its activities, indicator, and resources used in the project (Dwyer and Makin, 1997)

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Objectives of the Study

At the end of this study, the researcher aims to determine the resources required to achieve the desired outcomes of the projects, know what knowledge or skills farmers need to achieve the outcomes of the project, and determine what activities need to be performed to cause the necessary learning and skills of the farmers. Moreover, it intends to know the different problems encountered by the farmers during and after the implementation of the project. Lastly, it aims to know the impacts on the farmers in terms of physical changes, economic changes, and behavioral changes.

Methodology

The study was quantitative and qualitative research. It used complete enumeration which involved 26 farmer cooperators from the municipalities of Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston. The researcher used the five farmer cooperators for the pilot testing of the questionnaire. One farmer cooperator changed residence and is presently in Iloilo City. The other one was unwilling to participate in the study.

The survey questionnaire was prepared to identify the knowledge and skills farmer cooperators deemed necessary to achieve the project’s objectives and the activities needed to acquire such knowledge and skills. Moreover, it assessed the impacts of the project in the farmer cooperators in terms of the physical, economic, and behavioral aspects. The frequency and mean ratings were used to describe the findings of the survey. Key informant interview with the project leader and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) among the respondents were also used to support the findings. A 5-point Likert Scale was used as a basis in describing the extent of the impact of the project on the farmer cooperators. The scale below was used in evaluating the impacts of the project to the farmers in term of physical, economic, and behavioral impacts.

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Table 1 Likert Scale Used in the Study Rating Qualitative Description 4.21-5.00 Strongly Agree 3.41-4.20 Agree 2.61-3.40 Neither Agree/Disagree 1.81-2.60 Disagree 1.00-1.80 Strong Disagree

Results and Discussion

Socio-Demographic Profile of the Farmer Cooperators

Table 2 Sex of the Respondents

Sex Frequency (f) Percentage (%)

Male 18 69.23 Female 8 30.77 TOTAL 26 100.00

The study had a total of 26 respondents. Of these, 18, representing 69.23%, are males. On the other hand, 8, representing 30.77%, are females. These figures supported the gender roles common to many Asian countries, including the Philippines. It is mostly the men or the husbands who served as family providers while the women or the mothers are considered the nurturer of the children (Angeles, 2001).

Table 3 Age of the Respondents

Age Frequency (f) Percentage (%) 20-30 years old 1 3.85 31-40 years old 2 7.69 41-50 years old 11 42.31 51 years old and above 12 46.15 TOTAL 26 100.00

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The respondents of the study were mostly 40 years old and above. These individuals are approaching their late adulthood stage. People in this age bracket showed little interest in growth in terms of their growth orientation as compared to those belonging in the lower age brackets (Ebner et al., 2006).

Moreover, younger adults to middle-aged adults are mostly concerned with their growth and maintenance or prevention of loss of wealth. Young adults are more expected to focus on maximizing their growth given their younger age and access to resources. However, as individuals get older, their personal goals shift to maintain and prevent losses in the future (Baltes, 1987).

Table 4 Marital Status of the Respondents

Marital Status Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Single 1 3.85 Married 24 92.31 Widowed 1 3.85 TOTAL 26 100.00

Of the 26 respondents, 24 or 92.31% were married. One was single, and another one was widowed. Majority of the farmer cooperators have their own families.

Table 5 Monthly Income of the Respondents

Monthly Income Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Below Php 5,000.00 7 26.92 Php 5,000 - Php 10,000 8 30.77 Php 10,001 - Php 15,000 7 26.92 Php 15,001 - Php 20,000 2 7.69 Php 20,001 - Php 50,000 2 7.69 Php 50,000 above 0 0.00 TOTAL 26 100.00

Most respondents representing 30.77% had a monthly income of Php 5,000 to Php 10,000.

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Resources Needed to Achieve the Project’s Outcomes

The identified inputs of the project included the farm supplies and materials for the establishment of the banana farms. The farmer cooperators received these in the first year of implementation. These farm inputs included the tissue-cultured banana plantlets, bags of limestones, bags of vermicast fertilizer, bags of urea, weighing scales, farmers’ boots, gloves, masks, logbooks, shovels, slashing bolos (lagaraw), polytwine, tie box, desuckering shovel, pruning knife (sanggot), grab hoe (sarol), knapsack sprayers, and impregnated polybag sheets. Included also in the distributed supplies and materials are the plastic pails, sharpening stones (bairan), Daconil, Mykovam, ammonium phosphates, Muriate of Potash, hoesticks, Karate, Crop Giant, and Parapest.

Training and seminars were also conducted in order to achieve the goals of the project. Experts from the Provincial Agricultural Office, the Bureau of Plant Industry, Municipal Agriculture Office, LGU representatives, provincial agriculture technicians, and the project leaders and their team from DOSCST conducted these pieces of training.

Monitoring and inspection were also done. DOSCST staff together with the Provincial and Municipal Agriculture Office visited the farms and assessed how well the farmer cooperators incorporated the S&T intervention techniques in their farms. During the second year of implementation, farmer cooperators had already given suckers to neighbor farmers in their communities to promote the application of banana production techniques. With the series of monitoring done, farmer cooperators admitted that their behaviors toward banana production had changed. They now follow the proper way of planting banana seedlings, and with the S&T interventions, their harvests yielded better results.

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Assessed Needs of the Farmer Cooperators Assessing the Needs of the Farmer Cooperators (in terms of knowledge and skills)

Table 6 List of Knowledge and Skills Deemed Necessary by Farmers

Knowledge and Skills Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Good Agricultural Practices 25 16.03 Pest/Disease Control 23 14.74 Farm Management 23 14.74 Land Preparation 21 13.46 Field Design 20 12.82 Soil Enrichment 18 11.54 Spacing Fertilization 8 5.13 Others 4 2.56 Crop Rotation 3 1.92 Leadership Development 3 1.92 Marketing 3 1.92 Cover Crops 2 1.28 Irrigation 2 1.28 Bio-intensive integrated pest management 1 0.64 TOTAL 156 100.00

Based on the conducted survey, the knowledge and skills deemed to be needed the most by the farmers were to know the good agricultural practices. It is followed by knowing how to control pests and diseases affecting bananas and proper farm management. They also identified the importance of land preparation and the field design of their lands.

A series of training and workshops on banana production and management were given to the 33 farmer cooperators. Included in the training were soil requirements and land preparation, field design, pests and diseases controls, and farm management – which were all perceived to be necessary knowledge and skills needed by the farmers to achieve the project’s outcomes. Other training conducted involved climate and water control, windbreaks, plantlet propagation, safety uses and classification of pesticides and insecticides, fertilizer utilization, and planting and spacing fertilization. (Terminal Report, 2015)

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The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) results also supported farmers’ believef that the most critical knowledge and skill they should acquire are the good agricultural practices which included proper farm management and maintenance. Most of them also ranked next to pests and diseases and how to control them. They admitted that all of them never wanted to have any pests or disease in their farms. On the side of the implementing team, they believed that incorporation not only of technology but of the science in farming is essential as it sets these farmer cooperators apart from other ordinary farmers.

Science and Technology (S&T) Interventions

Several technologies had already been developed to resolve the significant issues farmers often encountered in the banana industry. Some of these included “production of quality fruits,” “availability of disease-free planting materials,” “tissue culture as planting material,” “fertilizer and water management,” “pests and diseases control,” “post-harvest handling,” and “reduction of post-harvest losses” (Dolojan, 2016).

For this project, the following table shows the list of S&T interventions done.

Table 7 List of S&T Interventions

Tissue-cultured banana Liming (Soil sampling and analysis) Field design and planting distance (including sticking and digging of planting holes) Fertilizer Application Sucker management Deleafing/pruning Deflowering and debudding Bagging Proper harvesting procedure Water and water management Weeding and cultivation Pest and diseases control

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Assessing the Needs of the Farmer Cooperators (in terms of necessary activities)

Table 8 List of Activities Needed to Achieve the Knowledge and Skill

Activities Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Technology Training 26 18.71 Farm Cross-Visits 26 18.71 Using farm for Demo plots/field 25 17.99 Technology Clinics 24 17.27 Technology Advisory 22 15.83 Field Days 14 10.07 Others 2 1.44 TOTAL 139 100.00

Most respondents answered that technology training and farm cross-visits are the most necessary activities in order to gain the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve the project’s objectives. Both are followed by using the farm for Demo plots/field.

Grossman and Salas (2011) emphasized that training concentrates on initiating the permanent cognitive and behavioral changes on the trainee. Furthermore, it helps develop essential competencies essential to do the tasks well. Farm cross visits, on the other hand, allow farmers to observe the best practices each farmer had on their farms. It is also the best way to expose farmers to new technology. They can interact with other farmers and gain additional knowledge on the improvement of their farms. (Roothaert, et al., 2003) Shared problems can also be consulted by other farmers.

Impacts of the Project to the Farmers

A 4.14 overall mean below shows that farmer cooperators agree to the physical impacts of the projects to them. They affirmed that the number of bananas planted per cropping season increased in number because they were able to plant additional bananas from the banana sprouts or suckers they had harvested from the mother tissue-cultured bananas. However, just as what Quaim (1999) said,

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having a tissue-cultured banana is not sufficient. An additional effort from the farmer cooperators is expected. Additional inputs and services are also needed to ensure that they will have a good harvest. (Quaim, 1999).

Physical Impacts of the Project to the Farmers

Table 9 Assessment of the Physical Impacts of the Project to the Farmer Cooperators

Physical Impacts Frequency Qualitative Mean As a farmer-cooperator, I 1 2 3 4 5 Description Observed that bananas planted per cropping 1. 1 1 0 17 7 4.08 Agree season increased in number Learnt how to use 2. limestone in treating farm 1 2 0 12 11 4.15 Agree soil Planted disease-free banana tissue-cultured Strongly 3. seedlings following the 0 0 0 12 14 4.54 Agree recommended planting distance. Observed proper 1 Strongly 4. 1 0 0 9 4.23 watering management 6 Agree Learnt proper fertilizer Strongly 5. 0 0 0 15 11 4.42 application Agree Observed farm 6. maintenance and weed 0 3 3 9 11 4.08 Agree management Strongly 7. Did regular leaf pruning 1 0 2 13 10 4.19 Agree Observed sucker control Strongly 8. 0 1 1 15 9 4.23 and management Agree Applied preventive Neither 9. control measures against 1 8 4 8 5 3.31 Agree nor pests and diseases Disagree Overall 4.14 Agree

The introduction of Science and Technology (S&T) farming interventions through different pieces of training equipped the farmer cooperators with the right knowledge in maintaining and managing a banana farm. Applying S&T interventions enhanced

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banana productions and its productivity is expected to go up during cropping seasons (Anonymous, 2005). The case of the cardaba production infused with S&T intervention in Tiniwisan, Butuan City also support this. After their LGU’s Agricultural Office evaluated the performance of the demo farms created for the tissue-cultured banana, results showed that vegetative and yield performance of bananas had improved. (Varela and Gonzales, 2016) Such results were attributed to proper farm maintenance, proper application of the S&T techniques transferred to farmers, and observance of the proper agricultural practices taught during training. However, Item no. 9 had a mean of only 3.31 which meant that the farmer cooperators neither agree nor disagree if there was a physical impact in terms of applying preventive measures to control pests and diseases of their banana produce. One of the significant problems encountered by the farmer cooperators after implementation was the pests and diseases control.

Economic Impacts of the Project to the Farmers

An overall mean of 3.53 shows that farmer cooperators agree that the project had an economic impact.

Table 10 Assessment of the Economic Impacts of the Project to the Farmer Cooperators

Economic Impacts Frequency Qualitative Mean As a farmer-cooperator, I observed that 1 2 3 4 5 Description Harvesting schedule for the bananas 1 1 3 0 10 12 4.12 Agree became more frequent Average weight of bananas per bunch 2 0 3 8 12 3 3.58 Agree increased Average number of hands per bunch 3 0 4 9 11 2 3.42 Agree increased Neither Average number of fingers per hand 4 1 4 7 12 2 3.38 Agree nor increased Disagree The number of kilograms of harvested 5 0 3 5 13 5 3.77 Agree banana per cropping season had increased 6 Gross sales per harvest increased 0 4 7 9 6 3.65 Agree 7 Profit per harvest increased 0 3 8 11 4 3.61 Agree Neither 8 Expenses per harvest increased 0 12 1 12 1 3.08 Agree nor Disagree Overall 3.58 Agree

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According to Quaim (1999), planting tissue-cultured bananas resulted in increases yields and income. However, total production costs of the farms also increased due to increased amounts of inputs provided to the farms. Also, in the case of Kenya, it was observed that tissue-cultured (TC) banana seedling had shorter maturity periods compared to nonTC bananas. This means that the time from planting the bananas to its harvesting became shorter enabling farmers to plant more. Bigger bunch weights were also observed. (Mbogoh, et al., 2003)

In India, the same observation is noted. The feedback received from planting TC bananas increased total yield and bunch sizes. Overall productivity was also recorded to have increased by 35-40% as compared to previous years’ production. (Singh et al., 2011). In the Philippines, specifically in Tiniwisan, Butuan City recorded cardaba bananas with S&T intervention are relatively taller and bigger than those with no intervention at all. (Varela and Gonzales, 2016)

Moreover, bananas in plots with intervention have a higher yield than those belonging to plots following the usual farmer’ practices in terms of some hands per bunch, the weight of the bunch, the weight of the banana hands and the number of fingers per bunch. It was reported that activities like correct fertilization, irrigation, drainage facility, sucker control, farm sanitation, pruning, and proper bagging had caused this increase. Also, these activities lead to additional costs incurred by the farmers.

In Region XI, results of the project adopting S&T interventions in saba/cardaba and lakatan production also showed that there is a significant difference in terms of fruit yield between the S&T-infused banana production and the normal banana production. (Region XI Narrative Report, 2011) This was again attributed to the number of inputs applied.

Tissue-cultured banana production is a high-input, high- output type of activity (Quaim, 1999). This meant that higher capital is needed in order to gain more profit in the TC banana production. These TC bananas are considered very delicate planting materials, and in order to produce higher yields, right growing conditions like proper farm sanitation, weed management, fertilizer application,

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regular nutrient application, and farm maintenance are required. These activities all involved additional capital. Hence, it can result in increases in farm expenses.

However, the results showed that expenses incurred per harvest did not increase as opposed to the supposedly increase in expense expected from planting TC bananas. Sixteen farmers or 62% of them disagreed with the increase in expense. Interviews conducted with the farmer cooperators revealed that after using all the inputs provided to them, most of them did not spend or spent only a minimal amount for additional fertilizers. On the other hand, there were 8 or 31% of them who bought and spent additional expenses for farm inputs.

The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) results revealed that the MS-led project had an impact economically on the farmer cooperators. They admitted that there was an increase in gross income. Additional income from banana production was also utilized to send their children to school. They also shared that with the current bills they were paying like for electricity, water, and the like, now, they can set aside a part of their income for the family’s savings which was an improvement to their status before.

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Behavioral Impacts of the Project to the Farmers

An overall mean of 4.73 says that farmer cooperators agree that the project had a behavioral impact.

Table 11 Assessment of the Behavioral Impacts of the Project to the Farmer Cooperators

Behavioral Impacts Frequency Qualitative Mean As a farmer-cooperator, I believed Description 1 2 3 4 5 that The program contributed Strongly 1 additio-nal knowledge to the 0 0 0 5 21 4.81 Agree farmers The program developed our Strongly 2 management and leadership 0 0 0 5 21 4.81 Agree skills The program was able to help Strongly 3 0 0 0 6 20 4.77 us improve their means of living Agree The knowledge and skills or Strongly 4 techniques acquired were 0 0 1 4 21 4.77 Agree appropriate and needed The farming techniques were Strongly 5 0 0 0 5 21 4.81 not difficult Agree The farming techniques learned Strongly 6 were applied and used until this 0 0 2 6 18 4.62 Agree day The farming best practices Strongly 7 learned were shared with other 0 0 0 4 22 4.85 Agree farmers If the same program is offered Strongly 8 in the future, participation can 0 2 0 3 21 4.65 Agree be expected In a forum, seminar, or training, I can share the knowledge Strongly 9 0 2 1 10 13 4.31 acquired and the skills Agree developed through the project The program can be Strongly 10 recommended to other farmers 0 0 0 3 23 4.88 Agree in other provinces Strongly Overall 4.73 Agree

Usually, farmers do not adopt any technologies in managing their farms (Valera and Gonzales, 2016). They rely on the knowledge their fathers or grandfathers had taught them. This knowledge then is handed down to generations until it becomes a norm. According to Mores (2012), it is noted that their attitudes

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were similar to the “Kundiman” variety. PCAARRD defines “kundiman” as a practice in banana production wherein farmers just plant the bananas and leave them to grow on their own until harvest without applying any proper production process.

However, PCAARRD also observes that when interventions were introduced to farmers, they started quitting the “kundiman” practice. (Mores, 2012) Interviews with farmers revealed that after the training conducted, slowly their attitude towards work also changed. Simple changes like waking up early and going to their farms were observed. Furthermore, training inculcated in their minds the values of industry and perseverance. They also express their gratitude towards the agencies behind the MS-led banana farming project in the province because, through this project, their means of living was augmented. Some confessed that they were able to send their children to school because of this project. Others also stated that the additional cash inflow the banana farming gave them was a big help to make ends meet. They confirmed that many new learnings were acquired during the training that they participated in. These included new farming techniques which were not difficult to apply. Also, they believed that this project had developed their management and leadership skills applied to farm. One farmer cooperator was even recognized as the best farmer in the province.

Furthermore, since only 11 farmer cooperators per municipality were chosen, they felt that they needed to share what they have learned to other farmers. One farmer strongly believed that it is essential to teach co-farmers how to combat pests and diseases. He emphasized that it would be useless if he was the only one practicing good agricultural practices because if his neighboring farms did not, his banana farms would also be destroyed by pests.

FGD results showed that because of continuous monitoring and inspections, they were trained to maintain their farms and observe the S&T techniques transferred to them. They expressed their willingness to participate again if the same program is offered in the future. They felt that with the knowledge and skills they had acquired through training and consultation with the municipal/provincial agriculturists, they could also share what they

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know to others through seminars or training or forums. Finally, they strongly agree that this same program can be recommended to other banana farmers in other provinces of the country.

Davao Oriental after the Implementation of the Project

Even before the inception of the MS-led project, several Farmers’ Information Technology Services (FITS) Centers were already established in the province of Davao Oriental. The center supported farmers and tried to provide answers and solutions to their problems. These provide the direct link of the Agricultural Training Institute, the extension arm of the Department of Agriculture, to the farmers. It served as a one-stop facility nearest to most of the farmers, entrepreneurs, and other clients in a given area.

Moreover, it offers both information and technology services. Also, in the same way in Kenya, TC laboratories and local farms are linked to enable farmers to start their banana nursery. These laboratories are like the FITS Center; they provide and transfer knowledge about improved management practices of growing tissue-cultured bananas. Having them also makes it easier to reach many other farmers (Quaim, 1999).

The project was a big help in empowering the community in promoting the application of improved banana production technologies. The 33 farmer cooperators were ready to become the future magsasakang siyentista of Davao Oriental. One of their roles as such is to share their knowledge with other farmers which they had started doing.

Another success of the project was the development and dissemination of Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials. The project was able to create 400 copies of the “Cardaba Banana Production Guide” which were distributed to the farmer cooperators, FITS Centers, other farmers present during the province-wide Farmer’s Field Day organized by DOSCST last December 1, 2015. Also, 200 copies each of two other IEC materials namely, “Pest and Diseases of Banana and their Control Management” and “Cost and Return Analysis of ¼ Ha Cardaba Production” were also created and distributed during the event.

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Even though the project was terminated, farmer cooperators were still followed up and monitored by the M&E department of the college’s Extension Division. Majority of them had religiously followed and applied the S&T recommended technologies like proper planting distance, right kind and type of fertilizer for their soil type, proper land preparation, good agricultural practices, and proper farm management and maintenance. They still kept pushing forward despite the setbacks they have experienced from Typhoon Pablo, and now they are slowly improving their livelihood from banana production.

Problems Encountered

Both the implementing team (DOSCST) and the farmer cooperators admitted that there were problems. Presented below are the problems encountered during and after the implementation of the project.

Procurement of Inputs. The first problem encountered was the procurement of plantlets. The project team leader stated that the government procurement took so long that their initial schedule for delivery and release of plantlets was pushed back for a couple of months. It resulted in the schedule for the delivery to fall on dry season. Stress on the plantlets became evident as its mortality rates during delivery reached up to 40-60 plantlets (Activity Report, 2014). Each farmer cooperator received 157 tissue- cultured seedlings. Damaged seedlings were later on replaced.

Irrigation. The hot weather condition affected water management in the farms as most were situated in the hilltops or hillsides. Watering and water management became a challenge for most farmers. Although there were some whose farms were situated in the lowlands (kapatagan), problems regarding water still existed. Accordingly, two drums of water were needed to water the plantlets; however, some farmers opt to fetch water using gallons which made the task very tedious and laborious. Despite the difficulties, it was later overcome as bananas do not need as much water growing as when they were planted.

Money. Another problem the farmers had shared was financial problems. They admitted that at the start, they expected

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to incur additional costs or expenses to prepare their lands for it to be able to grow bananas-with that, they needed to hire additional farm employees to help maintain their farms.

The Incidence of Pests and Diseases. After the project’s implementation, farms in Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston were mostly affected by the bugtok disease. This was caused by a bacterium called Pseudomonas solanacearum, which is transmitted to the plant by sucking insects (Fresco, 2002). Accordingly, the spread of the disease is attributed to poor farm management. Some control measures employed by farmers to control the disease was desuckering, farm sanitation, leaf pruning, and bagging and debudding. Another disease that plagued Tarragona and Boston farms was the moko disease. The disease is caused by bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum (Gil et al., 2015). It invades the vascular tissues of the host bananas. The fruit rots and presence of discoloration on the banana stalks and wilting of suckers are the symptoms of moko disease. Other pests and diseases that infected the area are banana stem weevil, black cross, and bunchy top.

It is believed that the rainy season was also one of the factors of the spread of diseases. The same was the problem experienced in Butuan City. The establishment of canals was the answer to the problem. However, the construction would also lead to additional costs.

Instability of Price and Marketing System. Another problem common to the municipalities was the marketing aspect of their product. After harvesting, they only rely on buyers passing by. They never had a regular customer buying their products. The buyers are usually wholesalers, middlemen, or kompradors who buy their bananas for Php 4.00 to Php 7.00 pesos per kilogram. They wanted to control the price of their products. However, due to lack of competition in the area, the buyers exert a great deal of control over the sellers which drive down prices of bananas.

Moreover, eliminating the middlemen reduces the number of logistics and the time for the transport of goods from the farmers to the consumers. This results in the increase of efficiency as the farmers can directly replenish consumers’ stocks with their harvested bananas (Kokemuller, 2018). Also, by selling directly to

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the consumers, the freshness of the products are guaranteed, and waste from delays in moving perishable goods is avoided.

Conclusions

The findings of this study entitled Impact Assessment of the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS)-Led Banana Farming System in the province of Davao Oriental are, first, Typhoon Pablo had indeed affected the lives of the people of Davao Oriental. The typhoon destroyed not only their houses but their means of living as well. The province ranked first as the top producer of bananas in the country before Pablo hit. As a result of devastation, many programs and projects were prepared by the government, and one of those is the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS) – Led Banana Farming System in the province of Davao Oriental. The project aimed to help farmers rehabilitate their farms and promote the banana production industry in the province with the help of S&T interventions and the use of tissue-cultured disease-free banana seedlings again.

Also, different knowledge and skills were identified by the farmer cooperators which they deemed necessary for the success of the project. Their priority was knowing the good agricultural practices which encompass many aspects of banana production. They were also very interested in pest and disease control, farm management, land preparation, and field designs.

Activities needed to be performed in order to achieve the knowledge and skills identified. At the top of their list was the conduct of technology training, farm cross-visits, observing demo farms, technology clinics, technology advisory, and field days.

The farmer cooperators and the implementing team encountered several problems during and after the implementation. First was the procurement of the plantlets which affected the schedule of delivery of the tissue-cultured banana seedlings which fell during the dry spell of the province causing to increase the seedlings mortality rate to 40-60 plantlets. Another problem was the scarcity of water and water management. Since, the distribution and release happened during the province’s dry

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spell periods, water sources had dried up and water for irrigation became a challenge. However, farmer cooperators were still able to overcome this by using gallons and fetching water from the source to the farms.

Financial problems were also present as their financial resources were very limited. With expenses and bills, they admit that it was difficult to make both ends meet. However, after the project, the cooperators observed an increase in income which enabled their families to set up savings which they could use for the future. Pests and diseases were some of their most significant problems after the implementation of the project. Different diseases like bugtok/tibagnol, moko, the bunchy top infested their farms.

Lastly, in assessing the impacts of the project to the farmer cooperators in terms of physical, economic, and behavioral aspects, the researcher concludes that there is an impact on the farmer cooperators on all aspects as evidenced by the overall means of 4.14, 3.58, and 4.73, respectively. Furthermore, the researcher concludes that active monitoring and inspection can lead to changes in behaviors of project beneficiaries which then lead to changes in physical and economic changes.

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References

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Calderon, R., & Rola, A. C. (2003). Assessing benefits and costs of commercial banana production in the Philippines. Laguna, Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños. Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies.

Dolojan, F. M. (2016). A Delivery System for Adopting Package of Technology on Banana Production. International Journal of Agricultural Technology, 12(7.2), 2049-2063.

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Fresco, Mary Charlotte O., BAR Chronicle, May 2002 Issue (Vol. 3 No. 9-10)

Gil, Joaquin Guillermo & Munoz, Melissa & Fernando Patiño H., Luis & Gonzalo Morales O., Juan & Colombiana, Agronomia. (2015). Banana Moko disease management with resistance inducers and chlorine dioxide. Agronomia Colombiana. 33. 194-202. 10.15446/agron.colomb.v33n2.48663.

Grossman, R., & Salas, E. (2011). The transfer of training: what really matters. International Journal of Training and Development, 15(2), 103-120.

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Mores, M. C. L. (2012). Approaches in Partnering with Smallhold Farmers for the Promotion and Transfer of Banana Production Technologies in Oriental Mindoro. PHILARM JOURNAL, 106.

Mbogoh, S. G., Wambugu, F. M., & Wakhusama, S. (2003, August). Socio-economic impact of biotechnology applications: some lessons from the pilot tissue- culture (TC) banana production promotion project in Kenya, 1997-2002. In Durban, South Africa: Paper presented during the XXV IAAE Conference.

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Quaim, M. (1999), "A Socioeconomic Outlook on Tissue Culture Technology in Kenyan Banana Production." Biotechnology and Development Monitor, No. 40, p. 18-22.

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Singh, H. P., Uma, S., Selvarajan, R., & Karihaloo, J. L. (2011). Micropropagation for production of quality banana planting material in Asia-Pacific. Asia-Pacific Consortium on Agricultural Biotechnology (APCoAB), New Delhi, India, 92.

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NURSES’ ATTITUDES TOWARD NURSING RESEARCH

John Mark Lingcon Jean Claude S. David Calamba Doctors’ College Calamba Doctors’ Hospital, Philippines

ABSTRACT The main problem of this study was to examine the nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research in selected hospitals in Laguna. The study was anchored on Donabedian’s structure-process-outcome framework. A convenience sampling of (93) staff nurses and a purposive sample of (7) expert nurses answered Boothe’s Attitudes on Nursing Research Scale. The study made use of a mixed-method design. The results showed that the most positive attitudes of the nurses are related to payoffs and benefits described as “Strongly Agree” which entails that nurses are to engross in research if time permits and if there are monetary and promotion benefits. Meanwhile, subscale interest and environmental support were described as “Agree”, ans subscale barriers to conducting research was described as “Uncertain”. The thematic analysis uncovered three emerging themes namely, time, financial support, and reward. Staff nurses agreed that their work should provide them time, financial support, and reward with their research endeavor. The findings of this study recommend that hospital management should provide ample time, such as sabbatical leave or any leave of equivalence, to staff nurses wish to participate in research activities. Also, hospital management should plan/support programs leading nurses to participate in research activities, such as the utilization of evidence- based practice. Also, if possible, PRC-BON should outline policies that will strengthen the structure and process of the research infrastructure supporting staff nurses in doing research. Specifically, policies should focus on time, continuing education programs, opportunities to conduct research, and comprehensive assistance for nurses engaging in research.

Keywords: Nursing research, nurses’ attitudes, Boothe’s attitudes, mixed method, Laguna

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Introduction

The nursing profession has long recognized the importance of research as an indispensable foundation for its development. More recently, the movement supporting evidence-based practice has brought this aim into focal point. Nurse involvement in research is essential to the expansion of nursing science and improved care for patients. Nurses must provide care and intervention based on up-to- date knowledge and research that supports the delivery of the highest standards of care possible.

Preceded, are few heavy-weighted reasons for nurses to appreciate research. However, as policies and professional developments over the last fifteen years placed increasing pressure on nurses to be more accountable for their actions. Nursing has seen a shift away from the heavily theoretical work of nursing academics to stronger emphasis on practice. Nurses, nowadays, are more concerned on what is than how it is to be done.

Research is an essential part of fast-paced health environment; it is a must to deliver effective and efficient quality health care services to patients. Furthermore, research is significant in today’s nurses’ professional role and responsibility intertwined with concepts of efficiency, effectiveness and quality improvement in delivering care to patients. Nurses develop their own professional knowledge out from strong foundations built on research. Consequently, nurses have a responsibility in some way to contribute to the development of the profession’s knowledge through research.

The on-going change in the field of nursing strengthened the standpoint of research as a milestone in nursing profession. Various nursing organizations/agencies, both local and international, are focused in uplifting nurses’ desire to indulge in research activities. There is a felt need to understand the grounds of dissension between research as fundamental to the nursing profession and the narrow application and utilization of nursing research in the hospital setting, an appreciation of the staff nurses’ attitudes in nursing research is warranted.

The studies performed over the last two decades cannot be generalized on their own but when combined several themes

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emerge. An article compiled the common barriers to research as reported by researchers using the BARRIERS scale, these include: (a) lack of time; (b) lack of confidence in critical appraisal skills; (c) lack of authority; (d) organizational infrastructure; (e) lack of support; (f) lack of access; and (g) lack of evidence.

Objectives of the Study

The researcher, a nurse by profession working in a private hospital, was motivated to conduct this study to determine nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research and to exude and initiate discussions on nurses’ attitude in nursing research, as there is dearth of studies on this matter in the Philippines. Results of this study are aimed at encouraging fellow nurses to indulge in the world of nursing research.

Methodology

This study made use of the mixed method. The Mixed method approach is one in which the researcher tends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds. It employs strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or sequentially to best understand research problems. The data collection also involves gathering both numeric information as well as text information so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information.

Participants of the study consisted of (93) staff nurses, chosen using a convenience sampling technique, employed in selected hospitals in Laguna from any nursing setting and (7) expert nurses, selected using purposive sampling technique and were limited to those who have a masters and/or doctorate degree and with experience in nursing administration, to categorize nurses’ attitudes into research infrastructure (structure, process, and outcome). Staff nurses when characterized by gender: 83.87% (78) were females and 16.13% (15) were males. Also, when grouped by age: 32.26% (30) were 21-25 years old, 21.51% (20) were 31-35 years old, 19.35% (18) were 26-30 years old, 13.98% (13) were 36-40 years old, 7.53% (7) were 41-45 years old, and 5.38% (5) were 46-50 years old. Furthermore, staff nurses were distributed according to professional

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levels: 80.65% (75) were RNs, 11.83% (11) were RNs with specialization and 7.53% (7) were RNs with masters units.

The main tool of the study was a questionnaire lifted from Dr. Patricia Boothe (Boothe’s Attitude on Nursing Research Scale). The scale was developed by Boothe in 1981 as part of her dissertation and used by Dr. Bostrom and colleagues in 1989, later by Dr. Hofmeister in 2007. The original survey consisted of 46 items designed to determine attitudes related to nursing research. All items in the questionnaire have been subjected to a reliability test with its Cronbach’s alpha, 0.84 for subscale interest and environmental support, 0.80 for subscale payoff and benefits, and 0.64 for subscale barriers to research. The survey questionnaire was answerable by a five-point Likert scale from “1” which indicates strongly disagree (SD) to “5” which specifies strongly agree (SA). Added to the lifted questionnaire is an open-ended question and a comment aimed to yield emerging themes to support quantitative findings. Attached to the questionnaire is a cover letter discussing the purpose of the study and assuring the anonymity of the nurse respondent.

The researcher secured a permit to conduct a study through the Hospital Administrator/Medical Director of selected hospitals. Upon approval, the researcher personally administered the survey questionnaire to the participants. The researcher handed the questionnaire in person to promptly answer any questions regarding the study. Data were collected by a self-reporting method. The study started on the last week of August 2016 and ended on second week of October 2016.

Subsequently, questionnaires were retrieved. Data collected were summarized and analyzed using various statistical treatments: frequency count and weighted mean to assess degree of nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research; frequency count and percentage agreement at 85% were used to categorize nurses’ attitudes into research infrastructure (structure, process, and outcome), it was done to better understand which procedure in research do staff nurses needs reinforcements; ANOVA was used to note significant deifference among the ratings of the staff nurses; and thematic analysis was employed to identify areas that will increase nurss engagement to nursing research.

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Results and Discussion

Tables under present the analysis and interpretation to data gathered in this study. Note that the higher weighted mean signifies more positive nurse’s attitudes towards nursing research; legend in the table is a guide for interpretation of computed weighted means.

Table 1 recaps computed mean ratings of nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. As shown, subscale payoffs and benefits ranked first with general weighted mean of 4.51 followed by subscale interest and environmental support with general weighted mean of 3.58, and last is the subscale barriers to conducting research with 3.27 as general weighted mean.

Results express that staff nurses strongly agree that they are likely to engage in nursing research when there is positive enticement. Enticement were not limited to promotion and salary increase only, rather, results suggest that staff nurses will be entice to join in nursing research if they are rewarded with time to participate, evident as item numbers 38 and 39 – under subscale payoffs and benefits – both got a weighted mean of 5 and interpreted as strongly agree. Also, staff nurses conveyed that they have a strong desire to indulge in nursing research, manifested by a mean rating of 4.97 interpreted as strongly agree for item number 1 under subscale interest and environmental support, if chance will permit them. However, staff nurses voiced that they get little to no support from their workplace in conducting or participating in research, shown in 1.26 mean rating of item number 16 under subscale interest and environmental support. Meanwhile, subscale barriers to conducting research was seen uncertain as a factor for staff nurses to be reluctant in participating research.

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Table 1 Mean Ratings of Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing Research Item Indicator Weighted Description Rank No. Mean Interest and Environmental 3.58 Agree 2 Support 4.97 Strongly Agree 1 1 I would like to conduct research. 2 I would like to put research high 4.88 Strongly Agree 5 on my list of priorities. 4 I believe my place of 1.99 Disagree 17 employment would provide me ample assistance during the research process. 5 I believe my place of 1.98 Disagree 18 employment would provide me ample consultative assistance during the research process. 6 My supervisor would allow time 1.92 Disagree 19 in my daily assignment to conduct research. 8 I know what is expected of me 4.78 Strongly Agree 6 when submitting my research proposal to the hospital nursing research committee. 11 I am familiar with selected 1.80 Disagree 20 statistical procedure for the analysis of research findings. 12 I believe my job provides the 3.62 Agree 12 time necessary to conduct research. 13 My colleagues (other 4.44 Agree 10 professionals) would encourage me to conduct research. 14 My peers in nursing would 4.51 Strongly Agree 9 encourage conducting research. 15 I believe my peers in nursing 4.59 Strongly Agree 8 would assist in conducting research. 16 My job provides ongoing 1.26 Strongly 21 professional programs in order Disagree to conduct research. 18 I believe my working 2.98 Uncertain 13 environment provides ample opportunity to conduct research. 19 I believe my place of 2.92 Uncertain 14.5 employment has ample secretarial assistance for anyone wishing to conduct research. 20 I believe my place of 2.92 Uncertain 14.5 employment has ample statistical assistance for anyone wishing to conduct research.

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21 I believe my place of 2.01 Disagree 16 employment has ample assistance for anyone for the analysis of results and findings of the research that is conducted. 27 Nursing research requires more 4.20 Agree 11 from me than I am willing to give to my job. 31 Nursing research is more 4.95 Strongly Agree 2 essential in the medical setting than in the psychiatric setting. 35 Time spent giving patient care is 4.63 Strongly Agree 7 more important than time spent conducting research. 36 I am interested in conducting 4.90 Strongly Agree 3.5 research. 45 Nursing research should be 4.90 Strongly Agree 3.5 initiated by nurse researchers. Payoffs and Benefits 4.51 Strongly Agree 1 3 Nursing research is conducted 4.74 Strongly Agree 8.5 because it allows nurses to be promoted. 9 The informed consent necessary 2.84 Uncertain 17 for employee participation in research prevents me from conducting research in my work areas. 22 I would conduct research if I had 4.92 Strongly Agree 5 the time. 23 I would conduct research if I knew 4.71 Strongly Agree 10 how to write the proposal, conduct and analyze the results and findings. 24 Research findings that are 4.94 Strongly Agree 4 advantageous to good patient care can be implemented in my working environment. 25 Nursing research is the means 4.89 Strongly Agree 6 whereby the theoretical basis for nursing practice is derived. 26 Members of the treatment team 4.43 Agree 12 other than nurses should conduct research relative to patient. 29 I would like to conduct a study of a 4.49 Agree 11 problem in patient care. 30 I would conduct research if patient 4.81 Strongly Agree 7 assignments were lightened. 32 Nursing research should be 4.96 Strongly Agree 3 initiated by nurses in the clinical area. 34 Nurses would conduct more 4.00 Agree 15 research if more funds were

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available for them to use for this purpose. 37 Nurses receive praise from their 4.32 Agree 14 peers and colleagues when they conduct research. 38 Nurses would conduct research if 5.00 Strongly Agree 1.5 they were provided time for research. 39 Nurses would conduct research if 5.00 Strongly Agree 1.5 relief time were given to conduct research. 41 I would do research if I knew more 4.40 Agree 13 about it. 42 Nurses criticized too much by their 3.74 Agree 16 peers when they conduct research. 44 I believe that I would conduct 4.74 Strongly Agree 8.5 research if someone more knowledgeable would help me in the process. Barriers to Conducting Research 3.27 Uncertain 3 7 The process of submission of the 4.27 Agree 3 research proposal to the hospital nursing research committee is too detailed. 10 The informed consent necessary 1.98 Disagree 8 for patient participation in research prevents me from conducting research in my work areas. 17 I have the skills and knowledge 3.55 Agree 5 necessary for me to conduct research. 28 Nursing research should be 4.72 Strongly Agree 1 conducted by nurses with baccalaureate degree. 33 Nursing research should be 2.20 Disagree 7 initiated by nurses in education. 40 Nursing research should be 2.71 Uncertain 6 conducted by nurses with a doctorate. 43 Nursing research should be 4.28 Agree 2 conducted by nurses with a master’s degree. 46 Patient participation in nursing 4.01 Agree 4 research is difficult to obtain. 1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often Legend: 1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 4.50 – 5.00 Always 2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes

To better examine which nurses’ attitudes plays positive motivation for staff nurses to indulge in nursing research, the

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researcher noted top and bottom quartile of nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research compared across the identified professional levels.

Shown in Table 2 are the top and bottom quartile of nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. The Top quartile suggests staff nurses are willing and motivated to participate in nursing research activities as they understand its importance in the evolution of quality care to patients, thus, agree that research should be initiated by those in the clinical area. However, time and nursing assignments are factors that halt them from doing so. Staff nurses pointed out that if hospital management will give them time and lessen their nursing assignments, they will put research high on their list of priorities.

Meanwhile, bottom quartile express that staff nurses see their workplace press them no support to participate in nursing research acivities. They believe that their workplace lacks technical assistance to back them. Also, statistical comprehension is a concern.

Table 2 Top and Bottom Quartile of Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing Research Compared Across the Identified Professional Levels

RN with RN RN with Masters Item Indicator (Subscale) Overall Specialization units No. Mean Mean Mean (Rank) (Rank) (Rank) Top Quartile Nurses would conduct research 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 38 if they were provided time for (1.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) research. (Payoffs and benefits) Nurses would conduct research if relief time were given to 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 39 conduct research. (Payoffs and (1.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) benefits) I would like to conduct research. 4.97 4.97 4.91 5.00 1 (Interest and Environmental (3) (7) (6) (2.5) Support) Nursing research should be 4.96 5.00 5.00 4.43 32 initiated by nurses in the clinical (4) (2.5) (2.5) (16) area. (Payoffs and benefits) Nursing research is more essential in the medical setting 4.95 5.00 4.91 4.43 31 than in the psychiatric setting. (5) (2.5) (6) (16) (Interest and Environmental Support)

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Research findings that are advantageous to good patient 4.94 4.99 4.73 4.71 24 care can be implemented in my (6) (5.5) (11) (8.5) working environment. (Payoffs and benefits) I would conduct research if I 4.92 4.93 4.91 4.86 22 had the time. (Payoffs and (7) (9.5) (6) (5.5) benefits) I am interested in conducting 4.90 4.92 4.73 5.00 36 research. (Interest and (8.5) (11) (11) (2.5) Environmental Support) Nursing research should be initiated by nurse researchers. 4.90 4.96 4.64 4.71 45 (Interest and Environmental (8.5) (8) (13.5) (8.5) Support) Nursing research is the means whereby the theoretical basis 4.89 4.89 5.00 4.71 25 for nursing practice is derived. (10) (12.5) (2.5) (8.5) (Payoffs and benefits) I would like to put research high 4.88 4.93 4.73 4.57 2 on my list of priorities. (Interest (11) (9.5) (11) (12) and Environmental Support) I would conduct research if 4.81 4.99 4.00 4.14 30 patient assignments were (12) (5.5) (24.5) (22) lightened. (Payoffs and benefits) Bottom Quartile I believe my place of employment has ample secretarial assistance for 2.92 3.00 2.64 2.57 19 anyone wishing to conduct (35.5) (34) (37.5) (39) research. (Interest and Environmental Support) I believe my place of employment has ample statistical assistance for anyone 2.92 2.97 2.55 3.00 20 wishing to conduct research. (35.5) (36) (39) (34.5) (Interest and Environmental Support) The informed consent necessary for employee participation in research 2.84 2.81 2.91 3.00 9 prevents me from conducting (37) (37) (36) (34.5) research in my work areas. (Interest and Environmental Support) Nursing research should be conducted by nurses with a 2.71 2.67 2.64 3.29 40 doctorate. (Barriers to (38) (38) (37.5) (31) conducting Research) Nursing research should be initiated by nurses in education. 2.20 1.89 3.64 3.29 33 (Barriers to conducting (39) (44) (29) (31) Research) I believe my place of employment has ample 2.01 2.01 2.00 2.00 21 assistance for anyone for the (40) (39) (41.5) (40.5) analysis of results and findings of the research that is

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conducted. (Interest and Environmental Support) I believe my place of employment would provide me 1.99 2.00 2.00 1.86 4 ample assistance during the (41) (40) (41.5) (42.5) research process. (Interest and Environmental Support) I believe my place of employment would provide me ample consultative assistance 1.98 1.99 1.91 2.00 5 during the research process. (42.5) (41.5) (43) (40.5) (Interest and Environmental Support) The informed consent necessary for patient participation in research 1.98 1.97 2.09 1.86 10 prevents me from conducting (42.5) (43) (40) (42.5) research in my work areas. (Barriers to conducting Research) My supervisor would allow time in my daily assignment to 1.92 1.99 1.64 1.71 6 conduct research. (Interest and (44) (41.5) (46) (44.5) Environmental Support) I am familiar with selected statistical procedure for the 1.80 1.83 1.73 1.57 11 analysis of research findings. (45) (45) (44.5) (46) (Interest and Environmental Support) My job provides ongoing professional programs in order 1.26 1.15 1.73 1.71 16 to conduct research. (Interest (46) (46) (44.5) (44.5) and Environmental Support)

Nurses’ attitudes were categorizaed according to Donabedian’s structure-process-outcome framework, it was done to assess areas of research infrastructure which need intervention or plan to increase satff nurses engagement to nursing resrearch.

Table 3 outlines how nurses’ attitudes were identified, by expert nurses, in terms of the research infrastructure (structure, process, and outcome). Nurses’ attitudes which focused on the support of the the management/workplace were seen as areas to review in improving structure of research engagement of staff nurses. Meanwhile, nurses’ attitudes concerning support from colleagues were perceived vital in the process of doing research.

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Table 3 Nurses’ Attitudes Identified as Research Infrastructure by Expert Nurses Item Percentage of Indicator Scale Frequency No. Agreement Structure I believe my place of employment Interest and would provide me ample assistance 4 Environmental 7 100 % during the research process. Support

I believe my place of employment would provide me ample Interest and 5 consultative assistance during the Environmental 7 100 % research process. Support

My supervisor would allow time in Interest and my daily assignment to conduct 6 Environmental 6 86 % research. Support

My job provides ongoing Interest and professional programs in order to 16 Environmental 6 86 % conduct research. Support

I believe my working environment Interest and provides ample opportunity to 18 Environmental 6 86 % conduct research. Support

I believe my place of employment has ample secretarial assistance for Interest and 19 anyone wishing to conduct Environmental 7 100 % research. Support

I believe my place of employment has ample statistical assistance for Interest and 20 anyone wishing to conduct Environmental 7 100 % research. Support

I believe my place of employment has ample assistance for anyone for Interest and 21 the analysis of results and findings Environmental 7 100 % of the research that is conducted. Support

Nursing research should be Barriers to conducted by nurses with 28 Conducting 6 86 % baccalaureate degree. Research

Nurses would conduct more research if more funds were Payoffs and 34 available for them to use for this 7 100 % Benefits purpose.

Process My colleagues (other professionals) Interest and 13 would encourage me to conduct Environmental 6 86 % research. Support

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Interest and My peers in nursing would 14 Environmental 6 86 % encourage conducting research. Support

Interest and I believe my peers in nursing would 15 Environmental 7 100 % assist in conducting research. Support

Outcome Nursing research is conducted Payoffs and 3 because it allows nurses to be 6 86 % Benefits promoted. Research findings that are advantageous to good patient care Payoffs and 24 6 86 % can be implemented in my working Benefits environment.

Table 4 outlines the computed ANOVA for nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. As presented, computed p-values of subscales are greater than the set level of significance (α = 0.05). Thus, the researcher accepted the null hypothesis (Ho) there is no significant difference among the mean ratings of nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. Accepting the null hypothesis was reinforced by computed F-crits of subscales greater than F-statistics.

Results prove that staff nurses were unanimous in their attitudes towards nursing research. Regardless of professional levels, staff nurses share same sentiments and hopes when it comes to research engagement.

Table 4 ANOVA for Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing Research

p-value F F crit Interest and Environmental Support 0.87 0.14 3.15 Payoffs and Benefits 0.14 2.07 3.19 Barriers to Conducting Research 0.97 0.03 3.47 Legend: α = 0.05

Thematic analysis was employed to identify any emerging themes from the open-ended question and comment of the questionnaire.

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Thirty-seven (37) comments were about time, staff nurses need administrative time in the outset of their tasks to fulfill desire for professional growth. A study was conducted that aimed to determine clinical nurses' interest in and motivation for research and foud out that clinical nurses emphasized that lack of designated time as one of the reasons why they fail to engage in research activities. Time constraints were previously identified as a barrier to conducting research. Consequently, increasing available time will help increase research participation.

Fourteen (14) comments focused on expanding financial support hoped to be given by the state and employers, to the nurses when they conduct research studies. Funding mechanisms are needed to support coherent programs of research. Financial support and a strong value for generating as well as disseminating knowledge must be present within departments and schools, in the larger academic institution, and at the national level. This study and that of Dr. Hofmeister’s both found time and support as emerging themes. However, in this study a specific type of support was identified, which is financial support.

Also, fourteen (14) comments desire to have enticing reward in exchange of nurses’ effort on professional growth and development. This result supports the finding that most of the nurses’ positive attitudes are related to the subscale payoffs and benefits. Positive reinforcements (rewards) increase nusrses participation and utilization of research.

Conclusions

This study was not set to find significant differences in the attitudes of nurses related to research compared to other studies. Instead, this study was initiated to describe and explore the relationship among nurses’ attitudes towards research and the supporting infrastructure. In general, the study shows no significant difference among nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. This suggests that staff nurses share consistent attitudes towards nursing research.

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Nurses’ attitudes are generally positive and interested to engage in research activities. The most positive attitudes of the staff nurses were related to the subscale payoffs and benefits. Goals for conducting research include the improvement of nursing care, credibility of the nursing profession, accountability for nursing practice and documentation of the cost effectiveness of nursing care. Research engagement has several benefits: knowledge generation, occasional cost savings (e.g. healthier workforce), better decision- making and the development of research skills of individuals and others. Investment in research is important in preparing the next generation of nurse leaders which should start at the baccalaureate level and continue to the doctoral or postdoctoral levels. Staff nurses’ positive attitudes signify that the nursing profession understands and appreciates the implication of nursing research. These significant contributions over recent years include, but are not limited to: (a) health services research that demonstrated the importance of nursing services and how such services are designed/organized to ensure safety and quality of care; (b) clinical research that has demonstrated the value of specific nursing interventions to improve health outcomes, including enhanced survival, reduced morbidity, and improved quality of life and consumer engagement; (c) basic science research that has advanced discoveries in terms of understanding the biological mechanisms underpinning nursing interventions; (d) epidemiological research that has advanced understanding about how individuals and populations respond to health problems; and (e) qualitative research that has advanced understanding about experiences of and responses to health and illness and the processes of care that are important to optimal outcomes. However, staff nurses feel that they get little to no support from their job. Studies suggest that there is an urgent need for nurse administrators/hospital management to implement in-service educational programs for nurses in conducting and utilizing nursing research. Nurses’ Working environment should provide ample time, such as sabbatical leave or any leave of equivalence, to nurses who wish to participate in research activities. Also, working environments should plan/support programs leading nurses to participate in research activities, such as utilization of evidence-based practice. Organizations need not only create, disseminate and enculturate the practice environment, but evidence- based practice should be included in the framework for nursing administrative decision-making.

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Staff nurses’ attitudes were categorized into research infrastructures and it was noted that subscale interest and environmental support dominated the structure and process aspect of research enagement. This means that structure (materials, facilities, and resources to do research) and the process (day-to-day activities in doing research) need to be reviewed and initiate plan of intervention to enhance staff nurses motivation to indulge in research activities. A good supporting structure and process of research infrastructure has the ability to achieve several outcomes related to nursing research. These include: (a) increasing nursing research knowledge; (b) increasing support for nursing research through mentoring; and (c) development of a nursing research education program. Meanwhile, subscale payoffs and benefits dictated the outcome research infrastructure and suggests that providing enticement or incentive to staff nurses will help them be drawn to research activities. Hospital managements should facilitate conditions of career advancement through indulgence in research activities on the basis of changing technology and knowledge, staff expectations, the necessity of decreasing cost and increasing productivity. In addition to providing high quality services, these career advancements attempt to provide opportunities for staff nurses development.

Furthermore, the study identified three emeging themes: time, financial support, and reward. Staff nurses expressed that time, financial support, and rewards are concepts that would increase their desire to engage in research activities. Lack of time was seen a barrier for nurses to engage in research activities. Funding mechanisms are needed to support coherent programs of research. Financial support and a strong value for generating as well as disseminating knowledge must be present within departments and schools, in the larger academic institution, and at the national level. Positive reinforcements (rewards) increase nusrses participation and utilization of research. Previous studies identified several actions that may contribute to overcoming barriers of nursing research participation and utilization, such as providing resources, increasing release time for participation in research, continuing education on the research process and creating positions for nurse researchers in clinical settings.

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References

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Adeniran, RK., Smith-Glasgow, ME., & Bhattacharya, A. (2013). Career advancement and professional development in nursing. Nursing Outlook.

Akerjordet, K., Lode, K. & Severinsson, E. (2012). Clinical nurses' attitudes towards research, management and organisational resources in a university hospital. PubMed.

American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) (2006). Position Statement nursing research. Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges of Nursing.

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Bostrom, A., Malnight, M., MacDougall, J., & Hargis, D. (1989). Staff nurses’ attitudes toward nursing research: A descriptive survey. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 14, 915-922.

Carrington, M., Jain, A., & Stewart, S. (2012). Pressure points in primary care: A study of blood pressure in 532, 050 patients in Australia from 2005 to 2010. Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute. Melbourne, Australia.

Coventry, TH., Maslin-Prothero, SE., & Smith, G. (2015). Organizational impact of nurse supply and workload on nurses continuing professional development opportunities: an integrative review. Journal of Advanced Nursing.

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Hofmeister, N. (2007). Attitudes of nurses toward research. Grand Valley State University.

Hutchinson AM, Johnston L. (2004). Bridging the divide: A survey of nurses' opinions regarding barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization in the practice setting. Journal of Clinical Nursing.

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IMPACT OF THE ZAMBOANGA SIEGE ON WOMEN SURVIVORS: A POST-CONFLICT ANALYSIS

Roel F. Marcial Western Mindanao State University, Philippines

ABSTRACT Double enactment of roles, divorce, and separation were the dramatic findings in the study, Impact of the Siege on Women Survivors in Zamboanga City. It aimed to determine the reproductive roles and socioeconomic effects utilizing descriptive quantitative and qualitative- phenomenological design via FGDs among twenty (20) women survivors, in-depth interviews for five (5) key informants and community observation analysis on the two transitory sites. The study revealed that poverty situation has increased recently due to loss of homes and socio-economic opportunities continuous increase of dropouts in elementary and secondary levels; and problems on public transport, expensive fare, and financial and economic setbacks. However, free water and electricity government supply obtained satisfactory impressions. Hence, the study recommends: First, massive and longitudinal livelihood programs and training may be conducted strengthening women’s expansive and extensive development of skills, crafts, and sustainability in financial and socioeconomic demands; Second, periodic monitoring-recording of students’ drop-out be conducted, localized or redirected on nearest affected schools; Third, women should serve as neutralizers-negotiators in any conflicts or peace deliberations; Fourth, educate everyone on the symbiotic spouses roles of equity and equality to avoid “double enactment of roles” among women; Lastly, an immense need for marital counseling services from psychologists or counselors, lawyers, social workers, community developers, religious sectors, and NGOs deemed for holistic healing and reconciliation process.

Keywords: social science, double enactment of roles, women survivors, reproductive roles, socioeconomic impact, descriptive quantitative and qualitative -phenomenology, Philippines

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Introduction

According to Ocampo & Judd (2005), armed conflict always destroys much more than the physical plants and infrastructure. The core of the damage is done to the fabric of society, to the stock of social capital. Tigno (2006) also expressed that violence has the potential to lead to conditions that produce significant collateral damage particularly involving civilians and non-combatants. He further explained that armed conflict can be the prevalence of poverty flare-ups and will eventually result to involuntary and forced evacuation of the people plus the economic marginalization and social minoritization combined with political neglect.

The September 9, 2013 Zamboanga crisis that lasted for a month has led to thousands and thousands of women and others displaced. The sporadic fight between the MNLF insurgents and military forces were accordingly heated from the MNLF elements insistence to hold a peaceful rally in support of the independence for Muslim-dominated areas in Southern Philippines. However, the local government of Zamboanga refused to give the permit on the account that the MNLF Rogue was heavily armed and failed to negotiate which was resulted to an outbreak in the city. The almost one-month crisis has led to economic degeneration of the city’s income, urban warfare, displacement and fatalities on the government, MNLF elements and civilians particularly the women and children. The economic productivity including the livelihood of the people was largely affected by the standoff.

Records of the Asian Institute of Journalism and Communication showed that an estimated 4,000 pregnant and lactating women were victims of the Zamboanga crisis delivered and attended by traditional birth attendants housed in Joaquin F. Enriquez Memorial Sports Complex known as the “Zamboanga Grandstand”. The local government has recorded the rapid increase of health cases such as diarrhea and other health and sanitation problems. The number of health cases and sanitation problems were due to lack of bathing facilities, gender-sensitive latrines, and insufficient health and sanitation supplies. Most of the victims were notably women and children. There were also cases of prostitution and women trafficking recorded.

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Objectives of the Study

Three years after the Zamboanga crisis, the women survivors and those displaced remained in the transitory sites. They have not recovered yet from the damage or return to their homes Thus, this study was made to assess the status of women survivors and determine the impact of the Zamboanga Siege on the socio- economic and reproductive roles of women. Further, the study determined the level of political participation and decision-making, cohesion and collective action, level of trust of women survivors and women’s perception on poverty situation.

This study becomes significant as it seeks to contribute to the growing number of works and researches on women in armed- conflict in the Philippines by exploring how women themselves make sense of their conflict experiences. The study will be helpful to the women, advocacy groups, the local and national government, and the academic institutions as this provides reliable information for analysis and reference for future policy-making realted to peace negotiation processes, women’s empowerment, and equity productivity to pursue a peaceful and sustainable development in a very meaningful way.

Methodology

Descriptive quantitative-qualitative phenomenological research design was used as means for gathering, analyzing and interpreting the data. There were two (2) types of respondents for this particular study: (1) the women survivors (women who have experienced displacement, victims of crossfires, trapped or hostaged during the siege) who were subjected to focus group discussions; and (2) key informants from the City Social Welfare and Development, Barangay Chairpersons, Camp Managers and Internally displaced person (IDP) coordinators who were interviewed to validate women’s responses during the Focus Group Discussion.

Twenty (20) women survivors were selected and subjected to FGDs in two separate sessions. The women participants were purposively chosen through the help of the City Social Welfare and Development Office, Camp Managers and IDP Coordinators. Ten (10)

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women participants were taken from Masepla 1 & 2 (first study site) while the other ten (10) women participants came from the second transitory site (Tulungatong). Also, an in-depth interview was conducted to the City Social Welfare and Development Officer, Camp Managers and IDP Coordinators to elicit ideas and opinions on the problems being studied.

Further, the study employed community observation (CO) which is another tool used to record actual behavior of the people particularly the women after siege. Community observations involved interactions, conversations and descriptions of the locale and the women being observed. Community observation is non- participant observation where data were were by observing structures, behaviors and events in the community setting.

There were three (3) research tools designed for the study: first, the FGD participatory tool which is a module type of instrument that contains eight (8) activities bearing the objective per activity. The module includes the materials, procedures, sets of activities and questions undertaken. Each of the activities was timed to determine the number of hours consumed. Among the topics presented in the activity were: socio-economic impact, women reproductive role, poverty situation, access to basic social services, political participation and decision-making, social cohesion and collective action (bayanihan), and the level of women’s trusts. Second, the study utilized semi-structured interview schedule for the key informant interviews designed to obtain in-depth responses from the identified key informants. The interview guide consists of eight (8) related questions/topics: socio-economic impact, leaderships and organizations, livelihood of women, access to basic social services, poverty situation, degree of political participation and decision- making, social cohesion and collective action and women’s trust. Lastly, the study utilized a community observation tool to collect data through or by observing structures, behaviors, and events in the community setting. For this particular tool, the assigned field assistant made a careful and objective note about what they saw and heard.

All research tools were pilot tested and were translated to Filipino and Tausug (local language) to make it understandable to the participants of the study.

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The study used descriptive discourse analysis to describe FGD responses of women survivors of the Zamboanga Siege particularly on the socio-economic impact, women’s reproductive roles, degree of political participation and decision–making, cohesion and collective action (bayanihan), and women’s level of trust between and among community members and the government as well as the women’s perception on poverty situation.

Results and Discussion

A. Socio-Economic Impact Livelihood and Economy

The Zamboanga Siege gave a negative impact on the socio- economic status of women survivors. The study found out that those families living below the poverty line or low-income earners experienced severe poverty after the siege, as there was a low turnout in the income of women and other IDPs especially those street vendors and laborers.

Added to the financial difficulties of the participants was the ‘distance’ of the resettlement area to their livelihood and economic activities. Since most of the families have lost their jobs and livelihood, women and other IDPs were dependent to government support and international donors, which may have led to increase the possibility and the development of support seeking behavior among the participants.

The study found out that ‘weaving’, ‘dressmaking’ and ‘bag making’ were amongst the livelihood programs retained and learned by the women survivors and IDPs despite of the numerous livelihood projects presented to them. This implies however, that learning the skills and crafts on such livelihood programs sustain the daring needs for survival and normalcy in financial stability.

Socio-Economic Infrastructure

Access to socio-economic infrastructure is high as the women participants revealed that the presence of complete primary and secondary schools (except for Masepla 1 and 2), churches,

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mosques, sari-sari stores, plaza, water station, health facilities, government offices, and market place were accessible near the resettlement area. The barangay hall was made available which catered to the needs and concerns of the IDPs. Updates and progress of the barangay were provided in the barangay bulletin, citizen’s charter and other informative charts.

The amenities were promising, to note. However, in terms of security and assurance, health and convenience, the market place, where most of the eking for living occurs was not as promising as the former situation. The shopping and buying capacities of the local consumers were low.

Access to Basic Social Services

This section presents the access of women survivors on the basic social services before and after the siege.

Education and Social Welfare

The study revealed high access to education before the siege compared to moderately low access after the siege. Women participants held that children’s education before the siege was promising. The study found out that children’s performance in the school had dramatically decreased due to various reasons. Among these reasons were the ‘distance’ of the previous school the students were attending. Second, the students were in the state of adjustment to the new schools environment such as new circle of friends, new teachers, new peers, and new teaching styles.

Moreover, social and psychological adjustments and even post-conflict healing and recovery for self-reconciliation or trauma healing were sought undeniably by learners to gauge and to scaffold the widening gap and barriers in relating with others.

Health Services

A very high accessibility to health services was recorded before the siege compared to a moderately low after the siege. Responses would indicate that access to health services had decreased after the siege.

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The diminishing response of women participants to health services from a very high accessibility before the siege to a moderately low after the siege was caused again by the ‘distance’ of the transitory sites to the health facilities such as hospitals and health centers/office. Though barangays have installed health centers, it is not favorable as the former. The ‘distance’ of the former residence of the women survivors to the Zamboanga City Medical Center (one of the biggest public hospital in Zamboanga City) and the Zamboanga City Health Office (a public health facility for the poor) is just about a minute and practicable, the women revealed.

Access to health services therefore had a negative impact on the women survivors.

Public Transport

Masepla 1 and 2 is part of barangay Mampang located in the East part of the city and belongs to the second legislative district of Zamboanga. It is approximately 5-6 kilometers away from the city proper where most of the eking for living is found. On the other hand, barangay Tulungatong is roughly 7-8 kilometers away from the town proper and is situated in the West part of the city and belongs to the first legislative district of Zamboanga.

The ‘distance’ of the transitory sites to city proper where most of the economic and livelihood activities and education of the children are conducted was another disappointment to the women survivors plus the expensive and extra fare for baggage added to their financial difficulties.

From a very high access to public transport before the siege, it had decreased to a very low accessibility after the siege. Public transport had obtained a negative impact on women survivors.

Clean Water and Electricity

From moderately accessible before the siege, clean water and electricity supply had increased to highly accessible as the local government of Zamboanga had provided free water and electricity supply in two transitory sites. The free provision of clean water source and electricity had a positive impact on the women survivors.

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However, despite the free clean water and electricity supply from the local government of Zamboanga, women survivors held that they were willing to pay their water bills and electricity if had the chance to return to their previous homes, where they had access to all forms of economic and livelihood activities, education, health and others.

The provisions of electricity and water had added to the comforts and convenience in living of the women survivors, but were only part and parcels of the basic needs of the victim for survival. Water is a universal solvent that helps dissolves the essential nutrients needed by the human body but the staple food or the square meals like rice and viands are more equally. Thus, food with water is a priority.

Women’s Reproductive and Community Roles Reproductive Role

The study found out that there were no changes in the roles of the women before and after the siege. Also, the study found out that women did almost all of the household chores such as cooking, sweeping, fetching water, washing cloths and caring for children. Although women revealed that there were no changes in the role of the women in their respective homes, the findings of the study revealed that women had doubled their activities to meet the demands of being a mother and an active member of the community.

The study also found out that despite the reproductive health programs for family planning, couples opted to have the natural birth control.

Political Participation

The participation of the women in the power structure and decision-making is essential to the development of the community in particular and in the society as a whole. The study found out that the participation of the women in the political issues and decision-making extensive after the siege. Women’s involvement in community organizations, activities and programs were also notably serious. Women were also active in various undertakings such leadership seminars, trainings, and other relevant activities for women.

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Leadership potentials and confidence of women has increased from ‘high’ to a ‘very high’ level which is a manifestation that women were empowered enough.

On the other hand, participation of the women in the barangay assemblies before and after siege did not change. Significance of the women’s participation slightly changed from high to very high as well as the women’s influence on the decisions reached in the barangay assemblies and meetings.

Decision-Making

Decision-making is important to maintain good relationship among husband and wife. The study found out that both the husband and the wife decide on the place of residence and education for children, while the husband decides to work and the women makes the budget. The study further found out that the setting of the women’s relationship and her husband is the typical Filipino family.

Social Cohesion and Collective Action

The study revealed that women have become more active after the siege. The level of social cohesion and collective action before and after siege have increased from moderately high to very high. Women’s social life commenced after the siege when they began organizing women’s groups and empower others.

Also, the bayanihan spirit has become alive after the siege. Women began to participate in the community action works and gather to support on women’s advocacy.

Women’s Trust

One of the important features of this study was to determine the level of trust of women. There were four categories where women’s trust was evaluated namely: trust towards stranger, trust towards other women in the community, trust on the barangay officials, and trust to the local government officials.

For the purpose of comparison, women’s low level of trust towards strangers did not change before and after the siege. Women asserted that they cannot trust strangers especially after the siege.

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On to their trust towards other women in the community, which has been recorded as moderately low, did not change after the siege. Women reported incidences of gossip which eventually led to conflict between them. Women believed that they would rather not trust other women in the community.

On to their trust towards barangay officials, this has slightly decreased from high to moderately low. Women reported that barangays officials may only come and know them during election time. Their trust towards the local government officials has decreased from moderately high to moderately low. Women also reported that local government officials were fond of making promises but never fulfill even a single promise they made.

Poverty Situation

The crisis in Zamboanga City happened sometime in September 9, 2013, which have led to many Zamboangueños to suffer from severe poverty situation due to the loss of their homes, job opportunities, livelihood income, and other properties. Findings of the study revealed that poverty situation after the siege had increased.

The numbers of drop-out students and lack of socio- economic opportunities plus the continuing demands of the women to return to their previous residences were manifestations of women suffering from severe poverty. Given the limited resources of the local government and international supports, the women were alarmed and threatened about the announcement of the local government to end or discontinue the free provision of water and electricity.

The situation and daring needs of the women survivors became more serious especially that local government provision and international support were about to end. The presence of the local government units, NGOs, Civil Society Organizations and international donors will never guarantee to uplift social status of the women survivors. Women held that even if the government will continue to provide support to the victims of the siege, they would still prefer to return home especially that most of their livelihood and economic activities were found in the town proper.

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Conclusions

The Zamboanga Siege incident, based from the findings obtained in this study yielded the following conclusions:

1. The women situation became worst after the siege.

2. Conflict was selective in terms of its impact. The findings showed that women suffered socially and economically- livelihood, education and the women’s reproductive and community roles.

3. The separation or divorce experienced among women developed emotional and psychological effect among them and their children.

4. The double enactment of roles among women increased their multiple burden to equally participate in the power structure and decision-making (i.e., family or community decisions).

5. Besides suffering from increasing poverty, women, often were the most vulnerable to emotional and psychological effect including the divestment and destruction of their properties. The findings were corroborated by various studies: (cf: Tigno (2006), Ocampo and Judd (2005), Fabian (2004) and others) which concluded that it is true that conflict and violence have direct effect and the core damages not only limited to the physical infrastructure, but to the social capital.

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References

Angstrom, J. (2007). Towards a typology of internal armed conflict: Synthesizing a decade of conceptual turmoil. Civil Wars 4 (3): 93-116.

Ateneo de Naga University Research Center, AdNU & Center for Public Resources and Management, Inc. (2012). Field manual for the Kalahi CIDSS Project baseline study. Citing Miles & Huberman (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/research/QualitativeVersusQuantitativeResearch.ht ml

Coalition for Peace Based on Justice. (2011). Fact finding mission report for Al-Barka, Basilan (Area 1) and Payao, Zamboanga Sibugay Province (Area 2).

Creswell, J. (2009). Research design. University of Calgary. Retrieved September 15, 2016, from http://www.legalserviceindia.com.

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2015). Women, peace and security. Commonwealth of Australia, DFAT’s implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325, February 2015. Retrieved from http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/legalcode).

Diaz, M. (2001).Gender and forced migration. Oxford: Refugee Studies Centre,2001. Retrieved from http://earlybird.qeh.ox.ac.uk/rfgexp/rsp_tre/student/gender/toc.htm

Dwyer, L., & Cagoco-Guiam, R. (2010). Gender and conflict in Mindanao. The Asia Foundation.

Espejo, Edwin. (2013). Analysis: Philippines’ Zamboanga siege a legacy of failed peace talks. Retrieved from https://asiancorrespondent.com/2013/09/sabah- invasion-zamboanga-siege-are-peace-talks-fallouts/. @edwinespejo

Fabian, M. L. B. (2004). Case study of Zamboanga City (Forced Migration Area). Discussion Paper No. 50 Series of 2004. Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 3rd Floors NEDA sa Makati Building, 106 Amorsolo Street, Legaspi Village, Makati City, Philippines. http://www.pids.gov.ph

Falch, As. (2010). Resolution 1325 and women’s political participation. Project- financed by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. March 2009-September 2010. Retrieved from https://www.prio.org/Projects/Project/?x=1462

Gonzales, I. C. (2013). Zamboanga, a city under siege. Retrieved online.

Hedman, E. E. (2009). The Philippines: Conflict and internal displacement and the Sulu Archipelago. Written Report commissioned by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Emergency and Technical Support Service. Writenet independent analysis. [email protected]

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Holloway, I. (1997). Basic concepts for qualitative research. Oxford. Blackwell Science. Retrieved from http://www.qualres.org/HomeWhat-3513.html.

International Committee on the Red Cross (ICRC). (2008). How is the term ‘Armed Conflict’ defined in International Humanitarian Law?. Opinion Paper. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/opinion-paper- armed-conflict.pdf.

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FUNCTIONAL ADEQUACY OF COMPUTER LABORATORY FACILITIES OF AN HEI VIS-À-VIS INDUSTRY REQUIREMENTS SATISFACTION

Arnold B. Galve University of Perpetual Help-Molino, Philippines

ABSTRACT The study evaluated the existing computer laboratory facilities of an HEI in Molino, Bacoor Cavite and its adherence with the industry standards in terms of the following metrics: computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the laboratory, ventilation and security as assessed by students, employees and industry experts. A comprehensive examination of related books, online journals and articles, unpublished materials and internet resources was done for the technical requirements and operations of computer laboratories. The questionnaire was used as the main tool in gathering the needed information. It was pre-tested by faculty members of the College of Computer Studies of the HEI and Industry Experts and went several revisions based on the inputs and suggestions before the final form was given to the respondents. The statistical tools used were: frequency count, weighted mean, t-test and relative rank. Results were tabulated, interpreted and analyzed and revealed that the computer laboratory facilities of the HEI are “Fairly Adequate” in terms of computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security. The overall grand mean showed that the computer laboratory facilities of HEI are “Adequate” as assessed by students, employees and industry experts. Moreover, findings of the research revealed that there is no significant difference between the assessments of the students and industry experts / employee respondents on the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities.

Keywords: Adequacy, Computer Lab, Industry Comlab, Comlab adequacy

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Introduction

Computers have been used in higher education for over forty years both as a subject of study and as tools to assist in the learning process within other disciplines. In that time, computer laboratory classes have played a major role in the teaching of computing subjects. Despite the perceived importance of laboratory classes little research has been done on computer laboratory environments and their effect upon learning as well as their adherence to the existing industry requirements (Newbie and Fisher, 2014).

A computer lab is a space which provides computer services to a defined community. Computer labs are typically provided by libraries to the public, by academic institutions to students who attend in the institution, or by other institutions to the public or to people affiliated with that institution. While computer labs are generally multipurpose, some labs may contain computers with hardware or software optimized for certain tasks or processes, depending on the needs of the institution operating the lab. These specialized purposes include but may not be limited to video editing, stock trading, 3-D design, and programming (Mc Campbell, 2015). Aside from these, academic institutions mostly want to give each student the opportunity to enhance their understanding of how to use a computer and software programs that are appropriate for their ability level. These institutions also want to assist and enhance classroom curriculum through the integration of technology, and allow students to acquire basic to advanced technology skills that will be vital to all fields of study and understand how it will contribute to their daily lives. (Van den Blink, 2015).

The University of Perpetual Help System – Molino Campus has two computer laboratories for college students located at rooms 209 and 210 which house 40 computers each. The lab was installed with CCTV cameras and a fully air-conditioned environment. The computers on these labs are using licensed software with Windows 8 as its operating system, MS Office suite and various programming languages based on the needs of the faculty or as requested by the dean or the chair of the College of Computer Studies (CCS) for programming purposes, latest and in demand programming software such as Unity, and Eclipse, among others 3D Studio Max and

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the like for games programming were not available, while Maya, Python, C#, Android and IOS studio for mobile applications development were also not available on these labs. The system units were branded, newly acquired and the internal components that go with it such as RAM, hard disk, motherboard, built in sound and video adapters could somehow support basic systems and software development. These laboratories are LAN connected and access to the internet is possible as per request of the faculty in charge and approved by the ITS.

The College of Computer Studies (CCS) has its office located on the second floor, with the office of the dean, chair, student council, and faculty room. It has three computers one for the sole use of the dean, the other for faculty members and another one for the secretary, all of which have printers and installed with Windows 8 operating system and MS Office. These computers were connected to the Internet with restricted / controlled access. The Wi-Fi access for faculty, staff and students are available only upon the approval of the ITS.

Framework of the Study

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of the Study

The research made use of the combined industry standards and CHED requirements for building computer laboratories, which served as input for the study. Through survey, interviews, internet research and questionnaire method, data were gathered to assess

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the adherence of the existing computer labs of an HEI, the result of which can be used to further improve the services and functionalities of the computer laboratories.

Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to find out the adequacy of the computer laboratory facilities as perceived by industry experts, employees, and students of an HEI.

Specifically, the study was conducted to:

1. Find out the level of adequacy of an HEI’s computer laboratory facilities as perceived by the respondents in terms of: 1.1 Computer Hardware; 1.2 Computer Software; 1.3 Safety; 1.4 Size of the laboratory; 1.5 Ventilation; and 1.6 Security? 2. Find out if there is a significant difference in the employees/industry experts’ and students' perceptions of adequacy of the computer laboratory facilities? 3. Solicit the recommendations given by the respondents to further improve the computer laboratory facilities of an HEI?

Methodology

Research Design

The descriptive method of research was used in the study. It aimed to gather data on the overall adequacy of the computer laboratory facilities based on industry requirements such as: computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the laboratory, ventilation and security as assessed by twenty (20) employees/industry experts and thirty-five (35) students from different colleges of an HEI.

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Respondents of the Study

The respondents of this study were thirty five (35) students from various colleges of the school, currently enrolled for first semester, academic year 2017 – 2018 and had classes on either of the three (3) laboratories and twenty (20) employees / industry experts, seven (7) of which were faculty members of the College of Computer Studies and two (2) were from the Registrar’s office who were Computer Science graduates and eleven (11) were industry practitioners who were CS/IT alumni of the HEI.

Data Gathering Tools

Data were initially collected using focus group discussion with some of the faculty members of CCS and students using the laboratories to identify the problems they encountered and created the initial content of the questionnaire. The researcher prepared the questionnaire using the industry standards on computer laboratories and the CHED laboratory selection criteria on COD for IT and underwent pretesting. Three (3) CS/IT professors from CCS and other schools looked into the format and items of the questionnaire and rendered their intelligent judgment and suggestions as to its adequacy and appropriateness and then the edited questionnaire was emailed to four (4) industry experts for their comments and suggestions. The questionnaire's final form was printed and distributed to the intended respondents of the study, a survey application on Facebook was also used to solicit the answers of the industry experts / alumni and it was posted at the CCS-UPHSD Molino group of the College of Computer Studies.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data gathered were tallied, computed, analyzed and interpreted according to the needs of the study. The following statistical tools were used in analyzing and evaluating the data gathered from the questionnaire:

1. Frequency count: This was used to tally the scores of the respondents on the items they answered on the questionnaire.

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2. Weighted mean: This was used to measure the central tendency of the data in describing the adequacy of the existing computer lab facilities. The obtained mean values were interpreted using the 5-point scale below:

Range Description a. 4.50 – 5.00 → Very Adequate b. 3.50 – 4.49 → Adequate c. 2.50 – 3.49 → Fairly adequate d. 1.50 – 2.49 → Slightly adequate e. 1.0 – 1.49 → Not adequate

3. t-test: This was used to assess whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever one wants to compare the means of two groups, in this case, those of the student and employee / industry expert respondents' assessment of adequacy of HEI's computer lab facilities.

4. Relative rank: This was used to tally and rank the recommendations given by the respondents.

Results and Discussion

This section presents the analysis and interpretation of data gathered from the respondents: twenty (20) employees / industry experts and thirty-five (35) students of various colleges of the HEI.

1. Profile of the Respondents

The profile of the respondents covered sex, type and unit / college where the respondent belongs.

A. Sex. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents by gender. Fifty five (55) respondents participated in the survey. A total of twenty nine (29) or 53% of them are male, which constitutes the majority and twenty six (26) or 47% are female. This is due

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to the fact that students and alumni of the college of computer studies are predominantly males.

Table 1 Distribution of Respondents According to Sex

Sex Frequency Percentage Male 29 53% Female 26 47% Total 55 100%

B. Type. Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents according to type. Student respondents numbered to thirty-five (35) constituting 64%, employees were only eleven (11) or 20% and industry experts / alumni were nine (9) or 16%. This means that majority of the respondents were students who had classes on the laboratories twice a week.

Table 2 Distribution of Respondents According to Type

Type Frequency Percentage Students 35 64% Employees / Industry 20 36% Experts Total 55 100%

C. Unit/College. Table 3 shows the Unit / College where the respondents belong. The figure reveals that twenty-four (24) or 44% were under the College of Computer Studies, these include the students and faculty, eleven (11) or 20% are Industry Experts, twelve (12) or 22% are from the College of International Hospitality Management and eight (8) or 15% are from College of Business Administration and Accountancy. This means that a greater number of the respondents have familiarity with the details of the computer laboratory facilities.

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Table 3 Distribution of Respondents According to College/Department

College/Department Frequency Percentage Computer Studies 24 43.64% Engineering 0 0% Business Administration 8 14.54% Accountancy Arts and Sciences 0 0% International Hospitality 12 21.82% Management Non-Teaching Personnel 0 0% Others (Industry Experts 11 20.00% Total 55 100.00%

2. Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities of the HEI.

A. Computer Hardware. Table 4 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of computer hardware.

Table 4 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Computer Hardware

Item Hardware WM WM No. Specification (Student) VI (Employees VI /Industry Experts)

1 Internal memory 1.90 Slightly Adequate 2.40 Slightly (RAM) Adequate 2 Secondary storage 2.40 Slightly Adequate 2.90 Slightly (HD) Adequate 3 Video card. 1.70 Slightly Adequate 2.70 Slightly Adequate 4 Sound card & 1.90 Slightly Adequate 2.70 Slightly sound peripherals. Adequate 5 LED Monitors 3.80 Adequate 3.80 Adequate 6 Printer ratio 2.50 Fairly Adequate 3.40 Fairly Adequate 7 Network devices 2.30 Slightly Adequate 2.90 Slightly Adequate 8 Projection 3.90 Very Adequate 4.00 Very Adequate equipment Overall Weighted 2.55 Fairly Adequate 3.10 Fairly Adequate Mean

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

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Findings in table 4 showed that item number eight “Projection equipment” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90 from the student respondents and 4.00 from industry experts/ employees both verbally interpreted as “Very Adequate”. The overall weighted mean of 2.55 from students and 3.10 from industry experts are both interpreted as “Fairly Adequate”. This means that the HEI has sufficient hardware on the computer laboratories.

B. Computer Software. Table 5 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of computer software.

Table 5 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Computer Software

WM Item Software WM VI (Employees VI No. Installed (Student) / Industry Experts) 1 Operating 2.70 Fairly 3.20 Fairly System Adequate Adequate 2 OOP Languages 3.10 Fairly 3.70 Adequate Adequate 3 Web 3.60 Adequate 3.80 Adequate Development Languages 4 Games and 2.20 Slightly 2.70 Fairly Apps Languages Adequate Adequate 5 Wi-Fi and 1.80 Slightly 2.60 Fairly Internet access Adequate Adequate to PC. Overall 2.68 Fairly 3.20 Fairly Weighted Mean Adequate Adequate

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 –Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

As shown in table 5, item number three “Web Development Languages” got the highest weighted mean of 3.60 for student respondents and 3.80 for employees / industry experts both verbally interpreted as “Adequate”. The overall weighted mean of 2.68 from students and 3.20 from industry experts were both interpreted as fairly adequate. This means that the computer laboratory facilities of

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the HEI had sufficient web development programming languages installed.

C. Safety. Table 6 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of safety.

Table 6 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Safety

WM Item Safety Criteria WM VI (Employees VI No. (Student) / Industry Experts) 1 System units: 3.90 Adequate 4.50 Very AVR ratio. Adequate 2 Structured 3.60 Adequate 3.90 Adequate wiring/network cables. 3 Fire 3.20 Fairly 4.40 Adequate extinguishers Adequate on the lab. 4 Sensor-enabled 3.80 Adequate 4.40 Adequate sprinklers. Overall 3.63 Adequate 4.30 Adequate Weighted Mean

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

Results shown in table 6 reveals that item number one “System units: AVR ratio” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90 verbally interpreted as “Adequate” for student respondents and 4.50 for employees / industry experts interpreted verbally as “Very Adequate”. The overall weighted mean of 3.63 from students and 4.30 from industry experts are both interpreted verbally as “Adequate”. This means that the computer laboratories of the HEI were safe to use.

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D. Size of the Lab. Table 7 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of size of the lab.

Table 7 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Size of the Lab

WM Item Size of the Lab WM VI (Employees VI No. (Student) / Industry Experts) 1 Floor area. 4.20 Adequate 4.30 Adequate 2 Computer tables 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate and chairs. 3 Movement space. 4.20 Adequate 4.10 Adequate Overall Weighted 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate Mean

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

Table 7 reveals that all items got a weighted mean of 4.20 from student respondents which is verbally interpreted as “Adequate” and item number one for employee / industry experts got the highest weighted mean of 4.30 which is interpreted verbally as “Adequate”. The overall weighted mean for both respondents is 4.20 interpreted as “Adequate”. This means that in terms of the computer laboratory size, the HEI has sufficient floor area and movement space for users.

E. Ventilation. Table 8 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of ventilation.

Table 8 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Ventilation

WM Item Ventilation/Indoor air WM VI (Employees VI No. quality (Student) / Industry Experts) 1 Air conditioner(s)/ 4.40 Adequate 4.60 Very Adequate cooling system. 2 Ventilation and 4.40 Adequate 4.70 Very Adequate windows. Overall Weighted 4.40 Adequate 4.65 Very Adequate Mean

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

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Findings in table 8 showed that all items got a weighted mean of 4.40 from the student respondents with a verbal interpretation of “Adequate” and item number two “Ventilation and windows” got the highest weighted mean of 4.70 from industry experts. The overall weighted mean of 4.40 from students was verbally interpreted as “Adequate” and 4.65 from employees/industry experts was verbally interpreted as “Very Adequate”. This means that the computer labs of the HEI have sufficient indoor air quality and proper ventilation.

F. Security. Table 9 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities in terms of security.

Table 9 Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Security

WM Item Security WM VI (Employees VI No. Criteria (Student) /Industry Experts) 1 Antivirus & 2.10 Slightly Adequate Fairly virus 2.60 Adequate definition update. 2 Threat 2.90 Fairly Adequate Adequate blockers 3.50 (Firewalls / filters) 3 Access rights 3.90 Adequate 3.90 Adequate to users. 4 CCTVs for user 2.90 Fairly Adequate 4.20 Adequate monitoring. 5 Computer 3.50 Adequate 4.10 Adequate status monitoring. Overall Weighted 3.06 Fairly Adequate 3.66 Adequate Mean

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

Results shown in Table 9 reveals that item number three “Access rights to users” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90 interpreted verbally as “Adequate” from students while item number four “CCTV for user monitoring” got the highest weighted mean of 4.20 from employees/industry experts verbally interpreted as “Adequate”. The overall weighted mean for students is 3.06 which is “Fairly Adequate” and 3.66 for industry experts which is

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“Adequate”. This means that the computer laboratories of the HEI were properly secured and monitored

G. Overall Performance. Table 10 shows the overall adequacy of computer laboratory facilities as assessed by students, employees of the HEI and industry experts.

Table 10 Overall Adequacy of the Computer Laboratory Facilities as Evaluated by the Students and Employees/Industry Experts

WM Item INDUSTRY WM VI (Employees VI No. REQUIREMENTS (Student) /Industry Experts) 1 Computer 2.65 Fairly Adequate 3.10 Fairly Adequate Hardware 2 Computer 2.68 Fairly Adequate 3.20 Fairly Adequate Software 3 Safety 3.63 Adequate 4.30 Adequate 4 Size of the Lab 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate 5 Ventilation 4.40 Adequate 4.65 Very Adequate 6 Security 3.06 Fairly Adequate 3.66 Adequate Grand Mean 3.44 Fairly Adequate 3.85 Adequate

Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.

Table 10 reveals that the overall adequacy of computer laboratories of the HEI is 3.44 for student respondents, verbally interpreted as “Fairly Adequate” and 3.85 for employee/industry experts which was verbally interpreted as “Adequate”.

3. Difference among the Evaluation of the Respondents in Terms of Computer Hardware, Computer Software, Safety, Size of the Lab, Ventilation and Security.

Table 11 shows the difference among the assessments of the respondents regarding computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.

The assessments of the respondents have been analyzed using t-test at 5% level of significance. The values on the table above were obtained using online calculation software on percentage distribution, weighted mean and standard deviations via

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www.calculator.net/, while t-test was computed via online t-test calculator at www.socscistatistics.com/tests.

Table 11 Difference among the Evaluation of the Respondents in Terms of Computer Hardware, Computer Software, Safety, Size of the Lab, Ventilation and Security

t- STANDARD t- value DECISION VARIABLES RESPONDENT TYPE MEAN DEVIATION computed at 0.05 1.Computer Student 2.65 0.849 -1.520 2.021 Accept Ho Hardware Employee/Industry 3.10 0.571 Expert 2.Computer Student 2.68 0.712 -1.290 Accept Ho Software Employee/Industry 3.20 0.552 Expert 3. Safety Student 3.63 0.309 -3.280 Accept Ho Employee/Industry 4.30 0.271 Expert 4. Size of the Student 4.20 0.000 0.000 Accept Ho Lab Employee/Industry 4.20 0.100 Expert 5.Ventilation Student 4.40 0.000 -5.000 Accept Ho Employee/Industry 4.65 0.071 Expert 6. Security Student 3.06 0.684 -1.420 Accept Ho Employee/Industry 3.66 0.650 Expert

Table 11 reveals the result of the t-test on the assessment of the two groups of respondents on the adequacy computer laboratory facilities of the HEI in terms of computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.

In terms of computer hardware, the computed t-value of - 1.520 is lower than the tabular t-value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of computer hardware is accepted.

The computed t-value of -1.290 is lower than the tabular t- value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of computer

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software. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of computer software is accepted.

The computed t-value of -3.280 is lower than the tabular t- value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of safety. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of safety is accepted.

The computed t-value of 0.000 is lower than the tabular t- value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of the size of the lab. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of the size of the lab is accepted.

The computed t-value of -5.000 is lower than the tabular t- value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of ventilation. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of ventilation is accepted.

The computed t-value of -1.420 is lower than the tabular t- value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of security. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of security is accepted.

The results simply show that there is no significant difference among the assessments of student and industry experts / employee respondents of the HEI in terms of computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.

4. Recommendations Given by the Respondents

Table 12 shows the recommendations of the respondents to further improve the adequacy of facilities in the computer laboratories. A portion on the questionnaire was allotted for the respondents to indicate their recommendations not listed as items on the survey questionnaire.

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Table 12 Suggestions/Recommendations Given by the Respondents

Suggestions/Recommendations Frequency Rank Upgrade computers 8 1 Faster internet and free Wi-Fi access for 6 2 students Install additional programming languages for 4 3 game development Install video cards 2 4.5 Install antivirus and update virus definitions 2 4.5

Conclusions

The computer laboratory facilities of the HEI is “Fairly Adequate” in terms of computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security as assessed by students, employees and industry experts. The overall adequacy of computer laboratory facilities of the HEI was “Adequate” as assessed by students, employees and industry experts. There is no significant difference between the assessments of the student and industry experts/employee respondents on the adequacy of computer laboratory facilities of the HEI as regards with computer hardware, computer software, and safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.

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References

Fisher, D. & Newby M. (2014). An instrument for assessing the learning environment of a computer laboratory. Unpublished Research. USA.

Hawkins, B., & Oblinger, D. (2015). The myth about the need for public computer labs. Educause Review. pp. 19-21. https://www.owassops.org/webpages/BDishman/news.cfm?subpage=179203 https://www.rdmag.com/article/2006/05/lab-criteria-and-specifications http://www.ched.gov.ph/central/page/orientation-meeting-on-the-set-guidelines- procedures-and-proper-accomplishment-of-application-forms-for-coe-cod-in- information-technology-education https://www.calculator.net/ https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests

McCampbell, A., & Liedlich, F. Ethics and the student computer lab. Journal of Business Ethics. JSTOR 25072815.

MacPhee, L. (2015). Learning spaces: a tutorial. Educause Review. Page 8.

Pagala, R. (2014). Statistics revised edition. Intramuros, Manila; Mindshapers Co. Inc.

Van den Blink, C. (2015). Uses of labs and learning spaces. Educause Review. Page 12. https://www.owassops.org/webpages/BDishman/news.cfm?subpage=179203 https://www.rdmag.com/article/2006/05/lab-criteria-and-specifications http://www.ched.gov.ph/central/page/orientation-meeting-on-the-set-guidelines- procedures-and-proper-accomplishment-of-application-forms-for-coe-cod- in-information-technology-education https://www.calculator.net/ https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests

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BEHIND WHAT THE EYES CAN SEE: UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELEES TOWARDS AN ACCOUNTABLE SCHOOL COUNSELING PROGRAM

Remy Rose Poblete University of Perpetual Help-Molino, Philippines

ABSTRACT Factors like personal issues, relationship with family members or other people, differences in the community, and adjustments to the environment often affect student conduct. These factors are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene. This study investigated the problems and concerns that often beset the Junior Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred by the Discipline Office to the Guidance Office. Descriptive research analysis was employed to determine what affects the behavior and performance of 23 student counselees. Guidance counsellors conducted an Intake Interview Assessment to see through the issues of the students. Frequency distribution and percentage were used to present the data. The most reported variables under this study were family problems (19.93%), academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues (13.73%). Typical concerns include being scolded by their mothers, urgent feeling of improving low grades and easily getting nervous when faced with difficulty. The range of problem was previously not identified by the Discipline Office but was uncovered by the Counsellors. Thus, the study resulted to a program that required the collaboration of counselors, parents, teachers, school administrators and fellow students through peer facilitators for the students to be assisted in dealing with life's challenges and to be helped and nurtured in their character.

Keywords: Guidance and counseling, student problems and concerns, descriptive research analysis, Philippines

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Introduction

Various collaborative approaches are used for school guidance counseling around the world. Often, these approaches are based on the cultural understanding of the challenges that students face in their lives. In China, counselors work in the education system of the country, where counseling includes political and thought education as directed by the Ministry of Education (Lim, 2013). Mexico takes into account the role played by religiousness and spirituality in counseling. Integrating the spiritual aspect in guiding students is essential in counseling (Hickle, 2013). India, on the other hand, has a long history of help-seeking behaviors through healing traditions. Professional counseling of students is still in the infancy stage (Sandhu, 2013).

In the Philippines, guidance, and counseling consider religiousness and spirituality, the intense drive for survival, human interaction or “pakikipagkapwa-tao”, and the engagement of family members and friends in helping students. Guidance and counseling, and the role of counselors depend on the school culture and how the school takes the responsibility in the student learning. In meeting this role, schools are expected to use all of its resources to provide the best for all students.

Schools strive for academic competency and excellence of their students. It also aims to equip students the character that embodies the school's values and vision, significant in their future success. In light of this promising goal, any institution has to set forth a disciplinary standard wherein students are expected to carry out by all means for as long as they are under the care and supervision of the school. Strict implementation of the school policies is expected in order to instill appropriate behavior, enhance prosocial behavior, promote a conducive learning environment and increase academic engagement. These can only be achieved through the collaborative partnership between the student, parents, and the school. However, barriers exist that may clog this partnership and impede them to cooperate with the school fully.

It is a prime responsibility of the school to make the students learn. Students are entrusted to the school by their parents to be equipped with lifelong learning and to become good citizens in the

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future. It is a definite promise of the school to teach and keep students safe while learning. In this regard, the bulk of the tasks rest on the people in school. As the school aims to balance discipline and guidance among its students, it tries its best to never incorporate the functions of the Discipline's Office from the functions and responsibilities of the Guidance and Counseling Office. However, the Discipline's Office has to work in collaboration with the Guidance and Counseling Office and vice versa for the betterment of the students. Both offices share each other's thoughts and problems, and then use them as a powerful tool to strengthen up the morale and boost the spirit of the students who are in need of peace and solidarity from themselves and others that surround them. The Guidance and Counseling Office and Discipline's Office signify their way of sympathy, understanding and leadership roles for the students and their parents.

There are times when something goes wrong with a student –it can be about his or her issues, the relationship among his or her family members, differences in their community or adjustments in school. Circumstances vary from student to student. These factors affect how they behave. They may act out misbehaviors that are contrary to the school's ideals. Due to different factors that affect the students' behaviors, what a student needs at that certain time is someone who can tell him or her where and how he or she went wrong. It could be the teachers, parents or even their peers who would be able to find out what was bothering them. One thing is for sure, there must always be somebody in school who wants to help the student to see for themselves why they have reacted or behaved in such a way toward something, somebody else or toward themselves. At this point, it is the Guidance and Counseling Office's desire to assist the students with the problem that they carry. How students would solve their problem and eventually relate well with their environment is a call for counseling.

In one school at South of Luzon, it is a practice that the Discipline Office assesses the intensity and nature of the student's mistake, and then refers students to the Guidance Office for counseling intervention especially if it is behavioral. From the accounted misbehaviors of the students, tardiness and absences or other reasons for discipline referral were not the sole issues of the

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students. There are more to what can be seen from the students' misbehaviors.

“What is essential is invisible to the naked eye”, is a statement from the book of Antoine de Saint-Exupery, The Little Prince. The counselees referred by the Discipline Office were the same as the character of the Little Prince in the book. They have their perceptions in viewing things which adults cannot completely comprehend. They want something to happen in their lives which are different from how the adults around them would have wanted to be done. This study explored the reasons behind the counselees' behaviors. Factors like personal issues, relationship with family members or other people, differences in the community, and adjustments to the environment often affect student conduct. These factors are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene. This study investigated the problems and concerns that often beset the Junior Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred by the Discipline Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office.

This study was designed and conducted to determine the usual reasons why counselees referred by the Discipline Office fail to comply with the school's policies and regulations. It came up with an intervention that addressed the underlying concerns and problems of the students. This study served as a guide to benefit the students through a plan of action that the Guidance and Counseling Office prepared in their program for the students who have troubles in school. It is the Guidance and Counseling Office's way to serve the students best especially those who are in distress. Moreover, guidance helps the students discover their desirable traits, best habits to acquire as young as they are and keep their values wherever they go. Guidance starts as early as the learner stepped into the school - preschool. Guidance will still exist for them even until they graduate. Therefore, guidance should have a positive impact. The role of guidance is to prevent any misbehavior from happening. If it were not prevented due to different factors, guidance would be there for the aftercare of the student. Guidance nurtures (Mendoza, 2005).

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Framework of the Study

The problems and concerns of the referred students from the Discipline Office were one by one introspected. The referred student is a Junior Business High School student who was decided upon to be given a guidance and counseling intervention after investigation made by the Discipline Office that he or she has committed a serious offense and after his or her parents or guardian having agreed with the procedure.

Eleven factors were looked upon as part of guidance and counseling intervention: family related problems, boy-girl relationship, peer-related concerns, health problems, physical appearance, personal concerns, adjustment problems, behavioral concerns, emotional concerns, academic problems and career related problems. Family problems include circumstances at home which may affect the student in school. It includes conflicts with parents, rivalry with siblings, the death of a family member, being adopted, issues with family set-up and other related matters. Boy- girl relationship problems encompass all issues and conflicts about the relationship with the same or opposite gender. Peer related concern includes issues related to building and handling friendships and also peer pressure. Health problems refer to the inability to function properly due to various ailments, disabilities, and other diagnosed diseases. Issues with physical appearance refer to issues about dissatisfaction in one's physical appearance – height, weight, skin complexion, among others. Personal concerns refer to issues governing identity crisis, addiction, clarification of values and other personal matters. Adjustment problems refer to problems such as, but not limited to, time management and poor decision making. Behavioral concerns pertain to issues concerning one's action such as tardiness, absences, bullying, immaturity, and others. Emotional concerns refer to issues and conflicts about one's feelings, temper, mood, and states. It includes getting worried, getting nervous, a feeling of jealousy, thoughts of suicide and others. Academic problems refer to the students' difficulties in achieving their academic goals, acquiring the skills necessary for their advancement, coping strategies and other related matters. Career-related problems include possible problems in choosing one's career path.

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Figure 1 Framework of the Study

Based on the identified problems and concerns of the Junior Business High School students, data were derived. These data were the reasons for the school to create ways and means in building a respectful, safe, and supportive school atmosphere. The data gathered opens a part of the school culture and environment where these Junior High School Students revolve and participate. Thus, the accountable school counseling program has its basis from the data gathered these referred students. The school counseling program was done to support the students in collaboration with the school community which comprises of the parents, faculty, staff, and school administrators.

Discipline Office is the department which comprises of the Prefect of Discipline and Grade Level Chairpersons who monitor the academic, attendance and behavior of the Junior Business High school Students. While the Guidance and Counseling Office is responsible for the implementation of a comprehensive guidance and counseling services and programs to address the students' needs and concerns. These two offices partner and work hand in hand with the parents, teachers and school administrators.

The accountable school counseling program was anchored on the unconditional positive regard from Person-Centered Theory of Carl Rogers. It bridges the Guidance and Counseling Office and Discipline's Office to the teachers, staff, school administrators and

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parents. From the person-centered theory, the concept of making the student the center of an accountable school counseling program was conceptualized. The Guidance and Counseling Office adheres to the belief that students are innately good and are accepted for who and what they are.

In an accountable counseling program, the students will have the confidence to solve their problems and regulate themselves without any direct manipulation. Its goal is to implement activities and services that can produce students who are fully functioning, well adjusted, matured and open to experience.

Objectives of the Study

Factors like personal issues, relationship with family members or other people, differences in the community, and adjustments to the environment often affect student conduct. These factors are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene. This study investigated the problems and concerns that often beset the Junior Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred by the Discipline Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office. The objectives of the study were specifically:

1. To investigate and analyze the problems affecting the referred students' behavior and performance in school; 2. For the school administrators and the parents to become more understanding of the needs and shortcomings of the referred students. The findings of this study would be able to shed light on the school administrators, faculty and parents about the real concerns and problems of the students. The Guidance and Counseling Office continuously collaborates with the Discipline's Office, school administrators and parents to attain this purpose. 3. For the Guidance and Counseling Office to device a program or strategy on how to help the referred students. Through the identified concerns and problems of the Junior Business High School Students, the Guidance and Counseling Office based its programs of activities and services.

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4. For the referred students to be assisted on how they are going to deal with the challenges in their life. The students must benefit from the guidance and counseling services. The guidance and counseling program focused on the life's problems, issues and concerns of the students as identified in this study. The Junior Business High School Ssudents would be guided more in becoming responsible citizens with the skills they need as they face life's obstacles with their well-grounded core values and morals.

Methodology

Descriptive Research Analysis was employed in this study to deliberately describe and analyze the characteristics of the problems faced by the students in all aspects of their lives. This research design, however, does not directly imply that the following variables causes or predicts the misbehavior or misconduct of the students in this study.

Junior Business High School Guidance and Counseling Office has prepared the Intake Interview Assessment Form. It was a list of problems that Junior Business High School Students were often beset. The referred students read through the list slowly, and put a check mark before the problem(s) that they feel were troubling them at that given time.

A referral form was distributed by the Guidance and Counseling Office to the Discipline's Office and the Faculty Room at the beginning of the school year. Every time the Discipline's Office or teachers had a referral, they have to fill out the form and submit them to the Guidance and Counseling Office. The guidance personnel read through the referral form and make a call-slip for the referred student. A counseling session was then scheduled once the call-slip has reached the student and the subject teacher allowed the students to be excused from the class. If the student cannot miss his or her class, another schedule will be given, or it will be better to ask the student to come during his or her free time.

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After saying the greeting, purpose, an explanation of the statement of confidentiality, a form used by the Guidance and Counseling Office synonymous to Informed Consent, the referred student can be already be called a counselee once the student and his or her parents agreed to the terms and conditions stipulated in the statement of confidentiality. The statement of confidentiality has to be signed by the parent or guardian and the student or else no counseling session should take place. The first step of a counseling session would be the filling out of the Intake Interview Assessment Form. In this way, the student could go over the list of concerns and problems people his or her age is going through and check or write down everything that troubles him or her. Identification of the student problem/s would be more comfortable in the first counseling session through the use of the Intake Interview Assessment Form.

The referred students who were given the Intake Interview Assessment Form automatically would be recorded in the Counseling Inventory of the Counselor. Problems and concerns were charted down at once for tabulation purposes. These gathered data now become a critical data element of the Guidance and Counseling Office.

Closely examining critical data elements that identify the needs of the students and the school-wide issues that cloud success is the first step to inform and guide the development and construction of an accountable school counseling program. With data, school counselors can paint a picture of the current situation in the school for students and can begin to document their successes and failures (Dahir and Stone, 2012).

Results and Discussion

The data used in this study came from the 23 students from Grades 7, 8, 9, and 10. These students were referred by the Discipline Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office for counseling. The students have exhibited improper behaviors or have violated the school policies and regulations which subjected them to counseling as an intervention.

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The identified specific problems and concerns affecting the students ranged from family-related problems, boy-girl relationship, peer-related concerns, health problems, physical appearance, personal concerns, adjustment problems, behavioral concerns, emotional concerns, academic problems, to career-related problems. The most reported variables under this study were family problems (19.93%), academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues (13.73%).

The typical family problems that the Junior Business High School students dealt with included having been scolded by their mother, which in this study, garnered the most number of responses across grade levels with 12 out of 61 responses (19. 67%), misunderstanding with father, 8 out of 61 responses (13.11%), misunderstanding with mother 7 out of 61 responses (11.48%) and having parents who are separated/not living together with 7 out of 61 responses (11.48%). The result shows that relationship with parents has a significant impact on their child's behavior and performance in school. Among all categories, this got the most number of responses.

The common boy-girl relationship problems that the students dealt with included having been engaged in a relationship with the opposite gender, which garnered the most number of responses across all grade levels, with 5 out of 19 (26.32%) responses, followed by having feelings towards one's best friend, 3 responses (15.79%), physical attraction towards the opposite gender, 3 responses (15.79%), and others which includes "pinaasa" (meaning hope; nowadays it refers to a person who seems to be offering romantic hope to another but the truth is that he or she is not really interested) and having a crush with a student from other section, 3 responses (15.79%). The result shows that there were students who were engaged in relationships and encountered problems along with it.

Peer-related concerns of the students across all levels involved difficulty in handling misunderstanding with friends (7 out of 13 respondents or 53.85%). Meanwhile, four students (30.77%) responded that they are too easily led by their friends. One student responded that he/she has a fear of making friends with the opposite gender (7.69%) and only one student responded being pressured by his/her friends (7.69). The Junior Business High School students considered peers as the vital source of emotional support. This is the

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reason why most of the students are so problematic every time they have misunderstandings with their friends. Aside from being the emotional support, the peers are also the source of pressure for behavior. Since peers are very influential to the growing up teenager, there were instances wherein the parents may deplore their child's peer group, mainly when the values taught at home jeopardizes the influences from the peer group. This causes now the big trouble for the high school student.

Health problem has always been a factor that limits the student to excel more in school. That is why this study did not disregard its possible effect on the student's behavior in school. The most prevalent health problem reported by the students is poor eyesight, garnering 12 out of 16 responses (75%). Other reported problems not mentioned in the questionnaire were asthma and urinary tract infection garnering two responses (12.5%). Moreover, one student reported being sickly (6.25%) and one with a skin problem (6.25%). These findings must be referred to the school clinic for proper intervention.

Junior Business High School students who suffer from health-related risks may be attributed to modern lifestyle. Health may be influenced by genes such as poor eyesight which garnered the most number of responses. However, there are behavioral factors that have to be considered too. Adolescents no longer watch what they eat, they are prone to eating at fast food restaurants and more processed food that can contribute to urinary tract infection. The amount of sleep they have every day is questionable too; they often mention that they have a hard time sleeping that caused their tardiness.

Concerns on physical appearance were also studied since the respondents are in the period of their development wherein they become more concerned about how they look. Across all levels, the most evident concern of the students was the dissatisfaction in their height. There were 9 out of 16 (56.25%) students who claimed about this issue. Top answers also included dissatisfaction with weight (4 out of 16 responses or 25%) and poor posture with three responses (18.75%). Dissatisfaction with one's complexion may not have been of great concern for the students.

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Other students’ concerns also comprised of their addiction to the internet as their primary personal concern (10 out of 26 responses or 38.46%), insufficient allowance with 6 out of 26 responses (23.08%), addiction to vices with 3 responses (11.54%), other addiction, one responded explicitly to computer and one to basketball (7.69%), 2 out of 26 responded that they are in need to clarify values pertaining to insecurities (7.69%), pertaining to pride (2 responses or 7.69%) and one responded pertaining to envy (3.85%). The most common adjustment problem that they faced was poor time management with 8 out of 22 responses (36.36%). Other areas of concerns are as follows: inability to concentrate on studies with six responses or 27.27%), decision-making problems (with five responses or 22.73%), difficult to understand (with two responses or 9.09%), and one student reported to have had a traumatic experience (4.55%). The key to healthy adjustment is the goodness of fit. This means that there must be a match between the Junior Business High School students' character and their environmental demands. When imbalance happens, there are constraints that they must deal. In this case, the character of the students does not fit the demands of the time that their school work requires. This then leads to maladjustment like poor time management which is a significant source of other adjustment problems. They must be helped on how to deal with the problems so that they could cope with the current environment.

The most common behavioral concerns were tardiness with 10 out of 31 responses (32.26%) and being moody with 7 out of 31 responses (22.58%). Others include 2 responses for not interested/lack of motivation (6.45%), 2 responses for cannot express feelings (6.45%), 2 responses for acting childish or immature (6.45%), 2 responses for concentration difficulties and one response each for teasing classmates (3.23%), being bullied (3.23%) and others- being noisy (3.23%).

Junior Business High School students have to be goal- oriented and adaptive. These are the demands they got from their environment. Ideal as it is, they are still on their way on how to learn to have this kind of personality. These high school students have to be directed at adjusting to the circumstances and conditions of their life. Being goal oriented and adaptive enables them to acquire motivation to go to school on time; remember their role as a good

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student and child to their parents; use the knowledge they have learned at home and in school to understand others; be more cautious in their relationships and solve their everyday problems. Students at their age have these concerns because they are still in the process of dealing with their mishaps and learning from the outcome of their behaviors. These referred students were struggling more compared to the others in their batch on how to go about the behavioral concerns they face.

Emotional concerns included getting easily nervous with 9 out of 42 responses (21.43%) , 7 out of 42 (16.67%) claimed to get lonely/sad, 6 out of 42 (14.29%) gets jealous easily , 4 responses (9.52%) easily gets worried, 4 responses (9.52%) have thoughts of suicide, 3 responses (7.14%) wants to be alone, another 3 responses get scared, 2 responses (4.76%) gets easily discouraged, another 2 responses easily loses temper, 1 response (2.38%) easily gets disturbed and 1 response (2.38%) claimed to be ditched by others ("pinaasa ako"). These results were indeed alarming. Four students reported having suicidal thoughts. Proper guidance and support were given to these students. It can be concluded that emotional problems are prevalent in the lives of the students and this should not be taken for granted for it may lead to many severe outcomes such as but not limited to suicide. If the physical health of a high school student is essential, their mental health has the same importance. Mental health usually refers to emotional health. If they are not reasonably adjusted, mental disturbance can cause them some impairment.

Diagnosis of mental health disorders in children is essential because these disorders can lead to psychiatric disorders in adulthood (Kim-Cohen et al., 2003 cited by Papalia and Feldman, 2012). Half of all mental health disorders begin by age 14 (Kessler et al. 2005 cited by Papalia and Feldman, 2012), the same age as the Junior Business High School students.

Regarding the academic problems of the students, fourteen out of 43 students (32.56%) said that they needed to improve their academic grade. Eight out of 43 (18.60%) said that they have difficulty doing subject requirements. Seven out of 43 (16.28%) had fear during recitation, and six out of 43 (13.95%) felt pressured in meeting academic goals. Five out of 43 (11.63%) of the students had poor

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writing skills and 3 out of 43 students (6.99%) had poor oral communication skills. Among all the categories presented in this study, academic problems got the most number of responses next to family problems.

Concerning career-related problems, the study revealed that most of them are facing two major dilemmas. Twelve out of 17 responses (70.59%) said that they are not yet decided on what career to pursue while 5 out of 17 responses (29.41%) claimed that they need to explore career options based on their interests and potentials.

It is the function of guidance to help the individual understand why the behavior is unacceptable which resulted in consequences. The counselor has to be involved to establish rapport with the students. This will enable the counselor to find out why such unacceptable behavior was committed and to discover the motives behind the undesirable behavior.

Conclusions

The factors that affect a student's performance and social interaction in school are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene. In this study, it was found out that the most reported factors that affect students were family problems (19.93%), academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues (13.73%). Typical concerns include being scolded by their mothers, urgent feeling of improving low grades and easily getting nervous when faced with difficulty. The range of problem was previously not identified by the Discipline Office but was uncovered by the Counsellors.

Thus, the findings would lead to conclusions on how best to maintain discipline through Guidance and Counseling Services and shed light to the school administrators about the significance of the guidance and counseling program. It is the guidance and counseling program that can help uphold positive discipline among the Junior Business High School students. The guidance and counseling office will collaborate with the Discipline Office, school administrators, faculty, and parents to attain this purpose.

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THE ACCOUNTABLE COUNSELLING PROGRAM

Guidance and Objectives Activities Performance Counseling Indicators Service Information To provide information to Teachers, parents 100% dissemination Service the teachers, parents, and and students of the information students about the Guidance orientation of the through various and Counseling Office and its Guidance Services organized services. and Programs. programs.

To encourage teachers, Prepare a Career A very satisfactory parents and students on Week Activity that to excellent what to do and where to go has the theme that evaluation rating of to if they have problems or centers on the the activities will be concerns. students’ needs. reported and documented to Solicit the help of parents, Conduct a know the strengths, teachers and administrators Parenting Seminar weaknesses and in assisting the students in or activity in school areas for their needs. that involves the improvement. parents with the theme that tackles understanding the millennials and positive parenting skills.

Organize a Guidance Consciousness Week that has the theme that centers on the students’ needs.

Brainstorm for the topic for the brochures.

Create interactive bulletin boards.

Conduct seminars/workshop s that can promote and enhance the needed skills and information for the teachers, parents and students.

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Individual To take into account Information data 100 % of information Inventory Service pertinent information about about each student, about the students students’ – data on his/her needs, are kept up-to date. education, personal abilities, interests information, and a summary (shown in the Confidentiality of of interviews conducted standardized and certain data about from part of the students’ psychological the student are file. tests), routine maintained and interviews, as well respected. To make good use of such as his educational information in guiding and family students. background, are compiled and filed To enable the Guidance in a cumulative Associate and Counselor to envelope. follow-up the student as he / she progresses in school. Students’ information are utilized in coming up with profiles / characteristics of the present student population necessary for program planning.

Classroom To develop RHGP modules Seek the help of the 90 – 100% of the Guidance/ RHGP that address the pressing class advisers in advisers can meet Classes needs of the students. facilitating tailor-fit the students on the modules through given class schedule To facilitate self- regular classroom of RHGP. development and meeting with the camaraderie among the students. Evaluation survey students through various should have the topics that addresses their Visit the class every average of 4 or 5 present needs. quarter to facilitate which rates indicate the RHGP module. very satisfactory to excellent.

Routine To make individual and Ask permission Reach out all Interviews/Pull- group interviews available to from the Principal students 100%. out Sessions all students. and Subject teachers for the Aimed at increasing To identify possible source pull-out of the student awareness of difficulty or trouble that students through a of the different the student may have. letter. services and functions offered by To be used as a strategy for Arrange the Guidance and prevention of future or schedule of pull- Counseling Office ongoing maladjustments outs. especially the counseling service Make call slips which not all before the pull-outs students are familiar and admission slips with. to be given to the subject teacher This is to help and after the pull-out. assist students who

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are having trouble Take down notes in or at risk. each interview form of the students to indicate if they need special attention or further intervention.

Psychological To guide the students about List the 100% or all students Testing for their abilities, achievement, Psychological Tests must be able to take students interests, study skills and that are currently the required habits, personality and being used by the Psychological Tests career choices. school for the for their level. students. To utilize the results for the 90 – 100% of the students’ self-awareness; for Get the total results are available parents to guide their number of the test for interpretation to children and for the faculty materials and the student to help and school administrators to update the him/her gain self- help in meeting students’ Psychological Test understanding. needs. Inventory. 100% of the To be able to identify the Prepare the Test collected data are students’ differing needs, materials and utilized for profiling. personality, interests and schedule for the abilities. administration of Provide information the Psychological to 90 – 100% of the To assess students’ needs, Tests to the students for better concerns and problems if students. self-understanding there are any that may arise and to monitor in the psychological test Evaluate the test progress in school. results. results. Help 100% of the Discuss the test completing results individually students (grade 10) to each student and become more if necessary to their aware of their parents too. attitudes and their personal goals and Report group career plans. results of the level to the teachers.

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Counseling To let the parents and Orient the 100% of the Service & Special students know the Discipline Officer, guidance associates Case counseling process and the school and counselors Management rights of the counselees. administrators and participate in faculty about the trainings to keep To help the individual counseling services abreast on current achieve optimum growth so as to facilitate trends and and development. coordination and researches on referrals. counseling To enable the student techniques and achieve self-direction, self- Give referral forms similar topics. understanding, and to have to the Discipline sound decision-making skills. Officer’s Office and Address 90 - 100% of Faculty Room. the students’ concerns and issues Assist walk-in of those who walk- students whose in and referrals. concern may vary from personal, social, educational or academic, or choosing a career difficulties.

Routine interviews or test interpretations conducted proceed to counseling if there are deeper concerns needed to be addressed.

Academic & To develop students Monthly or Work hand in hand Behavior towards a holistic process of quarterly with the faculty Monitoring growth. consultation members, school through advisers’ administrators and To abreast with what is meeting and parents in achieving going on in the student’s professional the goal in academic as well as personal learning community developing the life. meetings with the students all the faculty members time. for a working partnership for the student.

Discuss facilitation skills for the teachers to encourage them to be “Teacher Counselors” for their students.

Interviews with the teachers and parents are conducted to

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determine whether students are developing well in school and at home. Referral Service To create an atmosphere of Encourage 100% of the Internal Referral trust and professionalism to openness so as to Guidance and by the parents, students, enable the student Counseling Teachers/Admin teachers, and school to be provided the Personnel are to Guidance and administrators which enable necessary committed to serve. Counseling respect and confidence. assistance Office whenever possible Encourage or needed. professional help when needed. Ensure the smooth and orderly delivery of the Guidance and Counseling services. External Referral To have professional It is deemed 100% respect and to other Helping relationships outside the important that cooperation are Professionals/Un school campus that will help linkages between encouraged within its/Institutions address the students’ and among an atmosphere of Inside/Outside concerns and problems. professionals professionalism. the University (Psychologists, Psychiatrists, Therapists, Doctors) are established or maintained.

Referring party is enjoined to discuss the nature of the problem with the Guidance Associate/counselor . Research & To be able to continue a Make evaluation 4-5 average Program systematic evaluation of the forms for all the evaluation results Evaluation effectiveness of the activities. (very satisfactory to Guidance and Counseling excellent) guide programs and services. Distribute and changes in the collect them right programs and To be able to utilize research after each activity. services of Guidance findings by administrators, and Counseling faculty and the Guidance and Tally results and Office. Counselling Personnel. make report to give recommendation Provide measure of Serves as link between the about the activity. the effectiveness of Guidance and Counseling the existing Office and Administrators Provide information programs and through the provision of that can be utilized services. information based on by Guidance and empirical data as bases for Counseling Enable the Guidance decisions or actions. Personnel and and Counseling School Personnel to have a Administrators in 100% sense of improving skills and accountability to

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in upgrading or the school in the strengthening delivery of school programs. programs and services.

Provide 100% information on the extent of implementation and evaluation of services. Other Services & To be aware of the need to Involve the Parents of students Programs interact and maintain students’ family no play a vital role in Parent-Guidance contact with parents, matter how indirect the education of Associate/ teachers and other or how little it may their children. Counselor significant people to the be. Conferences student. 100% collaborative Parenting Important efforts are exerted Seminar information is to ensure the relayed to the attainment of the parents when school’s Philosophy, needed to Vision and Mission. encourage their cooperation in promoting the welfare of their children. Other Programs Be able to coordinate with Guidance and 100% collaborative for Teachers the teachers and school Counseling efforts are exerted Teachers/Adviser administrators with the goal Personnel serve as to ensure the s-Guidance of developing the totality of partners of attainment of the Associates/Couns the student. allies/consultants in school’s Philosophy, elor Conferences facilitating better Vision and Mission. understanding of students’ problems or needs.

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Peer Facilitators Peer Facilitator’s Program is The New Peer 100% of the Peer Program created so that a Peer Facilitators will give Facilitators know Facilitator can offer their pledges once how they differ assistance to someone they have been from a parent, within his or her own social accepted and they professor or doctor, circle. will undergo the who guides and initial stages or advises much like a The students who will training of mentor because become Peer Facilitators act becoming a Peer they have an like soldiers who can offer Facilitator. intimate knowledge special help to their of a situation or associates, colleagues or A Peer Facilitator struggle that his or friends in times of need or can be paired with her fellow peer or trouble and they model other members student is facing. good example of who are familiar camaraderie in their groups. with the difficulties 90 – 100% of the that his or her Peer Facilitators can For students to have friendly fellow student is gain shared persons to talk with who can coping with and experiences and also be an ally for teachers, often they assist better guidance and counseling them about their understanding of personnel and parents. relationships, social one another life, studies and therefore creating a family problems. harmonious relationship with their peers and other people in the school community.

References

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Cinco, L.A. (2008). Guidance and counseling in schools. National Bookstore. National Library of the Philippines Information Technology Division 2017. http://koha.nlp.gov.ph

Dahir, C., & Stone, C. (2016) The transformed school counselor. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2012.

De Saint-Exupery, A. The little prince. Pelekanos Books. E-mail: [email protected], books.google.com.my

Evangelista, L. (2005). Introduction to guidance and counseling. Booklore Publishing Corp. Ninoy Aquino Library and Learning Resource Center, 2016. http//ils.pup.edu.ph

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Hinkle, S. (2013). Counseling in Mexico, NBBC International. https://c.ymcdn.com/.../Counseling _Around_the_World-.pdf

Horner, R., & Todd, A. (2006). Documentation project, defining a coherent office discipline referral process version 2. SWIS TM January 10, 2006. https://www.pbis.org/

Kebede, A. (2016). The role of counseling in improving students’ disciplinary problems: The case of some selected high schools of Nifas Silk Lafto Subcity, Addis Ababa. School of Graduate Studies Institute of Educational Planning and Management. Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2016. Retrieved April 1, 2018.

Kirangari, T. (2014). The effectiveness of guidance and counseling in managing students’ discipline in public secondary schools in Kandara District, Murang’A County, Kenya. School of Education, In Partial Kenyatta University. May, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2018. From http://ir-library.ku.ac.ke

Letargo, M. (2008). Applicability of the “constructed model of counseling Filipinos briefly” to High School Students. National Bookstore. National Library of the Philippines Information Technology Division 2017. Retrieved April 1, 2018. http://koha.nlp.gov.ph

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Mikaye, O. (2012). Influence of guidance and counseling on students’ discipline in public secondary schools in Kabondo Division, Kenya. University of Nairobi, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2018, from http://cees.uonbi.ac.ke

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DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION AND THE PREDICTORS TO ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE AMONG UNIVERSITIES IN ZAMBOANGA CITY

Grace Ann L. Lagura Ateneo de Zamboanga University, Philippines

ABSTRACT Universities as learning organizations work to embed learning into its culture to adapt to changes and gain the competitive advantage over others. This descriptive study described the extent to which the seven dimensions of a learning organization by Watkins and Marsick is practiced among the Universities. This study also established the statistically significant difference among the Universities of Zamboanga City, Philippines based on the dimensions of a learning organization. Data were obtained through a survey among 194 faculty, interview of key informants such as Deans and Middle Managers and focus group discussions among faculty and student leaders of the three Universities. Results of the study showed that the Universities in Zamboanga City are Very Satisfactory Learning Organizations and there is a statistically significant difference among the Universities in all dimensions except Team Learning and Collaboration as established by Kruskal Wallis Test. Likewise, the organizational performance of each University is described to be Very Satisfactory. This study further determined through regression analysis and stepwise method that the dimensions “systems to capture and share learning” as well as team learning and collaborations are predictors of organizational performance. This study proposes a Learning Organization Framework as a guide for the Universities to help improve organizational performance. Through qualitative data, three elements were identified to contribute to the practice of the dimensions of learning organization: (1) Organizational Characteristics which covers the type of University, leadership and leadership structures, financial resources, population and size; (b) Organizational Thrusts which include vision and mission, quality education, community service and values; and (c) the Organizational Learning Process which takes into account accreditation, research and faculty expertise. The three elements along with the practice of the dimensions and maximizing the predictors are recommended to improve organizational performance.

Keywords: Dimensions of learning organization, learning organization, organizational performance, universities, universities in Zamboanga City, Philippines

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Introduction

Education plays a major role in the ability of every organization to adapt to change. The Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are required to enhance learning and make it scalable. They need to develop new mechanisms for continuous learning and for keeping abreast with the fast changing world. Consequently, these institutions strive to practice learning organization and embed it in their culture. The concept of learning organization is purported to be the catalyst that will push forward the ideas and values of an organization (Ellinger, 2000).

For HEIs to intensify learning, they have to embed in their culture the principles of a “learning organization.” A learning organization is a term coined by Peter Senge (2003) and his colleagues to describe an organization that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transform itself to meet the goals of the organization. Thus, higher education institutions endeavor to become learning organizations to remain competitive in the face of pressures from within and outside of their respective organization (Mason, 2016).

It should be noted, however, that current literature on learning organizations focused mainly on the organization’s financial performance and very limited studies focused on HEIs. More specifically, in the Philippines, studies on universities as learning organizations using Watkins and Marsick (2000) is scant. Thus, this study is an attempt to provide an understanding of learning organization in universities in the country, more particularly the three universities in Zamboanga City. Aside from examining the concept of learning organization in local contexts, this study differs from existing ones in terms of how organizational performance was established, that is, the indicators were based on the areas of concerns of the different accrediting agencies. Nevertheless, this study is also based on the seven dimensions of learning organizations in predicting the organizational performance. It identified the different organizational elements contributing to the practice of the dimensions of learning organization based on the rich discussions among the administrators, faculty, and students.

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Framework of the Study

Watkins and Marsick’s (2003) Integrative Perspective is a combination of the Systems Perspective, Learning Perspective, Strategic Perspective, and Learning Organization Building Blocks. Watkins and Marsick assimilated the constructs found in the four other perspectives to come up with the seven dimensions of learning organization: creating continuous learning opportunities, promoting dialogue and inquiry, team learning and collaboration, using systems to capture and share learning, connecting the organization to the environment, developing empowerment, and establishing strategic leadership for learning.

Watkins and Marsick (2003) argued that the learning process in the universities take place on four levels. It begins with the individual learning level and progresses to team learning level as the individual integrates within the organization and engages in the development process. Eventually, as the individual becomes willing to get involved, he moves to organizational learning level, which is reflected in the culture and operating policies of the universities. When the individual exceeds the organizational learning level, he then reaches the global thinking level.

Moreover, the Integrative Perspective has the capacity to integrate people and organizational structures to facilitate continuous learning and encourage change in the organization. The underpinnings of the model are the seven dimensions or action imperatives of learning organization occurring at the individual, team, and organizational levels. These seven imperatives characterize organizations aimed at becoming a learning organization.

Create continuous learning opportunities. Creating continuous learning is making sure that the entire organization is geared towards the learning of new skills. The reflective attitude that comes with taking every action develops a deeper learning. Continuous learning opportunities calls for organizations to create work and working conditions that are conducive for people to learn on the job and opportunities are provided to allow for professional growth and development (Mbassana, 2014).

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Promoting inquiry and dialogue. By promoting an environment where inquiry and dialogue are highly encouraged, barriers to communication within the organization is minimized.

Encourage collaboration and team learning. In a learning organization, work is customized to make use of groups of individuals to access different modes of thinking. Employees are grouped and are expected to learn and work cohesively and collectively.

Establish systems to capture and share learning. Whether the technology systems for sharing information within the organization is high or low, these systems are created and integrated in the work. Access to these systems must be provided to all employees. How the organization manages its systems must support learning (Mbassana, 2014).

Empowered people toward a collective vision. In a learning organization, the employees are involved in setting, owning, and implementing a joint vision. The work responsibility is distributed among the employees and decision making skills are honed. A learning organization encourages participation of employees with a collective vision and working towards the attainment of the vision (Mbassana, 2014).

Connect the organization to its community and environment. A learning organization maintains a harmonious relationship with its community and environment. The organization acknowledges its dependence on its environment. The information obtained from its environment is used to adjust and improve work practices.

Providing strategic leadership for learning. In a learning organization, leaders immensely impact the entire organization. Leaders are expected to model learning and exhaust resources to support learning of all employees. The organization must provide strategic leadership for learning. Leaders must model and support learning. Learning must be used strategically to meet the goals of the organization (Kirwan, 2013).

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Objectives of the Study

This study sought to extensively describe the three Universities in Zamboanga City as learning organizations on the basis of Watkins and Marsick’s seven dimensions of learning organization. Specifically, this study answered the following research questions:

1. To what extent do the three Universities in Zamboanga City practice the seven dimensions of learning organization:

a. Creating continuous learning opportunities b. Promoting dialogue and inquiry c. Team Learning and Collaboration d. Systems to capture and share learning e. Empowering people toward a collective vision f. Connecting the organization to its environment g. Providing strategic leadership for learning

2. Is there a significant difference among the learning organizations in terms of the seven dimensions?

3. What is the performance of the universities as learning organizations in terms of the following? a. Purpose/objectives/mission/goals/philosophy b. Faculty c. Curriculum and Instruction d. Research e. Student Services f. Laboratory g. Library h. Physical Plant i. Social Involvement j. Administration

4. Which of the seven dimensions of learning organization are predictors of organizational performance?

5. What are the best practices and challenges of the universities as a learning organization? 6. What learning organization framework can be proposed to the Universities?

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Methodology

This study used descriptive research design in gathering both quantitative and qualitative data to comprehensively describe the universities as learning organizations guided by Watkins and Marsick’s (2003) model. The study was conducted in three universities in Zamboanga City. The respondents for the survey and the focus group discussions include the faculty of the three universities. The Academic Vice Presidents were interviewed as key informants.

Instruments. Primarily, the study used the Dimensions of Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) developed by Watkins and Marsick for the survey among the faculty. A self-developed questionnaire was used to determine the organizational performance of the three Universities.

Results and Discussion

How are the three universities of Zamboanga City as learning organizations in terms of the seven dimensions of learning organization?

University A, as a higher education institution for 70 years, is perceived to be a Very Satisfactory learning organization based on the seven dimensions. All seven dimensions are frequently evident or frequently practiced in the university as perceived by the participants. Likewise, the interviews with key informants and discussions among faculty and students revealed the reasons for University A to be perceived as a learning organization.

It is clearly evident that all dimensions are practiced, which parallel the statement of the VPAF, that the seven dimensions are part of the university’s operational values and are mandated to be practiced, although the dimensions are not specifically identified as the seven dimensions of learning organization. The VPAF further explained that there is no single dimension over the other but all are practiced.

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Team Learning and Collaboration is identified as the dimension with the highest average mean score; however, it cannot be strictly considered the most dominant dimension. Similarly, Creating Continuous Learning Opportunities with the lowest mean score cannot be said as the least dominant, because the difference in the mean scores among the seven dimensions is minimally small and all the dimensions are generally described equally. All dimensions are described to be frequently evident or frequently practiced.

University B, as an autonomous and a sectarian private university, is perceived to be a Satisfactory learning organization on the basis of the seven dimensions. The participants described all the dimensions as evident, yet need emphasis. Similarly, interviews with key informants and the discussions among faculty and students generated related responses. Participants do not discount the fact that all dimensions are evident and practiced, yet participants verbalized the need to maximize the manifestations of the dimensions.

For University B, Team Learning and Collaboration is identified as the dimension with the highest mean score and Empowerment as the dimension with the lowest mean score. However, both cannot be firmly identified as the dominant and least dominant dimensions respectively, because the difference of the mean scores among the seven dimensions is slightly insignificant. All dimensions are thereby described as frequently evident or frequently practiced within the university.

It is striking to note that University B, as a high standard higher education institution and acknowledged as a high performing university, is described by the participants as a Satisfactory learning organization, significantly lower than the other two universities.

Furthermore, University C, the only government or state university in this study, is a non-sectarian university. University C is perceived to be a Very Satisfactory learning organization. All seven dimensions of learning organization are described to be frequently evident or frequently practiced. The result is greatly reflected in the statements of the VPAF that the governance of the university is holistic in its approach that it demonstrates all the dimensions of a learning organization to achieve the goals of the university.

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For University C, the dimension with the highest average mean score is Strategic Leadership for Learning and the dimension with the lowest mean score is Systems to Capture and Share Learning. However, it is far from considering the former as the dominant dimension and the latter as the least dominant because the difference of the mean scores is slim and is slightly insignificant. All dimensions have the same descriptions as perceived by the participants.

Is there a significant difference among the 3 universities as learning organizations?

Kruskal Wallis H test was employed to determine the significant difference among the Universities as learning organizations. Six of the seven dimensions showed no significant difference among the three universities: Creating continuous learning opportunities, promoting dialogue and inquiry, empowerment, connecting the organization to the environment, strategic leadership for learning and systems to capture and share learning. Only in Team learning and collaboration did the three universities show significant difference.

What is the organizational performance of the three universities as learning organizations?

University A’s organizational performance is perceived to be Very Satisfactory with all the ten indicators described as frequently evident or frequently practiced. Likewise, result indicates that University B’s organizational performance as Very Satisfactory on the basis of the ten indicators. Looking at each indicator, it is noteworthy to mention that Library as an indicator is perceived to be almost always evident or practiced. Among the ten indicators though, only Physical Plant as an indicator is perceived to be evident yet needs emphasis, which is low as compared to the other indicators.

Moreover, it is evident that University C’s organizational performance is perceived to be Very Satisfactory. Remarkably for University C, Purpose/Vision and Mission as an indicator is the highest, which ought to be because the vision and the mission of the university serve as the guiding light of the university. Very much alike with University B, Physical Plant as an indicator is also the lowest for

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University C. As a whole, the organizational performance of the three universities on the basis of the ten indicators used in this study is Very Satisfactory. A Very Satisfactory learning organization means that the indicators are frequently evident or frequently practiced in the university as perceived by the participants.

Which of the seven dimensions of learning organization are predictors to organizational performance?

For University A, there is a significant correlation between the dimensions of learning organization and organizational performance. Specifically, the dimension Systems for Capturing and Sharing Learning as an independent variable contributes the most important information on the dependent variable; hence, it is the predictor to organizational performance. For University B, the dimensions of learning organization are significantly correlated to organizational performance of the university. Through statistical treatment, the dimension identified as predictor to organizational performance is Team Learning and Collaboration. Moreover, taking the dimensions collectively show a high correlation between the dimensions and organizational performance. The dimension Systems to Capture and Share Learning has the most important information for the dependent variable, organizational performance of University C; therefore, it is the predictor to organizational performance.

Each university is unique in its own way. The three universities are not the same and equal in what they stand for and how they operate as an education institution. It has varied programs offered for the students. Hence, the predictors are best identified for each university.

Learning organization can be achieved in the long run as it takes time for an organization to become a learning organization.

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Conclusions

This study therefore concludes that overall, the universities in Zamboanga City are Very Satisfactory learning organizations based on the perceptions of the participants. This is clearly evident in the perception of the participants as shown in the results of the survey. A Very Satisfactory learning organization illustrates the dimensions are frequently evident or frequently practiced.

In general, there is no single dimension superbly dominant than the others. Nor a single dimension extremely least than the others. Although there are differences in the mean scores of the 7 dimensions, yet, all dimensions are equally described per university.

The Universities in Zamboanga City proved to be Very Satisfactory learning organizations. And this is due to the fact that the Universities have adapted to the changes that occur within, the changes in the nature of work, the workforce and in the attitude of its people toward learning. Correspondingly, the increasing competition among higher education institutions has compelled these Universities to devise strategies to maximize the practice of the dimensions to gain the competitive advantage in the market.

It is for this purpose that the universities are promoting the learning environment. This helps the universities to adapt to the ever changing environment. The university’s ability to learn, to acquire knowledge and innovate has emerged as an important factor in influencing organizational survival. Learning is significant in almost all fields but is doubly important in the education sector (Akhtar, 2011).

On the other hand, in terms of organizational performance on the basis of the 10 indicators or areas of concerns as evaluated by the 3 accrediting agencies, namely, PAASCU, PACUCOA and AACCUP, the universities are generally Very Satisfactory as perceived by the participants. A Very Satisfactory organizational performance shows the indicators of performance are frequently evident or frequently practiced.

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Furthermore, among the 7 dimensions of learning organization, the dimensions that strongly predict organizational performance of the Universities are, Systems to Capture and Share Learning, and Team Learning and Collaboration. The practice of these two dimensions must be maximized to improve organizational performance.

Systems to Capture and Share Learning need to be strategically enhanced to improve organizational performance. Universities need to improve previously acquired knowledge and need to learn in order to overcome the chaotic and changing conditions. In order to keep in the organizational memory, all the learnings, it needs to be acquired and stored by systems. Universities as learning organizations essentially seek to find ways to capture the learned concepts and to continuously function even if a highly mobile workforce temporarily fails to function.

Similarly, Universities as learning organizations need to defuse all that is learned. Learning organizations comprise embedded systems to capture and share knowledge so that the organization continue to progress and develop competitively. In learning organizations, people continuously expand the capacity to create desired results, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured and all members of the organization continually learn how to learn.

As a predictor to organizational performance, Team Learning and Collaboration should be strengthened. Team learning and team work in organizations have shown to be unstoppable as there is a scientific evidence that team learning can help organizations deal with more complex tasks and learn from changing environment. For teams to work effectively, one of the key conditions is that team members must engage in team processes and learn how to work efficiently. Team learning and collaboration is seen as sharing of ideas, knowledge, competencies and information to accomplish a task or goal.

Globalization raises competitive environment and the education sector have to effectively respond towards these changes. Universities have to be more learning oriented in their structures. While becoming a learning organization influences overall

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organizational performance, there are still other variables not found in this study which may influence performance. Future studies may explore more on other indicators of organizational performance.

A University as a learning organization has the capacity to change and adjust to the needs of the people within the organization and the needs of the environment. Much effort is placed to become a learning organization. Universities need support, time, money and other resources, engagements, collaborations across boundaries are important to make the transformation.

The analysis of this study supports the theoretical justification for the practice of the 7 dimensions of learning organization and the proposed framework for the Universities. However, the principal investigator acknowledges the scope for further refinement of this analysis.

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References

Akhtar, S., Arif, A., Rubi, E. & Naveed, S. (2011). Impact of organizational learning on organizational performance: Study of higher education institutes. International Journal of Academic Research. Vol.3 No.5.

Ellinger, Andrea. (2000). Is the Learning Organization for Real? Examining the Impacts of the Dimensions of Learning Organization on Organizational Performance. Retrieved From http://www.adulterc.org/Proceedings/2000/ellingeraetal1-final.PDF. Retrieved On September 11, 2015. EOA National Best Practices Center. 2016. What is a Best Education Practice? Retrieved From http://www.besteducationpractices.org/what-is-a-best-practice/ Retrieved On May 16, 2-17.

Kirwan, Cyril. (2013). Making sense of organizational learning: Putting theory into practice. Retrieved from https://www.ashgate.com/pdf/SamplePages/Making- Sense-of- Organizational-Learning-Intro.pdf. Retrieved on November 23, 2015.

Mason, M. K. (2016). What is a learning organization? Retrieved February 10, 2016 from http://www.moyak.com/papers/learning-organization.html.

Mbassana, M. E. (2014). Validating the dimensions of learning organization questionnaire in the Rwandan context. European Journal of Business, Economics and Accountancy. Vol. 2, No. 2

Senge, P. (2000). The academy as learning community: contradiction in terms or realizable future? Leading Academic Change: Essential Roles for Department Chairs, 1st ed. 273-300.

Watkins, K.E. & Marsick, V.J. (2003). Demonstrating the value of an organization’s learning culture: The Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 5(2), 132-151.

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AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE REGIONS

Starr Clyde L. Sebial JH Cerilles State College, Philippines

ABSTRACT The Philippines is one of the fast-growing economies in South-East Asia and the Pacific. In this study, eight factors were considered: HEI PRC rate, crime rate, education, employment, health, poverty, income, and basic family amenities of the 17 regions of the country all taken from the year 2012 databases of Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) and Open Data Philippines. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to generate the indexes of the six factors and Cluster Analysis (CA) to group the similarities of the regions. The clustering process revealed that ARMM and MIMAROPA regions have clustered independently in two individual clusters, while the rest of the 15 regions have clustered in two groups of 5 and 10. The study revealed that crime, poverty and health mortality rates have generally inverse relationships with HEI PRC percentage performance, employment, education, income and basic housing amenities.

Keywords: Data mining, social structures, economic, Philippine regions, cluster analysis

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Introduction

The Philippines has been labeled as one of the countries with fast-growing economies in South-East Asia and the Pacific. Several measures of economic development such as gross national product (GNP), social structures, labor force and others have shown that the Philippine economy had posted a solid growth. However, sustaining the country’s strong economy growth will require policy continuity in all local government units (LGUs), from municipality, provincial to regional levels, supporting the development of infrastructure and human capital, improvements to the investment climate, and governance reforms.

Various researches, local and international, have been using a number of indicators and measurement methodologies to quantify the fiscal and social status of states, countries and local governments. One factor is good governance. As mentioned by Virola, et al. (2004), the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) has defined governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of the country’s economic and social resources for development. This refers to the carrying out of economic, political and administrative authority to administer the constituents’ affairs at all levels. These include income and expenditures, labor and employment, prices, finance, agriculture, health, education, communications, tourism, transportation and public order, safety and justice.

The Human Development Report Office (HDRO) at the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been using the Human Development Index (HDI) in assessing the inequality and disparity across regions in the country and the slow pace of development. As defined by the UNDP, the human development is a process of enlarging people’s choices. For people to lead better lives, they must be able to enjoy a healthy and long-lasting existence measured by access to knowledge in its different expressions measured by basic enrollment ratios and literacy rate; have the material resources for a decent standard of living measured by income; and freely participate in community life and collective affairs (2015 Human Development Report).

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Since 1990, the UNDP has been publishing a series of Human Development Reports (HDRs) providing us analytically and empirically grounded discussions of major development issues, trends and policies. The HDI is said to be the summary total development, an average achievement in three basic dimensions namely: long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. The 2012/2013 PHDR has revealed rankings of provinces in terms of HDI. It was shown that the highest HDI levels were all in Luzon and 9 out of 10 provinces with the lowest HDI levels are in Mindanao.

Alipour (2014) mentioned that the United Nations have defined new four groups of development indicators:

a) social indicators (such as employment, health, education, housing, poverty, welfare and social justice, ethical values, the role of women, access to land and other natural resources, and social structure); b) economic indicators (such as independence or economic dependence, energy, production and consumption patterns, transportation, management, infrastructure, trade and productivity); c) environmental indicators (such as groundwater, freshwater, agriculture and food, urbanization, natural resources, air pollution and ozone depletion and global climate change); and d) institutional factors (such as integrated decision making, capacity building, science and technology, public awareness, government and the role of civil society and legal framework)

Moreover, problems like unemployment, poverty and crime threaten highly urbanized areas as well as the rural ones throughout a developing country like the Philippines. To give room for growth and improvement of social and economic life, it is important to analyze the rates and attend to these economic development indicators.

Leones (2006) studied the crimes associated with urbanization in the Philippines. A comprehensive study which focused on several crime indexes of the 17 regions of the Philippines

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from January to November 2004. Among regions, the NCR has registered the highest index crime volume. She further claimed that developing and maintaining safe communities, be they urban or rural, is central to the issue of good governance. She conjectured that a holistic approach with emphasis on an active citizenry empowerment where society gives importance to its capacity to create justice and human growth should be implemented out vigorously to reduce the crime rate.

Krishnamurthy, et al. (2012) used data mining on crime survey analysis using clustering techniques. He focused on crime reporting systems and classifications of crime. He processed the data into partition clustering methods which primarily classified into K- means, AK-mode and Expectation-Maximization algorithms. The study revealed that in a sensitive domain of crime data, the efficient clustering techniques play vital role for crime analysts and law- enforcers to precede the case in the investigation and help solve unsolved crimes faster. The similarity measures in his study are important factors which help to find unresolved crimes in crime pattern.

In examining Canada’s 139 health regions, Shields, et.al., (2002) used cluster and discriminant analyses in formulating peer groups with similar health characteristics and socio-demographic profiles. The focus of the study was on life expectancy, disability-free life expectancy and risk factor estimates that were based on the data of 1996 Census of Canada, the Canadian Vital Statistics Database and Canadian Community Health Survey 2000. It revealed that socio- demographic factors and risk factors such as smoking and obesity play a critical role in accounting the differences between communities in health outcomes such as the life expectancies.

The mentioned studies were evidence that the evolution of exploratory data analysis (EDA) has provided us outlook on what the data can tell us beyond formal modeling and hypothesis testing process. The Cluster Data Analysis (CDA), which is one of the EDA tools in statistics, was formulated to cluster a set of individuals or objects in a way that objects within the same cluster are more similar to each other than those in other clusters. In this analysis, we do not formulate any assumptions about the underlying data set and its distribution, it does not identify a particular statistical model as the

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other EDA tools do but the results of this analysis could help us in targeting appropriate programs and treatment to resolve certain social, economic, environmental factors and indicators of community development. The researcher believes that the competitive clusters of the 17 regions of the Philippines could provide opportunities from researchers to policy makers to meet the socio-economic challenges of globalization.

Framework of the Study

Data mining is the computer-assisted process of digging through and analyzing enormous sets of data and then extracting the meaning of the data and it is the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information (Bharathi, 2014). In this research, it plays an important role regarding prediction and analysis of performance indicators of the 17 regions of the Philippine archipelago.

Cortright (2006) cited that different regions have distinct sets of economic development opportunities and clustering them can help diagnose a region’s economic strengths and challenges and identify realistic ways to shape the region’s economic future. Grouping of regions into clusters according to identified various factors could provide a wide range of analysis, from researchers to policy-makers in targeting appropriate programs and treatment to resolve certain social, economic, environmental factors and indicators of community development.

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study is to provide an analysis of clusters with respect on identified economic and social factors of the 17 regions in the Philippines for the academic year 2012 taken from the databases of Philippine Statistics Office and Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS). The analysis focused on the Higher Education Institution’s (HEI) PRC board exam performance, employment, crime rate, education, health, income and expenditure and basic family amenities.

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All factors and variables were classified by region: the employment factor contains indexes in labor force, employment rate in the year 2012; the education index comprised completion rate and functional literacy rate that was obtained from 2008 census; health index contains infant mortality rate and prevalence of underweight children, both obtained from Census 2011; income and expenditure includes average income and expenditure of families in 2012; and the basic family amenities comprises access to electricity, access to potable water, access to sanitary toilet facility, proportion of families living in makeshift housing and proportion of families living in informal settlements.

Methodology

This research is descriptive, exploratory and analytical in nature which used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA). The databases of Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA) have provided the researcher a 2012 statistic dataset of the average family income and expenditures and the employment factors. The percentages of crime, education, health, poverty, and housing basic amenities were all taken from the 2012 Economic and Social Database of Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) while the percentage performance of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were from the database of Open Data Philippines. All of these factors and variables was categorized into by regions.

Before the conduct of cluster analysis, the indexes of each factor were generated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Given several variables for each factor, the index scores of each region were individually computed using the MINITAB and EXCEL software: education factor index from completion rate and functional literacy rate; employment factor index from employment rate and labor force rate; health factor index from infant mortality rate and prevalence of underweight children; poverty factor index from per capita poverty threshold and poverty incidence among families; income and expenditure factor index from average family income and average family expenditure; and housing and basic amenities factor index from access to electricity, access to potable water, access to

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sanitary toilet facility, proportion of families living in makeshift housing and proportion of families living in informal settlement.

Together with the crime index and HEI performance index, the generated indexes from the principal component analysis were used in the cluster analysis to group the Philippine regions into competitive clusters which generated insights on how the performing regions are similar to each member of the group and how they differ from the members of the other clusters.

Results and Discussion

This section reports the interpretations and analysis of results of the study. The 17 variables excluding crime rate and HEI PRC percentage performance were treated with Principal Componenta Analysis (PCA) and the resulting 6 indexes, together with crime and HEI rate, were analyzed using Cluster Analysis (CA). Quantitative measures of the analysis: the MINITAB results of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) together with the bar graphs of each factor; and the Cluster analysis of the Philippine Regions were attached in the appendices.

The Appendix 3 Chart 1 showed that the NCR, CAR, Western Visayas and Central Visayas regions have high percentage performance in the PRC board examinations in the year 2012 while the ARMM has the least percentage performance. The statistics also showed that the crime rate in the region SOCCSKSARGEN has the lowest rate while the CARAGA and ARMM have the highest crime rate in the academic year 2012.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

The indexes of education, employment, poverty, health, income and expenditure and basic housing amenities were generated using the MINITAB and EXCEL software. The components of the PCA index equation were generated by MINITAB and the indexes of the regions on each factor were computed using the EXCEL software. Appendix 4 Chart 2 showed that the regions containing low employment index were NCR, Cagayan Valley, Central

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Luzon and ARMM. It also showed that Bicol, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Northern Mindanao regions have the highest employment index in the year 2012. Appendix 4 Chart 3 illustrates that the ARMM region has the lowest education index followed by Zamboanga Peninsula. All the rest of the 15 regions were above 80 of the education index chart.

In Appendix 4 Chart 4, it clearly showed that the NCR and Central Luzon regions got the lowest rank in the health index while MMAROPA and Eastern Visayas regions got the highest health index. Among the regions with the lowest poverty indexes were the ARMM, NCR, Central Luzon and Davao. This has been clearly illustrated in Appendix 4 Chart 5. The chart also showed that the MMAROPA region got the highest poverty index in the year 2012. The NCR region ranked first both in the income index and basic housing amenities index while the ARMM ranked last also both in the income index and basic housing amenities index. Appendix 4 Chart 6 also showed that CALABARZON and Central Luzon regions have high-income index. Appendix 4 Chart 7 showed that the 16 regions have enough access to basic housing amenities like access to potable water, electricity and sanitary toilet facilities while the ARMMs has an extremely low index compared to the other regions.

Cluster Analysis (CA)

In grouping the regions into a cluster in which they are similar to each other but different from the other regions in another cluster, the researcher used standard cluster analysis. The regions were clustered based on eight factors: HEI PRC rate, crime rate, employment index, education index, health index, poverty index, income index, and basic family amenities index. Multivariate statistics tool particularly the Cluster Analysis (CA) was used to analyze the dataset using the MINITAB software.

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Table 1 Clustering of Regions of the Philippines

Regions Region Name Cluster

1 NCR - National Capital Region 1 2 CAR - Cordillera Administrative Region 1 3 Region I - Ilocos 2 4 Region II - Cagayan Valley 1 5 Region III - Central Luzon 1 6 Region IVA - CALABARZON 1 7 Region IVB - MIMAROPA 3 8 Region V - Bicol 2 9 Region VI - Western Visayas 2 10 Region VII - Central Visayas 1 11 Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 2 12 Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 2 13 Region X - Northern Mindanao 1 14 Region XI - Davao 1 15 Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 1 16 Region XIII - CARAGA 1 17 ARMM - Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao 4

The Dendrogram in the Appendix 5 showed that there were four competitive clusters formulated in the standard cluster analysis regarding the 8 factors. The table 1 shows the clustering of the Philippines Regions. The cluster 1, which is the biggest group containing 10 regions, is composed of NCR, CAR, Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, CALABARZON, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao, Davao, Davao, SOCCSKSARGEN and CARAGA regions. The cluster 2 is composed of 5 regions, namely, Ilocos, Bicol, Western Visayas, Eastern Visayas and Zamboanga Peninsula regions. The MIMAROPA and ARMM regions were clustered independently as cluster 3 and 4 respectively.

Based on the indexes computed in the Principal Component Analysis of the factors and the percentages of crime and HEI PRC, most of the regions in the Cluster 1 have similarly low indexes in health mortality, poverty and in crime, whereas they have high indexes in the HEI PRC performance, employment, education, income and in the basic housing amenities. This can be shown from the charts presented in the PCA results in Appendix 4. Cluster 1

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generally exhibited an indirect relationship of the factors in this study. This simply suggests that when a community has established a good governance monitoring education, employment, income and basic household needs, eventually this will lower the crime rates, mortality rates as well as the poverty settings of the constituents.

The regions in the Cluster 2 revealed a similarly low rates in the HEI PRC performance, employment, income and basic housing indexes. However, this cluster displayed a high index in the crime and poverty. The Cluster 2 Regions have demonstrated the same indirect relationship of the factors only in the different manner. Their performances in board exams, employment status, income and housing amenities were deteriorating due to high rates in crime and poverty. The government officials and policy makers of Eastern and Western Visayas, Bicol, Ilocos and Zamboanga Peninsula regions have to provide a well-planned deterrent programs to lessen their crime rates and poverty index so as to improve the income, basic housing amenities, as well as their performances in the board exams in the PRC.

MIMAROPA and ARMM regions were clustered independently and displayed different characteristics from the first two clusters. The lone region in the third cluster MIMAROPA had relatively high indexes in the HEI PRC performance and employment and a very low crime rate. However, the region had a very high poverty index and high mortality rate in health. It also showed a very low indexes in education, income and basic housing amenities. It clearly shows that the income, housing amenities and education have indirect relationship with mortality health index and poverty. As the mortality and poverty rates goes high, the rates in the education, income and housing will probably go lower. However, the crime rate of MIMAROPA inversely affected the HEI PRC performance and employment which had already been displayed by the clusters 1 and 2.

The ARMM region was also grouped solely as the Cluster 4 in the cluster analysis process. The region performed poorly in all of the factors. ARMM had ranked lowest both in the HEI PRC performance, employment, education, poverty, income and housing amenities. The region also ranked 1st in the health mortality rate and 2nd in the crime rate. Its constituents have performed the lowest in

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the entire country regarding education and PRC board exams. Their families also have the least access to basic housing amenities like potable water, electricity and sanitary toilet facilities. These ratings basically explain why ARMM had a very high crime rate and poverty index. Intensive study, planning and supervision must be done appropriately by the local officials of ARMM to resolve certain status of the region.

The analysis of this paper is certainly not of sufficient standards to evaluate the performances, economic status and social factors of the 17 regions of the country. Conversely, the results of the research may serve a purpose, provide the government officials and policy makers an objective to create programs, and notions to researchers to open new perceptions on conducting analysis on related concerns.

Conclusions

Crime, poverty and health mortality rates have generally inverse relationships with HEI PRC percentage performance, employment, education, income and basic housing amenities.

References

Alipour, H. & Gholamipour, L. Assessment of the degree of development of the cities of Gilan Province, Iran (Economic Approach). Trends in Life Sciences: An International Peer-reviewed Journal.

Bharathi, A & Shilpa, R.(2014). A survey on crime data analysis of data mining using clustering techniques. International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and Management Studies.

Cortright, J. (2006). Making sense of clusters: regional competitiveness and economic development. A Discussion Paper Prepared for the The Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program.

Economic and Social Database. Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), http://econdb.pids.gov.ph/

Krishnamurthy, R & Kumar, J. (2012). Survey of data mining techniques on crime data analysis. International Journal of Data Mining Techniques and Applications.

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Leones, C. (2006). The current situation of crime associated with urbanization: problems experienced and countermeasures initiated in the philippines. 129th International Senior Seminar Visiting Experts’ Papers

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2015 Human Development Report.

Virola, Al., de Costo, S., Addawe, J., & Reyes, L., (2004). the best and worst provinces in the philippines: what happened to their leaders in the 2004 elections? 9th National Convention on Statistics (NCS)

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COLLECTIVE EFFORTS AND INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) CONSERVATION AND USE IN THE PHILIPPINES

Xavier Greg I. Caguiat Marilyn Ferrer Nerissa D. Santiago Malvin D. Duldulao Henry Jimenez Jonathan M. Niones Pernelyn S. Torrenas Juliet P. Rillon Maria Corazon J. Cabaral and Giley DC Santiago Roel R. Suralta Mary Leigh B. Palma

Philippine Rice Research Institute, Philippines

ABSTRACT Rice is a critical staple eaten in almost half of the world but problems leoniloarise due to climate change. An interdisciplinary approach to tap the potential of 16,000 rice collection have led towards revealing potential parent lines that could help in increasing rice production. This paper aims to present the results of the evaluation of rice germplasm conserved in the genebank. Seven hundred ninety-four accessions were resistant and 883 as intermediate to rice blast, 317 intermediate to bacterial leaf blight, 27 intermediate to sheath blight, two accessions were resistant and six accessions were intermediate against tungro. On one hand, 27 had potential drought tolerance while 5 accessions were tolerant to zinc deficiency, 11 tolerant and 5 moderately tolerance to salinity stress, four tolerant and 14 moderately tolerant to submergence stress. The result of the evaluation can serve as guide for breeders in choosing the parent materials for breeding of new rice lines/varieties that could accommodate the need of farmers for resistant/tolerant varieties against major rice diseases.

Keywords: Abiotic stress, biotic stress, evaluation, genebank, traits

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Introduction

Rice is one of the most important food staples in most continents in the world. It is cultivated in 113 countries and 90% of these countries are found in Asia (FAO, 2018). Climate change, ascending demand, and depletion of resources require us to increase resilience and sustainability and genetic adaptation of rice to meet our needs. Rice is among the most conserve plant genetic resources worldwide with over 100,000 accessions are stored in ex situ Genebank These accessions could be explored to meet future challenges regarding the rice production (FAO, 2018; IRRI 2018). In particular, biotic and abiotic stresses cause significant constraint in crop production causing both economic loss and food as well (Banito et al., 2012). Genetic diversity stored in genebanks offers vast potential for sources of traits that could combat one or more stresses in one country or in multiple countries. The amount of available data in genebank allows breeders from all over the world to access germplasm in their own breeding program catering to their challenges in their rice production. Global challenges for sustainable, environmentally sound and efficient breeding program called for the use of locally available sources of traits in landraces or wild relatives (Wambugu et al., 2018).

The Philippines is a rice-dependent nation with over 110 kg/person/year consumption, sixth highest per capita in the world and also a major source of income approximately 6 billion US dollars in 2015. The Philippines produces approximately 3% of rice in the world (Stuecher et al., 2018). The diversity of agro-climatic zones and highly variable micro-climate has put more pressure in the breeding for superior varieties with multi-stress resistance or tolerance. Exploration and discovery of new sources of resistance to biotic stresses and tolerance to abiotic stresses ensures greater chances of producing more resilient variety and at the same time safeguarding the genetic diversity in the genepool (Stuecker et al., 2018).

Biotic stresses such as rice blast, bacterial leaf blight (BLB), sheath blight (ShB), rice tungro disease (RTD) cause major damage to rice production as much as 100%. Rice blast caused by the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, is a serious threat to rice production worldwide (Faivre-Rampant et al., 2013). It is considered the principal disease of rice because of its wide distribution and high incidence

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under favorable conditions. The disease can cause yield losses of 10- 20% if the rice cultivars are susceptible but in severe cases yield losses may reach up to 80% (Pasha et al., 2013).

Bacterial leaf blight, on the other hand, caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is another most widespread and destructive diseases of rice including several countries in tropical rice-growing areas of Asia. It occurs at all the growth stages of rice and is manifested by either leaf blight or “kresek” symptoms. The causal organism invades plants through water pores and wounds. Bacterial ooze, which consists of small, yellowish, spherical masses, may sometimes be seen on the margins or veins of the freshly infected leaf under moist conditions (Litsinger et al., 2011; Banito et al., 2012).

Sheath blight in rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn is a serious threat in rice growing areas (Bhuvaneswari and Raju, 2012). Various estimates of crop losses due to this disease have been made, losses generally vary from negligible to 50% depending on the severity of the disease and the stage at which the crop is infected and environmental conditions. The pathogen produces elliptical or oval to irregular, 1-3 cm long, greenish, grey spots on leave sheath and leaves. The center of the spot becomes greyish white with brown margin. Lesions on the upper parts of the plant extend rapidly, coalescing with each other to cover entire tiller from the water level to flag leaf. On the leaf blades, the lesions are larger and somewhat irregular in shape, greenish gray to garish white with brown margin, ultimately causing death of leaf, tiller and the plant (Singh et al., 2015).

Rice tungro disease (RTD) is a significant yield constraint in rice growing areas of South and Southeast Asia. Disease symptoms are caused largely by infection by the rice tungro bacilliform virus. The onset of the disease depends on the presence of a susceptible host, a virus source, and the vector (Dey, 2016), the typical symptoms of rice infected with tungro are stunting, yellow or yellow to orange discoloration of infected leaves, reduced tillering, sterile panicles and often irregular-shaped dark brown specks are visible on the leaves. The young infected leaves may have a mottled appearance and interveinal chlorosis, whilst old leaves will show rust-colored specks of varying sizes (Bunawan et al., 2014).

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Accordingly, abiotic stresses emerging from the changing climate such as drought, salinity, submergence and soil nutrient deficiency such as zinc stress at various extents may significant reduction in rice production especially in rainfed ecosystems and in irrigated lowlands with inefficient irrigation system. With looming trend of water scarcity brought about by phenomenon, researches aimed at breeding rice cultivars with increased yields due to improved drought stress tolerance are gaining importance. Moreover, several studies demonstrated the significant role of root in rice growth and development under water-deficit and fluctuating soil moisture (Kano-Nakata et al., 2011; Suralta et al., 2010, Niones et al., 2012).

Zinc deficiency was first diagnosed in rice on calcareous soils of northern India. Zinc deficiency can be corrected by adding Zn compounds to the soil or plant, but the high cost associated with applying Zn fertilizers in sufficient quantities to overcome Zinc deficiency places considerable burden on resource-poor farmers and it has therefore been suggested that breeding efforts should be intensified to improve the tolerance to Zinc deficiency in rice cultivars (Mori et al., 2015).

Salinity stress also contributes as one of the major abiotic stresses in rice (Ahmadizadeh et al., 2016) especially in coastal areas of South and Southeast Asia where the main rice growing and consuming areas are. Rice plants are moderately sensitive to salt stress, but rice germplasm express substantial variability for salt tolerance and its related traits. Therefore, breeding of rice varieties tolerant to salinity with high yielding is the best option to improve the production of rice in saline prone areas (Gregorio et al., 2013).

Submergence is a problem frequent in rice-producing rainfed lowlands of South and Southeast Asia. Rice requires water for growth but excess water that occurs during submergence or waterlogging is harmful or even lethal (Nakazono et al., 2012). In Bangladesh, two varieties have been released for submergence tolerant rice which are BRRI dhan51 and BRRI dhan52 in 2010. Similarly, India released only one variety particularly Swarna-Sub1 in 2009, Indonesia released three varieties: INPARA-3, INPARA-4, and INPARA-5 in 2008, Philippines released Submarino in 2009 and Nepal

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released Swarna-Sub1 and S. Mahsuri- Sub1 in 2011 (Gregorio et al., 2013).

Philippine Rice Research Institute Genebank was considered as one of the international repository of rice genetic resources, which currently holds about 16,000 rice germplasm. It conserves a diverse pool collected from different parts of the country, breeding lines, wild rice relatives and foreign introductions. These germplasm possess desirable genes and traits that serve as building blocks for the development of improved and new rice varieties (www.philrice.gov). These germplasm could have inherent genes for key traits such as high yield, good eating quality, resistance to biotic and tolerance to abiotic stresses. Rice germplasm therefore, must be efficiently harnessed and properly evaluated in order to identify potential genetic donors for use as parents in breeding program. This could be done with the help of experts from the agronomy, crop physiology, crop protection and breeding groups.

Framework of the Study

The variables used in the study is limited to the responses of the rice germplasm from the genebank against major biotic and abiotic stresses in rice using standard evaluation protocol established by IRRI, PhilRice and the Bureau of Plant Industry-National Seed Industry Council. The basic hypothesis of the study is that since the rice germplasm were collected from diverse environment across the country, they have different reactions to biotic and abiotic stresses. Most of the evaluation were done in either unreplicated or partially replicated group block design.

Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to evaluate PhilRice rice germplasm stored in the genebank against major biotic and abiotic stresses. This will help in providing researchers and breeders with germplasm that could be sources of resistance towards improved rice varieties. The study will also generate information that could be attached to the germplasm phenotype in the database.

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Materials and Methods

Rice germplasm used in the project were from the PhilRice Genebank and most of the evaluation was done either in the screenhouse or in the field at Philippine Rice Research Institute, Maligaya, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija at N 15.067 ˚, 120.8903, except for Zinc stress screening which was conducted in the field at RT. Romualdez, Agusan Del Norte at N 9.03˚,125.35. Disease evaluation of rice germplasm accession was done following the protocol and evaluation scale under the National Cooperative Test Manual and Standard Evaluation System (IRRI, 2015). Screenhouse set-up was conducted for evaluation against: leaf blast, tungro, salinty and submergence screening while field set-up was conducted to evaluate against bacterial leaf blight, sheath blight, modified tungro, drought stress and zinc deficient soil stress.

Biotic Stresses Leaf Blast (Pyricularia grisea)

Blast infected susceptible check IR50 was maintained in screenhouse before planting the test plants. Three spreader rows of local susceptible check IR50 were planted around the test plot. Ten grams of seed per entry were planted in a 50-cm row with 10-cm spacing. Every ten rows of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible check IR72, 1 row of resistant check PSB Rc10 and 1 row of the local susceptible check IR50 were planted. Test plants were evaluated at 30-35 days after sowing. Disease rating: Scale 1 = none to few small brown spots of pinhead size, 2 = larger brown spots, 3 = small, round, necrotic gray spots about 1-2 mm in diameter with brown margin, 4 = elliptical lesion 1-2 cm long usually confined to the area of the two main veins, average of one to five lesions on a leaf, 5 = average of six to ten lesions on a leaf or less than 10% of leaf area infected, 6 = average of 11-25% leaf area infected, 7 = average of 26-50% leaf area infected, 8 = average of 51-75% leaf area infected, and 9 = average of above 75% leaf area infected. These rating could be catergorized as resistant (R) for scale 1, 2 and 3, intermediate (I) for scales 4, 5, and 6 and susceptible (S) for scales 7, 8 and 9.

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Bacterial Leaf Blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)

Twenty-five day old seedlings at ten hills per entry were transplanted in the field at 20 x 20 cm between rows. Every ten rows of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible check IR24, and 1 row of the local susceptible check TN1 were planted. After 45-60 days of transplanting, inoculation was done using clipping method. For each entry, 6 cm from tip of the leaves was cut using inoculation clipper. Evaluation was done at 14 days after inoculation (DAI). Water-soaked lesions start near the leaf tip and margins, extends downward, enlarge and turn yellow to gray within days. Disease rating: Scale 1= lesions from cut tip cover 1-5% of the leaf area, 3 = lesions from cut tip show blight chlorotic symptoms 6-24%, 5 = downward length of lesion from cut tip may extend covering 1/4 to 1/2 leaf area showing chlorotic symptoms 25-50%, 7 = downward length of lesions from cut tip may extend 3/4 of leaf showing chlorotic symptoms 51-75% and 9 = lesions cover > 75% of the leaf and reaching the leaf sheath >75%. The scales were categorized as resistant (R) for scales 1 and 3, intermediate (I) for scale 5, and susceptible (S) for scales 7 and 9.

Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani)

Twenty-five day old seedlings at ten hills per entry were transplanted in the field at 20 x 20 cm distance between rows. Every ten rows of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible check (IR20) and 1 row of the local susceptible check (TN1) were planted. After 45-60 days of transplanting, inoculation was done by placing cultured organism in between tillers. Evaluation was done at 14 days after inoculation. Spots or lesions occur on leaf sheaths and may extend to the leaf blades. They are grayish-green, oval or elliptical and coalesce mostly on the lower leaf sheath. Disease Rating Scale: 1 = lesions limited to lower 1/4 of leaf sheath area, 3 = lesions present at the lower 1/2 of leaf sheath area, 5 = lesions present on more than 1/2 of leaf sheath area and slight infection on lower 3rd or 4th leaves, 7 = lesions present on more than 3/4 of the leaf sheath and severe infection on upper leaves, and 9 = lesions reaching top of tillers and severe infection on all leaves and some plants died. The scales could be categorized as resistant (R) for scales 1 and 3, intermediate (I) for scale 5, susceptible (S) for scales 7 and 9.

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Tungro (Rice Tungro Virus) under Induced Method

Three day-pregerminated seeds were transplanted in clay pots for two weeks. Greenhouse-reared green leafhopper (GLH) adults were allowed to feed on infected plants for 4 days to acquire the virus. After 4 days of virus acquisition, viruliferous GLH were allowed to feed to the test plants for 24 hours for virus inoculation. After 24 hours GLH were removed from the test plants. The pots with inoculated plants were then transferred in caged water pan for symptom development. Test plants were evaluated 3-4 weeks after inoculation. Symptoms observed included: stunted plant, mottled and yellow to yellow-orange leaves. The plants were classified based in stunting compared with the height of the resistant check as resistant (R) for 10 -20% reduction, intermediate for 21- 40% and susceptible for 41 - 100%.

Tungro (Rice Tungro Virus) under Modified Field Method

Spreader rows using susceptible check (TN1) were transplanted at the border 2-3 weeks before transplanting the test entries. After the spreader rows showed infection, 25-day old seedlings were transplanted in row of 20 hills per entry spaced 20 cm x 20 cm at one seedling/hill. Evaluation was done 45 and 60 days after transplanting. Entries were categorized as resistant (R) for 0 – 25% height reduction, intermediate (I) for 26 - 50% and susceptible for 51 - 100%.

Abiotic Stress Drought

Rice germplasm from PhilRice Genebank were used for mass screening under reproductive stage during the dry season and rainfed condition during the wet cropping season. Sowing time was staggered for the lines with interval of 10 days to allow a synchronized flowering for all materials based on the data of heading date of this germplasm. Five checks were used: IR64 (susceptible check), PSB Rc14, PSB Rc68, NSIC Rc192 and NSIC Rc222 (tolerant checks). The checks were included after every 15 test entries following the augmented experimental design. Each entry is planted in 2 rows (0.4 m) x 10 hills (2 m long) and spaced at 20 cm within and between rows, with one seedling per hill.

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It is recommended to establish separate plots to accommodate different maturity groups to ensure homogeneity in the growth stage of the entries when imposing drought stress. When the maturity durations are not known and resources are available a non-stressed, fully irrigated set-up may be conducted for comparison of yield reduction and recording of flowering delay of the entries caused by drought.

The entry labels include the entry code and number. Layout and raise seedlings in the seedbed and transplant seedlings following the field lay-out in accordance with the protocols included in the PhilRice Field Operations Manual (2007), following the east to west plot orientation and plant entries from left to right row within a plot, and plot direction in left to right zigzag pattern. As a guide, seedlings were ready for transplanting at:

a. 16-18 days for varieties maturing in 115 days or earlier. b. 18-20 days for varieties maturing in 116-125 days c. 20-25 days for varieties maturing in 126 days or more

Drought was imposed during expected panicle initiation or about 50 days after sowing, by withholding the water until the susceptible check variety reached leaf drying score of 1 or soil moisture content reached to around 20% (gravimetric method) or soil water potential is -1.0 MPa ( leaf water potential could be around -1.5 MPa); re-irrigated for at least 2 days and continue cycle of drought.

To monitor the stress development, after drought imposition, two tensiometers, one each at 15 cm and 30 cm soil depth were installed strategically in the main plots. At least two piezometers, 1.5 m long, were installed with 125 cm below and 20 cm above soil to monitor the water table depth. A sloping or vertical gauge was installed per block to monitor ponded water depth. Appearance-disappearance and duration of ponded water per block was recorded. When necessary, a rain gauge maybe installed to monitor amount of precipitation (or may refer to on-station automated weather station data). Soil samples at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth were taken starting at soil moisture saturation after water withdrawal, and every other day, thereafter, for gravimetric measurement of SMC. Soil fresh weight was determined immediately after sampling, and dry weight taken after the soil is

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dried at 105 °C for 72 hours. SMC in % was computed as: [(soil fresh weight – soil dry weight)/soil dry weight] x 100

For stress treatment, two consecutive drying cycles were imposed in order to prevent the plants from dying completely and make most of the lines experience drought stress at reproductive stage when plants started panicle initiation. Stress was realized by stopping irrigation, draining out of water (water table kept at 1 m below soil surface). Drought stress was removed by irrigating the field to full water capacity when monitored soil moisture (0–20 cm layer) below half of soil water capacity (16.4% by volume in paddy soil field and 13.9% by volume in sandy soil field). The second round of drought stress was applied to same degree. After drought stress, normal irrigation was followed throughout the late stages of rice. The soil water content was monitored using a TRIMET3 sensor device (TRIME-T3, Ettlingen, Germany) by the method of time domain reflectometry (TDR).Soil moisture gradient was based on the quadrant sampling sites strategically located on the experiment area.

The rice germplasm was grown in the watertight experimental bed under rainout shelter installed with line source sprinkler system which can create various intensities of drought stress (Kano et al., 2011). The volumetric soil moisture content (SMC) was monitored with a soil moisture sensor (Em 50, Decagon, Utah, USA).

Twenty-one days old seedlings of each entry were transplanted perpendicular to the pipe so that they were exposed to and grown under various intensities of drought. During the experiment, developmental traits such as plant height and tiller number were measured. Similarly, physiological traits such as the relative transpiration was estimated by measuring the leaf temperature index of the canopy of each genotypes using thermal gun. At heading stage, the plants were harvested. Shoots was oven- dried at 70°C for 3 days and the dry weights was measured. The roots of the selected genotypes were sampled with the round monolith method by using stainless cylinder of 15 cm in diameter, and the soil cores of 20 cm in depth was taken. The sampled roots were carefully washed for the measurements of number of nodal roots, and number of laterals roots per unit length of nodal root axes. After those

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measurements, the roots were scanned for image analysis for the total root length by using WinRhizo.

Salinity Stress

The test rice genotypes were screened for salt tolerance at seedling stage in hydroponics system using IRRI standard protocol (Gregorio, 1997). In this experiment, FL478 and NSIC Rc222 were used as salt tolerant and sensitive checks, respectively. The screening was done under controlled environmental conditions having 29°C/21°C day/night temperature, 70% relative humidity and natural daylight inside the glass house. Firstly, the seeds were disinfected with sodium chloride solution (200 ml NaCl in 1-liter water) and incubated for 48 hours to enhance germination. Eleven trays were filled up with tap water and styrofoam seedling floats were placed on the tray. Two pre-germinated seeds were sown in each hole of styrofoam seedling float and the seedling floats were then covered with a lid for 3 to 4 days to promote germination in the dark. The tap water was replaced with Peter nutrient solution after six days of seeding and salinized by adding crude salt to obtain EC of 12 dS/m. The volume of the Peter solution was adjusted to the level of touching the seedling float at two days’ interval. The pH was adjusted to 5 as well as EC with 12 dS/m synchronizing with the Peter solution. Tap water was added to the solution when EC with higher than 12 dS/m and NaCl was added when EC was lower than 12 dS/m. In the similar way, HNO3 was added to the solution when its pH was more than 5.0 and NaOH was added into the solution when pH is less than 5.0. Standard Evaluation System (SES) for salinity tolerance scoring was done when salt sensitive check was almost going to die or already dead. Scoring was done according to the modified standard evaluation system used in rating of the visual symptoms of salt toxicity injury.

Submergence

Submergence screening was conducted at seedling stage. Rice accessions were planted in nursery beds along with IR64-Sub1 and the susceptible check IR42. The entries were allowed to grow without submergence up to 14 days and then were submerged. Submergence screening was conducted in a concrete tank facility. The entries were seeded in trays and submerged at 14 days after sowing (DAS) along with the susceptible check. The lines were de-

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submerged after 16 days based on the survival of the susceptible check IR42. The actual number of seedlings per line was recorded before desubmergence and 2, 7, 14, and 21 days after desubmergence, and the percentage survival was calculated.

Zinc Deficiency

Germplasm from PhilRice Genebank were screened for tolerance to zinc deficiency in the field. The experiment was laid out in RCBD, and replicated thrice. In the replicated trial, there were two treatments: T1= applied with 5 kg/ha Zinc sulfate (spray method at 14 DAT & 21 DAT), and T2=without Zinc. The local check varieties used were NSIC Rc122 (Angelica) and IR64 (susceptible check). Recommended management practices (i.e. fertilizer application) was employed uniformly in all test entries. Data on yield and other agronomic parameters were gathered based on the Standard Evaluation System (SES) scoring for rice.

At harvest, collected are all the plants in a plot except the border rows, one on each side of the plot and 2 border rows on both ends of all the plots (the total number of plants harvested from a plot is 6 rows x 13 plants or 78 hills). The harvest from each plot was placed in clean net bags. Labels, bearing the entry number and plot number were put inside the bag. Manual threshing was used to thresh the samples. All threshed samples were dried at 14% moisture content. Seeds were cleaned using the winnowing method and then the samples were weighed. The moisture content was registered and the yield of the entries with the harvest was estimated.

Results and Discussion

Collective efforts of different group of people and interdisciplinary approach is necessary for rice conservation and use in the Philippines particularly at PhilRice Genebank. Throughout the course of time from 2012 to 2017, the database has been populated with accessions and data from partners who are experts in different biotic and abiotic stresses including grain quality traits.

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Biotic Stress Evaluation

Reactions to blast were resistant in 43 entries and intermediate in 135 entries during 2012 wet season. During 2013 dry season, 33 entries were observed resistant while 119 had intermediate reaction and in 2014, 87 entries showed resistance while 37 entries had intermediate reaction to the disease. In 2015, 232 entries showed resistance while 84 entries had intermediate reaction and in 2016, 275 accessions were observed resistant while 150 entries had intermediate reaction to the disease. Furthermore, among the entries tested in two seasons of 2017, 251 entries were determined resistant and 47 had intermediate reaction to blast (Figure 1).

Reactions to bacterial leaf blight were intermediate in 9 entries tested in 2014 wet season, in 63 entries during two seasons of 2016 and 252 entries in two seasons of 2017 (Figure 2). For sheath blight reaction, intermediate reactions were observed in 1 entry during 2016 dry season and in 27 entries during the two seasons of 2017, while in wet seasons of 2014 and 2016 all entries were observed to be susceptible to the disease (Figure 3). Tungro reactions were resistant in 2 entries in 2013 dry season and in 1 entry in 2017 wet season and intermediate reaction to the disease was observed in 3 entries during 2013 dry season and in 3 entries during the two seasons of 2016, while the rest were observed susceptible to the disease (Figure 4). And under modified method of evaluation, reactions to tungro were resistant in 25 entries and intermediate in 36 entries during 2017 wet season (Figure 5).

Figure 1 Reactions of Rice Germplasm to Blast from 2012 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season

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Figure 2 Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Bacterial Leaf Blight from 2014 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season

Figure 3 Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Sheath Blight from 2014 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season

Figure 4 Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Tungro under Induce Method of Evaluation from 2013 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season

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Figure 5 Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Tungro under Modified Field Method of Evaluation

Figure 6 Summary Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Blast, Bacterial Leaf Blight, Sheath Blight and Tungro under Induce Method of Evaluation and under Modified Field Method of Evaluation. 2012 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season

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Abiotic Stress Evaluation

Twenty seven out of the 35 germplasm identified with potential drought tolerance from LSS (line source sprinkler) experiment were thoroughly evaluated for root system developmental responses under various water stressed conditions. Drought significantly reduced biomass production on all genotypes except for Ibarraki. Among the selections, Ibarraki showed a good response to drought stress neither on fluctuating soil moisture or progressive drought as indicated by the increased in shoot biomass production by 50% on both SMF and PDR relative to CWL (control) counterpart. Meanwhile, Belibod also showed an increase (77.6%) under PDR only. The increased in biomass production of Ibarraki may be attributed to the promotion of TLRL under SMF (225%) and PDR (261%) which consequently contributed to the increase in TRL both water stress condition. Belibod increased SDW in PDR only was brought about by greater RSD due to promoted TLRL and TNRL. Major roots component traits such as TRL, TNRL, TLRL and NNR had highly significant contribution to the increase in shoot biomass production in a water stresses environment.

There were genotypes which showed higher shoot biomass production ranging from 5.6g – 66.2g plant-1 under stressed (≤15%) relative to well-watered and moderately stressed conditions. Root system developmental responses showed that there were certain genotypes which exhibited greater root systems under severe stressed (≤15%, SMC) conditions ranging from 10001cm – 25000cm plant-1 (Fig. 4). Thirty-five germplasm were identified to have showed high shoot biomass at different intensities of progressive drought stress as indicated by their sensitivity drought index (SDI) and plasticity index (PI) (Table 1). Low index value means more desirable under stressed condition. Positive value indicates plasticity under stressed condition.

A total of 2446 rice germplasm were evaluated against zinc deficient soil. Tolerant (T) entries were characterized having good stand across the plots and no rusting. Moderately Tolerant (MT) showed minimum rusting but overall had good stand and no stunting while susceptible. Figure 5 shows most of rice germplasm (65%) were susceptible, while only 10% were tolerant. Validation of these tolerant varieties was still necessary prior to breeding for zinc-tolerant rice

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varieties. Numerous studies investigated potential mechanisms for tolerance to Zn deficiency in rice. Tolerant cultivars may have lower Zn requirements or translocate relatively more Zn from roots to shoots. It was concluded that high translocation of Zn to shoots and reduced translocation of Fe, Mg, P, Mn, and Cu would be an important tolerance mechanism. How these nutrient imbalances affect plant growth remains unresolved, but one likely explanation is a disturbance of enzyme functions. Studies on genotypic differences in the ability to increase Zn availability in the rhizosphere for subsequent uptake have focused on the active release of Zn- mobilizing substances from rice roots. Yet another interpretation of cause-and-effect mechanisms under Zn deficiency focuses on the negative effect of secondary stress factors, such as high bicarbonate concentrations in the soil solution, on root growth with subsequent negative effects on Zn acquisition (Mori et al., 2015).

Under salinity stress, eleven entries were tolerant and five were moderately tolerant out of the 333 entries screened. On the other hand, four were tolerant and 14 were moderately tolerant for submergence stress. Both salinity and submergence stresses were evaluated under screenhouse condition. Further validation in natural field is desirable. This is another opportunity for collaboration. Similarly, in Bangladesh, six rice varieties were recently released for salt tolerance named BRRI dhan47, BRRI dhan53, BRRI dhan54, BRRI dhan55, BINA dhan8 and BINA dhan10.

Among them, BRRI dhan54 is appropriate for the wet season and the rest are for both wet and dry seasons (Islam et al., 2008). Similarly, five varieties were released in India, nine varieties released in the Philippines and 5 varieties released in Vietnam within the last five years of 2013. The Indian released varieties are CSRC(S)7-1-4 and CSR89-IR8 (CSR43) which are suitable for inland salinity and Luna Sampad (CR Dhan 402), Luna Suvarna (CR Dhan 403) and Luna Sankhi (CR Dhan 405) are suitable for coastal salinity. The rice varieties released in Philippines are NSIC Rc182, NSIC Rc184, NSIC Rc186, NSIC Rc188, NSIC Rc190, NSIC Rc290, NSIC Rc292, NSIC Rc294 and NSIC Rc296; all of them are suitable for irrigated ecosystem both in wet and dry seasons (Gregorio et al., 2013).

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Table 1 List of Germplasm Identified in the LSS with Potential Drought Tolerance

Name of Name of Name of No. No. Germplasm Germplasm No. Germplasm 1 ARABON 17 MATING 33 MACABATO** BAKSALAN 2 18 PALAWAN (KAWALWAL) 34 MACASAPI** MINANTIKA P7-3-1 (BINIDING 3 19 TUBOD 35 (GLUTINOUS) (IR68)) POP RICE** 4 BELIBOD 20 CUEVAS ** - still for root validation using 5 BINATO 21 IBARRAKI rootbox method 6 BININTANAG 22 INAPOSTOL 7 M45 23 INCANTADO 8 M5 24 KINARURAY 1 9 BINARIT 25 MALAGKIT 1 10 GININTO 26 MIMIS 11 GOBERNO 27 ORTOC AGO- 12 MININDORO 28 OYONG** BULYHAN 13 NAGSALAY Coll1434 29 (KALINDOL)** 14 QUINIZON 30 CABACHAO ** 15 DURYAT 31 CAIDOL** 16 MALIKET 32 GINARACIA**

Figure 5 Abiotic Evaluation of Rice Germplasm Against a) Natural Zinc-Defficient Field Condition; b) Screenhouse Salinity Stress at Vegetative Stage; and c) Screenhouse Submergence Stress at Vegetative Stage

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Based on the result of the evaluation, there are several available germplasm accessions that could offer resistance against major rice diseases, which could be considered as option for selection of parent materials for rice breeders to produce rice lines/varieties that would perform well against problematic rice diseases. It is highly recommended to continue exploring the potential of available rice lines/varieties against major rice diseases that would further expand the option for breeders in selecting parent materials and also to monitor the stability of resistance of the earlier tested accessions.

Results from this study could help identify sources of germplasm for single or multi-stresses in the Philippines and in the world. Since the information generated were appended in the Germplasm Management System housed at PhilRice Genebank, researchers from different institutions locally and internationally could request following the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) to access the rice germplasm of interest. The methods employed in this project could also be used by other institutions who have the same research objectives. Solely, the Genebank could not make this study possible but the multitudes of collaborating experts from other groups and stations have helped achieve the success of the evaluation of the vast rice germplasm against major biotic and abiotic stresses in rice.

Conclusions

Plant genetic conservation specialist alone could not make sense of the true value of the germplasm stored in the Genebank. An inter-disciplinary and collaborative approach is vital to generate the necessary information that could bridge the gap between conservation and utilization. The biotic stress-resistant and abiotic stress-tolerant germplasm identified in this project could be used as basis for breeding of new rice varieties.

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References

Ahmadizadeh, M., Vispo, Na., Calapit-Palao, Cdo., Pangaan, Id., Dela Viña, C., & Singh, R.K. (2016). Reproductive stage salinity tolerance in rice: a complex trait to phenotype. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, Volume 21, Issue 4, pp 528– 536.

Banito, A., Kadai, E.A., & Sere, Y. (2012). Screening of rice varieties for resistance to bacterial leaf blight. Journal of Applied Biosciences, 53: 3742 – 3748.

Bhuvaneswari, V., & Raju, S.K. (2012). Efficacy of new combination fungicide against rice sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani (Kuhn). Journal of Rice Research, Vol. 5.

Bunawan, H., Dusik, L., Bunawan, Sn., & Namin, N.M. (2014). Rice Tungro disease: From identification to disease control. World Applied Sciences Journal, 31 (6): 1221-1226.

Dey, S.R. (2016). Green Leafhopper (GLH), Nephotettix virescens (Distant) and Rice Tungro Disease (RTD). The Beats of Natural Sciences Issue, 3-4, Vol. 3.

Faivre-Rampant, O., Genies, L., Piffanelli, P., & Tharreau, D. (2013). Transmission of rice blast from seeds to adult plants in a non-systemic way. Plant Pathology, 62,879–887. DOI: 10.1111/ppa.12003.

FAO, 2018. Food and Agriculture Organization.

GRD Annual Highlights. Retrieved August 27, 2018, from http://www.philrice.gov.ph/2012-rd-highlights/

GRD Annual Highlights. Retrieved August 27, 2018, from http://www.philrice.gov.ph/2013-rd-highlights/

GRD Annual Highlights. Retrieved August 27, 2018, from http://www.philrice.gov.ph/2014-rd-highlights/

GRD Annual Highlights. Retrieved August 27, 2018, from http://www.philrice.gov.ph/2015-rd-highlights/

GRD Annual Highlights. Retrieved August 27, 2018, from http://www.philrice.gov.ph/2016 -rd-highlights/

Gregorio, G.B., Islam, M.R., Vergara, G.V., & Thirumeni, S. (2013). Recent advances in rice science to design salinity and other abiotic stress tolerant rice varieties. SABRAO Journal of Breeding and Genetics, 45 (1) 31-41, 2013.

Kano-Nakata, M., Inukai, Y., Wade, L.J., Siopongco, J.D.L.C., & Yamauchi, A. (2011). Root development, water uptake, and shoot dry matter production under water deficit conditions in two CSSls of rice: Functional roles of root plasticity. Plant Prod Sci 14:329-339.

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Litsinger, J.A., Canapi, B.l., & Bandong, J.P. (2011). Cultural practices mitigate irrigated riceInsect pest losses in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, 140 (2): 179-194.

Mori, A., Kirk, G.J.D., Lee, J.D., Morete, M.J., Nanda, A.K., Johnson-Beebout, S.E., & Wissuwa M. (2015). Rice genotype differences in tolerance of zinc-deficient soils: Evidence for the importance of root-induced changes in the Rhizosphere. Front Plant Sci. 2015; 6: 1160.

Nakazono, M., Nishiuchi, S., Yamauchi, T., Takahashi, H., & Kotula, L. (2012). Mechanisms for coping with submergence and waterlogging in rice. Rice (N Y). 2012; 5(1): 2 Published online 2012 Feb 27. doi: 10.1186/1939-8433-5-2.

National Cooperating Testing Manual for Rice. Rice Technical Working Group. Department of Agriculture. Philippines, p. 113

Niones, J.M., Suralta, R.R., Inukai, Y., & Yamauchi, A. (2012). Field evaluation on functional roles of root plastic responses on dry matter production and grain yield of rice under cycles of transient soil moisture stresses using chromosome segment substitution lines. Plant Soil 332: 87-104.

Pasha, A., Babaeian-Jeodar, N., Bagheri, N., & Nematzadeh, G. (2013). Identification of rice genotypes resistant to panicle blast. Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (12), 1346- 1350.

Singh, A., Chandra, R., & Bhardwaj, N.R. (2015). Evaluation of fungicides against Rhizoctonia solani causal agent of sheath blight of rice. International Journal of Applied and Pure Science and Agriculture (IJAPSA), Volume 01, Issue 8.

Stuecker, MF., Tigchelaar, M., & Kantar, M.B. (2018). Climate variability impacts on rice production in the Philippines. PLoS One. 2018; 13(8): e0201426. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201426

Suralta, RR., Inukai, Y., & Yamauchi, A. (2010). Dry matter production in relation to root plastic development, oxygen transport and water uptake of rice under transient soil moisture stresses. Plant Soil. 332:87-104.

Wambugu, P.W., Ndjiondjop, & Henry, RJ. (2018). Role of genomics in promoting the utilization of plant genetic resources in genebanks. Brief Funct Genomics. 2018 May; 17(3): 198–206. doi: 10.1093/bfgp/ely014

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LEARNING BY DOING: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN CAPACITY BUILDING OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN AGRICULTURE AT PhilRice

Leonilo Gramaje Joanne D. Caguiat NL Manigbas OE Manangkil JC Berto EC Arocena and Xavier I. Caguiat

Philippine Rice Research Institute, Philippines

ABSTRACT Learning does not only happen within the four corners of the classroom. Students look forward to put theories into practice. This study aimed at evaluating the impact of internship at Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Division (PBBD) of Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) Central Experiment Station (CES) of several local and international higher education institutions (HEIs). PBBD catered 40 agriculture students from NEUST, DMMMSU, CLSU, MINSCAT, and KKU- THAILAND from 2012-2017 in the conduct of their theses, major practice, and data analyses on hybrid rice breeding and seed production. The students were provided with tasks-to-do appropriate to their field of specialization. This study evaluated the students’ capacity of engagement in field work, contributions to the hybrid rice breeding program, and learnings from linking with HEI using active feedback mechanisms, key informant analysis and tracer methods. Majority of the students rated their experience as excellent and relevant to their learning and to their future career (60%) and most of the appreciative students are currently practicing agriculturists in both private and government service. The learning-by-doing approach enabled them to practice and grasp every process of the tasks. This study proved the relevance of collaboration that could enhance the capacity of students. Strong partnership between research agencies and HEIs could provide important role to future professionals of this country.

Keywords: Engagement, internship, linkages, research institutions, SUCs

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Introduction

In global perspective, the extent of learning should not be confined in the four corners of the classroom. It has long been established that experiential education helps provide young professionals with balanced learning of both theories and their applications, and for them to be prepared in their chosen career. Service-learning or outside-the-classroom approach could be categorized as community service where volunteerism falls in the field of education where internship is under. It is an informal way that could cut across a variety of disciplines, with or without direct connection to the formal education. The latter on the other hand, involves the formal, structured and corresponds to the specialization of the students (Furco, 2018).

The concept of experiential learning dates back to the early periods of Medieval Europe. It was conceived as vocational training which took the form of apprenticeships that ranged from five to seven years of service. The apprenticeships were used as a pathway for students of a specific trade to get into a trade guild, which is an association of specialists in a specific field of work. While vocational apprenticeships and “journeyman” programs are still offered in many of the fields in which this style of instruction originated, college students today have the opportunity to participate in an internship, on-the-job training (OJT), or practicum, in conjunction with their chosen curriculum.

In the late 1970s and '80s, there was a surge in the college faculty members establishing internship programs after hearing about success stories from colleagues at other institutions. Universities took the lead in making internships more appealing to and productive for students by giving course credit for internships. Most early university internship programs were established in fields such as business and medicine. Soon, after the increase in new interest in these curricula, most universities established internship programs in other disciplines such as psychology and social work. These early programs served as a way for students to try out possible future careers without the commitment of having to work a full-time job (Jackel, 2011).

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There are few publications on the nature of the academically structured practicum, on-the-job-training (OJT) or internship. Student experiences were found to vary widely both in terms of trainer and the trainee and in the nature of the supervision received. Most of the students felt their OJT was a great experience that prepared them for a career (Dieffenbach et al., 2011). Acquiring new knowledge and bringing out the students’ creativity through internships, major practices, on the job trainings, theses, and conducting special problems should enable students to be more equipped and confident to pursue their chosen career. Apart from a requirement for graduation, taking theory into practice is more advantageous especially in the future employers on the preference of less training time for soon-to-be part of the team (Dieffenbach et al., 2011; Furco, 2018).

The Philippines has a lot of internship programs both in the private and public institutions. However, there are also few publications that discussed the influence of internship experience on students’ career selection. A paper describes tourism and hospitality industry (Salatan, 2016) and the other on pharmacy (Carido et al, 2015). This paper tackles the agriculture sector with PhilRice-SUC partnership. This pioneering work is the first formal study on the impact of internship in the students’ career path and as a model in driving the development of the next generation of agriculture research, development and extension workers in the country and in the world.

PhilRice is a government corporate entity (Classification E) under the Department of Agriculture. It was created through Executive Order 1061 on 5 November 1985 (as amended) to help develop high-yielding and cost-reducing technologies so farmers can produce enough rice for all Filipinos.

With the vision, “Rice-Secure Philippines”, PhilRice adheres to equip the Filipino rice farmers and the Philippine rice industry to be competitive through research for development. PhilRice fully coordinates its research work to its seven branch stations, satellite stations, and networks comprising 60 members nationwide.

PhilRice is ISO-complied with certificates on ISO 9001:2015 (Quality Management), ISO 14001:2015 (Environmental

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Management), and OHSAS 18001:2007 (Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series). It carries the nation’s overall vision of becoming a rice-secure country. It has also strong linkages in national and international institutes. It serves as training ground for students coming from both national and international SUCs. PhilRice PBBD caters students for major practice, thesis, internship, and OJT focusing on cultural management of crops for breeding inbred and hybrid rice, seed production technologies, special problems, data gathering and analysis.

In order to evaluate the current internship program at PhilRice, there is a need to document students’ and teachers’ learnings, career after graduation, and identify obstacles and best practices. This paper also evaluated the redesigning of internship programs and emphasize the importance of feedback system in capturing the impact of such program in the agriculture sector.

Framework of the Study

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of internship program conducted by the Hybrid Rice Breeding and Seed production Project, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Division (PBBD) of PhilRice.

Specifically, the study aimed to: (1) document the students’ preferred ways of field engagement ;(2) identify the contributions of

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the students and the internship program to the hybrid rice breeding program; (3) trace the whereabouts of the students after the internship program; and (4) determine the learnings, including the challenges and opportunities in collaborating with HEIs for internship programs.

Methodology

A descriptive, correlational research design was employed in the study using survey, key-informant interviews, tracer method and participant observation as the methods of data collection. Online survey was conducted for the students who previously had their internship program at PhilRice-PBBD, from 2012-2018. Advisers and instructors who were assigned to oversee the students in their schools served as the participants of the key-informant interviews. PhilRice researchers also conducted participants’ observations and schedules during their internship, including students’ presentations at the end of the program. A simple tracer method was also conducted to determine the whereabouts of the students who have undergone the internship.

The respondents consisted of three teachers and 40 graduate students from universities in Thailand and Philippines who did their internship at the PBBD, PhilRice.

The students consisted of four interns from Khon Kaen University (KKU), 18 major practice and theses students from Central Luzon State University (CLSU), and 18 OJT students from Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology (NEUST), Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology (MinSCAT) and Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University (DMMMSU). Students were categorized according to the course they are enrolled in their respective schools, as follows:

Internship. It was used by Khon Kaen University, Thailand, for their students who underwent a four month or a season-long involvement in hybrid rice breeding and seed production.

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Major Practice. This was a season-long involvement of the students with a specific study related to the normal operation of the hybrid rice breeding and seed production group.

Thesis. It was a season-long involvement of the student conducting applied or basic research related to hybrid rice breeding and seed production.

On the Job Training. This involved a series of lectures and hands-on training given to students for 30 working days on the growth stages of rice.

Data Analysis

Data were collected and encoded in Microsoft Office Excel 2007© for statistical analysis. Each school was given a code for confidentiality. IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences© Statistics version 21 was used for correlation and descriptive analysis. Descriptive statistical analysis, measuring the frequency, mean and standard deviation, was employed to evaluate the different variables in the study. To investigate the relationship among independent and dependent variables, the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used.

Results and Discussion

Students’ Methods of Field Engagement

Most of the students (83%) preferred hands-on activities over lectures. Meanwhile, majority of the students (70%) find it more relevant if they engaged in whole farming operation process compared to tackling only one specific activity. This activity limits the students’ work because OJT students stays for a very short period. a. How Things were Done in the Program?

Before the conduct of the study, the students were oriented to the breeding program of the division in all rice ecosystems such as rainfed, upland, cool elevated, drought, saline, submergence, high temperature, and irrigated lowland for inbred and hybrid rice. They were also toured to the facilities and experimental areas. The division head or senior breeder of the division was

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required to give the overview of the rice breeding being done by PhilRice. This was to inform the students of the impact and importance of developing rice varieties of our country. Afterwards, the students were introduced to the assigned researchers in all breeding groups and were oriented how they were interrelated. Series of lectures and actual application were given to them by the different resource speakers from different breeding group. In order for them to be more interactive, they were also advised that from time to time they can always ask questions for all the breeding topics that needs clarification. After tackling all scheduled lectures, the students were turned over to the hybrid rice breeding group for their specific studies. b. Internships, Major Practice, Theses and On the Job Trainees.

The different research studies about hybrid rice seed production were assigned to the for Thai intern stdents from Khon Kaen Unversity. The studies were aligned to the core activities of the hybrid breeding project such as nucleus seed multiplication, evaluation of paired crosses, breeder and foundation seed production, and other basic research in flowering synchronization for hybrid seed production. The study was more on actual application to expose them in all stages of hybrid seed production. The students were also taught on gathering and analyzing data. Progress on their study was monitored regularly.

The topics of nine Major Practice students from CLSU were based on the routine activities of the breeders especially in producing F1 hybrid seed or the A x R seed production. This is done to engage them in actual field work in the production of hybrid rice seeds. The students were required to be in the field with core workers from sowing to harvesting. They were obliged to be present in critical stages of the crop, during fertilizer application, primordial sampling, boot collection, gathering initial heading and flowering, leaf clipping, GA3 application, pollination and data gathering. The written report was monitored every month or whenever there are suggestions and clarifications.

Topics of the nine CLSU theses students were conceptualized by their school and PhilRice adviser through focus group discussion before implementation. The study can be basic

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or applied research related to the hybrid rice breeding project. The nine students were required to visit their setup minimum of three days every week from sowing to harvesting. The students were also taught how to gather data and interpret results.

The 18 OJT students from the different universities attended to both lecture and field work. However, not all stages of the crop were part of their learnings because of time limit. (maximum of 30 days only). OJT students were also given a short special problem for them to appreciate research work. This was part of their presentation at the end of the training period.

Based on the results, 83% of the students noted that the most relevant part of the training was their engagement in actual field operations. Jayson, a major practice student of CLSU said,

“The most relevant part of major practice is experiencing and engaging actual activities and communicating with other researchers and laborers about the techniques and strategies in hybrid seed production.”

Also, Sylvia of CLSU said,

“For me the most relevant part of the training was the hands-on part wherein they allowed us to try the methods they’re doing, that is one way we can evaluate ourselves if we learn or not during the training.”

These testimonies of the students provide proof that learning- by-doing approach is an effective tool for the students conducting studies at PBBD. These findings were similar to those reported by Sides et al. (2017), that internships provide an opportunity for those engaged in them to “learn the process of self-generating skill”, which involves learning how to undertake continuous learning.

In the end, all students agreed that internship, OJT, theses and major practice in PBBD were very helpful. Alpha of MinSCAT noted,

“Yes OJT was helpful because I have learned many things that enhanced my understanding and capabilities that I could use in my

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work. It also afforded me with the crucial skills and knowledge learned from some of the best professionals in agriculture industry.” (Alpha, is not her real name)

Contribution of Students on Hybrid Rice Breeding Program

Based on the experience of study leaders in PBBD who handled the students, study programs such as thesis, major practice, OJTs and internships have been helpful to the project. As part of the team, students assisted the researchers in their day-to-day activities in the field and laboratories, including slide preparations, pollen evaluations, pair crossing, rouging, leaf clipping, supplemental pollination, bagging of panicles, data gathering, and post-harvest activities. Thus, the project had saved resources by not hiring additional manpower to do the job during the peak of breeding work because students could complement the needs. Employers benefit from internships because they provide them with risk-free-trial access to potential future employees, and schools benefit from them because it helps strengthen their connections to the business community (Divine, et al. 2006). Another contribution of the students to the hybrid program is that they can promote the use of public hybrids or apply the technology to their school and to their respective communities. In that way, adoption of the technologies at PhilRice can be disseminated in wide scale for commercialization.

Tracer Method

Based on data gathered for the 40 students from the four schools, 70% of them were females and 30% were males (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Gender of the 40 Former Students

30% MALE

70% FEMALE

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Majority of the students came from CLSU with 52%, followed by NEUST with 15%, DMMMSU had 13% and MinSCAT and KKU had 10 % respectively (Figure 2). CLSU got the most number of students because PhilRice is very accessible to the university, and already established strong collaboration.

Figure 2 Percentage of Students from Different Universities

15% CLSU

MinSCAT 13% KKU 52% 10% DMMSU

10% NEUST

Out of the 40 students, 90% of them are employed. All of them agreed that conducting studies at PhilRice helped them land a job and agreed that the program was useful to them. For the unemployed, 5% have continued their academic studies while the remaining 5% are still searching for job (Figure 3).

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Figure 3 Employment status of the 40 former studentsMost of the students (75%) now have jobs related to agriculture (Figure 4)

10% EMPLOYED

UNEMPLOYED

90%

Figure 4 Percentage of Students Who Landed a Job in an Agriculture and Non- Agriculture Sector

10% 15%

75%

Agriculture Non-agriculture Unemployed

Of the 90% employed, 55% of them are working in government institutions focusing on agriculture, and 20% are connected to private companies focused on agriculture (Figure 5). Based on the students’ program categories, high percentages of student who landed jobs related to agriculture came from theses and major practice students with 89% respectively.

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Figure 5 Percentage of Former Students Employed in Government and Private Sector

Government

Private Agriculture Companies

Private not Agriculture Companies

unemployed

Through online survey, the 40 students who participated in the internship program at PBBD- Hybrid Rice Breeding group were contacted and located. Only 60 % of them responded to the survey questions that the research team forwarded. Among the respondents, several students (60%) expressed their improvement of their skills in field operations. Thomas, a major practice student said:

“Involvement in actual activities like land preparation up to postharvest made me realize that being Agriculturist is fun and at the same time engaging your self will gain new knowledge and learnings in proper management practices that help in getting high yield of the crop.”

Meanwhile, several students (25%) improved their English language especially those coming from Thailand.

Aside from the skills of the actual operations, 41% of the students agreed that their motivation towards research were improved. According to them, being resourceful, flexible, manage time, critical thinking especially in the data analysis, and being independent were also worth of the time spent at PhilRice. The internship program boosts motivational levels of interns and internships helped them to understand theories learned in classroom

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and enhanced their understanding of issues relevant to their respective studies (Bukaliya, et al. 2012).

Learning from Linking with HEI using Active Feedback Mechanism

At the end of the training, all students submitted their outputs through narrative report and power point presentations for OJT and interns, and manuscript for thesis and major practice students. The reports were checked thoroughly by the assigned PhilRice advisers to ensure that all information are correct. They also presented their study as their exit seminar. The final presentation was attended by researchers of PBBD, school advisers, and representatives. After presenting their results, question and answer portion followed. Students were asked questions by the researchers to validate the information they presented especially those who handled them. Researchers also contributed to the discussion by clarifying some processes or adding information to the studies conducted. They were also graded by selected researchers who were present during the presentation. The grade will be part of the grade in class which PhilRice submits to their respective schools. School advisers were also given the chance to give their feedback to the students and to the division about the program. The challenges, opportunities, and importance of collaborations between universities and SUCs were also tackled on the discussion after the presentation. This could help the schools that deploy students in various internships and have external industry people formally evaluate the students’ job performance. This feedback can be used to assess areas of strength and weakness, thus influencing the school’s curriculum and/or preparation of students to improve workplace performance (Divine, et al. 2006).

Most of the school representative that gave their comments were very thankful to what the students had accomplished within the whole duration of the study. They also said that the collaboration and partnership should continue because many students need this kind of exposures for them to be more competitive. Angie, DMMMSU OJT adviser said:

“Most of us here at school were amazed when the students presented their outputs. They were very confident in presenting their reports as indications that they learned many

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things and did their on the job training well. Actually, it was like a promotion, many of our incoming fourth-year now already give their intentions that they want also to conduct an OJT at PhilRice but we have only limited slots for them because we have still other partners” Ma’am Angie said.

According to one of the advisers of CLSU, having collaboration can help students, trained by competent individuals, deepen their understanding and appreciation of their chosen course. They can become more equipped and competent when they graduate thus, abling them to be more productive individuals. This statement was consistent to the report of Gavigan and O’Neil’s (2010) saying that students also gain professional knowledge about workplace behaviors and were better prepared for future work or graduate school. Other advantages surfaced during the interview of the school advisers were noted such as having advanced facilities at PhilRice that is not present in their schools and the place is very conducive for learning because everybody are research-oriented and friendly.

On the part of the students and school advisers, some of the challenges they encountered were: too much academic load or number of units of students during the conduct of the thesis and major practice that the students cannot be in site as much as they can. Students also found it difficult when they have very limited background on the study they will work on.

According to one respondent, the curriculum must be upgraded to meet the current trends and issues that are worth studying. Another challenge that was emphasized is that some students had difficult time to adjust on the new equipment because they were very new to these. Some students have not enough background on the topics, they have to adjust to the terminologies used. Some schools also noted the wrong timing of deployment of their students because students arrived at PhilRice after harvest season or the crop was about to harvest, and because of this, students cannot experience actual practice on different cultural management of the crop at the different growth stages. Furthermore, because of only maximum of 240 hours was given to OJT students, they have very short period to learn the whole process of plant breeding, and most of them did not tackle the management

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of some of the important stages of the crop and the hybrid rice breeding process. For Thai students, adjustment to the terminology used was their challenge.

On the other hand, opportunities also came out during the interview of advisers. According to Sir Joy, one of the CLSU thesis adviser said that:

“Creating a strong research network that taps on the young minds to come up with relevant and timely technologies that can benefit the farmers and the nation”. Partnership is very important we need research institution like PhilRice to fill the gaps that academe cannot provide to the students he said.

As a result of the training, two students were able to present their thesis output to the Crop Science Society of the Philippines (CSSP) scientific conference in Legazpi City, Albay. This conference helped them established new network and linkage for future collaboration on their chosen career. Another opportunity was on the acceptance of one of the thesis studies for presentation to the International Rice Congress 2018 which will be in Singapore. This is a good encouragement and opportunity to the student because they can experience the importance of the research not only in the local level but in the international forum. These experiences of the students can boost and encourage more students to pursue their career in agriculture.. Other students noted that their OJT experience at PhilRice became their advantage in landing a job.

Conclusions

Most of the students preferred actual hands-on exercises because they can easily understand the topics if they are the ones doing them. This supports the Learning-by-doing approach as an effective strategy for interns, OJTs, thesis and major practice students. These findings were similar to those reported by Gavigan and O’neil (2010) that “practical and internships are supervised discipline- and career-related work experiences that involve active learning (i.e., learn by doing), critical reflection, and professional development”. Meanwhile, most of the students noted that engagement in actual field operations is the most relevant part of the

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OJT, internship, major practice, and thesis because they understand more the whole process of hybrid rice breeding and seed production.

It was shown that students’ engagement in Hybrid Rice Program helped the researchers to gather and process data easier and faster and save resources. However, further study must be conducted to establish greater impact and contribution of internship, thesis, OJT and major practice programs.The students described that skills such as land preparation, DNA extraction, data analyses, post- harvest operation, and writing and communication skills which they learn from the internship program have helped them land a job in government and private companies.

Too much academic load for the major practice and thesis, and lack of exposure to some stages of rice were among the challenges noted. Creating strong collaboration, new linkages and networks by the students attending conferences to present their result, and advantage in job hunting because of their experience, were among the opportunities for the HEI and students who conducted their research at PhilRice.

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References

Bukaliya, R., Region M. E., & Marondera, Z. I. M. B. A. B. W. E. (2012). The potential benefits and challenges of internship programmes in an ODL institution: A case for the Zimbabwe Open University. International journal on new trends in education and their implications, 3(1), 118-133.

Carrido, DI., Lorenzo C.A., Macaldo A.C.L., & Loquias MM. (2015). Assessment of knowledge, skills and attitude among pharmacy students toward hospital pharmacy internship in the Philippines. International Journal of Pharmacy Teaching & Practices 2015, Vol.6, Issue 2, 2093-2099.

Divine, R., Miller, R., & Wilson, J. H. (2006). Analysis of student performance in an internship program in a US university. Analysis, 6(01).

Dieffenbach, KD., Murray M., & Zakrajsek. (2011). The coach education internship experience: An exploratory study. International Journal of Coaching Science, 5:1.

Jackel, D. (2011). "Evaluating the effectiveness of an internship program". Masters Theses & Specialist Projects. Paper 1117. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1117

Sides, C., & Mrvica, A. (2017). Internships: Theory and practice. Routledge

Simons, L., Fehr, L., Blank, N., Connell, H., Georganas, D., Fernandez, D., & Peterson, V. (2012). Lessons learned from experiential learning: What do students learn from a Practicum/Internship. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 24(3), 325-334.

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THE ENDURING SILENCE ON VIOLENCE IN THE NURSING WORKFORCE: AN EMERGING PHENOMENON

Ma. Nelia P. Silloriquez West Visayas State University, Philippines

ABSTRACT This phenomenological study aimed to understand the lived experiences of nurses on workplace violence in two tertiary hospital settings. Selected nurses who have personally experienced two or more bullying behaviors in the setting and whose job statuses were either regular, casual, or job hired were identified informants for an in-depth interview. The interview data were transcribed and five themes generated and evolved. These are (a) workplace violence happens to anyone: workplace violence is becoming rampant in the health care industry, (b) there are damaging circumstances as a nurse: impact of workplace to nurses, (c) unpleasant experiences are better forgotten: how nurses survive workplace violence, (d) I am a Nurse and I stand by my profession: why nurses opted to stay despite their workplace violence experiences, and (e) I long for a better place: A better workplace for nurses. In the narratives, study reveals that informants experienced unforgotten disruptive behaviors such as fear, frustration, verbal abuse, humiliation and threat, abuse or misuse of power and authorities resulting in helplessness and demoralization that eventually reduced their feeling of dignity and self-respect. Legitimate occupational issues within the nursing workplace need attention and if interventions are ignored, the consequence is enduring silence.

Keywords: Enduring silence, nurse, phenomenology, and workplace violenc

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Introduction

Given the central focus of caring in the nursing profession, it is ironic that evidence of violence has become a common work- related phenomen. Griffin (2004) defined horizontal violence as overt and covert actions by nurses toward each other especially towards those viewed less powerful. In a US based study, this prevalence affects new nursing graduates, nursing students, and even those nurses who have worked at a health facility for a long rime (Roy, 2007). Griffin further explained that because most communication is nonverbal, covert behaviors have the biggest impact. Lateral Violence (LV) manifests itself in a variety of unkind, antagonistic interactions that occur among nurses in the same organizational hierarchy the lack of a universal term to contain these actions makes integrating research on LV difficult (Bartholomew, 2006).

Lateral violence is so widespread in the nursing world that at one point or another, everyone, regardless of age, sex, employment status, or religion has been affected. Less is known about workplace violence facing the nursing workforce in the Philippines (de Castro, Cabrera, Gee, Fujishiro, & Tagalog, 2009). It is assumed that Filipino nurses do not report incidence of violence in the workplace. Workplace violence or disruptive behavior involving a nurse is the subject being investigated. Disruptive or bullying behaviors may be in the form of physical assault, threatening, either covert or overt, that the nurse may experience from peers, nursing aides, laboratory technicians, supervisors, physicians, patients, or their significant others, in the tour of their duty.

Overt and covert behaviors are generally a summation of personality. Those are characteristics that may either be seen or unseen. Overt behaviors encompass traits that are observable and readily perceived through an individual’s sense. Ready impressions on a person exemplify how an individual is seen through his overt attributes. Covert behaviors, on the other hand, include those traits that are hidden deeply within an individual, those that he/she keeps to himself/herself for some reason (Magalona & Sadsad, 2008).

The American Nurses Association (ANA) recognizes that workplace violence is a problem in the health care industry and it works hard to provide resources to protect nurses in the US. In 2009,

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more than 50% of emergency center nurses experienced violence inflicted by patients. There were 2,050 assaults and violent acts reported, requiring an average of four days away from work. Of these acts reported, 1,830 were inflicted with injuries by patients or residents, and from 2003 to 2009, eight (8) registered American nurses were fatally injured at work (Bureau of labor Statistics [BLS], 2013).

Nurses may experience workplace violence for a number of reasons. Murray (2009) mentioned that the basis most often is the need for the bully to be in control of all aspects of the work environment. The perpetrator of the violent behavior may have a personality flaw, such as being shortsighted, stubborn to the extreme of psychopathic tendencies such as trying to be repulsively charming; has an exaggerated sense of self; and lacks the ability to be remorseful or feel guilt over the harm inflicted upon others.

Disruptive behaviors also exist because of a white wall of silence that often protects the bully. In some cases senior managers insinuate these behaviors and often protect the bully instead of the victims (Longno, 2007). Another study on American student nurses reported that 53% had been put down and reported being insulted by a staff nurse (Longno. 2007); 52% reported having threatened or experienced verbal abuse at work (ANA, 2011). In another study De Castro et al. (2009) and his group described work-related problems among a sample of nurses in the Philippine. Cross-sectional data were gathered through a self-administered survey during the Philippine Nurses Association in 2007 convention. Measures included four categories: work-related demographics, occupational injury/illness, reporting behavior, and safety concerns. About 40% of nurses had experienced at least one injury or illness in the past year, and 80% had experienced back pain. Most who had an injury but did not report it. The top ranking concerns were stress and overwork. Filipino nurses encountered significant health and safety concerns that are similar to those faced by nurses in other countries. It is recommended in this study that future research should examine the work organization factors that contribute to these concerns to strengthen policies that promote health and safety.

The Philippine Nursing Act of 2002 (R.A. 9173 Section 2 in Vinzon, 2007) hereby declares that it is the policy of the State to

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assume responsibility for the protection and improvement of the nursing profession by instituting measures that will result in relevant nursing education, humane working conditions, better career prospects, and a dignified existence for the nurses.

Epistemology

The epistemology of constructivism and the theoretical perspective of interpretivism framed this study. Interpretivism is understanding something in its context. A person may respond in a number of ways to a particular stimulus since people’s actions are context-bound and dependent on time, location, and the minds of those involved. In other words, people create and associate their own subjective meanings as they interact with the work around them (Holloway, 1997). Thus, interpretative research attempts to understand phenomena through assessing the meninges that the key informants assign them.

Seemingly, Albert Bandura (1969), the proponent of Social Learning Theory highlighted the significance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses of others as a way to understand a particular group. Much of the learning to direct interpersonal situations is a product of following the behaviors one observes in the group to which one wants to be accepted as a member. When maltreatment of a nurse is occurring, members of the work unit may model the behavior of the individuals participating in the negative behavior as a way to be accepted by them (Griffin, 2004).

Objectives of the Study

This qualitative study aims to (1) describe the lived experiences of Filipino nurses exposed to workplace in tertiary hospitals in Iloilo City, (2) understand the significant memories and insights of nurses as they look back at their experiences on violence, and (3) analyze the meaningful feelings and outlook towards workplace violence. It is assumed that nurses experience some kind of violence from their peers, colleagues, patients, and their families or from other members of the health care team.

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Methodology

Creswell (2003) described phenomenological research as a strategy associated with the qualitative approach, in which the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences concerning a phenomenon. This type of research is used to study areas in which there is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004). The nursing literature, mainly from the Western countries, is full of clinical articles about bullying, harassment, and horizontal violence in the workforce but actual research evidence is limited.

Data Sources

The study was conducted in December 2015 in two of the ten hospitals in Iloilo City. Two tertiary hospitals that carry Level 4 status as teaching and training hospitals (Department of Health, 2015) were considered as the venues of the study: One of the hospitals is a government institution while the other is privately owned. As in tertiary hospitals, nurses were regularly rotated to different general wards and specialty units and are given the opportunity to handle bigger responsibilities.

Work-related Demographics. An accompanying work- related demographic data sheet was used to gather information on the nurses’ personal and non-personal characteristics such as age, sex, religious affiliation, marital status, and type of hospital, area of assignment, position held, educational qualifications, employment status, and the number of years of experience as a nurse.

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Table 1 Nurses Personal and Non-Personal Characteristics Nurse (in Pseudonym) Characteristics Teresita She is a 30 years old, single, and has worked as a staff nurse semi-private general ward of a government hospital for nine years and occupying a permanent position.

Orly He is the most senior informant, who served at a government hospital for 31 years and is the present Nurse Supervisor of the Operating Room complex.

She is a 39 year-old mother of a young boy. She is working at the general Loraine wards of a government hospital as a permanent Staff Nurse.

Lorenzo He is a young gentleman at age 28, single and has been to several health care units before becoming a permanent staff nurse in one of the Government Hospitals in the City. He is assigned in the general wards.

Pedy She is a 42 year-old, single nurse, is assigned to the pediatric department of the same tertiary institution holding a permanent position, and served as the Head Nurse of the unit for 6 years.

Ice He is a job-hired employee of a privately owned tertiary hospital in the city and has been assigned in the Intensive Care Unit for 2 years.

Workplace Violence Survey Questionnaire. (Dumont and Colleagues, 2012).

The modified survey consists of 18 statements on workplace- related disruptive behaviors and was used to identify the key informants for the in depth interview. Measures included three categories: covering three aspects, namely: (1) frequency of experiencing workplace violence or disruptive behaviors, (2) how a nurse personally is affected by these behaviors, and (3) the perpetrators of disruptive behaviors. Under the frequency of experiencing of workplace violence or disruptive behaviors, statements like: (a) Harshly criticizing someone, (b) Belittling or making hurtful remarks to others, (c) Complaining about a co-worker, (d) Raising eyebrows or rolling of eyes at coworker, and (e) Pretending not to notice a coworker struggling with his or her workload. As to category two how a nurse personally is affected by these behaviors, statements were: (a) I was discouraged because of lack of positive feedback, (b) I have not spoken up because of fear of retaliation, (c) I hesitated to ask question for fear of being ridiculed, (d) I left work feeling bad about myself because of not so good interaction with certain coworkers, (e) I had physical symptoms

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because of bad interaction with a coworker. Lastly, the perpetrators of disruptive behaviors include: (a) nurse peers, (b) supervisors, (c) physicians, (d) other professionals such as laboratory technicians, respiratory therapist and physical therapist, (e) other staffs like secretarial, security, housekeeping personnel, (f) patient or client, and (g) watcher or relative.

The frequency of workplace violence was determined with a 5-point Likert scale with the following descriptions: 1 = never, which means that workplace violence was not experienced at all within the period of 12 months; 2 = once, which means that workplace violence was experienced only one time within the period of 12 months; 3 = monthly, means that workplace violence was experienced every month within the period of 12 months; 4 = weekly, which means that workplace violence was experienced every week within the period of 12 months; and 5 = daily, which means that workplace violence was experienced every day within the period of twelve months.

The Self-test for “Type A” Personality. Carver and Scheier, (2000, in Magalona & Sadsad, 2008) defined personality as a dynamic organization inside the person, of psycho physical systems that create a person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings which convey sense of consistency, internal causality and personal distinctiveness. The Self-test for “Type A” Personality Checklist was used to determine the nurse’s personality type. Understanding personality traits is important in the workplace. Everyone has different preferences that make up their personality type, and some personalities work better together than others. A particular personality type might make it really easy to work with one colleague and leave one struggling with another. The Self-test for “Type A” Personality is a published standardized instrument adapted from Guzman (1981, in Posecion, 1998). Using the semantic differential scale, the test is composed of twenty pairs (20) of adjectives and phrases. Each pair is chosen to represent two kinds of contrasting behaviors. The nurses were asked to encircle the number to which, they think they belong, given the two extremes; the score was obtained by adding all the encircled numbers. Personality type was determined by means of score intervals.

Type A Personality behavior is described as an action- emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is

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aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the contrasting efforts of other things or persons. Type A Personality traits are: ambitious, controlling, highly competitive, preoccupied with status, workaholics, and lack patience. This type of personality implies a temperament, which is stress prone, concerned with time management, great multitasking feels guilty when relaxing and does not easily accept failure. Type A1 has a high risk of cardiac illness and other stress-related illnesses especially those who are smoking and are over 40 years of age. Type A2 is also cardiac-prone personality but not quite as high risk of heart disease as a Type A1. People with Type B personality traits are relaxed, less stressed, flexible, emotional and expressive, and have a laid-back attitude. This personality type is not concerned about time, mild mannered, does not brag, focused on quality rather than quantity, enjoy achievement, is thoughtful, and creative. Type AB is a mixture of Type A and Type B patterns. This is a healthier pattern than either Type A1 or A2. AB individuals have the potential for falling into Type A behavior.

The key informants for the in-depth face-to-face interview were six nurses who consented to take part in the study. All of the key informants have various experiences with workplace violence with at least 43 cases in a year. Two of them have had experienced with workplace violence on a daily basis while the other four have experienced disruptive behaviors weekly. Majority of the informants have Type A2 personality.

Interview Guide Questions. The developed interview guide was used in interviewing the key informants. Krueger and Casey (2001) mentioned that when the issues at hand are sensitive and highly confidential, the interactive processes could be compromised. In this case, individual interviews were appropriate in gathering the necessary information related to disruptive behaviors in the nursing workplace. The interview techniques of probing (verbal and non verbal) were used. The researcher has explored all information about the nurses’ experiences until redundancy of the answers or point of saturation was reached and all the topics on workplace violence were covered during the interview. When similar pattern in the responses of the informants and when few or no new information were received from the interview process, the researcher stopped or ended the interview.

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Procedure

Ethical Considerations. Ethical permission for the study was obtained from the West Visayas State University Bio-Medical Research Ethics Review Committee. Confidentiality was assured by no personal or identifying information being included in the transcript. The informants qualified for the interview were assigned pseudonyms to hide their real identities. The potential risk of psychological distress from the informant recalling the incident of workplace violence was acknowledged. The researcher who is a nurse has experiences in debriefing and knowledge of referral services for those experiencing on-going psychological distress. Their contact numbers were included in the cover letter of the survey questionnaire, with an invitation to contact them and discuss any psychological distress caused by the interview.

Data Collection

Permission to conduct the study was sought from the two Hospital Directors. Fifty-three (53) nurses from the private institution and fifty-five (55) from the government hospital participated in the survey to identify the key informants using the modified workplace violence survey questionnaire (Dumont & colleagues, 2012). The obtained scores were used to identify the frequency with which a nurse experiences workplace violence. Nurses who had personally experienced two or more bullying behaviors in the last twelve (12) months and whose job statuses were regular, casual, or job hired were considered as key informants for the in-depth interview. Of the one hundred eight (108) nurses who participated in the survey, thirteen (13) fit in these criteria. Letters to invite these thirteen (13) nurses were delivered personally by the researcher. Six (6) nurses consented to take part in the in-depth interview. Three (3) nurses did not respond to the invitation for reasons they will be retiring soon and will be on sabbatical leave; two (2) will not be available in the next two months, and two (2) nurses refused not to participate in the in-depth interview. All of the six (6) key informants have various experiences with workplace violence with at least 43 cases a year. Two (2) of them have experienced disruptive behaviors weekly. Majority of the informants have Type A2 personality. Type A2 individuals are hard driven, competitive, impatient, and aggressive.

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They are short-tempered persons, and tend to be achievement striving and hostile. Type A2 is also cardiac-prone personality.

The entire interview session of the key informants was conversational. Every individual interview was recorded. Voice recorders enabled the researcher to maintain eye contact with the informant as well as preserve the informants’ words during data collection. The researcher used bracketing to improve the rigor and lessen the bias in this qualitative research. Bracketing aims to keep what is already known about the description of the phenomenon separately from the informants’ description. Bracketing brings forward the researcher’s prejudices. It is only with this awareness that the researcher can truly be open to what are their own experiences (Kvale, 1996). Done at the outset of the study the researcher, asked a colleague to interview her using the same interview guide questions intended for the key informants. A narrative description was transcribed and included as part of the researcher’s subjectivity statement that assisted her to maintain an open approach when interviewing the key informants in analyzing the data.

Data Analysis

The inductive data analysis was utilized in this phenomenological study in order to construct themes by categorizing the data into increasingly more abstract elements of information. The steps involved were based on the data analysis according to Colaizzi (1978, in Creswell, 2009) that included transcription, horizontalization, coding, textural description, structural description, and interpretation.

Demonstrating Trustworthiness of the Study Findings

Qualitative research has to demonstrate trustworthiness in keeping rigor and strength to the study’s validity and reliability in all stages of the research process, including data collection, data analysis, and descriptions. A research project is trustworthy when it reflects the reality and ideas of the key informants. Holloway (1997) stipulated, the trustworthiness approaches like credibility, dependability, conformability, and transferability were undertaken throughout the research process and was supported by triangulation, or multiple sources of data as evidenced by

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consultation with experts; member checks, or arranging for those who provided data to evaluate the conclusions.

Trustworthiness in this study was supported by triangulation, or multiple sources of data as evidenced by consultation with experts; member checks, or arranging for those who provided data to evaluate the conclusions (Merriam, 2009). The researcher ensured trustworthiness by laying aside her preconceived idea about the phenomenon under investigation and by returning to key informants to establish whether the description was a true reflection of their experience.

In this study the researcher used some strategies for triangulation such as conducting face to face in-depth interview with individual informants, having the key informants review the transcription of their audio recorded interviews and conducting peer interviews to substantiate the information gathered. The researcher validated the statements of the key informants by interviewing their peers who were with the informant during the workplace violent incident. The peers were asked to describe the actions, facial expressions, statements and behaviors of the key informants as they experienced violence in the workplace. They were also asked to confirm the unforgettable experiences of the key informants as well as liken the previous workplace experience with their recent ones.

Results and Discussion

The nurses were candid in their responses to the open- ended qualitative questions like: “What do you feel about workplace violence, how are you affected, what made you remain in situations where bullying behavior is a great possibility, and what do you think should be changed or improved to prevent workplace violence, stipulating specific examples of behaviors they had experienced. The following themes were generated: (a) Workplace violence happens to anyone: workplace violence is becoming rampant in the health care industry, (b) there are damaging circumstances as a nurse: impact of workplace to nurses, (c) unpleasant experiences are better forgotten: hoe nurses survive workplace violence, (d) I am a nurse and I stand by my profession: why nurses opted to stay despite their workplace violence experiences, and (e) I long for a better place: a

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better workplace for nurses. Each theme provided in-depth observations that displayed insights and feelings of the key informants.

“Workplace Violence Happens to Anyone”: Existence of Workplace Violence in the Health Care Industry

In the complex health care workplace of nurses, violence is accepted as a common destructive problem and a persistent occupational threat within the nursing workforce. When asked about their experiences with workplace violence, all six informants acknowledged they have experienced disruptive behaviors in the workplace. The nurses who responded to this question were reflective in their comments, speaking from the perspective of a victim. Below are Teresita’s and Ice’s responses.

Teresita: I think it happens to everyone especially if you are working in a public workplace, so we are at risk.

Ice: Bullying of nurses actually is rampant even in the private hospital, it is a natural workplace happening.

They voiced out disappointment in their inability to keep their frustrations in check that sometimes resulted in behaviors that defied their personal and professional standards. This theme is aligned with the American Nurses Association (2011 and De Castro, et al., 2009), which points that workplace violence is a problem in the health care industry and the situation is so widespread in the nursing world that at one point or another everyone has been affected.

“There are Damaging Circumstances for me as a Nurse”: Impact of Workplace Violence for Nurses

Comments related to their perpetrators included examples of disruptive behaviors as illustrated by Teresita’s statement.

Teresita: Maybe with the doctor it is moderate but with the folk it’s severe. The patient’s folk put me to shame in front of the surgical resident. My feeling was: He is a nurse and I am a nurse too and he put me to shame and humiliate me repeatedly [At this point of the

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interview, she could not hold back her anger and burst to tears.] There are folks that understand and there are also those terrible ones.

Recalling the experiences, the nurse mentioned that the incident affected their job performance for instance the experience affected nurses socially.

Teresita: I am really a silent type, so I become more silent. As if I am shameful, as if I don’t interact easily. I minimize interaction. I am like that for weeks; I don’t stay at the bedside.

Lorraine: It is not right just because we are nurses and they are doctors, we secure the consent and prescribe the materials, when it is their job. Most of the time it is we, nurses, who do things for the patient…but I don’t know.

Lorenzo: Violence need not be in the form of physical violence like verbal or sometimes it can inflict emotional distress. If satisfied with what you report, she would stand up, throw the chat away, look for other charts, then throw the chair away and go back again and play silent.

Pedy stated that she experienced bullying from supervisors or head of the unit. She believed this incident did not directly affect her work; however, her relationships with her superiors were affected.

Pedy: I still remember what they did to me. They bullied me. They are stepping on my rights. I told myself: just because I am just like this, they will do this to me? Despite the threat I received, I pursued my case. Sometimes I asked for legal advice and they will tell me: Why do you need to seek legal advice? I said because you don’t listen to me, you even bullied me. I have received threats from my superiors, or somebody will approach me and say: be careful, they are watching you.

Also, Ice expressed his bullying experience after several years of working in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and his insights why nurses are bullied.

Ice: After years working in ICU, after encountering harsh physicians, folks, you just learn how to deal with them. Usually bullying in the

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workplace with regards to nurses depends in the performance of the nurse. If you do not perform well, you will be bullied.

The appreciation nurses received from patients’ and peers and the thought of doing the job well to render quality care are the fulfillment of nurses after a day’s work. Regardless of the demeaning incidents and other forms of disruptive behaviors that nurses experienced, nurses still continue their work and opted to stay and practice their profession with compassion and love for service. The second major theme was fear of retaliation. The key informants expressed passionate feelings about workplace violence. Some even stated that if the physician or the folks report the disruptive behavior incident, she would lose her job. This thread of fear is disturbing. Nursing is a profession that advocates for and protects patients, but people are afraid to advocate for themselves.

“Unpleasant Circumstances are Better Forgotten”: How Nurse Survive the Workplace Violence Experience

Nurses were given an opportunity to share any disruptive or bullying behaviors they personally experienced, which did not fit into the category of behaviors already described in the previous questions. While no new categories of behaviors were recognized, detailed descriptions were provided. Five of the six informants verbalized that the majority of disruptive behaviors were verbal in nature. Griffin (2004) however, explained that because most communication is nonverbal, covet behaviors have the biggest impact. Verbal abuse ranged from “being embarrassed in front of colleagues and other member of the health care team,” to the “yelling hostilely,” that, “the informant still feels bad and had been so much affected but sometimes he just laugh it out.” While no physical aggressive behaviors were aimed at individuals as Lorenzo described, objects being tossed around the nurses’ station. Five informants insisted that these “unforgotten experiences helped them through bad times.” Moreover, the nurses believed that whatever has happened is done, that the clock moves forward, and wanting to change what has happened is impossible, just like what Pedy and Ice stated.

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Pedy: This is common knowledge, yes, but it's helpful to acknowledge there is always another time to get it right when now just is not working out.

Ice: after years in ICU, after encountering harsh behaviors from physicians, folks, you just learn how to deal with them, we just shrug off and put it off in our mind.

A Major contributing factors the informants have identified included lack of respect, support, and positive recognition from management. In this case, the informants verbalized:

“let go and get over it…this too shall pass.”

“I am a Nurse and I Stand by my Profession”: Why Nurses Opted to Stay Despite their Workplace Violence Experiences

When Teresita was asked if there was anything she would like to add or any information that were not included or we had left out, she said:

Teresita: “I think the rights of the caregivers. Because if you work here in the station of the hospital, as if we are not legally conscious so every time somebody tells you…do you like to lose your job? This makes you startled. For us those words were like as if it’s the end of the world. However, despite those experiences, I decided to stay as a nurse because, of course you are a patient advocate; you are there to perform your job.”

Typically, the healthcare professional with the most interpersonal contact with the patient is the nurse. The nurse may be in the best position to act as liaison between patient and patient’s family and other team members of the health care and inter- departments. To perform this function adequately, a nurse must be knowledgeable about and involved in all aspects of the patient’s care and should possess a positive working relationship with other members of the health care team. Not everyone appreciates a nurse who steps forward on patients’ behalf.

Orly expressed his concern about surgeons.

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Orly: “wondering why I was the only one who was assisting him and so he asked me, “Why you are the only one assisting me in my surgeries?” and I replied, “Doc, who would assist you because everybody else is afraid of you. For you what they are doing is wrong. The staff would say, what is the problem with doctors, they would just reprimand you.” and I would reply back, “That would not be the case, if you have a good reason. We are nurses. We chose nursing……some staff nurses…they just keep quiet. They are afraid as they look upon them [physicians] as persons in authority.”

Some of the descriptions were more specific, such as the response of Lorenzo.

Lorenzo: It is irritating sometimes since you are both staff nurses. You have to be levelheaded when answering questions in the nurses’ station. It is not a competition but rather the kind of work we can offer in order to render quality patient care,”

Considering that patient and significant others also experienced anxiety so Lorenzo believes that part of the nurses’ job is to attend to their needs. After having experienced and witnessed violence in the workplace on several occasions, Lorenzo requested for several times to be transferred to Out Patient Department (OPD) during the first months of working in the service ward.

Lorenzo: “Ma’am, can I transfer to Out Patient Department (OPD)? I am not happy with environment. [Frowns and lightly strikes fingers on the table]. Ma’am it is not about workload. What I don’t like is the group dynamics of the team, it is all insulting.” There are different personalities in that group that make it bad. “

However, the SO made him realized that he did ot need to be transferred out because people need him.

Pedy shared her feelings why she opted to stay in the department Pedy: I love public service. I am there for my patients not for anyone else. I feel happy with pediatric patients.

The six informants stand by their being a nurse, assumed the caring role and subscribed to the core value of nursing which are the

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vital components in the development of a professional nurse as emphasized in the Philippine Nursing Act of 2002.

“I Long for a Better Place”: A Better Workplace for Nurses

When asked to share their feelings, memories and suggestions about ways to lessen the amount of violence in their workplace, nurses spoke of their sincere duty to improve dealings with their colleagues and other members of the health team.

The responses to this question were understood as a desire on the part of the nurses to be active in conflict resolution. The relationship of management to an environment that promotes workplace violence was discussed. Instances of exchanging shout for orders or demands from patients and significant others made clinical work experiences for nurses extremely difficult. To them, coworkers or immediate superior like the Head Nurse were the people she could talk to about her work-related problems.

Below are the responses of the informants when they were asked about their experienced incident which they have shared to their co-workers or immediate superior. It was very evident in their responses that they were longing for a better workplace.

Teresita: If you have a problem the person you can talk to is your colleague or your head nurse. That’s why we don’t report (referring to higher hospital authorities) that kind of incidence anymore. It’s hard if you report it. They are not the kind of people who can give time to those under their stead. If they have their own problem, this issue of yours will not even be entertained. I suggest they conduct seminars focusing on personal and professional growth, specifically about ethics, attitude of the workers, hospital staff, hospital heads, and those who work under them. The hospital Human Resource (HR) Office is also conducting personnel orientation. Is she? “There is none, Ma’am. The HR in the hospital is for hiring only. We seminar about Civil Service (CS) policy that includes ethics too but that was years ago, only for newly- hired staff. It is sensible to have a counselor since it is an everyday happening, but our heartaches whatever it is are not given much attention. I talked with my parents… She will reply: “never mind dear”. There were advice and comfort provided by my parents.

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However, the informant thought of quitting her job as one of the senior nurses in a tertiary institution.

Orly: One doctor made a letter of complaint about nurses signed by all members of the surgery, orthopedics and anesthesia.

When asked if he could share the outcome of the complaint letter, the informant opened his arms.

Orly: Nothing. The Nursing Service Office (NSO) and Human Resource (HR) are pointing back at each other.

Lorraine: I said doc, isn’t it a protocol? We should follow the protocol. If I complain here in the hospital administration office no one would listen to me. I fought back following due process, I sought legal advice and got myself a lawyer.

Ice: There are residents who are mean and our head nurse is aware of it and she will just tell us, never mind they are okay and it is natural in the workplace. My feelings, to the nursing department as a whole, they should address like an official letter to the Medicine Department, so that their chief could make their own policies for the attending physicians because mostly there are no policies that governs attending physicians, only residents and nurses. The thought that it is difficult to be employed in other hospitals because of competition and few slots left, so since I am hired here already, I will push through it.

Two basic factors were described in this theme. One was that the leaders (supervisors, charge nurses, directors of nursing, administrators, and physicians) use their power or position to intimidate and threaten subordinates. These results support the finding of Longo (2007) on senior managers’ insinuating these kinds of behaviors and often protect the bully instead of the victims. Secondly, these leaders often turn a blind eye and a deaf ear to what’s happening in terms of both violence in the workplace perpetrated around them and violence they themselves may perpetrate. The nurses stated that when they reported the behaviors, nothing was done about them. The bully was often felt to be friends with the leader. The nurses’ comments reflected the strong belief that all levels of management should be involved in solving the problem of workplace violence in their particular

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workplace. Two of the six informants want a better workplace if ever there is a chance to find one.

Essence of the Phenomenon

Disruptive or bullying behaviors may be in the form of physical assault, threatening, either covert or overt, that nurses may experience from peers, nursing aides, laboratory technicians supervisors, physicians, patients or significant others, in the tour of their duty.

In this study, there is presently an understanding on two issues. Workplace violence is rampant in the nursing profession, and the experience of this behavior is psychologically upsetting, threatening patient safety, and affecting the nurse self-esteem. Strong emotions were evident in the telling of these stories whether they occurred in the recent time or distant past. The stories nurses shared about the disruptive behaviors they experienced were distressing, and the stories widened one’s understanding and appreciation of the impact of workplace violence for nurses.

In the responses, it was obvious many nurses were aware of the existence of violence in the workplace however, they prefer to endure in silence the occurrences rather than report the incident to authorities. Moreover, individual responses to the qualitative questions provided rich descriptions of the nurses’ experiences as victims of this phenomenon.

Based on the responses of the informants, the researcher learned that workplace violence can happen to any nurse in both private and public healthcare industries regardless of their rank or position. This workplace violence that they have experienced affected their job performances, relationship with their superiors or even their personality. However, despite these unpleasant experiences, they have survived and continued to perform well in their jobs. They have learned and got used to these circumstances that if they encounter similar situations, they are just shrugging these off and think that these too shall pass. Moreover, the informants still chose to stay because they believed that they are professional nurses and they must stand by their profession. Yet, they are also longing for a better workplace. And they suggest that a better workplace has

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less incidence of violence, and a good relationship between colleagues and other members of the health team and superiors should prevail. Superiors should be fair in treating their subordinates and as much as possible keep the workplace free from violence.

Comments related to supervisors included examples of disruptive behaviors being ignored as shown in Lorenzo’s statement, “I informed a couple of incidents to my supervisor and nothing was done.” While no nurse reported being aware of overtly aggressive behaviors aimed at her or him from a supervisor, majority of the key informants reported feeling they were recipients of negative covert behaviors. These included being ignored by a supervisor, not encouraged to apply for advancement or recommended for promotion, and not mentored professionally as were other peers. Two (2) out of the six key informants reported the incident to the unit supervisors; the rest preferred silence for fear of retaliation. The various experiences about numerous types of disruptive behaviors in the workplace affected the way nurses see the future. When asked to share their thoughts and recommendations about ways to lessen violence in the workplace, the nurses spoke of their sincere commitment to improve relationships with their colleagues and other members of the health care team, to include patients and their significant others. The commonality of responses to this question was interpreted as a desire on the part of the nurses to be active in the solution. Finally, Ice said every nurse should focus her responses on the necessity of encouraging personal responsibility, stating, “Handling staff well and trying to lessen working short staffed so people do not feel burned out and give themselves an alibi to be concerned with self over others.”

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Conclusion

This study provided a venue for the nurses to air out their inner feelings and apprehensions regarding workplace violence, and a chance for them to be listened to and be understood as they shared their experiences. In the complex health care workplace of nurses, workplace violence is accepted as a common destructive problem and a persistent occupational threat. Experienced nurses are often the perpetrators; novice nurses are most likely victims. Administrators often ignore disruptive behavior in the workplace, despite a facility-wide policy designed to address this problem. A trickle-down effect was portrayed in the reports presented in which the leadership set the attitude: disruptive behavior is commonplace and tolerated by upper management and is allowed to occur, and nurses do nothing about it; instead, they endure the silence of violence in the nursing workplace allowing it to remain an emerging phenomenon.

References

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2011). Analysis of the American nurses association staffing survey. Warwick, RI: Cornerstone Communication Group.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bartholomew, K. (2006). Ending nurse-to-nurse hostility: Why nurses eat their young and each other.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2013). Workplace homicides. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage. Retrieved from http://www.personal.psu.edu/Wxh139/pheno.htm

Donalek, J. G. (2004). Demystifying nursing research: Phenomenology as a research method. Urologic Nursing, 11, 18-225

Dumont, C., Meisinger, S., & Whitacre, M. J. (2012). Workplace violence survey. Nursing 2012. Retrieved from www.Nursing2012.com. Nursing practice.

Basingstoke: Palgrave. 125-43.

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Griffin, M. (2004). Teaching cognitive rehearsal as a shield for lateral violence: An intervention for newly licensed nurses. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 35(6), 257-263.

Krueger, R. & Casey, M. (2001). Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews. Longno, J. (2007). Bullying in the workplace: Reversing a culture. Silver Spring, MD:Center for American Nurses.

Murray, J.S. (2007). Before blowing the whistle, learn to protect yourself. American Nurse Today, 2(3), 40-42.

Organizational dynamics on abusive workplace behavior. Consulting Psychology Journal, 61, 190-201.doi: 10.1037/a0016938

Roy, J. (2007). Horizontal violence. Retrieved from http://nursing.advanceweb.com/editorial/content/editorial.aspx?CC=102740.

Venzon, L. M. (2007). Professional Nursing in the Philippines. (10th Ed.). C&E Publishing, Inc.

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SOCIAL NETWORKING AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: EXPLORING FACEBOOK AS A TOOL FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH

Mona Froida Matolo-Langoh Mindanao State University-Tawi-Tawi, Philippines

ABSTRACT The study aimed to determine the teachers’ and students’ perceptions of social networking such as Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching and learning English. The study made us of a descriptive-correlational design in answering the research questions. The respondents were the 19 teachers and 92 students from one private school and one public school in Zamboanga City, Philippines. Based on the findings, the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook is Uncertain. The students’ perception on the use of Facebook as a Facilitative tool in learning English revealed as “agree”. Moreover, the students’ English Competency Level is Competent. There is no significant relationship between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook and the students’ English competency level. However, there is a significant relationship between the students’ perceptions of Facebook and their English competency level. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to age, type of school-employed and gender. There is no significant difference between the students’ perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to gender and type of school enrolled. Thus, Facebok inclusion could potentially enhance language skills, motivate learners to participate in educational activities, help students to gain self-study skilsm access massive amount of authentic learning materials, receive feedback, practice new points and revise previous knowledge.

Keywords: Facebook, social networking, second language acquisition, effects, teaching English, learning English

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Introduction

The evolution of internet resulted into a set of innovative practices in global education system. English Language Teaching (ELT) is one of the prominent areas which were influenced by the internet and other nternet-based technologies in the 1990s. Open approach to knowledge dissemination has led to a blend of technology usage and classroom practices in ELT. During the past years, social networks have come into existence and were used in language teaching activities (Patel, T 2015). Our increasing dependence on and use of various technological tools has impacted every facet of our lives, and language teaching and learning are no exception. Educators regularly incorporate a variety of tools (Thorne and Payne, 2005) to engage their students and to allow them to interact in new and different ways, both in class and beyond the walls of the classroom. In particular, popular social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook, Edmodo, and LinkedIn offer educators even more ways to help students increase motivation and reinvigorate the classroom climate (Mazer et al., 2007). Social networking tools such as these, and others, also provide opportunities for language learners to enhance digital and multi literacy skills, interact in and through the target language, work collaboratively, and enhance their linguistic and pragmatic proficiency (Blattner and Fiori, 2011).

Recently, the way languages are learned has been greatly influenced by technology. Both learners and teachers are exposed to the internet daily, so they can take advantage of it to teach and learn a foreign language. For this reason, it has become necessary to find ways to blend technology with language instruction.

The use of Facebook moves beyond formal academic learning to include corollary aspects of learning such as effective collaboration and communication. This research endeavored to find out whether there is congruency between the use of social networking site such as Facebook in language teaching and learning in the classroom and its effect on the students’ English competency, and how teachers and students have actually been using it. By understanding how students and teachers in this study use Facebook as a tool that facilitates the teaching and learning of language, teachers and students can better emphasize the ways Facebook can be used as an interactive learning environment. By determining the

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congruency in using such tool in its current, actual use, this research will provide the teaching and learning of language through Facebook with invaluable information that will aid future direction about the use, governance, and training related to social media implementation in secondary schools.

The researcher chose to conduct a study on social networking and second language acquisition: exploring Facebook as a tool for teaching and learning English among students and teachers for these reasons: First, E-learning and how it can be applied to ELT is probably a good area for research as the internet becomes more available to an ever wider group of students and teachers as well. How students and teachers interact and how the systems were used to facilitate that interaction is a question which will need to be understood to increase the effectiveness of this medium. Second, blended learning is the approach that is at the cutting edge in education and with a wide range of possibilities for ELT. It helps teachers optimize language learning and teaching by using ICT (Information and Communication Technology) resources (internet, web-based tools, CD-Roms, etc.) in combination with face-to-face sessions. E-learning that encompasses the use of technological and electronic support for educational purposes embraces blended learning and lastly, E-Learning or technology in learning has become a buzz in the education industry and today it caters to the needs of modern-day learners. Infusing technologies in classroom learning have added to stimulus and enhanced learner's interaction within the classroom. E-Learning has a vast presence in almost every field. Language teaching is one such field where technology has taken over and improved the ways of learning.

Framework of the Study

The researcher’s study on the social networking and second language acquisition: exploring Facebook as a tool for teaching and learning L2 English is pattern from Krashen’s Affective Filter, and social constructivist theories. In terms of learning purposes, Facebook can promote the affective filter hypothesis and Social constructivist theories. According to Krashen (1981), motivation, attitude, self-confidence, and anxiety are principle factors in second language acquisition. High motivation, a good self-image, and a low

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level of anxiety lower the affective filter, thus increasing the amount of comprehensible input, which eventually contributes to language learning (Krashen, 1988). In normal classroom settings, many students experience such problems as the fear of being considered as a low learners, the anxiety of speaking in front of the class, and many other negative feelings, all of which prevent them from participating or even cause them to get panicked (Warschauer, 1996). Meanwhile, when they study online, they study in a non- threatening environment. As an online synchronous tool, Facebook offers a sense of anonymous communication thus building a state of anxiety-free relaxation (Murphy, 2009). In other words, students can ask freely on Facebook without the fear of making mistakes. They experience less social pressure in learning. In this state, the affective filter is lowered, which enhances the amount of comprehensible input in language learning. Apart from this, Terantino (2011) reported that Facebook can promote social interaction between teachers and students through discussions, negotiations, comments, questions, and status updates. Teachers can post photos, texts, or videos on Facebook and then assign students to make comments on the postings. Students can stay connected with other people through this social networking site as well. After being given an opportunity to communicate with other people, students are likely to benefit from collaborative learning on Facebook (Dawson, 2008). At this stage, a zone of proximal development (ZPD) is constructed on Facebook. This hypothesis echoes the core notions of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which Vygotsky (1978) defines as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” .Both theories emphasize the necessity of disparity, and ultimately, Vygotsky’s (1978) emphasis on meaning making through collaborative learning provides the bridge between comprehensible input in theory and comprehensible input in practice.

Relating to the social constructivist theories, in this zone, language assistants on Facebook, such as teachers, friends, or users in general, can play the role as more knowledgeable people explaining English grammar usage and giving suggestions for their writing work. This help students move from their actual stage of

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development to their potential stage of development, a stage in which their grammatical and writing competence is enhanced.

Objectives of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to determine the grade ten (10) teachers’ and students’ perceptions on social networking such as Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching and learning English. It also explored whether these perceptions affect the students competency level in English. Specifically, the objectives were: (1) to determine the overall perceptions of the grade ten (10) high school teachers and students of Zamboanga City, Philippines in the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching and learning English, (2) to find out the students’ English competency level, (3) to examine the significant relationship and difference between the grade ten teachers’ perceptions in the use of Facebook in teaching English and the students’ English competency level, and (4) to find out the significant difference in the teachers’ and students’ perceptions in the use of Facebook when data are classified according to different variables.

Methodology

This study used a descriptive-correlational research design. This was conducted in one public high school and one private high school in Zamboanga City. The subjects of this study were the grade ten (10) teachers and students of one private and public school in Zamboanga City. To determine the sample size for survey, a purposive sampling technique was used to get the teachers’ total population, while Gay’s Formula was used which means 20% of the students’ population.

The development of the survey questionnaires involved preparation, selection, adaptation, and modification of the item statements. The preparation of the research instruments was done through careful research in the internet thereby choosing only those related topics that was most appropriate to the study. Only items that are relevant to the study were selected and shall be validated by three (3) raters.

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The students’ English competency test instrument is standardized and adopted from the study of Thanawan Suthiwartnarueput on Effects of Using Facebook as a Medium for Discussions of English Grammar and Writing of Low-Intermediate EFL Students. The reliability index of the study is r=0.859, which means that the instrument has a high reliability index.

The research instruments on teachers’ and students’ perception on Facebook was referred to the researcher’s adviser for comments and suggestions. It was distributed to the panel of experts with master’s degree or doctorate degree in Language teaching to evaluate the items of the research instrument in terms of relevance, appropriateness and suitability. The panel of experts was given a validation form indicating their agreement or disagreement to the item statement.

To determine if the statement is valid, two or all of the three panels of experts manifest their agreement to the statement. On the contrary, if the statement is not valid, two or the entire three panel of experts manifest their disagreement to the statement. To measure the reliability of the research instruments on teachers’ and students’ perceptions on Facebook, face validity was employed.

The first research instrument is a survey questionnaire. The questionnaires were adapted, modified and evaluated research instrument to determine the teachers’ perception on Facebook as a facilitative in teaching – learning English. To measure the teachers’ perceptions towards the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching and learning English, a thirty (30) item– 3 point Likert scale was used. Corresponding to each statement in the research instruments were three (3) possible responses out of which the respondents were instructed to make a choice. Each question was followed by possible responses to the three scales with the following meaning: Agree – which means that the respondent completely agrees to the given statement being described. Uncertain – which means that the respondent cannot simply decide or has no opinion to the given statement being described; and Disagree – which means that the respondent completely disagrees to the given statement being described.

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The second research instrument was also a survey questionnaire. The questionnaires were adapted, modified and evaluated research instrument to determine students’ perceptions on Facebook as facilitative in teaching and learning English. To measure the students’ perceptions towards the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching and learning L2, a thirty (30) item– 3 point Likert scale was used. Corresponding to each statement in the research instruments were three (3) possible responses out of which the respondents were instructed to make a choice. Each question is followed by possible responses to the three scales with the following meaning: Agree – which means that the respondent completely agrees to the given statement being described. Uncertain – which means that the respondent cannot simply decide or has no opinion to the given statement being described; and Disagree – which means that the respondent completely disagrees to the given statement being described.

Before gathering the data needed, the manuscript was submitted to the Ethics Committee for a review. After the review, the Ethics Committee provided a certificate allowing the administration of the study to the respondents.

The researcher personally conducted the gathering of data and fully explained the intent of the study. For teacher-respondents, survey questionnaires were distributed and administered to them in order to gather the needed data. They were given two (2) days to finish the survey questionnaires on Teachers’ Perceptions on Facebook. The survey questionnaires were collected after two days. The data collected were used solely for the study and the findings were stated in broad-spectrum with no reference to any specific teacher, student, or school. Data were tabulated, tallied and analyzed.

To gather the needed data for students’ English competency level test, the researcher set a schedule with the grade ten (10) class advisers. Again, the researcher personally conducted the gathering of data and fully explained the intent of the study. Test questionnaires was distributed and administered to 56 student- respondents in school X and 36 student-respondent in school Z. They were given an hour to answer the English competency level test; 20 minutes on grammar test and 40 minutes on writing composition

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test. The grammar test consisted of 25 items and 20 items for the composition writing. Test questions were collected from the student- respondents afterwards. Data were checked, tabulated, and analyzed.

The data were generated from the survey questionnaires checklist and students’ English competency test which were analyzed using the appropriate statistical tools. Weighted mean was used to analyze research questions 1 and 2, and mean was used to analyze research question 3. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used to analyze research questions 4 and 5 in order to determine whether there is significant relationship in the grade 10 teachers’ perceptions on the use of Facebook and the students’ English competency level and whether there is significant relationship in the grade 10 students’ perceptions on the use of Facebook and their English competency level. In research question 6, one way ANOVA was used to analyze whether there is a significant difference in the grade 10 teachers’ perceptions on the use of Facebook and age; independent T-test was used to analyze whether there is a significant relationship between the teachers’ perception on Facebook and age and type of school employed. Independent T- test also was used in order to analyze whether there is a significant difference in the students’ perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to gender and type of school enrolled.

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Results and Discussion

Table 1 Social Networking and Second Language Acquisition: Exploring Facebook as a Tool for Teaching and Learning English

Variables Result Description Overall perception of Teachers in the Use of 2.30 Uncertain Facebook as Tool in Teaching English Overall perception of students in the use of 2.42 Agree Facebook as a tool for Learning English

Students’ English Competency Level 31.52 Competent

Relationship between Teachers’ Perception and .372 Not Significant English Competency

Relationship between Students’ Perceptions .021 Significant and English Competency Level

Significant Difference of Teachers Perceptions .580/.176/.217 Not Significant on Facebook (age, type of school, gender) Significant Difference of Students Perceptions .339/2.27 Not Significant on Facebook (Gender/type of school enrolled)

As shown in Table 1, the result of the study revealed that the overall perceptions of grade ten teachers towards Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching and learning English was “uncertain” with an overall mean score of 2.30. The result maybe uncertain, but it does not necessarily mean that it gives a negative impact as to their perceptions toward the use of Facebook as a tool for teaching and learning English. It simply implies that they are just starting to adjust and consider the use of Facebook (FB) platform to teach English. The result is similar to the findings found in the study by Clarke 2008, Teaching and Learning Strategies though Facebook. In order to improve the academic performance of students, teachers need to help students develop different learning and alternative ways of learning a language. One effective learning strategy is the used of FB in language classroom settings.

The overall perceptions of the grade ten (10) high school students of Zamboanga City in the use of Facebook as a facilitative

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tool in learning English was “agree” with an overall mean score of 2.42. This implies that the students believed that Facebook could be utilized as an online environment to facilitate the learning of English, that FB support educational activities by making interaction, collaboration, active participation, information and resource sharing, and critical thinking possible. In addition, Facebook is a unique and fun environment that lowers students’ stress levels and enhances learners’ engagement and interaction. According to Wu and Hsu’s (2011) study of the influence of SNSs on EFL learners in a university in Taiwan and Yunus, Salehi and Chenzi’s (2012) study on integrating SNSs into EFL writing classroom in a university in Malaysia, English language learners were found to enjoy interacting with peers in English and felt comfortable expressing their opinions and sharing their thoughts.

The students’ English competency level was competent with a mean score of 31.52. This implies that the grade ten students have the knowledge and skills on grammar and composition writing that functions effectively making them perform well on their English competency test. In addition, teachers also play a great role in making the students perform well in the class. For the students to gain a high competence level in grammar and composition, teachers are but one factor that can contribute to the students’ good performance in their English class. The teachers’ language teaching strategies and motivation have led to the success of the students’ language performance in the class.

Meanwhile, there was no significant relationship between the teachers’ perception on Facebook and the students’ English competency level with a significant p-value of .327, that is greater than the alpha (p-value<.05). It implies that the teachers’ perceptions on FB has no contributing factor that would affect the students English competency level as revealed in the overall mean score of 2.30 as the grade ten teachers perceived FB as uncertain. Meaning to say, the students English competency level which is competent with a mean score of 31.52 is the result of their knowledge and skills on grammar and composition that functions effectively. It further implies that the teachers overall perception towards FB as a facilitative tool in teaching English which is uncertain is parallel to the result that there is no significant relationship between their perception on Facebook and the students English competency level.

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In addition, it is revealed that there is a significant relationship between the students perceptions towards Facebook and their English competency level with a significant p-value of .021, that is less than the alpha ( p-value>.05). The result of the overall perceptions of the grade ten students on FB which is “agree” with a grand mean score of 2.42 shows a positive impact towards their English competency level which is competent with a mean score of 31.52. The positive result of the students’ perceptions towards FB is in parallel with their result in their English competency. This further implies that their perceptions on FB influence their performance in grammar and composition. Findings revealed that the grade ten (10) students believe that FB as an online learning environment facilitates, supports, and encourages their English language learning. In addition, the findings indicate that students' motivation and confidence towards English language learning improved via FB.

Further, it is revealed that there is no significant difference in the teachers’ perception towards FB with a significant p-value of .580, 1.76 and .217 respectively, which is greater than alpha (p-value <.05). This implies that all teachers regardless of whatever their age, type of school employed and gender, have the same perceptions towards the used of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching English. Meaning to say, the integration of technology into the language classroom setting must be used wisely and moderately. Teachers, when integrating Facebook as instructional tool in teaching and learning English, must know the positive and negative impacts that FB has towards the students. When integrating FB in language classroom setting, they must first teach the students on how to use it wisely, so that students may know their limitations in using FB as a tool in language learning. More importantly, teachers should employ such tool for educational purpose only and set aside its social use/function when teaching the English language.

Finally, it was also revealed that there is no significant difference in the students perception towards FB and the type of school they are enrolled and gender with a significant p-value of .339 and 2.27 respectively, which is greater than alpha (p-value<.05). This implies that the grade ten private and public students, whether male or female, has the same perceptions towards Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching English. It only shows that the influence of social media such as Facebook and its integration into the

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classrooms is very strong and that is being viewed by these teachers as the same regardless of whether they are private or public students. It also manifest that the utilization of FB among classrooms has generated interest in the educational setting.

Conclusions

Based from the findings of the study, it is therefore concluded that the overall perception of the grade ten (10) teachers on the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching English is uncertain. The overall perception of the grade ten (10) students on the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in learning English is “agree”, where the students’ English competency level is competent.

Furthermore, there is no significant relationship between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook and the students’ English competency level, while there is a significant relationship between the students’ perceptions on Facebook and their English competency level. There is no significant difference between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to: age, type of school employed, and gender. There is no significant difference between the students’ perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to gender. Thus, the research findings support the idea that the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching and learning English posits a positive impact on the both the teachers as well as the students.

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References

Blattner, G., & Fiori M. (2009). Facebook in the language classroom: Promises and possibilities. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning.

Kirschner, P., & Karpinski, A. (2010). Facebook and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237–1245. [20].

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Inc.

Krashen, S. D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New York: Prentice-Hall International.

Madge, et al., (2009), The effects of Facebook habits on academic success, BritanyHelton.

Mazer, J. P., Murphy, R. E., & Simonds, C. J. (2007). I'll see you on “Facebook”: The effects of computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate. communication education, 56(1), 1-17.

Patel, T. (2015). Analyzing the impact of social networks on English language teaching. ELT VIBES: International E-Journal for research in ELT, 1(2), 70-76.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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BARAYTI NG WIKANG FILIPINO SA BALITA O LATHALAING PANSHOWBIZ SA MGA PANGUNAHING PERYODIKO

Arche R. Tudtod University of Perpetual Help System-GMA Campus, Philippines

ABSTRAK Ang pag-aaral na ito ay isinagawa upang tuklasin at alamin ang kalagayang pangwika partikular na ang pagkilala sa kung anong barayti ng wikang Filipino ang mas ginagamit ng mga manunulat sa paglikha ng balita o lathalaing pumapaksa sa showbiz. Binuo ng dalawang bahagi ang isinagawang pag-aaral na ito tungkol sa barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng balita at lathalaing panshowbiz sa mga tabloid. Ang mga peryodikong pinaghanguan ng mga salita bilang korpus ng pag-aaral ay ang limang Tabloid: Balita, Bulgar, Pang Masa, Abante Tonite at Pilipino Star Ngayon. Itinala at inuri ang mga leksikal na aytem ayon sa apat mula sa pitong tepolohiyang nabuo salig sa pinagsama-samang pananaw nina Haugen (1966), Weinrich (1981), Rodman (1988), at Enriquez (1985). Ito ang apat na patern na ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito: Hiram-Ganap (HG), Hiram-Paimbabaw (HP), Hiram-Sanib (HSb), Hiram- Daglat (HD). Inuri ng mga mananaliksik ang mga barayti na ito sa tatlong kategorya batay sa morpolohikal na aspeto: Purong Tagalog, Filipino-Ingles o Asimiladong Filipino at Sosyolek. Natuklasan sa pananaliksik na ang pinakamaraming salitang naitala bilang halimbawa para sa hiram-ganap at malawak ang paggamit ng mga manunulat at kolumnista ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa Asimiladong Filipino o Filipino-Ingles bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikita at mapapansin sa mga pangunahing peryodiko.

Susing salita: Wikang Filipino, barayti at baryasyon ng wika, kuwalitatibo, Pilipinas, Asya

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Introduksiyon

Ang isang makabuluhang katangian ng wika ay ang walang tigil na pagbabago nito. Ito ay dahil sa walang humpay ang pagbabago ng kapaligiran ng wika at dahil na rin sa malikhaing kakayahan ng isipan ng taong napapansin ang kapaligirang ito. Batay kay Consuelo J. Paz, ang resulta nito ay ang pag-iiba ng variant o mga salitang halos pareho ang kahulugan. Kadalasang resulta ito ng panghihiram sa ibang wika ng salitang may katumbas sa katutubong pangwika sa Pilipinas at sa panghihiram sa banyagang wika.

Sa pagkakalaya ng mga Pilipino sa mga nandayuhang mananakop, masasabing hindi maipagkakaila ang naging epekto ng kanilang kultura, paniniwala at paraan ng pag-iisip sa kanilang naging kolonya. Sa patuloy na pagsulong ng globalisasyon at kompetisyon, nagkaroon ng adhikain ang ilang bansang naging kolonya na gamitin ang wika ng mga mananakop upang makasabay sa umano’y global na kompetisyon at isa na rito ang bansang Pilipinas. Kaya’t sa ganitong phenomena, hindi rin maiiwasan ang panganganak ng iba’t ibang baryasyon ng wika dulot ng pagsasanib ng wikang sinilangan sa ikalawang natutunang wika.

Ang mga norm ay isang panlipunang namamana’t naipapasa. Samakatuwid, partikular na marahil sa isang indibiduwal na magtanong sa sarili kung ang mga ito ba ay naisasangkalan sa usaping panlinggwistika. Mula sa empirikal na oryentasyon, maliwanag na ang mga norm na napapaloob sa isang wika ay kinikilala sa larangan ng sosyolinggwistika. Ang kalikasan ng mga batas na ito ay tinatalakay kaugnay ng paggamit ng bawat isa ng wika sa paraang pasalita at pasulat. Batay sa paglalarawan na isinagawa ni William Labov, na ang isang komunidad ay mayroong karaniwang pamantayan na ginagamit upang magkaroon ng malinaw at maayos na pakikipag-ugnayan sa isa’t isa (1996).

Sa kabilang banda, ang pagpasok ng norm na ito ay dulot ng proseso ng mabilisang pagbabago’t pag-unlad sa usapin na may kaugnayan sa wika. Ang penomenang ito ay maiuugnay sa tinatawag nating globalisasyon. Dito ngayon pumapasok ang papel ng pagpaplanong pangwika na isang paraan upang humanap ng solusyon sa kinakaharap na suliraning pangwika. Halimbawa nito ang nangyari sa wikang Hebrew ng bansang Israel, kung saan upang

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muling maibanyuhay ang naturang wika’y tinuruan ang mga mamamayang Israel ng Hebrew; lumikha ng mga salita o terminolohiya upang maging modernisado ang kanilang wika; at bumuo ng mga opisyal na terminong magagamit ng buong bansa sa pamamagitan ng kanilang Akademiyang Hebrew (Ignace, 1998). Ito ay isang halimbawa lamang nang pagkakaroon ng malaking papel ng pagtatakda ng norm lalo na sa larangan ng linggwistika.

Sa kabilang banda, winika naman ni Dr. Emerlinda R. Roman, ang dating pangulo ng U.P. Diliman noon na dapat alisin ang pag- aalinlangan tungkol sa pagpapayabong ng wikang Filipino at umalinsunod sa itinakda ng Konstitusyon.

Para kay Jose V. Abueva, naging pangulo ng U.P. Diliman ang paglinang at pagpapalaganap sa isang wikang pambansa ay isang makasaysayang tugon sa dayuhan at lokal na opresyon.

Pinangatwiranan naman ni Dr. Consuelo Paz, kilalang linggwista at dekano ng Kolehiyo ng Agham Panlipunan at Pilosopiya ng U.P. Diliman ang panghihiram sa ilang wika upang makaagapay ang Filipino sa mga pagbabagong nagaganap ngayon sa daigdig.

Para kay Pamela C. Constantino sa kabilang dako, makakatutulong sa paglutas ng suliraning ito ang mga kaalaman sa barayti ng wika. Para sa kaniya, may bisang sikolohiko ang pagkakaalam ng mga barayti ng wika para sa mga tao. Makapagsisimula ito ng pagbabago sa pagtanggap ng mga tao sa wika. Dahil dito aniya, “Magkakaroon ng kamalayan ang mga tao na may bahagi siya o papel sa pagpapaunlad ng wikang pambansa.”

Mahalagang bagay rin ang mga proyektong tulad ng taon- taong ginagawa ng Filipinas Institute of Translation, ang Sawikaan: Mga Salita ng Taon. Sa gawaing ito na idinaraos tuwing Agosto ng bawat taon mula pa noong 2004, nagtitipon-tipon ang mga eksperto o sinumang may malaking interes sa wika upang pag-usapan ang mga bagong salitang nadagdag sa bokabularyong Filipino. Sa nalathalang pagsasaaklat ng mga pagtalakay sa mga bagong salita ng taon noong 2004, makikita ang mga salitang hiniram tulad ng fashionista at text o hinango mula sa mga umiiral nang salita sa ibang rehiyon sa Pilipinas tulad ng salbakuta na galling diumano sa Bikolnon.

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Ang pagkakaroon ng baryasyon sa wika ay isang natatanging katangian na nauugnay sa sosyo-sitwasyunal. Ito rin ang pagkakaiba- iba sa uri ng wika na ginagamit ng mga tao sa bansa. Maaaring ang pagkakaiba-iba ay nasa bigkas, tono, uri at anyo ng salita na ginagamit ng bawat indibiduwal na kabilang sa isang komunidad. Ayon nga kay Clifford (1965), mayroong dalawang pangkalahatang uri ng barayti ng wika: una, ang barayting permanente sa isang indibidwal; at ang ikalawa, ang barayting pansamantala sapagkat ito ay nagbabago- bago batay na rin sa hinihingi ng isang sitwasyon o maging ang anyo ng pagpapahayag.

Ang pagkakaroon ng barayti ng isang wika ay hindi maipagkakailang umuusbong batay na rin sa pangangailangan ng isang lipunan o ng mga indibidwal na bumubuo na rin sa isang komunidad. Partikular na matutukoy ang mga barayti na ito sa anyong pasulat. Isang malinaw na halimbawa rito, ang ipinapakita ng mga artikulo higit na ang mga balita at lathalaing patungkol sa showbiz.

Sa pagsulat ng showbiz hindi maipagkakailang maraming matatagpuang iba’t ibang antas at barayti ng wika. Nariyan ang paggamit ng jargon o mga swardspeak, sosyolek at idyolek. Ang lahat ng ito ay naaayon sa kagustuhan o istilo ng mga manunulat.

Ang mga nabanggit ang nagtulak sa mananaliksik upang tuklasin at alamin ang kalagayang pangwika partikular na ang pagkilala sa kung anong barayti ng wikang Filipino ang mas ginagamit ng mga manunulat sa paglikha ng balita o lathalaing pumapaksa sa showbiz. Dagdag pa, nilalayon nitong tugunan ang mga sumusunod na suliranin: Ano ang kalikasan ng wikang Filipino batay sa pamamaraan ng leksikal na panghihiram ng salitang banyaga sa mga balita at lathalain sa mga tabloid hinggil sa showbiz?; at Ano-ano ang umiiral na barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng mga balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa aspetong morpolohikal? Sa pagtukoy na ito’y naniniwala ang mananaliksik na magbubukas ito ng pinto tungo sa paunang hakbang sa pagpaplanong pangwika na hahantong sa istandardisasyon ng wikang Filipino.

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Balangkas ng Pag-Aaral

Ang Theory of Norms and Exploitations (TNE) naman ni Patrick Hanks ay nagsasaad na pinapatnubayan ng mga pamantayan at mga batas ang paggamit ng isang wika. Ilan sa mga batas na ito ay ang ipinapatupad sa paggamit ng mga salita alinsunod sa pangangailangan ng isang komunidad. Kabilang din dito ang pamantayan sa wikang ginagamit sa iba’t ibang anyo ng panitikan. Sa pamamagitan ng teoryang ito, ipinapakita na ang gumagamit ng wika ay may kakayahang maging malikhain sa kung paano niya gagamitin ang wika sa paraang pasalita at pasulat. Isinasaalang-alang din ng TNE ang malaking bahagdan ng pagbabagong panlingguwistika tulad ng pagbabago ng baybay batay sa makabago at kumbensyunal na alituntunin, pagbabago sa kahulugan ng mga salita at ang pagdaragdag ng kahulugan sa mga salita.

Ang teoryang sosyolinggwistiko na batay sa pamamalagay na ang wika ay isang panlipunang phenomenon. Nagiging makabuluhan ang anumang pahayag, aksyon, salita ng isang indibidwal kung ito ay nakakonteksto sa loob ng lipunan at ikinokomunika sa isang indibidwal o grupo. Dahil naman dito, nakakabuo ng iba’t ibang konteksto ang paggamit ng wika dahil sa iba’t iba ring mga tao na may iba’t ibang gawain, papel, interes, saloobin, pananaw ang kasangkot sa proseso ng komunikasyon. Dito rin pumapasok ang katangian ng wika na pagiging heterogeneous o may iba’t ibang anyo malunggwistiko, ma-okupasyonal o ma-sosyal man ang mga anyong ito. Dagdag pa sa mga dahilan ng pagkakaiba- iba ng anyo ng wika ang lokasyong heograpikal, pandarayuhan, sosyo-ekonomiko, politikal at edukasyonal na katangian ng isang partikular na lugar o komunidad na gumagamit ng naturang wika (Doctor-Dinglasan, pp. 15).

Sa teorya ng akomodasyon ni Howard Giles, nakapokus ito sa mga taong kasangkot sa sitwasyong pangwika. Ipinapaliwanag dito na sa interaksyon ng mga tao, nagkakaroon ng tendensya na gumaya o bumagay sa pagsasalita ng kausap para bigyang halaga ang pakikiisa, pakikilahok, pakikipagpalagayang-loob, pakikisama o kaya’y pagmamalaki sa pagiging kabilang sa grupo (convergence). Pero kung minsan, pilit naming iibahin ang pagiging iba o naiiba, di- pakikiisa. O kaya’y lalong paggigiit sa sariling kakayahan at identidad (divergence). Mahalaga ang mga teoryang ito sa pag-aaral ng barayti

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ng wikang Filipino lalo na kaugnay ng atityud sa paggamit ng inaakalang “mas mataas” na barayti kumpara sa “mas mababa” depende sa istatus ng kanilang unang wika (Doctor-Dinglasan, pp. 16- 17).

Samantala, sa teoryang interference phenomenon and Interlanguage ay nakapokus naman ito sa mga wikang kasangkot. Magandang halimbawa ng interference ang pagbuo ng mga barayti ng wikang Filipino. Ang impluwensya ng unang wika, halimbawa ang Cebuano ay kapansin-pansin kapag nagsasalita ng Filipino. Isang katangian, halimbawa ng Cebuano-Filipino ang di-paggamit ng reduplikasyon (Hal: Doon ako magturo sa Palawan). Isa pang halimbawa ang paggamit ng panlaping mag- kahit sa dapat gamitan ng um- na panlapi sa Cebuano. Kaya, sa pagpi-Filipino ng isang Cebuano, nagiging “Huwag kang mag-ihi dito” sa halip na “Huwag kang umihi rito.” Ang Interlanguage naman ang tinatawag na “mental grammar” na nabubuo ng tao sa pagdating ng panahon sa proseso ng pagkatuto niya ng pangalawang wika. Dito, binabago ng tagapagsalita ang grammar sa pamamagitan ng pagdaragdag, pagbabawas, at pagbabago ng mga alituntunin. Halimbawa nito ang salitang malling na ginagamit na mula sa salitang mall sa Ingles. Impluwensyang Ingles ito sa Filipino na sa dalas na ng paggamit at popularidad ng salita ay nadagdagan ito ng gamit (nominalisasyon at verbalisasyon).

Pigura 1 Paradigma ng Pag-aaral

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Makikita sa dayagram ang daloy ng pag-aaral na ito, bibigyang-pansin ng mananaliksik ang pagsusuri sa limang tabloid na pinili na nagtataglay ng balita at lathalaing pangshowbiz na nasusulat sa Tagalog. Susuriin ang mga nakalap na korpus o salita batay sa kalikasan ng wikang Filipino sa usaping leksikal na panghihiram sa mga salitang banyaga at barayti ng Wikang Filipino sa morpolohikal na aspeto. Ang pagsusuring ito ay gagabayan ng mga teoryang ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito na kinabibilangan ng mga sumusunod: theory of norms and exploitations, teoryang sosyolinggwistiko, teorya ng akomodasyon at teoryang interference phenomenon and interlanguage. Mula sa magiging bunga ng pananaliksik na ito ay makakabuo ng isang mungkahing panuntunan sa pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz.

Layunin ng Pag-Aaral

Nilalayon ng pananaliksik na ito na matuklasan ang kalikasan ng wikang Filipino batay sa pamamaraan ng leksikal na panghihiram ng salitang banyaga sa mga balita at lathalain sa mga tabloid hinggil sa showbiz. Gayundin, upang matukoy ang umiiral na barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng mga balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa aspetong morpolohikal.

Metodolohiya

Binubuo ng dalawang bahagi ang pagsasagawa sa pag-aaral na ito tungkol sa barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng balita at lathalaing panshowbiz sa mga tabloid. Sa panimula ng pag-aaral, sinang-ayunan ng mga mananaliksik ang mga peryodikong paghahanguan ng mga salita bilang korpus ng pag-aaral. Limang Tabloid: Balita, Bulgar, Pang Masa, Abante Tonite at Pilipino Star Ngayon. Pinili ang mga tabloid batay sa kalawakan ng sirkulasyon sa ginawang sarbey ng infoasaid.org noong taong 2016. Upang makita ang iba’t ibang barayti ng wikang Filipino, isang linggong isyu ng pang-araw-araw na peryodiko ang iminungkahing paghahanguan ng mga datos. Kaya’t hinango ang mga salita mula sa mga pahina na pumapaksa tungkol sa balita at lathalaing panshowbiz sa bawat peryodiko mula Pebrero 24 hanggang Marso 2, 2017.

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Pinangkat at binilang ang mga nahangong salita batay sa barayti ng wikang Filipino. Sinimulang suriin ang mga salitang hiram upang makapaghanda ng isang instrumento sa pag-aaral.

Ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito ang mga modelong ginamit nina Hockett (1956), sa kanyang pagsusuri sa mga pagbabagong nagaganap sa mga magkakaugnay na wika, ang tinawag niyang ‘phylogenetic change’; ang kina Weinrich (1964) at Beardsome (1982) sa kanilang pagtalakay at pagsusuri sa mga panghihiram ng mga dayuhang wika.

Naging malaking tulong din sa pagsusuri ang Gabay sa Ortograpiyang Filipino ng Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino tungkol sa leksikal na panghihiram na kalikasan ng Wikang Filipino. Sunod na hakbang na ginawa ng mananaliksik ay ang pagpapangkat-pangkat at pag-uuri-uri ng mga korpus batay sa kinabibilangan nitong barayti ng wikang Filipino.

Nakapokus ang pagsusuri sa lebel na ito sa mga patern ng leksikal na panghihiram ng Filipino sa larangan ng showbiz. Itinala at inuri ang mga leksikal na aytem ayon sa apat mula sa pitong tepolohiyang nabuo salig sa pinagsama-samang pananaw nina Haugen (1966), Weinrich (1981), Rodman (1988), at Enriquez (1985). Ito ang apat na patern na ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito: Hiram-Ganap (HG), Hiram-Paimbabaw (HP), Hiram-Sanib (HSb), Hiram-Daglat (HD).

Sumunod na proseso sa pagsusuri ay ang pagkakategorya ng mga leksikon sa iba’t ibang barayti ng Wikang Filipino. Inuri ng mananaliksik ang mga barayti na ito sa tatlong kategorya batay sa morpolohikal na aspeto: Purong Tagalog, Filipino-Ingles o Asimiladong Filipino at Sosyolek.

Resulta at Pagtalakay

Leksikal na Panghihiram

Nakalalamang ang paggamit ng Hiram-Ganap ng mga manunulat at kolumnista ng mga pangunahing peryodiko sa pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz. Sapagkat, ito ang pinakamainam na paraan upang hindi na mahirapan pang humanap ng panumbas

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mula sa katutubong wika ng mga salitang banyaga. Buhat sa mga leksikon na naitala ng mga mananaliksik, mahihinuha na nagaganap ang tuwirang panghihiram ng mga salita batay sa mga sumusunod na salik: a. Ganap na hinihiram ang salita kapag wala itong anumang panumbas sa wikang Filipino at pinapanatili ang paraan ng pagbaybay dito.

Halimbawa: animated movie buffet decorum bouquet acid reflux debut condominium red carpet billboard pilot episode hunk Xerox copy blockbuster curriculum upper box broadsheet designer variety show album disc jockey visual effect bold films exfoliant guru

b. Hinihiram ng ganap ang mga salitang pantangi, teknikal, at pang- agham. Pinapanatili rin ang sistema ng pagbaybay rito.

Halimbawa: Academy Awards Film Festival Instagram Alzheimer’s Disease Call Center Agent Hollywood American Idol Christmas gynecologist American Eagle Outfitters Chemistry health center Botox Celebrity Bluff Martial Law Asian Tour Consular Diplomatic Affairs Facebook Dolby Theater Best Actor Best Actress

Ang naunang dalawang salik ay ganap na hinihiram sapagkat kung tatangkain na ito’y tumbasan ng isang manunulat sa wikang Filipino hindi malabong maganap na magkaroon ng kalituhan. At ito’y hahantong sa hindi pagkaunawa sa mensaheng nais ipahiwatig ng isang kolumnista ng showbiz.

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c. Kapag ang isang salita ay kabilang sa direktang sinabi ng kinapanayam ng manunulat o sa madaling salita ‘direct quotation.’

Halimbawa: “Siguro, naging interesting sa viewers ‘yung pagiging love team namin ni DJ kahit very opposite kami pagdating sa pananamit, pananalita, pagkilos and personality,” ani Kathryn.

Sa puntong ito, ang mga salitang interesting, viewers, love team, very opposite at personality ay ganap na hiniram dahil kabilang ito sa winika ni Kathryn Bernardo sa isang panayam. Mapapansing hindi ito tinangkang baguhin o palitan ng manunulat. Sa kadahilanang, iniiwasan ng mga manunulat na baguhin ang mga eksaktong salitang ginamit ng taong kanilang nakapanayam sa loob ng isang pangungusap upang hindi mawala ang orihinal na kahulugan ng kanilang mga pahayag. d. Batay sa preperensiya ng isang manunulat o kolumnista sa pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz.

Halimbawa: Marami sa mainstays ng isang musical variety show ng isang top TV network ang hindi pabor sa sobrang exposure sa kanilang show ng isang young actress/singer. Weekly na lang ay napakarami nitong production number. Basta may “achievement” ito sa career ay hina-highlight sa show.

Ang mga nakasalungguhit na mga salita sa itaas ay ganap na hiniram at ginamit ng isang manunulat ng showbiz sa kanyang artikulo. Bagama’t karamihan sa mga salita rito ay may katumbas sa wikang Filipino, hindi ito ginamit ng manunulat. Sa halip, pinanatili ang mga salitang iyon sa kadahilanang mas napapadali nito ang paglalahad ng mensahe at higit sa lahat napapaikli ang espasyo ng artikulo sa isang pahayagan.

Ang tepolohiyang Hiram-Paimbabaw ay kilala rin sa katawagang Hiram Di-Ganap. Buhat dito, mawiwikang ito’y isang uri ng panghihiram ng salita kung saan ang ponolohikal na aspeto o ang paraan ng pagbigkas ay nananatili samantalang nababago naman ang morpolohikal nitong aspeto. Mula sa mga leksikon na nakalap at naitala sa Ikalawang Matrix, mapapansing karamihan sa mga salitang

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ito ay sumusunod sa tuntuning pangwika na kung ano ang bigkas, iyon rin ang baybay. Nagaganap ang Hiram-Paimbabaw batay sa sumusunod: a. Pagbabaybay batay sa katutubong sistema sa pagbubuo ng mga salita o mas kilala sa sistemang ABAKADA.

Halimbawa ng mga salita:

bokabularyo - mula sa salitang vocabulary distribusyon - mula sa salitang distribution edukasyon - mula sa salitang education anibersaryo - mula sa salitang anniversary espekulasyon - mula sa salitang speculation bakasyon - mula sa saltang vacation ambisyon - mula sa salitang ambition atensyon - mula sa salitang attention kontrobersiyal - mula sa salitang controversial kampanya - mula sa salitang campaign intriga - mula sa salitang intrigue komiks - mula sa salitang comics karakter - mula sa salitang character b. Panghihiram alinsunod sa tuntuning kung ano ang bigkas, siya ang baybay.

Halimbawa ng mga salita: interbyu - mula sa interview karir - mula sa career isyu - mula sa issue komedi - mula sa comedy kaswal - mula sa casual aktor - mula sa actor aktres - mula sa actress dayalog - mula sa dialogue ekstra - mula sa extra espesyal - mula sa special inlab - mula sa in love isnab - mula sa snob ilusyon - mula sa illusion holdap - mula sa hold up

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komersiyal - mula sa commercial kompows - mula sa compose denay - mula sa denie lider - mula sa leader selebreyt - mula sa celebrate kyut - mula sa cute sey - mula sa say seksi - mula sa sexy prodyus - mula sa produce produser - mula sa producer pipol - mula sa people relaks - mula sa relax tradisyunal - mula sa traditional tayming - mula sa timing

Kung susuriin ang mga leksikon na ito sa ilalim ng naturang tuntunin, mahihinuhang karamihan sa mga salita ay sadyang ginagamit na o kabilang na ito sa talasalitaan ng wikang Filipino. Samantalang, ilan naman sa mga salita ay nakalilikha ng pagkalito sa karamihan tulad ng kompows, sey, denay, selebreyt, prodyus, tayming, isnab, pipol at iba pa. Bagama’t mapapadali nito ang pag- unawa sa salita, wala pa ito sa hinagap ng karamihan sapagkat hindi pa ito napagkasunduan na ito ang magiging panumbas sa mga hiram na salita. c. Panghihiram na may pagbabago at pagadaragdag ng mga ponema.

Halimbawa ng mga salita: aktibo - buhat sa active artista - buhat sa artist eksena - buhat sa scene ere - buhat sa air (live broadcast) diperensiya - buhat sa difference direkta - buhat sa direct kritiko - buhat sa critic kultura - buhat sa culture komento - buhat sa comment kuwalipikado - buhat sa qualified porsiyento - buhat sa percent pamilya - buhat sa family pruweba - buhat sa proof serye - buhat sa series

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responsibilidad - buhat sa responsibility resulta - buhat sa result respeto - buhat sa respect rason - buhat sa reason

Ngunit, kapansin-pansin din naman ang hindi pagiging konsistent ng mga manunulat sa paggamit ng mga salita partikular na ang panghihiram sa mga salitang banyaga. Halimbawa, may mga manunulat na gumagamit ng baybay sa salitang produce na ‘produs’ at ang iba naman ay ‘prodyus’. Gayundin naman sa ‘produser’ at ‘prodyuser’ para sa salitang producer. Ang ganitong isyung pangwika ay maaaring magbunga ng kalituhan sa mga mambabasa kung ano ba ang nararapat at angkop na salin para sa dalawang nabanggit na salitang banyaga.

Ang isa sa madalas na gamiting istilo ng mga manunulat at kolumnista sa pagsulat ng showbiz ay ang hiram-sanib. Kung saan, kapansin-pansin ang pagsasama ng mga banyagang morpema at katutubong morpema sa isang salita lamang. Nagaganap ang ganitong uri ng tepolohiya sa pamamagitan ng paglalagay ng mga panlapi sa mga salitang banyaga na pinapanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng mga salitang hiram.

Halimbawa nito ang mga sumusunod na salita: • i-check • ini-schedule • mag-apply • ma-accommodate • ka-publicized • ka-love team • nag-front act • na-realize • makiki-fiesta • pang-Cannes • interviewhan • maishowing

Mapapansin din na sa paglalapi at pag-uulit ng mga salitang hiram, idinurugtong ang tunog KP sa unlapi. Kahalintulad din ito sa sistema ng pagbabaybay kapag nasa aspektong kontemplatibo (panghinaharap) ang isang salita.

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Halimbawa nito ang mga sumusunod na salita: • nadi-discuss • magco-complain • nag-e-effort • mag-o-open • nagpo-post • nag-wo-workshop • naggi-guest • pangba-basted • pagli-link • ia-announce

Nagaganap din ang Hiram-Sanib kapag ginigitlingan ang mga pangngalang pantangi at salitang hiram kapag inuunlapian. Halimbawa ng mga salita ang sumusunod:

• pang-Cannes • taga-Starstruck • taga-American Idol • mag-Best Supporting Actress • ala-People Power Revolution • mag-Best Picture

Hindi mawawala ang paglikha ng sariling istilo sa pagbuo ng salita sa pamamagitan ng hiram-sanib higit na sa pag-uulit ng mga banyagang salita. Tulad ng:

• fresh-fresh-an • nag-a-action-action • nail-link

Mapapansin sa ikaapat na tepolohiya ng leksikal na panghihiram na kakaunti lamang ang bilang ng salitang naitala. Ito ay sa kadahilanang bihira lamang gamitin ang Hiram-Daglat ng mga manunulat at kolumnista ng showbiz. Karaniwan ang ganitong anyo ng leksikal na panghihiram ay kadalasang binibigyang katuturan bilang pag-iimbento o paglikha ng mga salita sa pamamagitan ng pagpapaikli sa mga ito sa paraang pasalita o pa-iskrip. Halimbawa ng mga salita:

•Indie film/movie - independent film/movie •Noontime show - Afternoon Time Show •Presscon - Press Conference

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•Resto - Restaurant •Senti song - Sentimental Song •Showbiz - Show-business •Teledrama - Television Drama •Telefantasya - Television Fantasy •Teleserye - Television Series •cooking demo - cooking demonstration •music fest - music festival •Produ - Production •Infotainment - Information Entertainment •Tech buzz - Technology Buzz •Congrats - Congratulations •Fantaserye - Fantasy Series •lip synch - lip synchronization •Televiewer - Television Viewer •Vidcaps - Video Captions •V-day Dinner - Valentine’s Day Dinner •Preggy - Pregnant •Telegenic - Television Photogenic

Narito naman ang mga salitang kabilang sa pa-iskrip na paraan ng pagdadaglat. Karaniwan itong mapapansin sa paggamit lamang ng mga letra o titik bilang kinatawan ng kabuuang salita.

Halimbawa:

• CR - Comfort Room • TFC - The Filipino Channel • PA - Personal Assistant • LQ - Love Quarrel • MU - Mutual Understanding • Ex-BF - Ex-Boyfriend • GF - Girlfriend • TF - Talent Fee • TV - Television • R&B - Rock & Ballad

Morpolohikal na Aspekto

Sa aspetong leksikon o morpolohikal, lumalabas na higit na nakalalamang ang paggamit ng Asimiladong Filipino o Filipino-Ingles bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikitang ginagamit ng mga manunulat at kolumnistang panshowbiz. Ang barayti na ito ng wika

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ay bunga ng panghihiram ng ganap sa isang salitang banyaga at nilalapatan ng pangkatutubong sistema ng pagbaybay o dili naman kaya paglalapi at pinapanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salitang hiram. Halimbawa nito ang mga salitang tropeo, titulo, umapir, turista, pinag-effort-an, at marami pang iba. Habang pumapangalawa naman ang Purong Tagalog o ang sariling bokabularyo ng wikang Filipino halimbawa nito ang tumbok, milagro, mahalukay, mabusalan at marami pang iba. At kakaunti naman ang mga halimbawa ng salitang naitala sa Sosyolek o ang tinatawag na lenggwahe ng isang pangkat tulad ng tsika, tsalap-tsalap, umariba, waley, wankatitat at iba pa.

Samakatuwid, ipinapakita lamang nito na lumulutang ang impluwensiya ng banyagang wika sa pagsulat ng mga balita o lathalaing panshowbiz ng mga manunulat at kolumnista nito. Marahil, epekto rin ito ng tinatawag nating bilinggwalismo o paggamit ng dalawang wika maaaring ito ay Ingles at Filipino.

Kongklusyon

Ang barayti ng wikang Filipino na ginagamit ay nagtataglay ng mga sumusunod na katangian: (1) may panghihiram sa Ingles na hiniram ang buong salita; (2) panghihiram sa paraang may anyo ng kulturang Filipino sapagkat ginamit ang katutubong sistema sa pagbubuo ng mga salita; (3) paghahalo (Code-mixing) ng mga salitang Ingles sa konstruksyong Filipino sa isang likas na paraan at pagpapalit-koda (code-switching) ng konstruksyon ng mga pahayag sa wikang Filipino at wikang Ingles; (4) paglilikha ng mga bagong salita batay sa pangkat na kinabibilangan; at (5) pagiging matapat sa paghahanap ng mga katumbas na salita sa wikang Filipino. Ang pinakamaraming salitang naitala bilang halimbawa ay para sa hiram-ganap. Naisasakatuparan ang paraan na ito ng leksikal na panghihiram batay sa sumusunod: ganap na hinihiram ang salita kapag wala itong anumang panumbas sa wikang Filipino at pinapanatili ang paraan ng pagbaybay dito; hinihiram ng ganap ang mga salitang pantangi, teknikal, at pang-agham. Pinapanatili rin ang sistema ng pagbaybay rito; kapag ang isang salita ay kabilang sa direktang sinabi ng kinapanayam ng manunulat o sa madaling salita ‘direct quotation.’; at batay sa preperensiya ng isang manunulat o kolumnista sa pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz.

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Malawak ang paggamit ng mga manunulat at kolumnista ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa Asimiladong Filipino o Filipino- Ingles bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikita at mapapansin sa mga pangunahing peryodiko. Nananaig ang sariling preperensiya ng mga manunulat at kolumnista sa leksikal na panghihiram ng mga salitang banyaga. Kung kaya’t kahit na may malinaw na pamantayan at tuntunin para rito ay bihira na nila itong masunod.

Sanggunian

Alonzo, R. I. (1996). Ang pagsasalin sa agham panlipunan: Isang pagsusuri. Nasa Daluyan. V11-45-74.

Batoon, P. J. Q. (Marso 1999). Isang mungkahing gabay sa istilo ng pamamahayag. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman, Lungsod Quezon.

Constantino, P. C. et al. (1985). Wika, linggwistika at bilinggwalismo sa Pilipinas. Manila: Rex Book Store.

Hudson, R.A. (1993). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. http://nlp.fi.muni.cz/projects/cpa/

Littlejohn, S.W. (1992). Theories of human communication. 4th Edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Mercado, T. P. (Oktubre 1992). Ang preperensiya sa pagbabaybay ng mga salitang hiram sa mga pangunahing peryodiko: Tungo sa istandardisasyon at kodipikasyon ng Filipino. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman, Lungsod Quezon.

Nilsen, D. N.L., Nilsen, A.P. (1977). Language play: An intro to linguistics. Newsburry House Publishers/Rowley, Massachusettes p. 1.

Paz, J. (Agosto 20, 1998). The national lingua franca for people Empowerment. Nasa The Philippine Star.

Semorlan, T. P. et al. (2009). Retorika: Masining na pagpapahayag. Lungsod ng Quezon: Rex Bookstore.

Tiamson-Rubin, L. G. et al. (1983). Sining ng malikhaing pagsulat at pananaliksik. Lungsod ng Quezon: Rex Book Store.

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AN ANALYSIS ON ERROR PRODUCTION AMONG CHAVACANO SPANISH LEARNERS

Joseline S. Alvarez Western Mindanao State University, Philippines

ABSTRACT Chavacano is widely considered to be one of the world’s oldest creole and influenced by Spanish, so it is expected that Chavacano learners are error free in the Spanish language. Since there has been no study on this aspect, the current study is imperative. This study aimed to investigate the errors committed by Chavacano learners in learning Spanish as a foreign language in a conversational context and to determine which errors are more persistent. The study employed the descriptive- qualitative method through the use of the Spanish articles and conjugation-based approach to structurally distinguish the verb’s stem and its inflectional affix, as in comer (you eat) in which “com” is the stem and “0, es, emos, eis, en” is the inflection. Ten Chavacano speakers from Mass Communication students as informants were purposively selected. A set of pictures adopted from Tendero (2012) and audio recorder were used. The data were transcribed and analyzed. Results showed that the informants committed the deviation language froms (omission, addition, misformation, and misordering). This study would provide research-based insight among Spanish teachers to anticipate error production from Chavacano learners.

Keywords: Linguistic Spanish articles, qualitative method/conjugation-based approach, Philippines, Southeast Asia

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Introduction

In producing speech, the students often make errors in their speaking. The students sometimes hesitate or stop in the middle of sentence for a moment to think the appropriate word be said next. And most of them do not prepare full planning before speaking, especially in spontaneous speech. Error is considered as an inevitable and positive part of that process” (Fauziati, 2009).

Throughout the language learning process, students inevitably face imperfection in their production. Learners advance through stages of second language (L2) attainment when taught to identify their errors and understand the other language’s differences in structures.

In this research, the writer uses some related theories, they are:

1. Interlanguage

Interlanguage was coined by Selinker (1977). According to Fauziati (2009), Interlanguage is a study on the language of the second language learners. These terms refer to (1) Transitional Competence, (2) Idiosyncratic Dialect, (3) Approximative System. Interlanguage are divided into three concept: Adjemian’s concept, Selinker’s concept, Tarone’s concept.

2. Error analysis

According to Ellis (1994), Identification of error is defined as deviation from target language form. According to Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) errors can be classified into many types. The first Language components include phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), and semantics and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary). The second surface taxonomy strategies are divided into four types, namely: Omission, Addition, Misformation, and Misordering.

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3. Speech Error

According to Fromkin (1968) and Green (1969) in Fromkin (1973), “Speech errors have been investigated in attempt to show the reality of phonological units and rules, and the relationship between linguistic competence and performance. According to Clark and Clark (1977: 263) in Fauziati (2009), there are many kinds of errors. Those are: 1) Silent pause, 2) Filled pause, 3) Repeats, 4) Unrestricted, 5) Retraced, 6) Correction, 7) Interjection, 8) Stutters, and 9) Slip of tongue.

The Spanish verb system, like that of French and Italian, is highly inflected thus providing an ideal context to further the study of the variables having an impact on inflectional assignment. Spanish verbs encode several semantic notions: tense, mood, aspect, person, and number. In addition, each Spanish verb involves a "thematic vowel", a, e, and r, easily recognized in the infinitive (e.g., tomar! to drink, comer/to eat, subir/ to move up, to go up). According to their thematic vowel, Spanish verbs can be classified into first, second, and third conjugation classes depending on whether their inflectional endings follow the -ar, -er, or -ir inflectional patterns, respectively.

Grammatical and Semantic Features in the Spanish Verb Paradigm

Feature Types -ar Theme -er -ir Present Tense Past Future

Mood Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Aspect Imperfective Perfective Person First Second Third Number Singular Plural

Using the morphological descriptions suggested by Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) and Quilis and Hernandez-

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Alonso (1990), the structural paradigm of a Spanish verb can be summarized as STEM+ THEMATIC VOWEL + M ORPHEME I +MORPHEME II, in which morpheme I stands for the tense, the mood, and the aspect, and morpheme II represents the person and the number encoded by the particular verb. It is clear that, as suggested by Quilis and Hernandez-Alonso (1990), the morphological structure of the Spanish verb is able to encapsulate the symbolic domain (lexeme [stem]) and the deictic domain (the speaker's conceptualization of the action: morpheme.

In this study, I employed a conjugation-based approach that were structurally distinguished the verb’s stem and its inflectional affix only, as in comes (you eat) in which “com” is the stem and “es” is the inflection. This approach differs from a morphologically-based taxonomy that would break a verb down into its theme vowel and its different morphological components, as reported by Jarema (personal communication, April 25, 1996).

Mood: These are meanings communicated by a verb involving the "speaker's attitude to the proposition or to its truth-value" (Dahl, 1985). Gili-Gaya (1989) identifies three moods in Spanish: indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. The indicative mood expresses actions considered real or certain (e.g., Yo tomo vino/I drink wine), the subjunctive mood refers to possible, wished, or uncertain actions (e.g., Dudo que yo tome vino/ doubt that I would drink wine), and the imperative mood expresses commanded actions (e.g., Tomar/ Drink).

Tense and Aspect: Three tenses can be communicated by Spanish verbs; present, past, and future, depending on when the action described by the verb occurs. However, the action expressed by the verb can involve temporal shades in meaning unrelated to tense and resulting from the sentential context addressing the action's duration or completion. These temporal specifications are identified as aspectual features. Comrie's (1976) terminology illustrates these fine temporal descriptions by referring to tense as situation external time and aspect as situation-internal time. To Comrie, aspect is not concerned with relating time of the situation to any other time-point (as tense does), but rather with the internal temporal consistency o f the one situation. For instance, consider the aspectual differences in these examples of past-tense sentences; "When she called, I was having dinner" and "When she called, I had dinner". In the first

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sentence, the two actions, "calling1’ and "having dinner" occur within the same time frame, whereas, in the second sentence, "calling" precedes "having dinner". Both sentences denote past tense situations yet differ in their internal temporal dynamics. Stockwell et al. (1965) describe aspect as imperfective or perfective depending on whether we conceptualize an event in terms of the course of its occurrence (imperfective) or its termination (perfective). They add that perfective forms in Spanish are necessarily past tense, and imperfective forms can be either past or non-past. The Real Academia Espanola, REA, (1985) calls perfect tenses the preterito perfecto simple (PR1: tome/drank), and all the compound tenses such as preterito perfecto compuesto and preterito pluscuamperfecto (PRP: he tomado/have drunk; PRC: habia tomado/had drunk) since the past participle (tornado/drunk) gives the auxiliary a perfective meaning. In contrast, excluding the preterito perfecto simple, REA calls imperfect tenses all o f the simple tenses: presente (P: tomo), preterito imperfecto (PRI: tomaba) futuro (tomare), and condicional (C: tomaria) in the indicative mood; and presente(tome), preterito imperfecto (tomara/tomase), and futuro (tomare) in the subjunctive. Marcos-Marin (1975) states that the Spanish verb system does not have a different morphological marker to indicate aspect, as do Greek, Russian, and Arabic. The only exception in which the perfective-imperfective aspectual opposition is morphologically distinguished in Spanish, and does not depend on sentential or discourse context, is in the preterito perfecto simple (Yo tome/I drank) and the preterito imperfect (Yo tomaba/I used to drink, I was drinking). Otherwise, tense, mood, and aspect meanings in Spanish coalesce at the morphological level (Morpheme I in the above paradigm) thus being identified as tense-mood-aspect (TMA) notions, or, more often, as tense-aspect when referring to the temporal characteristics of a particular verb in a sentence. Person and Number: Spanish verbs also encode agreement information relating the verb form to the agent of the action and its number (Morpheme II above). In this manner, Spanish verbs can express a first, second, or third person for each singular (yo/I, tu/you, el/he, ella/she) or plural (nosotros [masculine], nosotras [feminine]/we, ustedes/you, ellos [masculine], ellas [feminine]/they).

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Other Pertinent Features

Spanish verbs are also subject to other variables such as the stress-assignment rules of the language and frequency patterns in daily discourse.

Stress: Lexical stress placement in Spanish, which can be graphically shown in the word (PRI: sublet, Appendix A) or only acoustically detected upon speech production (P: “tomo2”), can occur on the last syllable or on any of the preceding syllables of a word. Hence, stress placement along the verb syllabic structure can highlight the stem or its inflection as seen in the verb "Tomar" whose stem is tom-, "tomo" (I drink), "tomamos" (We drink/drank), and "tomaria" (I would drink) (Appendix A). Harris (1969, 1983) notes that each paradigmatic form (all inflected forms for the different tenses) and non paradigmatic form (infinitive, gerund, and participle) of Spanish verbs has a characteristic stress pattern involving the penultimate syllable that admits no variation. Except for the infinitives and some forms of the preterite and the future, with the stress on the final syllable, Spanish verbs are always stressed on the penultimate syllable. Similarly, Ch. Cairns (H. S. Cairns, personal communication, March 5, 1996) notes that Spanish has a basic trochaic, strong-weak syllable pattern.

There are many other researchers that are related to this study. The first was done by Rakhmawati (2011) UMS, entitled “A psycholinguistic analysis of speech errors made by Rachel Ray on TV show”. The second was conducted by Fadhila (2013) UMS, in her research paper entitled “Errors in Speaking English made by students of English department of Muhammadiyah Uneversity of Surakarta”. The third was conducted by Wijayanti (2013) UMS. In her research entitled “Speech errors in a talk show program of Metro Tv face to face with Desi Anwar broacasted in January to June 2012”. The fourth was done by Ilmiani (2014) UMS, in her research entitled “Error in oral production made by English departement students of Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta”. The fifth research was conducted by Saad (2014) University Kuala Lumpur British Malaysian institute, in his reserarch paper entitled “Error analysis in role- play presentation among less proficient L2 Malaysian learners”.

The theory of contributions is based in part on the analysis of repairs by Schegloff et al. (1977). According to this analysis, repairs

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are organized according to the participants' opportunities for making repairs. These opportunities occur only at certain points in conversation, and this leads, for example, to a preference for self over other-repair, and to a preference for self- over other initiation of repair. Yet the notion of contribution cannot be reduced to the notions of· repair and repair opportunity. The notion is needed to capture one of the goals people have in talking--the satisfaction of the grounding criterion. It helps define what counts as trouble, and what counts as repairing a trouble. It also helps specify how people reach that goal, namely via a process of mutual acceptance, which includes elements other than troubles and their repair. In short, contributions have an organization that goes beyond the organization of repair.

It is inevitable for learners to make mistakes when they attempt to use the target language before they have mastered it. Teachers, therefore, should be prepared to handle the variety of errors that could occur in learners’ speech (Burt, 1975). The role of corrective feedback in the process of learning a second language has been debated. As Krashen (1982) argues, corrective feedback may not benefit learners in acquiring the correct form if they are not ready to learn. Then the question is whether treating errors will facilitate speedy acquisition of the correct form or will simply be futile until the learners reach a stage of interlanguage development where they can make use of such feedback to modify their ill-formed utterances. However, if a teacher chooses not to treat an error in one learner’s utterance, the other learners in the classroom may assume that the form is correct. Consequently, this assumption could lead some learners to internalize incorrect forms, i.e., fossilization. The next question is whether teachers should deal with errors immediately or wait until learners finish with the messages they are trying to convey. Immediate error correction may inhibit a learner’s willingness to speak in class at all because it can interrupt the learner in the middle of a sentence. On the other hand, although delayed feedback can allow the learner to finish what the learner is trying to say, the feedback may become less effective as the time between the error and treatment increases.

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Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The study of language learning remains incomplete without an in depth analysis of the errors that creep into its usage both, from the theoretical point of view and from the standpoint of the methodology employed in analyzing them. This research deals precisely with this aspect of language learning. Language learning was initially perceived as mastery over its interrelated subsystems through extensive practice. Skinner (1957) declared that language is learned through a process of 'habit formation' and 'verbal behaviour'. This is usually referred to as the Behaviouristic theory. However, Noam Chomisky (1960) mentions that influences bringabout a change of attitude in this sphere. Language came to be viewed as not merely 'verbal behaviour' but also as a complex system of internalized rules underlying this behaviour. It is believed that it is this system of internalized rules that empowers a person to create innumerable original sentences. According to Chomskyian theory children are born with an innate capacity for acquiring language. This inherent ability helps them in a creative-construction of language. While learning a second language students commit errors. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors is an effective meaningful means of improving and accurate learning. These are two ways to identify or analyse the errors– Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. Contrastive analysis is based on ‘habit formation’. It reflects the essential truth of the behaviourist view that "We learn what we do" (Wilkins, 1974). According to this theory, ‘habit’ plays an important role in acquisition of the first language as the learner is considered to have mastered his mother tongue through the imitation of adult utterances. Applied linguistics used the contrastive analysis distinction between the learner’s first and second language to predict errors. The importance of contrastive analysis as stated initially by Lado and then reiterated by others is as follows ‘The errors and difficulties that occur in our learning and use of a foreign language are caused by the interference of our mother tongue. Whenever the structure of the second language differs from that of the mother tongue, we can expect both, difficulty in learning and errors in performance (Wilkins, 1972). From the behaviourists’ perspective, the learner uses his preview mother tongue experiences as a means of organizing the second language data. So, if the structure of both the languages is similar, the learning will be easier. But, when the system of both the languages is different it creates

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problems. Contrastive analysis is helpful in locating those problematic areas and efforts could be made to find solutions to them. On the whole, contractive analysis has a prognostic value i.e. to predict the errors, difficulties and problems faced by learners, while learning a second language. These views are also put forward by Lado who says that ‘individuals tend to transfer the forms and meaning and the distribution of forms and meaning of their native language and culture– both productively when attempting to speak the language and act in the culture, and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and the culture as practiced by native (Wilkin, 1972: 198). Contrastive analysis is the method of analyzing the structure of any two languages with a view to estimate the differential aspect of their system, irrespective of their genetic affinity or level of development.

Objectives of the Study

The objective of this study is to identify the errors made by Chavacano speakers in learning Spanish as Foreign language. Specifically, this research aimed to answer the following:

1. What errors do students make in a conversational context? 2. What errors are more persistent?

Methodology

This section describes the research design, sampling technique, elicitation materials and the process of data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Research Design

This study made used of descriptive-qualitative method. It aimed to determine the existence of error production among Chavacano Spanish learners particularly on verb and article.

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Informants

This research employed purposive sampling technique to determine the 10 Chavacano Spanish learner informants. Informants were purposively selected from the Mass Communication students who were enrolled in the S.Y. 2017-2018 of the second semester of the College of Liberal Arts, Western Mindanao State University, and were taking Spanish subject with the description of Conversational Spanish.

Instrument

The instrument used was a picture. The informants were asked to describe the picture. In order to ensure the connection of theoretical constructs and the central objectives of this study to the instrument, the picture was validated.

Data Gathering

To obtain the necessary data for analysis and interpretation, the picture was administered among informants which was audio- recorded. Informants were properly oriented to the process of data gathering. Each was asked to describe the picture. The task lasted a maximum of 15 minutes.

The following procedures were done: 1. Gather the 10 students. 2. Orient the informants. 3. Distribute the picture. They were given 10 minutes to organize their thoughts. 4. After 10 minutes, informants were called to describe this picture.

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Data Analysis

The following were the descriptions and transcriptions of the picture made by the informants. The transcription was validated by Spanish teachers who is also proficient and licensed to teach the subject.

Informant 1

Una foto ta significa un profesora ensenando lecciones en una clase.. Segunda foto ta significa un profesora otorgado por un trabajo. Ultimo foto ta significa un profesora viajar para relajarse como recompensa por ella misma. (The first picture is a teacher teaching in her class. The second picture shows a teacher is assigned for a work and the last photo shows a professor will travel to unwind)

Informant 2

Uno de los estudiantes esta presentando un studio a los panelistas. En na segunda foto, los tres son appreton del manos despuies de la presentacion exitosa. El tercero, los dos chicos que son mejorees amigos continuaron navegando para delajarse y disfrutar de momentos libre de estres en el mar.

(One of the students is presenting a study to the panelists. In the second photo, the three shakes their hands after the successful presentation. The third photo shows, the two boys are better friends and they will continue to sail to enjoy the moments for stressed free.)

Informant 3

Erazo una ves, un estudiante llamado Carlo se esfuerza por estudiar donde puedemos ver en la imagen uno. Tebido a su deligencia, se graduo con gran exito, como le que puedemos ver en la imagen dos. Despues de todos sus dificultades y el exito que tiene ahora,requerda la epoca en que todavia era un pescador que luchava por ganarse la vida, como puedemos ver en la imagen tres.

(Once upon a time, a student named Carlo strives to study where we can see in image one. Who is diligent, graduated with great success, as you can see in the picture two. After all his difficulties and

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the success, he has now, he is still a fisherman who is striving for a living, as we can see in image three.)

Informant 4

Una foto ta significa un profesora ensenando a sus estudiantes. Segunda foto ta significa una chica recibiendo su premio. Ultimo foto ta significa dos amigos navegando en un barco.

(The photo is a teacher teaching her students. The Second photo is a girl receiving her prize. Last photo are two friends sailing on a boat.)

Informant 5

La profesora y los alumnus estan en la aula. Esta explicando sobre algo y sus alumnus la escuchan. Las dos personas tambien estan platicando, quizas sobre la discussion de la profesora. Agui tiene tres personas. Probablemente son profesionales. El caballero tiene el gusto de conocer la mujer, asi como para mutual colaboracion. Claro que los dos caballeros ya son colegas. Las dos personas estan en el bote que esta intentando a encontrar una forma de atravesar las grandes olas en el mar.

(The teacher and the students are in the classroom. He's explaining something and her students listen. The two are also talking, maybe about the discussion of the teacher. They're probably pros. The gentleman has the pleasure of knowing the woman, as well as for mutual collaboration. Of course the two gentlemen are already colleagues. The two people are in the boat that is trying to find a way to cross the big waves in the sea.)

Informant 6

Como percibi de esas cifras, muestar que el barco representa ir al extranjero, y el maestro esta solicitando ese puesto en otro pais. Significa que, en nuestra sociedad,especialmente en el entorno de Filipinas, el salario o el salario es lo suficietemente minimo como para soportar un dia. Otros gastos como vestimente y otras cosas no son sostenibles . es pore so que la mayoria de nuestros companeros Filipinos estan trabajando con la esperanza de obtener una mayor cantidad de salario.

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(As you perceive these figures, the ship represents going abroad, and the teacher is applying for that position in another country. It means that, in our society, especially in the Philippine environment, wages or wages is not sufficient minimum to withstand a day. Other expenses like dress and other things are not sustainable. Most Filipinos are working abroad in the hope of obtaining a greater amount of salary.)

Informant 7

De alguna manera esta imagen se relaciona entre si. En el momento un maestro ensena sus cuatro estudiantes y ella fue promovida y ella tuvo un viaje gratis a otro pais.

(Somehow this image relates to each other. At the time a teacher teaches his four students and she was promoted and she had a free trip to another country.)

Informant 8

La primera imagen muestra que el grupo de personas se encuentra en una reunion formal encabezada por la mujer que eta de pie sosteniendo un papel y el resto del grupo escucha y los demas habla con cada uno. La imagen muestra que el tema del que se habla es serio como un problema , ofertas de la empresa o una cita importante basada en la gente que se muestra en la imagen. Parece que el grupo discute el tema dentro de ellos mismos para que den su decision, decision acordada por todos ellos, a la mujer frente a ellos que encabezada la reunion. Ademas, la imagen de bajo de la primera imagen muestra que basandose en la decision tomada por el grupo durante su reunion, el grupo acordo finalmente hacer un trato dentro de la otra compania tal vez. Con la mujer dandose mano con la otro se asegura que los dos estuvieron de acuerdo con un trato determinado que puede dar beneficio entre ellos. El hombre y la mujer parecen estar de acuerdo con el trato, ya que parecen sonreir el uno con otro. Al equal que una cita, un grupo a los dos personas necesitan aclarar las cosas para que tomen una decision que sea acordada por la mayoria y que sea Buena y beneficiosa para los demas. La tercera foto muestra que la decision acordada por las dos partes de la cual de grupo hablo seriamente fue para viajar donde los miembros se devierten y se sienten libres de entres sin los problemas de la oficina ya que los trabajos de oficina pueden ser tan estresantes

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y complicados que puede dar la emfermedad mental y fisica que es mala para a la salud de cuerpo.

(The first photo shows that the group of people is in a formal meeting headed by the woman standing in front holding a paper while the rest of the group listens and the others talk with each other. The picture shows that the topic being talked about is serious like a problem in a company that deals or a major appointment based from the people’s seriousness shown in the picture. It seems that the group discusses the topic within themselves as for them to give out their decision agreed by all of them, the woman in front of them headed the meeting. Below the first picture shows that based from the decision taken by the group during their meeting the group agreed to finally make a deal with the other company perhaps. With the woman shaking hands, is giving assurance on certain deal which can give benefit to them. It seems that the woman and the man agreed on their deal. The third photo shows that the two parties agreed seriously, to travel and have fun or to be stressed free and avoid sickness.)

Informant 9

La primera foto significa la profesora habla con los alumnus despues la segunda foto, la jefe dar su saludo a profesora.

(The first picture shows a professor teaches her student then the second picture, the boss congratulate the professor.)

Informant 10

Creo la foto muestra buen exito porque la jefe dar su saludo a profesora , significa que la profesora haga su trabaho poreso oferta un vacacion a ella.

(I believe the picture shows that the professor did her work well that is why she was offered to have a vacation.)

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Results and Discussion

The error production made by the Chavacano Spanish learners is the deviation from the language form which are addition, malformation, and misordering.

Addition errors are the opposite of omission errors. They are characterized by the presence of an item which must not be present in a well-formed utterance. Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the unacceptable forms of the morpheme or structure. While in omission errors the item is not supplied at all, in misformation errors the learner supplies something although it is incorrect.

To know the description of the errors in Mass Communication students, the writer identified the errors and classify them into four aspects: Omission, Addition, Misformation, and Misordering.

Table 1 Additional Error Committed by the Chavacano Spanish Learners

The most common errors committed are addition and misformation. The insertion of the word ta and na evidently were used. Informant 1 and 2 used ta and informant 3 used na, these words do not exist in Spanish language, they are Chavacano words. In the misformation, informant 1 use un profesrora to which it must be una profesora because profesora is feminine in gender so the article must be una not un. Informant 2 used uno estudiantes, estudiantes is plural in meaning so the article uno must be unos. Informant 5 has the misordering and misformation errors. The subject is alumnos ( Students) la is misformation for it must be los, it is also misordering

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because it must be before the subject( Los alumnos escuchan not alumnos la escuchan).

Conclusions

The writer concludes that the error production committed by the Mass Communication learners particularly Chavacano speakers, who took Spanish with the description of Conversational Spanish has the deviation from the language form which are addition, misformation and misordering. Evidently, 3 out 8 informants displayed the deviation error of addition, and it can be concluded that this was due to the first language interference, for ta (be form of the verb) and na (preposition) are Chavacano words.

References

Andersen, R. (1983). Transfer to somewhere. Transfer in language learning. S.

Gass and L. Selinker (eds.). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Bailey, N., Madden, C., & S.D. Krashen. (1974). Is there a natural sequence in adult second language learning? Language learning 24 (2): 235–243.

Duncan, S. Jr., & Fiske, D.W. (1977). Face-to-face interaction: Research, methods, and theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. London: Oxford University Press.

Fadhila, H. (2013). Errors in speaking English made by students of English department of Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta. Unpublished Research Paper. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta Fromkin.

Goffman, E. (1976). Replies and responses. Language in SocietjJS, 2:57-313.

Levelt, W. J. M. (1983). Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, 14-104.

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Poullise, N. (1999). Slip of the tongue: Speech errors in first and second language production. Huebner, Thom and Kees de Bot (Eds.). Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam.

Rahmawati, S A. (2011). A psycholinguistic analysis of speech errors made by Rachel Ray on TV program. Unpublished Research Paper. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta.

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ANALYZING WAR EXPERIENCES OF COMBAT SOLDIERS IN THE MARAWI SIEGE USING FIELD THEORY

Christoper F. Sasot University of Perpetual Help System-GMA Campus, Philippines

ABSTRACT

The study presents a perspective for the analysis of war experiences, particularly through the war soldier’s habitus. Bourdieu’s Field theory, helped in understanding the factors that affected the survival through the concepts of field, cultural capital and habitus. Habitus, in particular, focused on the psychosocial aspects of the soldiers. Data came from the three combat soldiers who had private as ranks and were deployed in Marawi City. They were part of the first batch of reinforcement sent to rescue soldiers who were ambushed by the extremist group. The study emphasizes the way in which the cultural capital, power relations, and dispositions that forms habitus represent war experiencesand affected the practice of killing, and survival.

Keywords: Habitus, soldiers, field theory

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Introduction

The Marawi siege is considered to be the 'most serious terror event'in Southeast Asia in the past 15 years (Morallo, 2017). Given the said situation, many families, communities, and individuals were affected by the crisis. The five-month war caused serious damage to the physical environment, the community, and individuals, not only physical, but emotional and psychological as well. At the center of this, were the Filipino soldiers, being engaged in what is known as the longest urban battle in the history of the Philippines (France-Presse, 2017). The Marawi conflict claimed the lives of a total of 165 government forces and more than 1400 wounded (Manila Times, 2017). There was limited to no information with how soldiers carried themselves in combat” or “in-depth information with how soldiers made sense of their combat experiences”, specifically, the psychosocial processes that took place while they were the warzone, or a new field.

Production of Violence

The experiences of the soldiers during war, specifically, in combat, have been studied in the field of social sciences, such as sociology, and anthropology. One way of understanding such is through explanations on how violence is produced. Theory of violence explains that violence can be normative, which is an effective and acceptable method for meeting needs with little to no lasting consequences (Polaschek, Calvert, & Gannon, 2007). It also states that violence is necessary to protect agency, maintain social order, and is a result of uncontrollable circumstances. Furthermore, violence is brought about by the social structure itself, such as the state versus terrorists. In the context of war, the violence produced is viewed as normal justified, specially by the government as the institution which operationalizes violence, because it is deemed necessary for peace (Galtung, 1881). In the individual level, violence is ensued because of individual and group conflicts, such as terrorists are perceived as the enemy of the state, which is represented by the soldiers(Christie, Wagner, &Winter 2001). Violence therefore is a precedent to killing, which is the main goal of soldiers at war.

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Killing as Practice

Killing as a practice in war has also been studied using a philosophical lens (Kilner, 1998), focusing on moral justification of killing in combat, with the conclusion that soldiers believe that they are not responsible or accountable for the death of their enemies during wartime. Leaders, in particular, have the obligation to explain the moral justification for killing and explain the morality of killing so soldiers can live with themselves in the years after combat (Kilner, 2002). These studies, though give explanation on why soldiers kill, they do not take into account other factors that are intertwined in the complex process of taking another person’s life in the context of war. Thus, we look into other factors that contribute to the practice of killing in the warzone, such as soldiers’ experiences.

Soldiers’ war experiences

There is a plethora of research conducted on combat soldiers, mostly focusing on the effects of combat. Soldiers suffer from the adverse results of combat, affecting their psychological and social functioning (Henschel, & McDevitt-Murphy, 2016). Aside from the physical injury, negative changes to mood, emotions and behaviors are experienced by the soldiers, which are invisible to others, hence these effects are unrecognized (Tanielian, 2009). Research shows that they are more likely to suffer from a mental health problem if they are part of combat arms unit, engineers (assigned with explosive ordinance), and transportation or support unit (Castro, 2016). Being exposed to combat, especially seeing dead bodies, getting shot at, hearing that someone they know were injured/killed, and being attacked or ambushed, increases risks for developing negative mental health outcomes like PTSD, depression, and anxiety (Castro, 2016). While these studies offer utility in Psychology such as in the clinical area, it does not look into other factors that explain how the soldiers survive their ordeal, taking into account history, training, and the environment.

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Using Habitus as Frame in Understanding War Experiences of Soldiers

This study attempted to contribute to the knowledge base by exploring the habitus of war soldiers in the context of the Marawi siege. This study also examined power, dispositions, and sense of self in the field. These elements are important in understanding mechanisms that drive or motivate them to survive in the field, and to reproduce the practice of killing. Power relations explain how the soldiers, together with the Maute (a major agent in the field), compete for dominance in the warzone through the acquisition and proper use of their capitals. Affective dispositions of soldiers will be included, to beused as a tool for understanding the affective dimensions of both privilege and disadvantage in the warzone. The sense of self is how the soldiers see themselves as capable agents in the field, and their efficacy to carry out their task or goals. The results of this could provide a better understanding of combat and a preliminary contextual analysis of the factors that enable an understanding of engagement killing and surviving that explores habitus, which is embodied through emotions, among them.

Field Theory as Frame in Analyzing War Experiences.

This research made use of the Field theory by Bourdieu (1887). Field theory is a theoretical construct consisting of three elements: field, capital, and habitus (Wacquant, 2004). Cultural capital refers to the set of knowledge and skills which an individual possesses. It is not distributed evenly and cannot be acquired instantly, making its procurement difficult and putting its owners in an advantageous position in relation to those who lack it and cannot immediately obtain it. According to Bourdieu (1987) , in the context of this study, cultural capital is found in three states, which are: a) the embodied state, which are the military training and expertise in battle; b) objectified state, which are translated to guns and ammunitions; and c) institutionalized state, which is the soldier’s state of being the protector of our nation, and having the legitimate right to kill.

Habitus is made up of the mental schemata that results from the incorporation of visions and objective social divisions that configure principles of difference and membership in certain fields

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(Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992). In this study, it is described as the soldier’s practical learning that is neither conscious nor deliberate, as it is acquired through the embodiment of the practices, visions and values of the social space in which, other subjects such as their family, the Maute group, and their comrades operate. These are sometimes forgotten and have, as a result, led to the association of the concept with something innate, whereas in reality it refers to something whose incorporation was involuntary, through the process of socialization (Dromundo, 2007). The habitus of soldiers in the context of war will be examined and how they make sense of it given the situation that they are in.The concept of a cleft habitus (Reay, 2015) was explored, as soldiers enter a new field which has a layer of affective aspect. The concept of field is described as a set of power relations between agents or institutions in the struggle for specific forms of domination and monopoly of an efficient type of capital (Gutiérrez, 1997), and in this study, it investigated how soldiers identify their capital as agents in the field against the rebels. Cultural capital refers to the set of knowledge and skills which an individual possesses (Bourdieu, 1987).

Bourdieu defines the concept of field as a set of power relations between agents or institutions in the struggle for specific forms of domination and monopoly of an efficient type of capital (Gutiérrez, 1997). This space is characterized by relations of alliance among its members (soldiers, family, comrades, and the rebels), who are on a quest to obtain the most benefit and impose as legitimate that which defines them as a group; and by confrontation of groups and individuals in the search to improve their positions or exclude groups. The space which the study refers to is the warzone. The position depends on the type, volume and legitimacy of the capital and the habitus that the subjects have acquired over the course of their lives, and how these vary over time. Hence, field, capital and habitus are concepts that are interconnected in this study.

Soldier’s Habitus

Studies on combat soldiers’ habitus, specifically, the dispositions and personal history, and preferences that they carry on the warzone, which is heightened by the emotions they feel, which will explain the context of their dynamics at war and the

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complexities of the backgrounds of soldiers, remain unexplored. Bourdieu uses habitus to reveal how a cultural economy of class is embodied and lived out in individuals, and will also include affective dispositions, as a tool for understanding the affective dimensions of both privilege and disadvantage in the warzone. (Reay, 2015). Despite the numerous armed conflicts in the country, there is a dearth of studies that explored the Filipino soldiers’ experiences, and in particular, their habitus. Habitus is made up of the mental schemata and practices that result from the combination of ideas and objective social divisions that configure principles of variance and participation in certain fields (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1995). It gives the subject with the skills and values needed for entry into a group, confers the ability to move, act and take a position or a strategic orientation in a situation without it being necessary to establish a plan of action, because all these are the result of a series of dispositions embodied in the course of a trajectory (Gutiérrez, 1997). For instance, a soldier, having been trained in the military school, experiences further training and work load, then receives a particular post or position, thus, will act based on the dispositions he embodied through that course. The studies presented above uses different lenses that does not account for capitals, power relations, and dispositions essential for identifying a soldier’s habitus. Hence, this paper addresses this gap. I argue that war experience of combat soldiers should be understood as phenomenon, connected with the subjective experiences together with the elements of the field theory such as power relations and capital. This argument enables war experience to be understood beyond the existing approach in research on soldiers. Particularly, it focuses on the psycho-social processes which is the psychological and social structures and spaces in the formation of identity, action and relating (Hollway, 2006).

Objectives of the Study

In this study, using the Field theory of Bourdieu as a frame, the researcher attempted to answer the question, “what is the habitus of soldiers during a war?” Specifically, the researcher answered the question “What is the habitus of combat soldiers during the Marawi Siege?

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Methodology

Design

This research utilized a qualitative design. Personal semi- structured interviews were used as the strategy for the data collection and thematic analysis (Braun & Clark, 2006) was used in analyzing the data collected from the transcribed interviews. Personal interview was the chosen format to allow for the participants a level of privacy and to make them more comfortable sharing private details. Semi-structured interviews were used to allow for leeway with any unforeseen but relevant data. Bourdieu’s habitus, field, and capital served as framework for explaining the experiences of the combat soldiers. The framework also dealt with concepts of power, practices, and dispositions (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992).

Participants

The participants in the study were three combat soldiers who had private as ranks and were deployed in Marawi City. They were part of the first batch of reinforcement sent to rescue soldiers who were ambushed by the Mauteextremist group. The limited number of participants is due to the difficulty in acquiring permission, and the ethical consideration of possibly unearthing negative emotions. The selected participants, after being interviewed were subjected to debriefing procedures.

Data Collection Instrument

The researcher from the initial research study held separate, personal interviews with each of the five participants. The interviews followed a semi•structured format, where the researchers prepared a set of guide questions (Appendix A) but depended on the participant’s responses to dictate the flow. The guide questions opened with introduction questions to build rapport and paint a picture of the participant’s context and background. After which, the questions were focused on probing experiences during the war. The interviews were conducted in either Filipino or Bisaya, whichever the participant was most

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comfortable with. The responses in Bisaya was translated to Filipino for the purpose of analysis.

Procedure

Initial readings of all data transcripts derived from the 3 participants was done from an initial study. Transcripts were then selected based on the research question for the present study. Data analysis was made to the purposely identified transcripts that described the soldiers’ habitus.

Data Analysis. The thematic analysis approach by Braun and Clarke (2006) was utilized for the data analysis. Analysis was initially done with multiple reading of texts, making initial codes, and looking for initial themes. After the initial themes were subjected to further evaluation, the coded transcripts were reviewed again toidentify final themes. The meaning of each final theme was then subsequently defined. The set of themes were then further analysed for the labels of the themes. Lastly, the final themes were then organized using the Field theory of Bourdieu, which includes Habitus as frame. Finally, the themes were arranged logically and explained in such a way that it shows the habitus of the combat soldiers during war.

Validity. For this study, validation was made through certain procedures. From the conceptualization of the study until its final form, it was subjected to numerous critique, iterations, and questions for improvement made by psychology PhD graduate students and Professors from the Ateneo de Manila. Revisions were made taking into account the comments and suggestions.As an individual with no personal experience of war, and using only the data and available literature as source material, I constantly checked my reflexivity.

Results and Discussion

In this study, using the Field theory of Bourdieu as a frame, I attempted to answer the question, “what is the habitus of soldiers during a war?” Specifically, I answered the question “What is the habitus of combat soldiers during the Marawi Siege?” Using the

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thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006), the data from the interviews were analyzed, and using Bordieu’s Field theory as frame. The final identified themes that explains soldiers habitus were dependency on God, social support, and being a protector of the state. The themes will be analyzed and connected to capitals used, power relations, affective dispositions, and practices that led to survival in the field.

Table 1 War Experiences in Relation of Field Theory

Power Affective Agents Theme Capital Practice Relations Dispositions Involved Dependency on Embodied Symbolic Propensity to Enemy-Maute Praying God Cultural Capital power over fatalism Faith in God enemies brought God about by fear (Internalized) and axiety Social Support Cultural Capital Alliances, Resilience Soldiers-Allies Helping Social Capital- shared Empathy Families other Human Capital power over Cooperation soldiers enemies Reciprocity Trust

Contempt Maute group Being a Soldier Institutionalized Violence moral Enemy-Maute Killing Cultural Capital towards superiority Status in Society each other Non ally- to claim pride Civilian Objectified Marawi Cultural Capital visceral Ammunitions aversions and guns ambivalence Embodied Cultural Capital distrust Military Training and expertise in battle

Dependency on God

In the warzone, soldiers are vulnerable to many kinds of danger, and are always exposed to the possibility of death. As they enter the war, soldiers carry with them their faith in God. The social structure during wartime, which involves so much chaos, evokes internalized beliefs that God is in control of the situation. In a highly religious society, faith in God is considered to be a capital, which is

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embedded in the soldier’s psyche. This belief gives a symbolic power over the enemies or the rebels, who are positioned to be the ones who are not following societal rules, and therefore are evil and source of chaos. It is interesting to note that even if the soldiers viewed belief in God as a capital, it does not translate to certainty of survival. For instance, if they survive, it is because God protected them from their enemies, but if they do not survive, it is because it is already their time, which is described as the propensity for fatalism. Agency in life is not present, but because of the belief, they became more courageous, and fear and anxiety was minimized.

In the text below, it is shown that the soldiers disposition is that they have no agency in life, but they put their trust on God all the same.

“So once na nag-move kasi yung (short pause) isang sundalo, which is operation, ah i-mind set mo na na may ganyan mga putokan so prepare nalang po together nasa bayan mong dasal.” (Andres)

In the succeeding texts, soldiers recalled how they survived the warzone, and it reflects the affective disposition of fatalism, wherein they just surrendered whatever happens to them to God.

“Palaging magdasal palaging mag ingat basta sumabay lang sa agos wag mong kontrahin tas ano go with the flow” (Andres).

“Wala na mang purpose po yung GOD naikakapahamak mo kundi ikakaikaka kumbaga ikakaunlad ngkuan mo” (Andres)

“..[laughs].. eh swerte pa rin. ‘Yun nga… ah… swerte swerte ano din ng Panginoon, dasal lang talaga dun sa loob. Yun bless kami nakuha kami dun narescue” (Mario).

All of these texts reflect the religiosity of Filipinos which is strongly embedded in our culture. The habitus of soldiers is described in this theme as being able to connect with God in times of difficulty, and use this as capital to face the adversaries. Being in

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the side of God helped soldiers think they have an advantage over the enemy and the situation. The practice of prayer, was identified in all texts, which was viewed as their protection against the Maute group. The use of having “God”that soldiers can pray to was somewhat adefense thus created the illusion of superiority and false conﬁdence, warding off fears of failure and inadequacy’ (Ryan, 2006). It also reflected the lack of agency in one’s own life.

Social Support

The habitus in terms of social support was described in terms of how soldiers interacted with allies and how they viewed this in the context of the field. For soldiers, these alliances, established exchanges that allowed them to form secure support and mutual recognition for what they are and what they produce (Bourdieu, 2000). Under this theme, agents included comrades and families as allies, and the Maute group as enemies. Families as internalized agents, were seen as cultural capital, and the anticipation of reuniting with them in the future gave soldiers a sense of hope. It was interesting though, that soldiers deliberately distance themselves from their families and loved ones, and contact was minimized. This was the struggle that they have to make to affectively focus on their task. The absence of communication in itself was a strength or a capital.

Soldiers, as much as possible, wanted to be devoid of emotions during war. Thus, they do not want to see their family or loved ones getting worried or getting emotional, because they might bring the thoughts with them in the warzone, and might affect their performance as a soldier.

“Pamilya? Ay oh. Di nila alam na kasama ako dun sa..di ko sinabihan. May nag text yung kuan ka buddy ko..tinext yung ate ko. Sabi nya pakitawagan daw ako kasi tropa naming yung na trap. Tinatawagan ako nung kuan mga magulang ko. Di dawmakontact.Parangkuanbasila [short pause] emotional na (client laughs). Umiiyakyung ate ko. Tapos nung nakalabas na kami dun, tinext ko na yung ate ko, okay na ako. Tapos nung umuwi ako, sinabi ko sa kanila, kung ano yung mangyari sa akin, tanggapin natin” (Mario).

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On the other hand, soldiers also relied on comrades for their well-being and safety. Soldiers who were also agents in the field, and shared power to each other in the common goal to defeat the Maute.The care and support of soldiers for each other was very evident during the war. Having no one to turn to during the war was hard, especially if they were in a difficult situation, like being physically wounded.

“Eh yung kabuddy ko na isa, “yun, kami lang dalawa, sya umiiyak na lang. Parang ako na lang ang nag fa-function. Ang sya e pinatatag ko nalang yung kalooban nya, na hindi sya mag —“Ching lalaban tayo Ching. ‘Wag kang mawalan ng pagasa mare-rescue tayo”. (Andres)

In the data, it is showed that Andres encourages another soldier to endure and fight even if they were in the middle of a difficult situation. This also reflects their disposition that as soldiers, they should not leave anyone behind, and in this instance, emotionally they are there for each other. They provide emotional support and hope, until such time that they leave the warzone. Affective dispositions of empathy, resilience, and cooperation is reflected in the excerpt. Soldiers who were facing difficult situations during deployments relied on battle buddies for survival. Part of their training was to help each other, and in this context of war, their trust to their comrades was shown in the following narrative, wherein one of the soldiers relies on the expertise of the other.

“Ang kadalasan po kasi maam, kasama mag escort, patrol, security doon. Para (ahh) narerecognize yung lugar doon para mafamiliarize po naming na ah, ganito pala dito, maraming building, maraming tao, parang hindi safe, ganyan, so kahit di ko kabisado yung lugar, ayyy kuan na ako, parang may idea na ako na kuan (Andres).

“Ay dun sa mga kasama ko dun sa kuan, yung opisyal naming nakikipagkwento. Siya lang kasi may hawak nung cellphone nalagi naming ginagamit sa pagcontact ng mga opisyal. Sinasabi nya na kuan, papunta nasila, parang high morale lang..nandyan nasila (Mario).”

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As shown in the text above, even just the implied presence of the soldiers, and the anticipation of the help they will get was enough to give them hope. Knowing that they have comrades who will come to their aid made them think that they still have power over the situation and over their enemies. This was taught to them as soldiers. This shows affective dispositions of trust, resilience and cooperation. The strength of one, is strength of all.

The unique context of war, with the uncertain dangers brought about by the environment, in spite of the soldier’s skills and training, with no certainly is they will survive. Part of the military discipline is to trust each other as soldiers, and just do what they can to accomplish the task assigned to them.

“Bakit tayo pupunta dun? Wala bang ibang tropa?” Eh sabi nila dun nga, nag encounter na. May tropa na naipit sa loob. May namatay na, ganun ba. Kumbagaang amin nalang, naawa rin kami sakanila. Sige sir tarana (laughs) sabi ko sa sarili ko, “tara na rin”. Kumbaga, makisawsaw na lang .. (laughs).. din ba. Kung baka matulungan din yung kapwa naming sundalo nga.” (Andres).

In the above narrative, the soldier showed fear before joining the rescueteam. Upon realizing that it is invetible, agreesto go to the warzone, and help other comrades. The new field positions them as people who can help other soldiers, who are also agents in the field, thus is a cultural capital in itself. The fear is caused by the possible defeat in encountering the maute group, and being killed in an unfamiliar territory.

The struggle of claiming Marawi, and killing as many enemies as possible, was made possible with coordination and aid from allies. Soldiers were trained to show dispositions of empathy and resilience, and this was reflected. Working together as a unit, helped them perceive a shared power over the enemy.

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Protector of the State

Figure 1 Thematic Map of Soldiers’ Habitus in Terms of Capitals

Being a soldier means meeting certain expectations. These expectations are carried out through certain practices that prepare soldiers in the warzone. The process that they go through, if acquired properly, are considered as cultural capital. Training for combat and expertise in the handling ammunitions for one is considered to be a very important skill. These are considered as embodiedcapitals because these are internalized and become unconscious due to practice. Ammunitions and guns on the other hand are viewed as cultural capital in objectified state.

The acquisition and ownership of ammunitions (guns and bullets), are considered as cultural captital by the soldiers. They see these objects as of high importance, and that possession of these will aid them in survival.

“Yun nga e, nakakataas ng moral kasi marami na akong bala. Yung baril na dala ko, maganda na rin makipaglaban” (Mario).

It was also recognized by the soldiers that these resources are limited, and since they have no sense of how long they will stay in the battlefield, it is important for them to use these capital wisely. Mario, one of the soldiers implied that he previously had. As also

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reflected in the text, the acquisition of ammunition had a psychological effect of increased morale, and in effect, resulted to having an edge over the enemy in terms of power.

“Kung (long pause)..kumbaga ammo discipline sa bala, na mag ah, wag ano ang bala, wag sayangin ang bala. Tapos presence of mind” (Andres).

Though the soldiers are prepared to go into war in terms of supplies, there were certain situations that strip them of these capitals. One instance was when they did not anticipate the position of the Maute rebel. In the succeeding text, it is shown that lack of supplies affected their strategy, and caused the death of one of the soldiers. Power is shifted to the rebels, who are in the advantage in terms of position and capital.

“Yung driver naming na magkuha sana ng bala dun sakabilang vehicle kasi naubusan na, naisnipe dun salikuran, sa may pinto….” “Yung gunner naman namin, eh mag attempt din sana na kunin din yung ano, yung bala, e na snipe syabuti dito sa may ilalim banda” (Jose).

The soldier’s training was also perceived as capital. As reflected in the soldier’s excitement to go to the warzone, he wanted to practice his training and abilities. Bourdieu (1989) describes this comfortable ease of habitus in familiar ﬁelds as a fish in the water.

“Excited. Eyy malamang, hindi naman yun yung una na operation na sinamahan ko, so, hindi na ako bago, so excited akona kung anongmangyaridoon, mga na gaganap, ganun” (Mario).

Even at the face of death, soldiers relied on their training and expertise in the battlefield as a means to survive. When the soldiers enter the battlefield, it was very clear to them that they can die anytime, and that they have no agency of their own life. They were just placed in a situation that they have no control over, and did their best to stay alive, but also recognizing that anytime, they

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can die. In the excerpt below, it is illustrated how the soldiers used the training they got, and the disposition of ambivalence is felt.

“Tatakbo kami, kailangan takbo naming yung pacross-cross yung takbo ka nang ano lang talaga kumbaga abo bah, kuling… panghuling… pang one time nalang nabuhay ba. Kung mabuhay ka, swerte mo talaga, kung mamatay ka, palad mo rin” (Andres).

These capitals, as identified by the soldiers, are present in the identification of soldiers’ habitus and are essential in understanding the relations that they have with other agents in the field.

In the context of war, the soldiers carry with them their personal dispositions, things that were taught to them, philosophies that were handed over by their superiors, and previous experiences that they carry with them. Entering a new field, power relations, capitals and sense of self were also affected.

“Then yun nga, parang tagilid kami pero still fighting kami.— pa rin kami lumaban. Iniisip naming ganito na talaga buhay nakasalalay na dun. Hindi kalalaban wala na… “yung mamamatay ka nalang dahil sa takot mo” (Jose).

This also reflects their “never say die” disposition, which is connected to their moral superiority, over the Maute rebels. Even if the odds were against them, they still chose to fight and strove to overcome their predicament.

Killing the enemy is one of the most practiced in this theme. Being the protector of the state, and in the context of martial law as a harsh and violent environment, they made it their goal to destroy or kill the enemy as their main goal, next to surviving. In the text below, anger as a disposition is apparent, and violence through killing is the manifestation of the power relations in the particular habitus.

“Parang may galit. Gustong.. gusto naming pumatayngano. Hindi mo na maisip. Ang iniisip mo na lang makadale akong

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kalaban… Papatay ako papatay hangga’t buhay pa ako”(Andres).

Two of the participants even expressed happiness upon killing one of the rebels, reflecting the idea that killing the enemy was their responsibility and goal. The soldiers even expressed that killing the enemy is so important, that they needed to do it until they still have breath. The warzone as a field, in which the soldiers need to compete for power domination, the rule of the game is to kill or be killed.

“Yun parin yung masaya makapatay kang.. yun nga, makuha nila. Makuha Maute nila masiyahan karin”(Mario).

Being in the midst of war, and being in a different territory means that soldiers will encounter different people. During the war, soldiers mistake certain Maute terrorists as civilians, and regretted helping them out. In the text below, anger is felt because of the regret that they were too trusting of the family member of the rebel posing as a civilian.

“Eh yun nga, kala yun pala tatay na pala ng Maute nakita din naming sa social media nahuli, Putangina di pa nakabihis yun. Iyun pa yung suot nya. … dun naming narealize nay un palang matanda nay un, papa pa lang Maute. Kung alam palang naming, dun pa lang, wala. Matagal narin naming kinatay (Andres).”

The text reflects the soldiers’ disposition of distrust to anyone, much more people who are connected to soldiers have sworn to protect the state, meaning, all of the civilians and citizens of the Philippines, but because of the context of war, the enemies were positioned as people not deserving of any form of mercy. Distrust, as an affective disposition is very evident in the above text, and anger towards those who “tricked” them. In this particular text, in terms of power relations, because of the trust and mercy the soldiers given to the civilians, it was evaluated as a success for the Maute, and a weakness for the soldiers.

Being exposed to training, soldiers are perceived to have an implied advantage over the Maute rebels. But during the heat of

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war, the soldiers also experienced fear of the enemy, and wondered where the enemies strength comes from.

“Makikita mo sa mata nilapulang pula. Eh..yun nga nakadroga man. Eh parang walang takot, walang kamatayan ang tao ba.” (Jose)

“Di ko nga alam kung bakit matagal lang nila yung (slightly prolonged) isang buwan na sobra mahigit na halos walang saktong tulog, walang saktong kain, tapos andyan pa yung mga eroplano naghuhulog ng bala, ng bomba. Kami nga mga more on 300-400 meters, lumalagabug nayung mga kuwan” (Andres).

Part of the military training involves desensitization and dehumanization of the enemy, due to the fact that soldiers find psychologically a need to refer to the enemy as animal or other non- human beings. The process, if not assimilated will make a soldier impossible someone to kill another human, even in combat or under threat to their own lives (Grossman, 1996). These affective dispositions, were also considered capitals, because the easier for them to pull the trigger and kill someone, the better chances they would complete their task as soldiers. Power relations, clearly were violent confrontations from both agents, and were treated with visceral aversions.

Figure 2 Thematic Map of Soldiers’ Habitus in Terms of Dispositions

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Due to soldiers’ knowledge about warfare, a cultural capital, soldiers learned not to trust anyone in the warzone, except for their superior and comrades. In the transcript, one of the soldiers expressed distrust towards the locals. They were also taught to be civil with the locals, but not to the extent that they will befriend them.

“Kung dito sa marawi expected ko talaga kung may makita ako bale di ko dapat ilingat yung paningin ko kasi sabi nga sa akin nang nanay ko at tsaka tatay ko rin, wag kang magtitiwala sa Maranao kasi Maranao is back fighter, di pwedeng pagkatiwalaan. So pag may Makita ako kung makipagusap man sila ahh mag yes yes na lang ako pero deep inside or inside may kuan eyy sinasakayan ko lang” (Mario).

“Ahmm kung sa kaibigan meron pero more on plastikan kasi yung ginagawa ko sa kanila, kumbaga yayayain nila ako sa ganitong lugar sige lang ako nang yes nang yes” (Jose).

During war, even if the soldiers sworn to protect civilians, they expressed their distrust to them just so to minimize the possibility of being betrayed. This strategy was seen as an edge, and in terms of power relations, this disposition prevented them from the possibility of being ambushed or betrayed.

Conclusion

Using Bourdieu’s field theory as a frame, this study aimed to identify the habitus of soldiers in a war. The concepts of habitus and field provide an idea of the mechanisms that affected combat soldiers’ experience in the warzone. Three major themes from the soldiers’ habitus emerged from the analysis, namely dependency on God, social support and being a protector of the state.

The first theme focuses on the soldiers’ personal faith, and belief in God. Soldiers, upon entering the warzone sees faith in God as a capital, and brings with them the belief that their fate is in the hands of God. It was acknowledged, that a soldier’s time on earth depends on God’s will. This belief also means that God is on their side, and they are the ones whom He is protecting. The Mauteis viewed and positioned as enemies for the soldiers have the moral

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superiority because God is with them. This is related to the popular religious discourse in the Philippines that God protects the faithful, and punishes evil doers. This also results to the practice of praying, which is a manifestation of the soldier’s faith.

The second theme under the soldiers habitus, is social support which explains that soldiers need different kinds of support to survive. Comrades are viewed as essential for survival, because their survival depend on their trust and support for each other. In this theme, it is shown that soldiers keep their significant others with them in the warzone.Power is shared among them, and their degree of trust, cooperation, and resilience help them become more capable in defeating their enemies. Family, as an internalized agent in the field, which also provides support, particularly, emotional support, but this is done minimizing their involvement with them while they are in the war. In this theme, it is shown that soldiers keep their significant others with them in the warzone. They are the only people to be considered in a positive light with their actions. Comrades and family are what keeping the soldiers sane in the midst of the violence and chaos. The alliances, memories and connections are considered as social capital against the Maute group. For survival, the practice for social support is helping one another and supporting each other’s need.

The last theme is being a soldier, which focuses on the habitus of soldiers that treat their enemies as people who need to be killed and eliminated. The act of killing, and all the negative attributes identified with the enemies are essential so that they can survive, and eventually return to their normal life. In this theme, the soldiers do not show any mercy, to the point of dehumanizing the enemies, which makes it easier for them to kill, and eliminating the guilt that they would feel after. The important capitals to act out killing should be present, such as ammunitions, guns, military training and expertise, and the symbolic capital of being a soldier. Power is exerted through these capitals, and violence ensues. Different dispositions towards the Maute group and even civilians include ambivalence, distrust, visceral aversion and pride. These affective dispositions are identified as essential in the practice of killing, and of their survival in the field.

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During wartime the soldiers strive to survive, but these depend on the congruence between the volume and type of cultural capital and habitus that they possess during the situation. In this respect, it is assumed that soldiers whose qualities are congruent with what the war demands, will have greater possibilities to survive and keep them sane, whereas those who lack these attributes will have more difficulties building cultural capital. War habitus, in general, is also taught to soldiers. What they bring with them to the field is what their superiors gave them. In this study, all are survivors, are thought to possess the proper habitus in the war.

In this respect, it is inferred that soldiers whose qualities are congruent with what the war demands, will have greater possibilities to survive and to stay sane, whereas those who lack these attributes will have more difficulties building cultural capital. War habitus, in general, is also taught to soldiers. What they bring with them in the field is what their superiors gave them, what they have learned from the military training, and also brought about by their experiences as soldiers. It also looked into the psychosocial aspects of habitus, where changing structures, from the barracks to the warzone, affect a soldier’s affective dispositions.Frequency and intensity of interacting agents such as comrades and family, and enemies are considered as important and essential for survival, such that minimal frequency and intensity for family is deemed right, while frequent and intense positive interactions are needed for comrades, and inverse relationship with the rebels.

Given the limited number of participants in the study, because of the nature, sensitivity and difficulty of acquiring approval for soldiers’ interview, the study provided valuable insight in the experiences of soldiers in the warzone, taking into account the field and capital, thereby identifying their habitus. A more extensive study about Filipino soldier’s habitus can be made, to verify the results of this study. Exploration of other Bordeiusian concept can also be incorporated for a more comprehensive analysis of the soldiers’ experience.

The research gives valuable insights to the dynamics and interaction of different forces inside the warzone. These unconscious mechanisms act as regulation and required elements

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for soldiers who do not possess cultural capital or the required habitus. Habitus as a framework identified through the soldier’s perspective, these capitals and habitus, that can be found helpful in providing support to certain areas. For example, there were numerous instances of demoralization because of lack of guns and ammunition. A program supporting families of soldiers in dealing with their loved ones going to war is can also be inferred as a need. Another insight is to provide soldiers with appropriate psychological support in helping themselves and other soldiers in terms of crisis.

References

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Hass, J. (2015). Anchors, habitus, and practices besieged by war: Women and gender in the Blockade of Leningrad. Sociological Forum, Vol. 32, No. 2, June 2017 DOI: 10.1111/socf.12329

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Reay, D. (2015). Habitus and the psychosocial: Bourdieu with feelings. Cambridge Journal of Education, 2015 Vol. 45, No. 1, 9–23, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2014.990420.

Ryan, J. (2006). Class in you: An exploration of some social class issues in psychotherapeutic work. British Journal of Psychotherapy.

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Sareen, J., Cox B.J., Afifi, T.O., Stein, M.B., Belik, S.L., Meadows, G, & Asmundson G.J.(2007). Combat and peacekeeping operations in relation to prevalence of mental disorders and perceived need for mental health care: findings from a large representative sample of military personnel. DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.843.

Schok, M. L., Kleber, R. J., Lensvelt-Mulders, G. J. L.M., Elands, M., & Weerts, J. (2011). Suspicious minds at risk? The role of meaning in processing war and peacekeeping experiences. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,41(1), 61-81.

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The Manila Times (2017). Islamic freedom fighters, Abu Sayyaf next after Maute ‘wipeout’ — defense chief. The Manila Times. Retrieved from http://www.manilatimes.net/islamic-freedom-fighters-abu-sayyaf- next- maute-wipeout-defense-chief/358410/.

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PAGSUSURING PANLEKSIKOGRAPIYA SA MGA SALITANG BAKLA NG MGA PILING FREELANCE CROSS DRESSER GAY PROSTITUTE

Arche R. Tudtod University of Perpetual Help System-GMA Campus, Philippines

ABSTRAK Ang pag-aaral na ito’y isinagawa upang tukuyin ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay prostitute at iba pang homoseksuwal gayundin ang mga salitang inaangkop sa pagsasagawa ng anumang gawaing may kinalaman sa prostitusiyon. Ang pag-aaral na ito’y kinapapalooban ng walong (8) freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute na nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30 at matatagpuan sa Quirino Avenue, San Dionisio, Lungsod ng Parañaque. Gumamit ng kuwalitatibong pamamaraan upang maisakatuparan ang pag-aaral. Sinuri rin ang mga salitang nakolekta sa pamamagitan ng leksikograpikal na lapit. Natuklasan na mga salita na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa gawaing prostitusiyon at pagpapahayag ng mga bagay na may kinalaman sa seks tulad ng milo, tsupa, booking, blowjob, hada at iba pa. Ang paggamit ng mga alituntuning nakapaloob din sa pagbuo ng mga gay lingo tulad ng mga sumusunod: ang pagpapalit ng mga letra sa unahang salita na nakapaloob sa tinatawag nilang J Law, KY/NY Law, SH Law at CH Law; nagkaroon din ng paglalapi ng mga salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin; pag-uulit ng mga salita, pagpapalit ng tunog at paggamit ng katunog na salita ng isang orihinal na salita. Ang pagkakaroon o paglalathala ng isang talatinigan o diksyunaryo ng mga salitang bakla ng mga gay prostitute para sa kapakanan hindi lamang ng mga karaniwang bakla kundi maging ang sambayanang Pilipino na hindi lingid sa ating kaalaman na malaking bahagdan ng mga Pilipino ay may impluwensiya ng mga salitang ito.

Susing salita: Wikang Filipino, salita ng mga gay prostitute, pagsusuring panleksikograpiya, Pilipinas, Asya

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Introduksiyon

Tsika, Chenes, Chorva, Kaekekan, Checheboreche, ilan lamang ito sa mga nauso at pinausong salita ng mga homoseksuwal. Ang mga salitang bakla na ito ay madalas na nating marinig at ginagamit saan mang dako—sa bahay, sa paaralan, sa palengke, sa kalye at maging sa kalakaran ng midya. Sa katunayan, pangkaraniwan na itong bahagi ng pang-araw-araw na pakikipagtalastasan ng hindi lamang ng mga homoseksuwal kundi maging ang mga hindi kabilang sa gay society.

Ang mga salitang ito ay hinango at binuo batay sa pagtanaw at karanasan ng isang homoseksuwal sa lipunang kaniyang ginagalawan. Tulad ng winika ni Tim La Haye,

Like most sub-culture, the homosexual community has its own vocabulary. They understood ours, but we don’t always understand theirs. They have attached definitions to certain words and terms that give them a whole new meaning (1980: p.2)

Ipinapakita lamang na ang mga homoseksuwal ay may kakanyahang bumuo ng kanilang jargon. Kung saan, ito ang nagiging sandata nila upang sagkaan ang mapangmatang lipunan sa pagturing sa kanila bilang taliwas sa nakagawiang norms o batas ng lipunan. Samakatuwid, sa pamamagitan ng mga salitang ito ay nagagawang makipagsabayan ng mga homoseksuwal sa isang komunidad na ang tanging nagdodomina lamang ay ang mga heteroseksuwal.

Sa kabilang banda, mahalaga para sa atin na maunawaan ang lahat ng mga salitang naririnig upang matamo ang mabisang pakikipagkomunikasyon sa isa’t isa. Ngunit, aminin man natin o hindi, sadyang mahirap maintindihan ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal lalo na kung hindi tayo mulat sa kulturang kanilang kinabibilangan. Gaya ito sa mga salitang nabubuo ng mga gay prostitute na kung saan hindi tulad ng mga pangkaraniwang gay men, ang mga salitang bakla ay hindi lamang inaangkop sa ordinaryong talastasan kundi nagsisilbi din itong argot upang ilihis at itago sa sinumang direktang nakikinig sa kanila higit na kapag ang usapan ay pribado at may kinalaman sa seks gayundin sa kanilang sinuong na trabaho—ang prostitusiyon. Sa puntong ito, iniiba rin nila ang pagbibigay kahulugan at interpretasiyon sa mga salitang kilala na

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upang iayon sa konseptuwalisasiyon at persepsiyon ng kulturang kinapapalooban. Sapagkat, ang pagkakakilanlan ay binubuo ng isang wika na ginagamit sa isang partikular na kaganapan at may kakayahan itong humubog ng mga paniniwala at kaisipan na nagpapakilala ng isang identidad ng gumagamit nito.

Ika nga, kung ang wika ay hinuhubog sa pamamagitan ni X ito’y hindi katulad sa kaisipang si X ang paksa ng konbersasyon; ang pamantayan sa kasarian ay maaaring maghubog sa kung paano gagamitin ang lengguwahe kahit na hindi gaano itong pinagtutuunan ng pansin at ang pagsasalita ng mga etnikong dayalekto ay hindi limitado upang pag-usapan ang etnisidad. Sa lahat ng ito, “ang wika ay ideolohiya...na bahagi lamang ng kung anong sinasabi ng karamihan ukol sa wika. Ang pag-uusap ng tao ukol sa lengguwahe ay kahalintulad sa kanilang praktikal at maayos na pang-unawa na nakabit sa kung paano nila ginagamit ang wika” (Keane, 1997 na binanggit sa Keane, 2018). Ang paglalapat ng semiotikong ideolohiya sa pagtuklas ng mas malalim na kahulugan sa mga salita’y nagdudulot ng isang malawakang posibilidad ng paggamit ng mga sagisag at pandamdam gaya ng pang-amoy, haplos, sakit, galaw ng katawan at iba pang mga instrumento na ginagamit upang higit na maging epektibo ang paglalapat ng isang wika (Gal, 2013; Hankins, 2013; Harkness, 2014; Tomlinson, 2014; Alatas, 2016); Nakassis, 2016; Strange, 2016; Chumley, 2017; Reyes, 2017).

Hindi man alintana, nakakagawa ang mga gay prostitute ng mga salitang ayon sa hinihingi ng pagkakataon lalo na sa kanilang hanapbuhay. Madalas na itinuturing nila itong secret code o patagong komunikasyon upang hindi sila dagliang mapansin at mahuli ng mga taong nasa kanilang paligid tulad ng mga alagad ng batas. Kung tutuusin, masasabing ito ang nagsisilbing puhunan nila sa pang-araw-araw na pakikibaka sa mundo ng prostitusiyon. Sa pamamagitan ng mga salitang ito ay nakapasok sa mundo ng prostitusiyon ang mga bakla nang hindi nahuhuli ng mga awtoridad sa kabila na ito ay ipinagbabawal at nilalapatan ng karampatang parusa kung sakaling mahuli sa akto. Ang mga salitang ito ay naging salalayan din ng kanilang mga iniisip at nadarama na hindi kayang maipahayag sa mga karaniwang salita lamang. Batay nga kay Stanley (1970 na binanggit sa Doleželová, 2016), ang mga salitang homoseksuwal ay nag-ambag ng kaalaman ukol sa usaping sosyal sa mga lugar na kung saan umusbong ang iba pang jargons partikular

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na sa komunidad ng mga homoseksuwal na Amerikano. Ang pagpapalabas ng mga talatanungan para sa mga bakla mula sa iba’t ibang siyudad sa Amerika ay isang paraan upang matukoy kung alin sa mga slang na salita ang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal ang naging pamilyar. Base sa naging resulta ng kaniyang pag-aaral, napatunayan ni Stanley na may tinatawag na core vocabulary at fringe vocabulary sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal kahit na ang ilan sa mga terminong kaniyang nakalap ay halos ginagamit din ng pangkahalatan. Subalit, may mga salitang eksklusibong ginagamit sa loob ng isang pangkat na tanging sila lamang ang nakakaunawa. Kaugnay nito, ang pag-unawa sa iba pang salitang bakla ay sinasabing hindi madaling maunawaan sa kadahilanang magkakaiba ang pagkakagamit ng bawat indibiduwal.

Sa katunayan, ipinapakita na ang bahasa gay language ay malawakang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal sa Indonesia. Subalit, sa usaping leksikal ito’y limitado lamang sapagkat nagbabago ang ponolohikal na aspeto nito sa iba’t ibang mga lokal na pook. Magkagayunpaman, lumalabas na ang komunidad ng mga homoseksuwal ay nasa konteksto ng pagpapakilala kung sino at ano ang gampanin nila sa loob ng lipunang ginagalawan. Ayon nga sa kanyang isinalaysay na karanasan sa Surabaya kung saan matatagpuan ang isang eksklusibong pook para sa mga homoseksuwal—ang Texas (isang terminong bahasa gay), ang paggamit ni Andri (pinuno ng isang samahan doon) ng mga salitang homoseksuwal ay lubhang nakakatulong sa pagtamo ng inaasam nitong paglilibang ng walang nakakaintindi sa kanya kundi tanging ang kanyang mga kasamahan lamang at mga nagiging kustomer. Ilan sa mga ginagamit na pahayag ay ang “Aduh, brondong sekali!” My isn’t he young! “Cucok kamu ya!” You are so handsome! (Sa mga pahayag na ito, hindi lahat ay nasa pamantayan ng wikang Indonesian dahil may halo itong terminong bahasa gay na brondong na nangangahulugang young man at cucok na ibig sabihin ay handsome). Sa kabuuan, nagsisilbi itong komunikasyon sa isa’t isa partikular na sa isang komunidad na tinatawag nilang pribado para sa mga homoseksuwal. Kung saan, ang mga ginamit na mga salita ay nagmamarka sa kanilang pagkatao at sa kinapapaloobang komunidad (Boellstorf, 2004). Ayon nga kay Smith-Hefner (2007 na nabanggit ni Huff, 2015), ang wika na nagpapakilala ng kasarian ng isang indibiduwal ay humahantong sa pagtaguyod ng kultural na pagkakakilanlan. Ito’y nagsisilbing instrumento upang magkaroon ng

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mahigpit na ugnayan sa lahat ng kasapi sa isang lipunan na gaya na lamang ng Bahasa Gaul na itinali ang bawat isa batay sa edad, at giniba ang kaibhan dulot ng heyograpikal at etnisidad.

Sa kabilang banda, ang wika ng mga prostityut ay nahahati sa berbal at di-berbal na komunikasyon. Isang patunay dito, ang paggamit ng mga salitang bulgar at bastos o mga salitang balbal na nagpapakita ng kanilang kinalakhang lipunan at estado ng buhay. Bilang simbolo, ang mga salitang bulgar at bastos (berbal o di-berbal) ay isang uri ng mababang klase ng tao, salat sa buhay at hindi lumaki sa konserbatibong komunidad na kung saan dinominahan ng Simabahang Katoliko. Bagkus, tinulak sila ng isang sistemang naglalayong maging malaya at produktibo sa pakikipagkomunikasyon. Ang mga pang-araw-araw na bokabularyo ng mga prostityut ay nagpapakita ng paglago at pagyabong ng wika. At kapag ito’y naisalin sa iba, nagtutulak ito na gamitin at makilala ng karamihan, partikular sa mga prostityut. Kung saan nakakabuo sila ng mga salita upang mailarawan ang kanilang gawaing pamprostitusiyon gamit ang isang jargon. Halimbawa nito ay ang salitang Gimmick na nangangahulugang pakikipagtalik na may karampatang kabayaran sa serbisyong isinagawa. At ang Rumarampa na tumutukoy sa paglabas sa kalye ng mga prostityut upang mang- akit ng kustomer. Ang pagbuo ng mga salita ay nagbubunsod sa mga prostityut na makabuo ng isang mekanismong poprotekta sa kanila. Tulad ng pagpapalakas sa kanilang katauhan sa lipunan. Patunay dito si Merly, isang prostityut sa Cubao na bumubuo ng mga bagong salita. Ilan sa kaniyang mga binuo ay ang mga sumusunod: putatching, kepyas, pokpok, puta, at landi na nagpakita at nagpalabas sa tunay niyang katauhan – ang pagiging prostityut. Ipinaliwanag din ni Merly ang dahilan kung bakit nila binubuo ang mga salitang ito, “Inuunahan na namin ang tao para naman ‘di masyadong masakit.” (Portus, 1998 na binanggit sa Review of Women’s Studies, Bol.13 no.1, 2003).

Kaugnay nito, ang layunin ng mga mananaliksik sa pagpili ng pag-aaral na ito ay upang maimulat at gawing kritikal ang pagtanaw ng sinuman sa mga gay prostitute sa kung paano sila makipagkomunika. Layunin din nito upang maipaunawa sa nakararami kung paano binibigyang kahulugan ng mga gay prostitute ang mga salitang kanilang ginagamit nang sa gayon hindi ito magbunga ng anumang hindi pagkakaintindihan lalo na sa mga

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indibiduwal na may negatibong pagtanaw ukol sa mga gay prostitute. Sa pagkakabuo naman ng Gay Slang Dictionary ni Wei Lee (2007) naipakita kung paano nagkakaiba sa istilo ng pagpapahayag ang mga nasa gay society sa iba pang kasarian. Ang mga terminong kanilang nilikha ay hindi lamang nila madalas ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw na pamumuhay kundi maging sa paghahanap ng panandaliang-aliw. Ito ang nagsisilbing daluyan nila upang makipag-ugnayan sa kapwa sa lihim na paraan at upang maisakatuparan ang anumang naisin nang hindi tahasang natutukoy ng mga ordinaryong tao sa kanilang paligid.

Sa kabilang dako, hindi ninanais ng pag-aaral na ito na lalong palutangin ang negatibong persepsiyon ukol sa pamumuhay at gawi ng mga gay prostitute at ikondena kung anumang nangyayari sa kanila. Sa halip, hinahangad ng mga mananaliksik ang pagkaunawa at pagtanggap sa kasalukuyang lingo na ginagamit nila. Sapagkat, ito ang magsisilbing tulay upang higit silang matanggap sa lipunan. Ang pag-aaral na ito’y kinapapalooban ng walong (8) freelance cross- dresser gay prostitute na nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30 at matatagpuan sa Quirino Avenue, San Dionisio, Lungsod ng Parañaque. Sinaklaw ng pananaliksik na ito ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute sa pang- araw-araw nilang pamumuhay bilang isang prostityut at isang indibiduwal habang kasama nila ang kanilang kapwa prostityut na pinili ng mga mananaliksik ayon sa mga pamantayang inilitag nila. Ang etimolohiya ng mga salitang nakalap ng mga mananaliksik ay hinango mula sa diksiyunaryo, internet at iba pang batayan. At ang target na bilang ng mga salitang sinuri ay 100 salita lamang. Hindi saklaw ng pag-aaral na ito ang pagtalakay sa personal na buhay ng mga gay prostitute gaya ng dahilan upang pasukin nila ang prostitusiyon. Gayundin, hindi saklaw ng pag-aaral na ito ang pagkukumpara at pagtalakay ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa iba pang lugar dito sa Pilipinas na may katulad na gawain.

Ito ay isinagawa upang tukuyin ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay prostitute at iba pang homoseksuwal gayundin ang mga salitang inaangkop sa pagsasagawa ng anumang gawaing may kinalaman sa prostitusiyon. Sinuri rin ang mga salitang nakolekta upang bigyang tugon ang mga nabuong katanungan ng mga mananaliksik. Una na rito, ano ang kahulugan ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute batay sa

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kung paano nila ito binigyang pagpapakahulugan? Paano binabaybay ang mga salitang ito? Kung paano nabubuo ang mga salitang ito? Gayundin, saang bahagi ng pananalita nakapaloob ang bawat salita ayon sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa kanilang pakikipagtalastasan?

Balangkas ng Pag-Aaral

Ang lipunang ginagalawan ng mga gay prostitute ay isang patunay na larawan ng pagyabong ng sub-kultural na pangkat kung saan mayroon silang sariling kultura, sariling lingo na may sariling bokabularyo na maituturing na daynamiko. Sapagkat, patuloy pa rin ito sa pagbabago at pagkalat. Hindi ito nakakapagtakang mangyari sa kadahilanang ginagamit din nila ang mga salitang kanilang nalilikha upang itago sa ibang tao ang anumang pribadong usapin na may kinalaman sa prostitusyon. Samakatuwid, ang mga salitang kanilang ginagamit ay hindi lamang isinasakatuparan sa pang-araw-araw na pakikipagtalastasan kundi para na rin mailihis ang kahulugan ng isang salita na may negatibong epekto sa sinumang makakarinig.

Sa puntong ito, hahantong ang mga mananaliksik sa pagsusuri ng mga salitang nakalap mula sa mga kalahok nito. Titingnan ito batay sa kung paano binigyan ng kahulugan ang mga salita na ginabayan naman ng Teoryang Dekonstraksyon. Sa teoryang ito, isinaad na ang paglalapat ng kahulugan sa isang salita ay hindi lamang nakakulong batay sa konseptuwalisasyon at iniisip ng utak ng isang tao kundi sa kung paano ito ginamit sa loob ng lipunang ginagalawan. Sa kabilang banda, sinuportahan naman ito ng Symbolic Interactionism na naglahad pa ng tatlong perspektibo sa pagpapakahulugan ng isang salita: (1) kumikilos batay sa kahulugan na kanilang ikinakabit sa mga bagay na nasa paligid; (2) hinango mula sa pakikipag-ugnayan ng tao sa kanyang kapwa at sa kanyang lipunang ginagalawan; at (3) hinuhulma at minomodipika batay sa interpretatibong proseso na ginagamit ng isang indibiduwal sa mga bagay na kanyang nakikita o nakakasalamuha sa lipunang kanyang ginagalawan. Samantalang, ipinakita naman sa Cognitive Theory of Language ang iba pang paraan ng pagsusuri sa isang salita. Sa puntong ito, ginamit ang teoryang nabanggit upang maging gabay sa pagsusuri ng mga etimolohiya o pinagmulan ng salita. Gayundin,

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kung ano ang istruktural nitong gampanin batay sa pagkakagamit sa pakikipagtalastasan o pagsusulit. Dagdag pa ang pagsusuri sa kung paano ito binabaybay.

Iniangkop rin naman sa pag-aaral na ito ang Theory of Gender, Sex, and Sexuality in Relation to Language, na binanggit na ang wika’y nagtataglay ng hindi masukat na pagpapakahulugan na kadalasan ay nagiging batayan ng pagkakakilanlan pagdating sa aspekto ng kasarian at/o seksuwalidad. Ang interkoneksyon nito sa wika’y madalas na pinagkakaiba halimbawa ang sekso ay isang bayolohikal na penomenon habang ang kasarian at seksuwalidad naman ay pangkultural na kaganapan. Gayun pa man, hindi pa rin maipagkakaila na ang isang wika’y nagiging daan upang maisiwalat ang interaksyong lingguwistikal ng isang indibiduwal sa kanyang kapwa (Kulick, 2000; Cameron and Kulick 2003; McConnell-Ginet, 2011)

Layunin ng Pag-Aaral

Nilalayon ng pananaliksik na ito na matuklasan ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostityut sa pang-araw-araw nilang pamumuhay at mabigyan ito ng kahulugan sa pamamagitan ng leksikograpikal na lapit. Isa sa mga tuon ng pag-aaral ay maipakita ang dibersidad ng wika sa paglikha ng mga jargons na ginagamit ng isang pangkat sa loob ng isang komunidad. Dinamiko o nagbabago man ang wika at/o maaaring lumipas na ang mga salitang nakalap sa pananaliksik na ito dahil sa walang sapat na sistema o hulwaran na sinusunod sa wika ng mga homoseksuwal. Ipinapamalas naman sa pag-aaral na ito, ang proseso kung paano binubuo ng mga homoseksuwal ang kanilang mga salita at mula rito’y maaaring makabuo ng mga hulwaran na magagamit upang mapalawig pa ang Wikang Filipino.

Metodolohiya

Gumamit ng kuwalitatibong pamamaraan upang maisakatuparan ang pag-aaral. Ang kuwalitatibong pag-aaral ay nauukol sa hindi paggamit ng istadistikal na pamamaraan ng pagsiyasat at pag-unawa sa panlipunang penomena. Kung saan,

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isinagawa ang pangangalap ng mga datos na hindi na gumamit ng sarbey sa halip ginawa ito sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang paraan tulad ng obserbasyon na ginamitan ng pandama, panayam, paggamit ng digital na kamera, rekorder at pag-analisa ng mga dokumento o materyales na nakalap. Bukod dito, ang mananaliksik ay sumailalim sa mahigit isa’t kalahating buwang imersiyon upang makakolekta ng mga korpus na kailangan sa pananaliksik na ito. Iniangkop naman sa pag-aaral na ito ang Leksikograpikal na Pagsusuri na nakatuon sa katangian ng mga salita gaya ng pagtuklas sa etimolohiya, paraan ng pagbaybay, bahagi ng panalita at ang kahulugan nito.

Narito ang ilang pamantayan o kriterya para sa pagpili ng mga salita:

• Pinakagamitin. • Ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw na pamumuhay at sa prostitusiyon. • Madaling bigkasin at sulatin. • Napapanahon at bago sa pandinig.

Binuo ng walong (8) freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute na siyang inobserbahan, pinag-aralan at pinagmulan ng mga korpus na kailangan ng mananaliksik. Gumamit ng universal sampling bilang paraan ng pagpili ng kalahok sa ginawang pag-aaral ng mga mananaliksik. Ang universal sampling ay isinasakatuparan kung ang populasyon ay maituturing na maliit at sapat na gamitin upang maging kalahok (Castillo et al., 2008). Ang mga kalahok ay pinili batay sa kanilang kaalaman sa kinakailangang impormasyon ng pag-aaral na ito. Narito ang ilang pamantayan ng mga mananaliksik sa pagpili ng mga magiging kalahok: Ang mga gay prostitute ay dapat na nagkaroon na ng mahigit anim na buwan hanggang isang taon na karanasan sa pagiging isang prostityut; Ang mga kalahok ay dapat na nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30; at kabilang sa isang grupo ng mga gay prostitute na may lingo at bokabularyong umiiral at ginagamit hindi lamang sa pakikipagtalastasan kundi maging sa prostitusiyon.

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Resulta at Pagtalakay

Matrix 1 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang A

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /ey-key-i-ti- Mula sa salitang Panghalip. GP5: Bakla ikaw Ako. si-eych/ Tagalog na ako na na AKETCH tumutukoy sa sarili. GP8: Sino aketch?

/ey-ji-yu- Hinango mula sa Pang-uri Mga Agua Tawag sa isang ey-en-i-ji- kuwentong Negrita. indibiduwal na ar-ay-ti-ey/ pangkomiks na Mabenta sa mga maitim ang kulay Agua Bendita ni Rod foreigner, ng balat ngunit Santiago na nailatha maiitim na may taglay na AGUA sa Liwayway noong magaganda. ganda o sa Ingles NEGRITA 1980 at muling black beauty. pinasikat sa telebisyon sa anyong teleserye noong ika-8 ng Pebrero 2010. /ey-en-ey- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Ems: Tang ina Nakakahiya. es-eych- hanashi nai na isang mo Mark, ha. Yan ay-en-ey- salita sa wikang ka na naman, ha. way/ Nihongo ng Yung ano, ha. ANASHINAY bansang Hapon na Sinabi ko sa’yo, nangangahulugang ha. sabihin ang hindi Barbie: Magi! dapat sabihin. Anashinay. Ems: Sige lang. /ey-en-ay- Mula sa salitang Panghalip GP2: Anik daw? Pangunahing key/ ugat na Tagalog na Anik daw? ekspresyon ng ano na GP4: Nilafes mo mga nangangahulugang ba ung burat? homoseksuwal ANIK naghahanap ng na nagsasaad ng kasagutan. “ano ngayon” o “ano naman ngayon.” /ey-pi-i-ti- Mula sa Pang-abay EMS: Magi! Isang ey/ ekspresyong abi mo Apeta… (tawa) ekspresyong na ginagamit ng mga magi ikinakabit sa mga APETA Bisaya kapag apeta,nakakalok salita upang binibigyang-diin ang a naman chi di magbigay ng nais sabihin. ba? eksaherasyon (exaggeration). /ey- Nagmula sa orihinal Pangngalan GP3: Awra na. Pang-aakit sa dobolyu- na salitang aura na Ishobay. isang lalaki o ar-ey/ buhat sa salitang isang kustomer. Griyego na aurea AWRA (1350-1400) na ‘nagtataglay ng isang natatangi at kapansin-pansin na kagandahan, istilo at iba pa.”

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Buhat sa mga nakatalang salita sa Matrix 1, karamihan sa mga ito’y sumusunod sa tuntuning kung ano ang bigkas, siyang baybay. Ang salitang aketch ay nagkaroon din ng pagdaragdag ng mga salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin. Ngunit, nananatili ang kahulugan nito kahit paano man ito gamitin sa loob ng pangungusap o sa pakikipag-usap. Ang agua negrita naman ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salita mula sa wikang hiniram subalit binigyan ng panibagong kahulugan. Kapag ang salitang ito ay inaangkop sa pandadaot sa kapwa, nagsasaad na ito ng negatibong konotasyon na maitim na tao na may hindi kanais-nais na itsura. Sa kabilang banda, mula sa pang-uri ay nagiging pangngalan ito kapag ang salitang Agua Negrita ay ginamit bilang palayaw o pantawag sa kapwa homoseksuwal. Samantala, ang anashinay ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng pagbabago sa kahulugan batay sa kung paano ito ginamit sa lipunan ng mga gay prostitute. Nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag nagkaroon na ng paglalapi sa salita: (a) Anashinayin—pahiyain; at (b) Inashinay—pinahiya. Sa puntong ito, mula sa pang-uri ay nagiging pandiwa na ang gamit nito. Habang, ang salitang anik ay nagkaroon ng tinatawag na pagpapalit ng ponema mula sa /o/ ito ay naging /i/ at kinabitan ng letrang /k/ upang makabuo ng panibagong salita subalit ang kahulugan ay nanatili pa rin. Mula sa panghalip tungo sa pangngalan. Sapagkat, kapag ito’y ganap na inulit (anik-anik) nangangahulugan na ito ng aksesorya sa katawan. Ang apeta ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nananatili ang kahulugan nito kahit paano man ito gamitin sa loob ng pangungusap o pakikipagusap. Ang salitang awra bagama’t isinunod din sa banggit na tuntunin ay nagkakaroon ng baryasyon kapag nilapian at isinakatuparan ng aspekto ng pandiwa ay nagbabago ang kahulugan nito. Halimbawa: Umawra—nang-akit; Umaawra—nang- aakit; Aawra—mang-aakit; at Inawra—inakit.

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Matrix 2 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang B

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /bi-ey- Mula sa bati na Pangngalan GP7: Net kong Salsal o way-ay- isang salitang magpabayis. Pagsasariling- es/ balbal na GP3: Wety nyo sikap. BAYIS nangangahulug ‘ko nyobat. an ding pagsasalsal. /bi-i-en-ji- Halaw sa tunog Pangngalan Kaya nga. Baril. bi-i-en-ji/ na nagmumula Pagtingin ko sa baril na akala ko kung BENGBENG “bangbang.” ano yung hinuhugot ‘yun pala bengbeng. Shokbo ko eh! /bi-i-ti-ey/ Mula sa Pangngalan GP4: Uy si May dalawang salita Mark! si Mark! nagmamay-ari na pinagsama: GP3: Betchay na na. ang bet na mula ‘yan. sa Old English GP4: Oo nga BETA na baetan na betchay na. ang ibig sabihin ay “make better, arouse, stimulate.” /bi-ay-en- Mula sa salitang Pandiwa GP3: Magkano Binili. ey-way-el- Ingles na buy o binayla mo ey/ tumutukoy sa dyan chi ba? pagbili ng isang EMS: Ikura bagay. binayla ko yan BINAYLA chi…a okama…hay..!

/bi-ay-ti-ti- Mula sa Old Pangngalan Tanga! walang Hinanakit o i-ar-en-i- English na biter bitterness sama ng loob. es-es/ na promise. nangangahulug ang “may mapait na lasa” at “pagkagalit.” BITTERNESS Habang ang ness ay isang hulapi mula sa Old English na may kahulugang “marami.”

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/bi-el-o- Sumulpot ang Pangngalan 150 lang babae. Oral seks; dobolyu- salitang ito Nablowjob yan. Pagsubo ng jey-o-bi/ noong 1961 na labas-masok sa mula sa ari ng isang dalawang lalaki upang pinagkabit na maihatid sa salitang Ingles orgasmo. na blow at job. Nagsimulang ikabit ang salita sa eupimistikong kahulugan na “suck” kaya’y pagkakaroon ng tinatawag na BLOWJOB “explosive climax of orgasm” subalit noong 1950’s ginamit naman ito ng mga amerikanong piloto upang tawagin ang kanilang mga jet plane bilang blow jobs batay ito sa “Thesaurus of American Slang.” /bi-o-bi- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Bakla ka naman Walang alam o ay-ti-ey/ Espanyol na kasi! Bobita ka! ignorante. bobo na Hayop ka! nangangahulug Nakamagkano ang “stupid lang ako. person, slow bird” na ginamit noong BOBITA 1590 na tinatayang hinango mula sa salitang Latin na balbus na ang ibig ipakahulugan ay “stammering.” /bi-o-di- Mula sa bodabil Pangngalan GP3: Buksan na Oral seks; Ang ey/ na isang uri ng ‘yan. kaibahan nga BODA palabas na GP5: Jana boda lamang sa sumikat noong na. Blowjob ito’y 1910 hanggang may kasamang

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sa kalagitnaan GP4: Boda na… paglalaro sa ari ng 1960. boda na… ng lalaki.

/bi-o-key- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Shumakbo kami Takot. o-ti/ Tagalog na chi ng nangangahulug Manuyo….nash ang takot. o-ko talaga BOKOT kame chi, talagang bokot na bokot talaga mga lola mo di ba? /bi-o-en- Hango sa Pangngalan Ay, madumi na Anal seks ey-em-ay- gamot na chi. Shogay en/ Bonamin na nalang. iniinom bago Bonamin ‘yan? BONAMIN bumiyahe Witchells. upang Nakakaloka. maiwasan ang pagkahilo at pagsusuka. /bi-o-en-ji- Mula sa Pang-uri Uy yung juking Sosyal. ji-ey-si-ay- dalawang mo kagabi o-yu-es/ pinagsamang nakita ko salita: ang kagabi bakla ka bongga na isang bonggacious salitang bakla ka! BONGGACIO na tumutukoy US sa pagiging extravagant/am azing at ang panlaping cious na nangangahulug ang sobra. /bi-o-o- Buhat sa Pangngalan GP2:Bakla, Pagkakaroon key-ay-en- salitang Ingles naasar ako. ng kustomer ji/ na book kung GP1: Otomo at saan ito’y yun, booking ko pagsasagawa hinango mula yun. ng gawaing sa salitang seksuwal. Gothic na boka (A.D. 900) o titik ng mga BOOKING alpabeto. Noong 1635 naman, sa pamamagitan ng paglalapi ng –ing nagbabago ang kahulugan nito na naging kontrata, kasunduan o

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anumang iskedyul na nakalaan para sa isang indibiduwal. Ito’y pinaikli rin ng salitang booking up na sumulpot noong 2006 na nangangahulug ang pagkikita ng dalawang magkapareha upang magsagawa ng gawaing seksuwal. /bi-o-ar-ti- Mula sa Pangngalan Hmmm…..ano, Malaking ey- dalawang ano’ng nyikreto pangangata- dobolyu- salitang mo sa, aneklavu wan ng lalaki o ey-en/ pinagsama, ang sa…bortawan tumutukoy sa salitang bakla mo? isang macho na bongga o sa guy. ingles extravagant/am az-ing. Samantala, ang BORTAWAN isa naman ay katawan na isang termino sa wikang Tagalog na nangangahulug ang ‘ang kabuuang istruktura ng isang nilalang.’

Mapupuna na ang salitang Bangelya ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. May pagkakataon din na ginagamit ito bilang labis na pagkalango sa alak o sobrang kalasingan. Ang salitang baste ay nilapatan ito ng panibagong kahulugan batay sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute. Kapag nilapatan ng paglalapi ang salita, nagkakaroon na ito ng pagbabago sa kahulugan: (a) Nabaste—nalugi o nabarat; (b) Binaste—binarat o tinipid; at (c) Bastedora—taong nambabarat. Ang salitang bayis ay nagkaroon ng panibagong baybay sa salita na nagbunga ng pagbuo ng isang bagong baryasyon nito. Kapag isinakatuparan na ang panahunan o aspekto ng pandiwa, nagkakaroon na ito ng baryasyon

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sa kahulugan: (a) Magpabayis—magpasalsal sa ibang tao; (b) Nagbayis—nagsalsall at (c) Magbabayis—magsasalsal. Samantala, ang bengbeng ay ginamitan ng pagpapalit ng ponema kung saan ang mga titik /a/ ay napalitan ng /e/. Ngunit, walang pagbabago sa kahulugan.

Sa kabilang banda naman, bagama’t tuwirang hiniram ang baybay ng salitang bet nagkaroon naman ito ng pagdaragdag ng isang letra na wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin, ang salitang beta’y walang pagbabagong naganap sa kahulugan. Gayundin naman ang salitang betchay. Ngunit, May pagkakataon na ang salitang ito ay ginagamit bilang katumbas ng kuha, kinuha. Kapag ginamit naman ito sa nomo o inuman, ito’y nangangahu-lugang itongga na. Habang, ang salitang binayla ay nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salitang ito kapag nilapatan na ng paglalapi. Halimbawa: Nabayla—nabili. Ganap na hiniram ang salitang bitterness na pinanatili ang kahulugan. Subalit, may pagkakataon na ginagamit ito sa loob ng pangungusap o pakikipagtalastasan bilang katumbas ng selos o inggit. Ganap na hiniram ang salitang blowjob mula sa wikang Ingles at pinanatili ang orihinal nitong baybay subalit nabago ang orihinal nitong kahulugan. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ayon sa pagkakalapat ng paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: Nablowjob— tawag sa lalaking naisubo na ng labas-masok ang ari nito. Ang salitang bobita ay nagkaroon ng pagpapalit sa ponema mula sa /o/ tungo sa /i/ upang maipakita ang anyong peminismo ng salita at nilapian ito ng ta na walang panggramatikal na gampanin sa salita. Isinunod rin ito sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salitang ito batay sa pagkakagamit ng kaantasan ng pang-uri. Halimbawa: (a) Kasingbobita- magkaparehong antas ng pagiging ignorante o walang alam; at (b) Napakabobita- sukdulan sa pagiging ignorante o walang alam.

Samantala, ang boda ay Nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag nagkaroon na ng paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: Bodahin— laruin ang ari ng lalaki habang ito’y sinusubo. Kapag nagkaroon naman ng pag-uulit sa salita. Halimbawa: Boda-boda—pagkahilig sa pagsubo ng ari ng lalaki. May pagkakataon na ginagamit ito bilang pag-inom o pagtongga ng alak. Ang bokot naman ay mapapansing may iba’t ibang baryasyon ng salitang ito tulad ng shokot, nyokot ay nananatili pa rin ang kahulugan nito. Ngunit, kapag ito’y nilapian at inulit na, nabago na ang konotasyon nito gayundin ang istruktural na

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gampanin sa loob ng pangungusap. Halimbawa: (a) Nabokot— natakot; at (b) Bokot na bokot—lubha ang pagkatakot. Ang salitang bonamin ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng pagbabago sa kahulugan nito. Walang pagbabago ang nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit na sa iba’t ibang paraan pasalita man o pasulat. Ang salitang bonggacious ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabago ang nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit na sa iba’t ibang paraan pasalita man o pasulat. Ganap na hiniram ang salitang booking at pinanatili ang orihinal nitong baybay. Subalit, nabago ang kahulugan nito. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salitang ito ayon sa aspekto ng pandiwa at paglalapi sa salita. (a) Nagbooking- mayroon ng customer; (b) Bumubooking- kukuha ng customer; (c) Bubooking- kukuha pa lang customer; at (d) Binooking—isinama ng kustomer sa isang motel o isinakay sa taxi. Habang, ang bortawan ay isinunod sa tuntuning kung anong bigkas siyang baybay at walang naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan.

Matrix 3 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang C GAMIT SA PALABAY BAHAGI NG SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA PANGUNGUSA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA P /si-eych- Hango sa isang Pang-uri EMS: Pangit o ey-key-ey- palabas na Cha…chakarat hindi kanais- ar-ey-ti/ “chakadoll” naman di ba? nais na anyo. kung saan ang GP1: Oo nga manika ng isang chakarat… batang tauhan EMS: Pero… CHAKAAT sa kwento ay okama….’yung napakapangit at …’yung boo… pumapatay ng booking mo tao. kagabi okama, a...ano chakarat na naman?

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/si-eych-i- Nagmula sa Panghalip Patingin ka Ekspresyon en-i-el-ay- salitang Griyego para magka- na ginagamit en/ "cheorvamus" okani, chenelin. upang idiin na ang ibig ang mga sabihin ay sinasabi. kakulangan sa angkop na salitang gagamitin o katumbas ng anumang bagay CHENELN na gusto mong ipahayag ngunit hindi mo masabi. Hawig sa "aloha" ng wikang Hawaiiano, na nangangahuluga n ng napakaraming bagay.

/si-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP5: Oh anik Pantawag sa ay/ Pranses na chichi na… kapwa na GP5: Shogay na. homoseksu nangangahuluga GP4: Shogay na wal lalo na CHI ng “extremely, chi. kung sila’y sophisticated” magkaibigan .

Sa puntong ito, ang salitang chakarat ay may ibang baryasyon ng salita tulad ng chaka, chakadoll ay nananatili pa rin ang kahulugan nito. Ngunit, maliban sa paglalarawan ng katangian ng isang tao, ginagamit din ito upang tukuyin ang isang bagay o pangyayari na hindi maganda. Habang, ang salitang chenelin ay isinasakatuparan sa salitang ito ang pag-aaply ng ch sa mga ekspresyon na ginagamit ng mga bakla. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ikinabit o idinugtong na sa isa pang salita sa loob ng pangungusap. Bagama’t may pagkakataon na ginagamit ito bilang palayaw ng isang kaibigan bilang panghalili sa pangalan nito. Ang salitang chi ay ginagamit din ito upang ikabit sa isang salita nang sa gayon magkaroon ito ng panibagong baryasyon.

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Matrix 4 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang D

BAHAGI PALABAYBA NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN YAN PANANAL PANGUNGUSAP ITA /di-ey-key-o/ Hango sa salitang Pang-uri Desiree: Tsaka Malaking ari ng Bisaya na “dako” ang babait ng lalaki. na ang ibig tropa niya. sabihin ay malaki. Hindi maliit ang DAKO ano nito. Ems: Dako? Desiree: Dako talaga /di-i-ti-si- Hango sa salitang Panghalip Kasi…ang cha- Dito. eych-ay/ Tagalog na dito. chakadoll mga DETCHI amoy ng mga ari detchi. /di-way-yu-ti- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP5: Dyutay Maliit na ari ng ey-way/ Cebuano na dyutay… Oo… lalaki. dyutay na Wala ng… 200 DYUTAY nangangahulugan nga sa kanya g maliit o maikli. eh... kakaloka!

Mapapansin na ang salitang dako ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Maliban sa kahulugang panseksuwal ginagamit din ito upang ilarawan ang pagkakaroon ng malaking kita, bagay, tao o pangyayari. Habang, ang detchi naman ay walang naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan. At ang salitang dyutay ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Maliban sa kahulugang panseksuwal ginagamit din ito upang ilarawan ang pagkakaroon ng maliit na kita, bagay, tao o pangyayari.

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Matrix 5 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang E PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /i-pi-i-key/ Hinango mula Pangngalan GP1: Oo apeta. Epekto. sa Middle EMS: O di English na ba…epek, effective na epek… nagmula naman sa salitang Latin na effectus na EPEK nangangahulug ang “ang nakukuhang resulta mula sa kakompletuhan ng isang aksiyon.”

/i-ar-i-ar/ Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP7: Kadiri. bakla na er- Julutjulutan nga beauty na lang ang buhok nangangahulu- ko kagabi. gang mga GP5: Sori… lalaking may julutjulutan…Er ER ER blue collarjobs Er. tulad ng mga construction workers, taxi/jeepney driver at iba pa.

Ang mga salitang epek at ere r ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Subalit ang epek ay walang naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan. Habang ang ere r naman ay mula sa pang-uri tungo sa pangngalan. Sapagkat, ginagamit din ito bilang panghalili sa dumi ng tao o hayop.

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Matrix 6 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang G PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /ji-ey-en- Hango sa Pangngalan Okama, keri na May gana o ey-ti-si- salitang ung mga... nasa mood. eych-ay/ Tagalog na gana kareng-kareng na mgabers nangangahulug ganatchi….ok, GANATCHI ang pagiging ikaw magana o magkwero…a... masiglang a-no ginawa gawin ang isang sayo ni Harrold, bagay. ano eksena? /ji-i-ti-el- Hango sa Pandiwa GP3: Wag kang Kunin o ey-key/ salitang Ingles maglalasing. kuhanin. na get na GP4: Limang GETLAK nangangahulug piso… limang ang kunin. piso… GP3: Batiin ko yung getlak. /ji-o-jey- Mula sa sistema Pangngalan GP1: Kheme- 50 pesos . yu/ ng pamilang ng kheme… wikang GP3: Goju, pero GOJU Nihongo na goju ina na shogaling siya ngangahulugan Los Bahan. g limampu.

/ji-o-ar-ey/ Pinaikling gora Pandiwa Bakla, Pag-alis. agora ng bakla…gora na salitang bakla may GORA na hinango booking…dali mula sa salitang may booking, Ingles na go. okama dali go go go!

Mapupuna na ang salitang ganatchi ay nagbabago ang kahulugan kapag ito’y nilapian na. Halimbawa: (a) Ginaganatchi- ginaganahan; at (b) Maganatchi—masigla. Gayundin naman ang getlak na nagbabago ang kahulugan nito batay sa aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Ginetlak—kinuha; (b) Gumigetlak— kunukuha; at (c) Gigetlak—kukuha. Samantala, ang goju ay ganap na hiniram ang salita mula sa wikang Nihongo at pinanatili ang kahulugan nito at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita. Ang salitang gora ay nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salita depende sa aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Gumora—umalis; (b) Gumogora—humahada; at (c) Gogora—aalis. May pagkakataon din

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na ginagamit ito upang tukuyin ang pagsang-ayon sa inaalok na presyo ng isang kustomer.

Matrix 7 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang H

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /eych-ey- Ang salitang Pandiwa GP3: Hahada Pagsasagawa di-ey/ “hada” ay tayo para may ng isang nangangahulug palafes maya… gawaing an ng EMS: …bakla prostitusyon paglalagalag o booking… kung saan maaari rin naglalako ang namang mga gay pagrampa kung prostitute ng saan ay walang laman. permanenteng HADA lugar na tinitigilan. Ang katumbas nito sa salitang Spanish ay fairy o diwata at engkantada na katulad ng mga ligaw na espiritu. /eych-ey- Hango sa Pangngalan EMS: Magi, 150 pesos. key-yu-ji- sistema ng magi… o-jey-yu/ pamilang ng magibers...ano.. wikang . Nihongo na GP1: Hakugoju. haku o isang EMS: A… daan at goju o hakugoju… HAKUGOJU limampu na kapag pinagsama ang dalawang salita ay nagiging hakugoju na nangangahulug ang 150 yen. /eych-ay- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay GP3: Hindi, Hindi. en-way- tagalog na hinyi… ay/ “hindi.” EMS: Shimihan HINYI yang si bakla... GP3 & GP1: Hinyi…..

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Ang salitang hada ay ginamitan ng sistema na kung ano ang bigkas ay siya ring baybay. Nagbabago ang kahulugan depende sa aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Humada—naisagawa na ang gawaing prostitusyon; (b) Humahada—kasalukuyang naghahanap ng customer; at (c) Hahada—nagpaplanong maghanap ng kustomer. May pagkakataon na ginagamit ito upang tukuyin ang labas-masok na pagsubo sa ari ng lalaki. Samantala, ang hakugoju ay ganap na hiniram ang salita mula sa wikang Nihongo at pinanatili ang kahulugan nito at walang pagbabago sa kahulugan ng salita. Ang salitang hinyi naman ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Mapapansin rin na nagkaroon ng pagsasakatuparan ng NY Law na nakapaloob sa gay lingo kung saan pinalitan ng ny ang letrang /d/.

Matrix 8 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang I

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /ay-key- Mula sa salitang Panghalip GP2: Ikura? Magkano; yu-ar-ey/ Nihongo ng kinidnap sayo Tumutukoy sa bansang Hapon nung ombre? halagang na EMS: Ikura ba? ibabayad ng IKURA nangangahulug kustomer sa ang “magkano serbisyong o ilan”. ibibigay ng mga gay prostitute.

Ang salitang ikura ay ganap na hiniram ang salita at pinanatili ang baybay nito sa wikang Nihongo. May pagkakataon rin na nagbabago ang salitang ito kapag ginamit na sa pangungusap bilang pantukoy sa halagang ibabayad o ibibigay ng kustomer sa serbisyong ibibigay ng mga gay prostitute sa kanila.

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Matrix 9 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang J

PALABAYB BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN AYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /jey-ay-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay Sabi ko nga e, Ingat. ji-ey-ti/ Tagalog na bakla artistahin “ingat.” ung juking, JINGAT jukelya mo ha…pero magjingat ka sa kaniya… /jey-ay-ar- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Shogaling Los Hirap. ey-pi/ Tagalog na Bahan pero “hirap.” syutang JIRAP ina…nagjijirap pa rin yata siya… (tawa) ma-gi apeta! /jey-o- Hinango mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Jeboy ‘yan. Ka-live-in- dobolyu- Scottish Archaic GP5: Ang partner o ey/ na jo bago ang gugwapo ng karelasyon. JOWA ika-16 na siglo na mga jowa mo may kahulugang ah. “sweetheart” o minamahal. /jey-yu-key- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Sabi ko nga e, Kustomer na i-el-way-ey/ juking na isang bakla artistahin nabooking. JUKELY salitang bakla na ung juking, A nangangahuluga jukelya mo ha... ng pagkuha ng pero magjingat kustomer. ka sa kaniya… /jey-yu-el- Hango sa Pandiwa Alam nyo chi, Nahuli o ay-i-vi-i-ji- pangalan ni Julie munchik na Nadakip. ey/ Pearl Apostol kame chi Postigo o mas anik….ma…. kilala bilang Julie Julie Vega Vega, isang ng….anik JULIE Filipina child kagatush… VEGA actress at singer. Isinunod sa kanyang pangalan dahil sa katunog nito ang salitang “huli.” /jey-yu-el- Hango sa salitang Pandiwa Hoy ma… Piniit sa o-en-ji/ Tagalog na Ijujulong kami. kulungan. “kulong” na Pina-late time nangangahuluga muna nang JULONG ng pagpiit sa pina-late time. kulungan. Ang maganda dun pinalabas kami,

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pinagmasahe nalang kami. /jey-yu-el- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Julutjulutan nga Kinulot na yu-ti-jey- Tagalog na kulot lang ang buhok pagkakaayos JULUTJ yu-el-yu-tina ko kagabi. sa buhok. ULUTAN ey-en/ nangangahuluga ng di tuwid na buhok. /jey-yu-ti- Mula sa wikang Pandamdam. GP5: Pwede pa Katumbas ng ey-en-ji-ay- Filipino na namang birahin “Putang ina en-ey-em-i- “putang ina”, yan eh. mo” na es-eych/ isang mura o GP2: Uy! Jutang kadalasang ekspresyon na ina mesh. nababanggit kadalasang upang nagpapakita ng ipahayag ang panlalait pagkagalit o sapagkat pagkadismaya JUTANG itinuturing itong sa isang INA lapastangang bagay, tao at MESH pananalita tungo pangyayari. sa ina ng isang tao, ang salitang puta ay isang wikang Kastila na nangangahuluga ng “babaeng mababa ang lipad” o bayarang babae.

Mapapansin na ang salitang jingat ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng pagsasakatuparan ng J Law na nakapaloob sa mga salitang bakla kung saan idinadarag o ikinakabit sa unahan ng salita ang letrang /j/ upang magkaroon ng panibagong baryason ang salitang ingat. Nagbabago ang kahulugan kapag nilapian na ang salita. (a) Jingatan—bigyan ng pag-iingat; at (b) Jijingatan—pagkakaroon ng responsibilidad upang ingatan ang isang bagay na inihabilin o ibinigay. Habang ang salitang jirap ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Sa puntong ito, kinaltas ang letrang /h/ sa unahan ng salita at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na rin sa J Law na nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ayon sa paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Nagjirap—naghirap na; (b) Nagjijirap—nagdudusa; (c) Sa punto naman ng pag-uulit sa salita ay nagbabago rin ang kahulugan nito; at (d) Jirap na jirap – ipinapakita ang sadyang paghihirap. May pagkakataon rin na tumutukoy ito sa

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kahirapang makakuha ng kustomer. Habang ang mga salitang jowa at jukelya ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong naganap sa salita. Ang salitang Julie Vega naman ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ayon na rin sa alituntuning panatilihin ang baybay ng mga pantanging ngalan. May pagkakataon na ginagamit din ito bilang katumbas ng mabagansiya at pagpapahayag ng pagnanais na umuwi o bumalik mula sa pinanggalingan. Gayun din naman, ang salitang julong ay kinaltas ang letrang /k/ sa unahan ng salita at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na rin sa J Law na nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo. Nagbabago ang kahulugan batay sa paglalapi sa salita at aspekto ng pandiwa: Halimbawa: (a) Jinulong—ipiniit sa kulungan; (b) Jinujulong— kinukulong; at (c) Ijujulong—tangkang ipipiit sa kulungan. Ang salitang julutjulutan kapag inalis ang pagkakalapi sa salita, nagbago ang kahulugan nito na mula sa kinulot na ayos tungo sa natural na pagkakakulot ng buhok. Ang salitang jutang ina mesh ay kinaltas ang letrang /p/ at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na rin sa J Law na nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa loob ng salita.

Matrix 10 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang K

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /key-ey-di- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Okama, kadera Tawag sa tela o i-ar-ey/ Tagalog na na….anik, huy basahang kadera na andidyan…anik, inilalagay ng tumutukoy sa anik? mga gay KADERA basahan. prostitute sa kanilang pigi upang magkaroon ng balakang. /key-ey-ji- Hango mula sa Pang-abay GP2: Ikura? Kagabi. ey-bi-yu/ salitang Tagalog kinidnap sayo na kagabi. nung ombre? KAGABU EMS: Ikura ba? GP2: Kagabu? Kagabu? /key-ey-ji- Ang salitang Pangngalan Alam nyo chi, Barangay ey-ti-yu-es- kagatush ay munchik na tanod. eych/ nagmula sa kame chi KAGATUSH dalawang salita - anik….ma….Juli kagawad at e Vega ng….anik tanod. Ang kagatush…

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“kaga” na nagmula sa salitang kagawad na isinunod sa bigkas ng mga Bisaya ayon sa mga Kastila. Ang kagawad ay kabilang sa Sangguniang Barangay na pinakamaliit na yunit ng samahang pampolitika. Habang ang tush ay nangangahuluga ng “tanod.” Ang tush ay pinaikling toches na mula sa Yiddish tokhes ng Hebreo, na nangangahuluga ng “sa ilalim ng” (1914). /key-ey-es- Mula sa salitang Pandiwa GP1: Sino ba Sagarin. eych-key- Tagalog na nagpatonggay? ey-es- kaskasin na GP3: Wit KASHKASHIN eych-ay- nangangahuluga GP4: Kashkashin en/ ng kayurin. nyo pa ako… tang-ina nyo. /key-i-ay-ti- Hango sa wikang Pangngalan GP3: Tignan mo Cellphone. ey-ay/ Nihonggo na ang ganda ng nangangahuluga keitai niya no? ng “portable.” EMS: O di KEITAI Ito rin ang ba…ganda ng pinaikling salita keitai niya, ng keitai denwa sosyal! Di...ba… (cellphone). /key-i-pi- Ito’y mula sa Pangngalan Batingin na natin Operada o ey-way/ salitang Ingles na ‘yung kepay artipisyal na ari puck na hinango halika na tapos ng isang sa salitang ‘yung apat homoseksuwal. pouke, isang paikutin natin masamang ‘yung apat. espiritu, noong taong 1300. At muli itong KEPAY hinango sa puca hanggang sa naging puki (demonyo) sa hindi malamang pinagsimulan, ayon kay Robin Goodfellow. Maaari rin itong

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hinango sa isang pangkat-etniko na Gaddang sa Cagayan ng rehiyon II. Ang kepay ay nangangahuluga n na hilaw sa kanilang wika. /key-i-ar- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Okama, keri na Kaya lang yan o ay/ Ingles na carry. ung mga… madali lang kareng-kareng yan. mgabers ganatchi… ok, KERI ikaw magkwero… a… ano ginawa sayo ni Harrold, ano eksena? /key-eych- Hinango mula sa Pangngalan EMS: Kheme- Hindi i-em-i/ sikat na indie film kheme lang chi totoo/Jowk/Pa na Kimi Dora ng anik… mbobola. (Kambal sa GP2: May KHEME Kyeme) na booking, may ipinalabas noong booking tau dun! 2009 sa Malaki burat direksyon ni nun! Joyce Bernal. /key-ay-en- Hango sa Pandiwa Kinarat Ginahasa. ey-ar-ey-ti/ makarat o karat ako….ang laki ng ng wikang nota! KINARAT Kapampangan na nangangahuluga ng pagtatalik. /key-o-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay EMS: O… o di Kumusta. en-ay-si- Nihongo na ba? (tawa). eych-ay- konnichiwa na GP1: dobolyu- nangangahuluga Konichiwa… ey/ ng magandang GP2: KONNICHIWA hapon o pagbati Konichiwa… ng hi o hello. sarane, ano’ng nyangyari sayo? Ano’ng nyangyari sa’yong…

Ang salitang kadera ay ginamitan ng sistema na kung ano ang bigkas ay siya ring baybay. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang salitang kagabu ay Isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Ngunit nagkaroon ng pagpapalitan ng ponema sa pagitan ng patinig na /i/ tungo sa patinig na /o/. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang salitang kagatush

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ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siya ring baybay at Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang kashkashin naman ay bagama’t isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinakatuparan pa rin ang tinatawag na SH Law na nakapaloob sa gay lingo kung saan malayang pinapalitan ang mga letra sa loob ng salita ng sh. Sa kabilang banda, iniba rin ang pagpapakahulugan sa salita. May pagkakataon na ginagamit din ang salitang ito upang ilarawan ang pagbibigay-todo sa ginagawang pakikipagtalik o pagbibigay ng serbisyo sa kustomer. Ang salitang keitai ay Pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salita batay sa kung paano ito binaybay sa wikang Nihongo ng bansang Hapon. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang kepay at keri ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siya ring baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. At ang salitang kheme ay nagkaroon ng pagsisingit ng letrang /h/ upang magbigay ng diin sa salita. Ang kinarat ay pinanatili ang paraan ng pagbaybay batay na rin sa kung paano ito binabay sa orihinal na salitang pinagmulan. Ngunit, binago ang kahulugan nito batay sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute. May pagkakataon na ginagamit din ang salitang ito bilang katumbas ng paghahanap ng panandaliang-aliw o katalik. Ang salitang konnichiwa ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salita batay sa kung paano ito binaybay sa wikang Nihongo ng bansang Hapon. May pagkakataon na ginagamit ito upang batiin ang kausap sa iba’t ibang panahunan o oras.

Matrix 11 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang L

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /el-i-ji-ey- Hango mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Ikaw, ang Binti. el-yu/ salitang Ingles kinis ng legalu na leg na mo para kang hinalaw sa Old naka… (tawa) LEGALU Norse na leggr EMS: Magi! at may Ganda ng kahulugang eksena! “binti ng isang tao o hayop.”

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/el-o-es-bi- Hango sa lugar Pangngalan Shogaling Los Lugar kung ey-eych- na Los Baños, Bahan pero saan ey-en/ Laguna. syutang ina… isinasagawa LOS nagjijirap pa rin ang gawaing BAHAN yata siya… prostitusyon sa (tawa) magi mundo ng mga apeta! gay prostitute.

Mapupuna sa Matrix na ito na ang salitang legalu ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng pagdaragdag ng salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin sa loob ng salita. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang los bahan ay may pagkakataon na tumutukoy rin ito sa isang club na pinagmulan ng isang gay prostitute kung saan doon siya nagtatrabaho.

Matrix 12 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang M

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /em-ey-ji- Hinango mula Pangngalan EMS: Magi, Nagpapahaya ay/ sa Maggi nageeksena nga g ng pagpigil Noodles na kayo di ba? o pag-antala isang kilalang GP3: ng anumang instant noodles Nagkikibers nga sasabihin o MAGI na pinasikat sa daw sila e. gagawin ng Pilipinas ng kasamahan. multinasyunal na kompanyang Nestle. /em-ey- Buhat sa Pang-uri GP1: Bigay yata Mayaman. eych-ey- pamilya ng ng ano mo ar-el-ay- Malayo- ombre… key-ey/ Polynesian na EMS: O? mahar at lingga. EMS: Maharlika Ang mahar ay un…maharlika. nangangahulug ang malaki. MAHARLIKA Samantalang titi naman ang kahulugan ng lingga. Ginamit lamang ang salitang ito ng mga raha at datu bilang “pinakamataas

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at pinakamagaling ” na pagpapakahulu gan sa panahon ng prekolonyal. /em-o-en- Mula sa Pangngalan K: Sige Paunang i-way-di- dalawang salita GP: Money bayad. o- na money na down muna dobolyu- hango sa K: Pagkatapos en/ salitang Latin na. na moneta (mint, coinage) MONEY at down na DOWN isang Middle English na doun (to come down). Katumbas din ito ng salitang installment. /em-ay-el- Mula sa sikat na Pangngalan Desiree: Tama Libog o o/ inuming na nagmimilong pagtaas ng pampalakas na ka na. libido sa MILO “Milo.” katawan. Kenneth: Milong-milo

/em-ay-ti- Mula sa huling Pangngalan Barbie: May mit- Pamunas sa em-ay-ti/ pantig ng mit diyan? Yung Mukha. salitang damit. mit-mit kong puti, bakla! Kenneth: Yung MIT-MIT ano mo? Walang show. Barbie: Hindi. Yung mit-mit kong puti. /em-yu- Hango sa Pang-abay Alam nyo chi, Muntik. en-si- salitang munchik na eych-ay- Tagalog na kame chi anik… key/ nangangahulug ma… Julie Vega MUNCHIK ang muntik o ng… anik isang kagatush… pangyayaring hindi naganap.

Mapapansin na ang salitang magi ay may pagkakataon na ginagamit din ito bilang panghalili o palayaw sa kapwa kapag hindi na kailangan pang banggitin ang pangalan nito. Habang, ang salitang maharlika ay may pagkakataon na tumutukoy din ito sa pagtataglay

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ng malaking ari ng isang lalaki. Ang money down ay pinanatili ang orihinal nitong baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang milo ay pinanatili ang baybay mula sa orihinal na salita subalit iniba ang pagpapakahulugan at pagbigkas nito. Kapag nagkaroon ng paglalapi at pag-uulit sa salita ay nagbubunga ito ng pagbabago rin ng kahulugan. Halimbawa: (a) Nagmilong—nagkalibog; (b) Nagmimilong-nagnanasa; at (c) Milong-milo—libog na libog. Ang mit- mit ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din naman ng ganap na pag-uulit sa salita. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang salitang munchik ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang basa siyang baybay, ay naisakatuparan pa rin sa salitang ito ang paglalagay ng ch sa unahan, gitna o hulihan ng isang salita upang mapalambot ang pagbigkas dito. Ang sistema na ito ay nakapaloob sa tinatawag na CH Law ng mga gay lingo.

MATRIX 13 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang N

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /en-ey-ji- Mula sa Pandiwa EMS: Magi, Nagtatalik. key-ay- salitang Ingles nageeksena nga key-ay-bi-i- na kibe na kayo di ba? ar-es/ nangangahulu GP3: gang Nagkikibers nga surprising blow daw sila e. to one’s testicles. Samantalang, maiuugnay din NAGKIKIBERS ito sa salitang kiberis na tumutukoy sa isang tao na madaling nakakakuha ng katalik sa pamamagitan lamang ng tingin nito.

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/en-ay-en-i- Hinango mula Panghalip GP4: Juking. Kanino. es/ sa salitang Maiba lang nino o ang ako… pinaikling kanino. GP3: Pwede NINES bang charing!

GP4: Pwede bang nines.

/en-ji-i-en- Mula sa Pang-uri GP3: Witang... Nahihilo. ji-i-el-yu/ salitang hilo ng ngengelu… wikang ngengelu... NGENGELU Tagalog. (tawanan) GP3: Anu payu paradezka na ba?

/en-o-em- Mula sa Pandiwa GP5: Ay, Paglalasing. o/ salitang madumi na chi. Tagalog na Shogay nalang. inom. Bonamin ‘yan? Witchells. Nakakaloka. Kailangan ba NOMO talaga may ganyan chi. Dapat nagdala kayo ng plastik na malaki. GP3: Nomo day, nomo. /en-o-ti-ey/ Ang salitang nota Pangngalan GP4: Pero Ari ng lalaki. ay hango mula sa malaki ang nota mga Espanyol. nung ombre… Ika-13 siglo ng EMS: Malaki? sumibol ang terminolohi-yang ito sa wikang Latin na may NOTA kahulugang di- pabor na marka na tinala sa isang tao. Kaya naman naiangkop ito sa ari ng lalaki na isang markang di- malilimutan.

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/en-way- Mula sa Pang-uri GP7: Net kong Pagod. ay-key-ar-i- salitang Low magpabayis. ti-o/ battery na GP3: Wety nyo nangangahulu ‘ko nyobat. gang NYIKRETO pagkaubos ng enerhiyang inilalabas o binibigay ng isang baterya.

/en-way-o- Mula sa Pangngalan GP4: Wa ang Kustomer o key-es-ti- salitang nyokstumer… mga kliyente yu-em-i-ar/ Tagalog na wa ang ng mga gay kustomer na nyokstumer prostitute. NYOKSTUMER isang salitang hiram mula sa GP5: Hay naku! Ingles na Nakakaloka customer

/en-way-o- Buhat sa Pang-uri GP4: Parang Abnormal. en-ji-ji-o-el- salitang Ingles syolbam yan... o-ay-di-es/ na mongoloid GP3: Parang na nyonggoloids… nangangahulu NYONGGOLOIDS gang “taong hindi normal ang pag-iisip at pisikal na anyo.”

Mapapansin na ang mga salitang nakatala sa Matrix na ito’y karaniwang sumusunod sa kung ano ang bigkas ay siyang baybay. Subalit, ang salitang nagkikibers ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa kahulugan kapag isinakatuparan sa salitang ito ang aspekto ng pandiwa, (a) Nagkibers—nakipagtalik; at (b) Kikibers— makikipagtalik. Gayun din naman ang nines na Nagkaroon ng pagbabago higit na kapag inulit ng ganap ang salitang ito. Halimbawa: Nines-nines—kani-kanino. Ang mga salitang ngengelu at nota ay isinunod sa tuntunin na nabanggit at walang pagbabago sa kahulugan nito. Ang nomo naman ay nagkaroon ng pagbabago kapag nilalapian. Halimbawa: Nomohan—lugar na pinaglalasi-ngan tulad ng videoke bar. Ang salitang nyikreto ay nabuo ang salitang ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng sikreto na kinaltas ang letrang /s/. Habang, ang nyobat ay nabuo ang salitang ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng lowbat na kinaltas

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ang letrang /l/. Isinunod din dito ang alituntunin ng pagkakaltas gaya ng pagkaltas sa letrang /w/ sa lowbat. May pagkakataon na tumutukoy din ito bilang kawalan ng mapagkakaa-balahan o pagiging malas sa pagkuha ng kustomer. Ang nyokstumer naman ay nabuo ang salitang ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng kustomer na kinaltas ang letrang /k/. Ang salitang nyonggoloids naman ay nabuo ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng mongoloids na kinaltas ang letrang /m/. May pagkakataon na nangangahu-lugan din itong tanga o kasingkahulu-gan din ng salitang bobita.

Matrix 14 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang O

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /o-key-ey- Hinango ito mula Pangngalan Ang gaganda Tawag ng em-ey/ sa wikang ng mga okama isang Nihongo ng di ba, sa make homoseksuw bansang Hapon. up. al sa kapwa Ang kama ay homoseksuw nangangahuluga al. ng takure. Sapagkat, kapag nadagdagan na ng unlaping “O” ang salita ay nagbabago na OKAMA ang kahulugan ng salita, ito’y tumutukoy na sa baklang nagdadamit pambabae at nagbibigay-aliw o isang drag queen. Ang salitang ito ay mula sa panahon Edo na may kahulugang puwit. /o-key-ey- Ito ay hinango Pangngalan GP2: Oo, keri na Pera. en-ay/ mula sa salitang ‘yun galing mo OKANI Nihongo ng ah. bansang Hapon

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na GP5: Syempre nangangahulu- wala naman gang salapi o tayong okani pera. kapag hindi tayo eh di umawra. /o-em-bi- Hinango ito sa Pangngalan GP2: Ikura? Lalaki. ar-i/ salitang hombre, kinidnap sayo wikang Kastila na nung ombre? kinuha sa wikang EMS: Ikura ba? OMBRE Griyego na homo na ngangahulugang lalaki. /o-ti-o- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Gaga! Otoko Lalaking- key-o/ Otoko na isang yan… hindi lalaki. salitang Nihongo siya… ba... OTOKO na bakla... mahilig nangangahuluga mag-eksena…. ng lalaki.

Mapupuna sa mga sumunod na salita ang mga pagsusuri, ang salitang okama, okani at otoko ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay na ginamit sa wikang Nihongo at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang salitang ombre ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Espanyol. Mula sa pangangalan tungo sa pang-uri. Sapagkat, ginagamit din ito bilang katumbas ng salitang makulay kapag ang tinutukoy ay ang kasuotan o aksesoryang sinusuot sa katawan.

Matrix 15 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang P

PALAB BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA AYBAY ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP AN /pi-ey- Ang pa ay isang Pandiwa Yung may pera Painom o el-ey-ef- panlaping palafes, ung pakain. es/ idinikit sa lafes. may pera Katumbas ng Hinango ang palafes na salitang lafes sa salitang chi….huy blow-out. lafang na isang palafes naman PALAFES salitang bakla. chi ung mga Samantalang, okama ditech, sa bansang may pera ka ba Rusya, ang chi… bakla, kahulugan ng bakla booking… lafang ay lapa o booking… pagsunggab.

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booking… booking. /pi-ey- Ito’y hinango Pangngalan GP3: Bakla, Tawag sa way-o- mula sa salitang nabooking ko serbisyong el-ey/ pay at ola. Ang ‘to… binabayaran pay ay ang EMS: Hay payola tulad ng pagbabayad o sayo keitai? pagbibigay- pagbibigay ng aliw. pera o anuman para sa serbisyong nakuha sa isang PAYOLA tao. Habang ang salitang ola ay isang hulaping madalas na dinidikit sa iba’t ibang salita. Nangangahulug an ang ola na korupsyon. /pi-i-es- Hinango ang Pangngalan Hmmm… ba… Mukha. el-ey- salitang peslak bakla… ang key/ sa salitang ka… ang shupal PESLAK Ingles na face at naman ng ibinaybay ayon peslak nito, sa tunog. shupal!

/pi-ay-si- Nagmula sa Old Pangngalan GP3: Ewan ko sa Tawag sa key-yu- English na pician kanya, wag na mga gay pi/ o ari ng isang nating pag- prostitute. lalaki. usapan. Keri-keri Nagbigyan ng lang ‘yun. pagkakahuluga GP4: Dahil sa ng pag-akit sa pick-up kasi… PICK-UP isang tao para makipag-seks o magbenta ng laman noong taong 1690 lamang.

/pi-o-es- Mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Nyogay na. Pagpapahing ti-em- dalawang salita GP5: Postmate a matapos ey-ti-i/ na post at mate. na ako. Si bayot ang POSTMATE ng bagong na… pakikipagtali lahi.” k sa kustomer.

Mapapansin na ang salitang palafes ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa kahulugan ng salita kapag isinakatuparan dito ang

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aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Magpalafes—magpakain o magpa-inom; (b) Magpapalafes—may planong magpapakain o magpapa-inom; at (c) Papalafes—magpapakain o magpapa-inom pa lang. Ang salitang payola ay mula sa pangngalan tungo sa pang-uri. Sapagkat, gi-nagamit din ang salitang ito katumbas ng kurakot o buraot. Ang salitang peslak ay isinunod ito sa alituntuning, kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang ang pick-up ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng hiniram na salita mula sa wikang Ingles subalit nabago na ang kahulugan nito kung saan inaayon ito sa mundong ginagalawan ng mga gay prostitute. Nagbabago ang kahulugan nito batay sa pagkakalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Pumick- up—nagsagawa ng prostitusyon o kumuha ng customer; (b) Pinick- up—kinuha ng kustomer upang magbigay ng panandaliang-aliw; at (c) Pipick-up—kukuha pa lang ng kustomer. Ang salitang postmate ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at ginamitan ng pagtatambal ng dalawang salita upang makabuo ng panibagong termino na may bagong kahulugan. Tumutukoy rin ito sa isang homoseksu-wal na tumigil na sa gawaing prostitusyon.

Matrix 16 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang S

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP1: Bakla… Trabaho. ay-ji-o-ti- shigoto ng Alipin? o/ wikang GP2: Shigoto Nihongo ng sya ah. bansang Hapon GP1: Kaya nga… SHIGOTO na nangangahulug ang uri ng trabaho.

/es-eych- Hango sa Pandiwa GP5: Shikman Tikman. ay-key- salitang mo oh… em-ey-en/ Tagalog na shikman mo. “tikman” o ang GP1: Parang SHIKMAN pagkuha ng mahal na mahal kaunti sa mga mo si Rasel. pagkain upang GP5: Syempre malasahan ang nagpatongga

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inihain na sya di ba putahe. syempre.

/es-eych- Hinango mula Pandiwa Pero at least, Binayad. ay-en-o- sa salitang bakla juking nyo di-ey/ bakla na binoda. na kaya yung nakaraan n’yong chi… ano ba SHINODA yung…ang shinoda sa akin mga ano…haku… ano lang yun eh, goju lang. /es-eych- Hinango mula Pandiwa Pero at least, Binayad. o-key-i/ sa salitang bakla juking nyo bakla na binoda. na kaya yung nakaraan n’yong chi… ano ba SHOKE yung…ang shinoda sa akin mga ano…haku… ano lang yun eh, goju lang. /es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay Shogaling Los Mula sa isang o-ji-ey-el- nanggaling. Bahan pero lugar o ay-en-ji/ syutang ina… nanggaling sa. SHOGALI nagjijirap pa rin NG yata siya… (tawa) magi apeta!

/es-eych- Hango sa Pandiwa GP4: Chell.. Tagay. o-ji-ey- salitang chells.. way/ Tagalog na tagay na GP5: Oh shogay SHOGAY nangangahulug na shogay na… ang pag-inom ng isang shot GP3: Shogay lamang. ana na mama.

/es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Ayan na ang Kinahuhumali- o-em-o- balbal ng shomoy ko, ngan na lalaki. way/ wikang Ingles palapit na. SHOMOY na moy na nangangahulug ang immature men. /es-eych- Mula sa Pandiwa GP4: Putang ina Tahasang SHOWTI o- dalawang ang sakit ng pagpapakita ME salitang Ingles leeg ko. ng

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dobolyu- na show at Tinitingnan ko isinasagawang ti-ay-em-i/ time. Kung saan ‘yung ilaw, pagtatalik. ang show ay video pala. unang ginamit GP3: Ayaw mo noong 1300 na nun? Showtime may ka. kahulugang “an act exhibiting for view” at ang time naman ay mula sa Old English na terminong getimian o “to happen, befall.” Hango sa /es-eych- salitang yu-em-ey- Tagalog na Pandiwa Saan kayo Tumakbo. SHUMAK key-bi-o/ takbo o ang shumakbo? BO paghakbang ng mabilis at madalas.

/es-eych- Nagmula ito sa Pang-uri Hmmm… ba... Walang hiya. yu-pi-ey- terminong ba-kla…ang el/ makapal na ka… ang shupal matatagpuan sa naman ng wikang peslak nito, Tagalog. Dili shupal! kaya’y sa balbal na pahayag na ginagamit ng SHUPAL mga Amerikano sa pakikipagusap tulad ng “Dude, you’re talking of pure el kapal” na ang kahulugan ay “full of bullshit.”

Sa Matrix na ito, ang salitang shigoto ay pinanatili ang orihinal na anyo ng baybay mula sa wikang Nihongo. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang shikman ay bagama’t isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinakatuparan pa rin sa salitang ito ang pagkakaltas ng letra sa unahan ng salita at hinalinhinan ng sh. Ang tawag sa prosesong ito ay SH Law ng mga gay lingo. Nagbabago

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ang kahulugan nito batay sa paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Nashikman—nasubukan na; (b) Shinikman—nilasahan; at (c) Shishikman—titikman. Ang shinoda ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon ng panibagong baryasyon sa kahulugan. Habang, ang salitang shoke ay may pagkakataon rin na ginagamit ito bilang pandadaot sa itsurang hindi kanais-nais ng isang tao. Ang salitang shogaling bagama’t isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinasakatuparan pa rin ang SH Law sa gay lingo, walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang shogay naman ay nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag isinakatuparanna ang aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Shinogay—tinagay; (b) Sinoshogay—tinatagay; at (c) Isoshogay—itatagay. Ang shomoy ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang showtime ay tahasang ginamit ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at inangkupan din ng sariling pagpapakahulugan mula sa kontekstong kailangan ng mga bakla. Katulad ng iba pang mga salita, ang shumakbo ay sumusunod sa SH Law at walang anumang pagbabago sa kahulugan. Ang shupal naman ay ginamitan ang salitang ito ng tinatawag na SH Law kung ang letrang /k/ at hinalinhan ng /sh/ upang maging malambot ang pagbigkas. Kapag isnakatuparan naman ang kaantasan ng pang-uri, nagkakaroon din ito ng pagbabago sa kahulugan. Halimbawa: (a) Mashupal—makapal ang apog; at b) Napakashupal—wala ng kahihiyan sa sarili.

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Matrix 17 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang T

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /ti-i-ji-ay/ Hango sa Pangngalan GP4: Tegi ka Patay. salitang balbal lang. na (tawanan) TEGI nangangahulug GP3: Tegi ako? ang walang GP4: Dapat may buhay. kasamang bulaklak. /ti-i-en-ti- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP3: Awra na. Pampaganda ey-key-i- tentacles na Ishobay. na ginagamit TENTAK el-es/ tawag sa mga GP2: Mga upang lalong ELS galamay ng tentakels natin. makapang- isang oktupus. akit ng lalaki o kustomer. /ti-ay-key- Mula sa tunog Pangngalan Dalawang Tsismis. ti-ey-key/ na nililikha ng lights. orasan na tick- Dalawang puti. TIKTAK tack na Wala ka ng naunang naitala tiktak. noong 1848.

/ti-es-yu- Hango mula sa Pangngalan Alam mo na Oral seks; pi-ey/ isang pangalan ‘yun kung ano pagsubo sa ng lollipop na ang gusto ari ng lalaki TSUPA chupa chups. mo…tsupa. ng labas- Ikaw, ano ba masok gusto mong gawin ko?

Mapupuna sa matrix na ito na ang salitang tegi ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa kahulugan kapag nilalapian na ang isang salita. Halimbawa: (a) Nategi—namatay; at (b) Tinegi—pinatay. Ang salitang tentakels ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang tiktak ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago ng kahulugan sa salita kapag ito’y nilapian. Halimbawa: (a) Katiktak—tawag sa taong katsismisan o kakuwentuhan; at (b) Tiktakan—lugar na huntahan ng mga gay prostitute. Habang, ang salitang tsupa ay nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag nagkaroon ng paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Tsinupa—isinubo ng labas-masok ang ari ng lalaki; at (b) Tsumupa—sinubukan ang pagsubo sa ari.

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Matrix 18 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang U

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /yu-en-di-i- Ang salitang under Pangngalan Ems: Ano din Taong ar-ey-ar- ay hango sa Old yan, ahmmm… Kontrolado. ar-i-es-ti/ English na salita na Desiree: Under katulad sa wikang arrest Dutch na onder at Ems: Hindi wikang Aleman na naman. Ano unter. Na siya… kilabot nangangahulugan yan ng mga g “ibaba” o gangster. “kontrol/pamamah a-la ng isang tao o grupo ng mga tao.” Habang ang salitang arrest ay hinango sa Late Middle English na UNDER ARREST salita na nagsimula sa wikang Pranses na arrester na hango naman sa salitang Latin na ad-‘at, to’+ restar na nangangahulugan g remain o stop. Na may kahulugang legal na pagdakip o paghuli ng otoridad sa sinomang nagkasala sa batas.

/yu-en-di-i- Mula sa tambal na Pangngalan GP3: Chaka… Matandang ar-el-o-el- salita, ang lolo at chaka… lalaki. o/ under. Ang salitang EMS: under ay hango sa Underlolo? Old English na GP3: salita na katulad sa Thunderstorm wikang Dutch na … onder at wikang UNDERLOLO Aleman na unter. Na nangangahulugan g “ibaba” o “kontrol/pamamah a-la ng isang tao o grupo ng mga tao.” Samantalang

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ang lolo ay hinango sa salitang Tagalog na lolo o isang matandang lalaki.

/yu-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay GP4: Unya- Mamaya o way-ey/ Cebuano na unya unyain natin, pagsasantabi na unya-unya na. muna ng nangangahulugan Unya-unya na. gawain. g “maghintay GP3: Hindi. UNYA sandali.” Gawin natin ‘yung apat tapos kunyari ano pa rin tayo sa kanila…

Ang salitang under arrest at underlolo ay pinanatili ang paraan ng pagbaybay sasalita mula sa orihinal nitong baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang unya ay isinunod ito sa alituntuning, kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa kahulugan batay sa paglalapi at pag-uulit. Halimbawa: (a) Unya-unya—pagpapaliban nang kaunti; at (b) Unya-unyain- dahan-dahanin.

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Matrix 19 Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang W

PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP /dobolyu- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP2: Wis… Wala. ay-es/ wala. GP4: Hala… la… WIS lagot… pa… patay ka… (tawanan) /dobolyu- Ayon kina Ann Pang-abay GP2: Uy wit. Ekspresyong ay-ti/ Ford at Ben GP4: Paganun na ginagamit Floyd (2009), para hindi upang ito umano ay nakakahilo. ipahayag ang daglat ng hindi Whore in pagsang- Training o mga ayon o hindi kabataang pagtugon sa nagpapalagay sinasabi. sa kanilang mga sarili na sila’y WIT nasa hustong edad na kung kaya’t

nagagawa na nilang hindi sumunod o tumalima sa ipinag-uutos ng mas nakakatanda sa kanila.

Mapupuna na ang salitang wis at wit ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan.

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Kongklusyon

Sa kabuuan ng pananaliksik na ito’y gumamit ng istilo ng obserbasyon at pakikipanayam sa mga kalahok na pawang mga freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute na may kabuuang bilang na walo. Ang istilong ito sa mga kalahok ay isinagawa sa paniniwala na ang mga nakapanayam ay mayroong sapat na kaalaman at kasanayan sa pagbuo at paggamit ng mga salita na kinakailangan ng mananaliksik.

Ang karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay ginagamit rin ng mga karaniwang homoseksuwal o pamilyar ng naririnig at iniaangkop sa pakikipagtalastasan ng sinuman. May mga salita rin na eksklusibo lamang nilang ginagamit at sila lamang ang nakakaalam ng kahulugan nito halimbawa ng mga salitang ito ay ang anashinay, apeta, magi. Bagama’t may ilan din namang mga salita na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa gawaing prostitusiyon at pagpapahayag ng mga bagay na may kinalaman sa seks tulad ng milo, tsupa, booking, blowjob, hada at iba pa.

Mayorya sa kahulugan ng mga salitang bakla na ginagamit ng mga piling freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute ay hindi nagtataglay ng double meaning o pagkakaroon ng kahulugang may kinalaman sa seks sapagkat ginagamit rin nila ito sa pang-araw-araw nilang pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay prostitute at iba pang indibiduwal na nakakasalamuha. Sa kabilang banda, hindi naman nalalayo ang bilang ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa usapin ng gawaing seksuwal at prostitusiyon, hindi nakakapagtakang ito ay nagtataglay ng higit sa isang kahulugan o double meaning na patungkol sa gawaing seksuwal ng mga kalahok.

Karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay nagbabago ang kahulugan kapag ito’y nilalapian. Halimbawa ang anashinay ay nagiging anashinayin na may kahulugan na pahiyain. Ginagawa ring panghalili o ipinanunumbas ang mga salitang ginagamit ng gay prostitute na nagpapakita ng pagbabago sa kahulugan nito. Halimbawa ang salitang betchay na ipinanghalili sa kuha. Nagaganap din ang pagbabago kapag ang panahunan o aspekto ng pandiwa ay nagkakaroon ng baryasyon sa kahulugan nito. Halimbawa ang salitang bayis na nagiging nagpabayis, magpabayis at magbabayis. Nagkakaroon din ng pagbabago sa kahulugan kapag

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ang salita’y inuulit. Patunay dito ang salitang anik na may kahulugang ano naman at kapag inulit na ang salita (anik-anik) ang kahulugan na nito ay aksesorya sa katawan. May mga pagkakataon din na mula sa positibong kahulugan nito ay nagiging negatibo ito batay sa pagkakagamit sa pangungusap. Halimbawa ang salitang agua negrita na bagamat may orihinal na kahulugan na tawag sa isang indibiduwal na maitim ang kulay ng balat ngunit may taglay na ganda o sa Ingles black beauty ay nagmumukha itong negatibo dahil may mga pagkakataong ginagamit ang mga salitang ito bilang pangkutya o pang-asar sa kapwa na ang kahulugan naman ay indibiduwal na maitim ang balat at may hindi kanais-nais na hitsura.

Ang etimolohiya ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay buhat hindi lamang sa umiiral na mga salitang gay lingo at swardspeak ng Pilipinas kundi ibinatay rin ito sa mga wikang umiiral sa ating bansa. Pinakamarami sa mga salita ay hinango mula sa wikang Tagalog. Ikalawa naman, ang mga salitang hinango mula sa wikang Ingles na ganap na hiniram subalit binago ang pagbibigay ng kahulugan nito ayon sa paraan ng pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute at ang iba naman ay hinihiram ngunit dinadagdagan ng mga letra/salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin. Ikatlo naman ay mga salitang nabuo mula sa mga sumikat at naging tanyag na pelikula tulad ng Kimi Dora (Kheme); mga babasahin tulad ng komiks gaya ng Agua Bendita (Agua Negrita); mga kilalang personalidad tulad ni Julie Pearl Apostol Postigo (Julie Vega). Ikaapat, ang mga salitang hinango rin ang ilang etimolohiya sa mga umiiral na salitang bakla at sa mga salitang balbal sa lipunan.

Ang sistemang umiiral sa pagbabaybay ng mga salitang bakla na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay sumusunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Subalit, hindi ito nasusunod sa lahat ng pagkakataon dahil maraming kaso na tahasang nanghihiram ng mga salita mula sa mga banyagang wika. Ikalawa, ang paggamit ng mga alituntuning nakapaloob din sa pagbuo ng mga gay lingo tulad ng mga sumusunod: ang pagpapalit ng mga letra sa unahang salita na nakapaloob sa tinatawag nilang J Law, KY/NY Law, SH Law at CH Law; nagkaroon din ng paglalapi ng mga salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin; pag-uulit ng mga salita, pagpapalit ng tunog at paggamit ng katunog na salita ng isang orihinal na salita. Ikatlo, ang pagpapanatili ng mga orihinal na baybay sa mga salitang pantangi partikular na ang ngalan ng tao,

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bagay at iba pa subalit nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa pagbibigay ng kahulugan batay sa kung paano ito ginamit ng mga gay prostitute. Ikaapat, ang ganap na panghihiram ng mga salitang mula sa wikang banyaga tulad ng Ingles gayundin ang pagpapanatili sa baybay nito subalit binabago ang kahulugan batay sa kung paano nila ito ginagamit.

Karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay nabibilang sa pangngalan. Ang mga salitang ito ay pantangi kung ang ginagamit ay mga ngalan ng tao, bagay at iba pa subalit pambalana naman kung hindi natutukoy ang kasarian o uri ng ngalan ng tao, bagay at iba pa. Pangalawa, ang pang-uri na karaniwan ng bahagi ng salitaan ng mga gay prostitute kung saan madalas itinatago ang mga literal na paglalarawan upang hindi tuwirang madekowd kung sakali mang ito’y negatibo o lumilikha ng paninira sa kapwa. Ikatlo, ang mga salitang nasa pandiwa na kung saan ang bahagi ng pananalita ay nagpapahiwatig ng kilos, gawi o kalagayan. Ikaapat, ang mga salitang ginagamit bilang panghalip na madalas na pinapanghalili sa ngalan ng tao, bagay, lunan o pangyayari at pang- abay na nagmomodipika sa pangngalan, pang-uri, pandiwa at kapwa pang-abay.

Nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa istruktural na gampanin ng salita sa loob ng pangungusap ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute kapag ito ay nilalapian at isinasakatuparan ang aspekto ng pandiwa o panahunan sa isang salita. Ang pangngalan ay nagiging pang-uri at ang pang-uri ay nagiging pangngalan. Sumunod naman ang pagbabago ng salitang ginamit na pang-uri tungo sa pagiging pandiwa nito sa loob ng pangungusap, panghalip tungo sa pangngalan, panghalip tungo sa pantukoy at pangngalan tungo sa pang-angkop kapag ang isang salita ay ginagamit o idinugtong sa isang salita upang magkaroon ito ng panibagong baryasyon.

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Sanggunian

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Boellstorff, T. (2004). "Gay language and Indonesia: Registering belonging." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 14.2: 248-268. Cited in Huff, Andrew. (2015). Unity in plurality: Bahasa Indonesia’s many incarnations. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from http://mdsoar.org/bitstream/handle/ Verge_11_Huff.pdf

Cameron, D., & Kulick, D. (2003). Language and sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from https://www.questia.com/library/117628139/language-and-sexuality.pdf

Chumley, L. (2017). “Qualia and ontology: Language, semiotics, and materiality; an introduction.” Signs and Society 5 (S1): S1–S20. Retrieved August 4, 2018, from http://doi.org/10.1086/690190.pdf

Gal, S. (2013). “Tastes of talk: Qualia and the moral flavor of signs.” Anthropological Theory 13 (1/2): 31–48. Retrieved July 29, 2018, from http://journals.sagepub.com/ 10.1177/1463499613483396.pdf

Hankins, J D. (2013). “An ecology of sensibility: The politics of scents and stigma in Japan.” Anthropological Theory 13 (1/2): 49–66. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from http://journals.sagepub.com/10.1177/1463499613483397.pdf

Harkness, N. (2014). Songs of Seoul: An ethnography of voice and voicing in Christian South Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from http://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520276536/songs-of- seoul

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Mejorada, M., Ruedas, I. et al. (1996). Gay linggo adaptation and usage in social communications: A study in Sta. Mesa Manila, Philippines. P.U.P. Sta. Mesa, Manila [unpublished]

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Nilsen, D., Nilsen, A. (1977). Language play: An intro to Linguistics. Newsburry House Publishers/Rowley, Massachusettes.

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INFLUENCE OF ANTI-SMOKING CAMPAIGNS AMONG STUDENTS IN NORTHERN ILOILO, PHILIPPINES: A CASE STUDY

Fernan P. Tupas Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College, Philippines

ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to find out the influence of ant-smoking campaigns among students in Ajuy National High School. This study used qualitative research focused in case study, which utilized symposiums, posters and tarpaulin, video clips and lectures. During the survey, it was revealed that there were students both female and males from grade 7 to 10 who were engaged in smoking. But during the intervention, the informants specially the smokers progressively improved their desire to stop smoking because of its effect to our health. Furthermore, the non-smokers assured that they will not get involved in this kind of vices. The second-hand smokers, also vowed to encourage their friends and classmates to stop cigarettes smoking because of its results to our organ system. Thus, anti-smoking campaigns and messages could be excellent avenue to educate students about ordinances and laws, and effect of smoking to our health. The school administrators should encourage teachers to integrate smoking in their classes. Also, ask help from all stakeholders to close monitor sari-sari stores or cafeteria not to sell cigarettes to minors. Thus, messages, such as tarpaulin, posters and other forms of media must be posted in school premises and various places in the municipalities to inform students as well as their parents or guardians about cigarettes smoking. Parents and guardians play a vital role in the implementation of this advocacy. Also, the local government units should regulate the implementation of policies and ordinances regarding smoking of minor.

Keywords: Anti-smoking campaign, High School student, symposiums, posters, lectures

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Introduction

One of the most common problems in Northern Iloilo among students is the rampant used of cigarettes smoking. Students from all grade levels are already engaging in this kind of habitual act which causes deterioration of interest in their studies. They escape from classes together with peers and friends, and smoke around school premises. Teachers are very vigilant to encourage these students to stop smoking but it has no effect and the number of smokers increases rapidly. Even thought, one of the rules and regulations of the school is prohibiting smoking among students anywhere in the school premises or one hundred meters away from the institution but still have no effects to the learners.

There were reports shown that even elementary pupils are cigarettes smokers. You can always see them walking in the streets, setting in a nearby cafeterias or even standing in a plaza holding cigarettes with classmates and friends. About one in five smokes worldwide from ages 13 to 15, and 80, 000 to 100,000 children start to smoke every day and around 50% of whom live in Asia (Martin, 2012).Due to this statistics, Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines in 2003 implemented the Youth Smoking Prevention (YSP) Program. The objectives of this order are to prohibit smoking and sale of tobacco products inside public and private school campuses and premises. Topics on smoking will be integrated in Health Education (DepEd ORDER, No. 33, s. 2003). Schools together with their stakeholders are also campaigning to help stop smoking tobacco among young children. Institutions with smoking policies have significantly decrease students rate of smoking. However, school smoking bans are poorly complied, so enforcement is highly important with the help of all agencies concerned (Wakefield et al, 2001).

Another research revealed that teenagers are heavily influenced by tobacco advertising. Even though, companies promote with precaution, such as it is dangerous to our health and the age level of consumer allowed, there are still a lot who wanted to continue to smoke. Parents play a significant role to ban smoking at home. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke during childhood can increase tolerance for tobacco smoke (Wakefield et al,2001).

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Today, with the advent of technology, media messages are endemic in our society. We can see them everywhere such as, exposure to television and radio, movies, outdoor and point of sale advertising, via newspapers and magazines, on the internet and through books, brochures and posters. It can arouse curiosity among children (Cruickshanket al, 1993).

The main thrust of this study is the influence and effect of anti-smoking messages and campaigns among students who are non- smokers, second-hand smokers and smokers in Ajuy National High School. Thus, health behavior theory will be utilized in this study because basically students are aware of the effects of cigarettes’ smoking to our health. Furthermore, the contents of the innovations are more on the consequence, such as lung and throat cancers, skins diseases, and abnormalities among users and non-users.

Objective of the Study

The objective of this paper was to determine the effect of the anti-smoking campaigns among students in Northern Iloilo. Also, this was to identify the most effective methods to help students stop from smoking.

Methodology

This research utilized action research using qualitative methods to unveil the effects of anti-smoking campaigns to the students of Department of Education in Northern Iloilo. The first step of this study is a two type survey questionnaire conducted that was made up of a yes or no and some open ended question. The symposium was divided into two parts: first is about the laws and ordinance of anti-smoking and the second is about the effect of smoking to our health. Also, tarpaulin as advertisement of the different laws and ordinances, and crusade for the consequence of smoking to our health were employed. In addition, instructional materials about laws and ordinance, and effect of smoking to our health were created. The researcher also asked the informants to watch a video taken from YouTube about smoking. They were asked to watch the video during their vacant period. The informants of this

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study were 3 non-smoker, 3 second-hand smokers, and 3 smokers. Prior to this research, the researcher conducted a survey about the prevalence of smoking among students in some selected secondary schools in Northern Iloilo.

Results and Discussion

Immersion with students

The results showed that students in Northern Iloilo already started smoking at a very young age. They even learned to smoke during their elementary days. They continue to smoke until they reach their adulthood because they could not stop their habits. Some of them said that peer pressure is the main factor that pushed them to try smoking. Due to curiosity, many of the informants tried smoking during their secondary education.

Based on the observation collected, there were students both female and male who smoked within 50 meters away from the school. You can see these students in the cafeteria, sari-sari stores, or even in the houses of their friends and classmates. When they were asked who encouraged them to smoke, majority of them said that it was their peers.

Students escaped from classes and smoked in nearby cafeteria or sari-sari stores. They even went to the mountains or beaches with peers to smoke.

A grade 9 student said;

“After lunch, we escaped from our classes to go to the mountain at the back of our school to smoke with my classmates. We stayed there until 5 o’clock in the afternoon. I enjoyed my group because we keep our secrets.”

Effect of Anti-Smoking Campaigns

Symposium. The researcher invited a Sangunniang Bayan Secretary to discuss about the ordinances as well the laws related to smoking during the flag raising ceremony. He promised that the LGU

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will work together with education sector to totally eradicate the rampant smoking among our students. In addition, he said he will implement close monitoring together with the PNP on this situation.

Also, the chief of police was given the opportunity to further discuss about the campaign on smoking of the government. He stated that taxes for cigarette companies were raised to prevent teenagers to purchase this product. They even monitor our school for almost two months to ensure that smoking ordinances and laws were executed. Figure 1 shows the chief of police as guest during the flag raising ceremony together with his personnel.

A doctor was requested to orient the students about the effect of smoking to our health. She discussed about different health problems causes by smoking.

With this intervention many students were already aware of the programs and projects of the government on smoking. They also learned that all agencies both private and public were collaborating in this advocacy. Sanctions will be given to students caught smoking in school premises. Also, the integration of cigarettes smoking is part of the curriculum.

Figure 1 The Chief of Police Discussed About Smoking During the Flag Raising Ceremony

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A grade 7 student revealed:

“After the message of the chief of police, I was scared to try smoking. I have already an idea that it can give effect to my body. I also heard that many already died because of cigarettes smoking. I even told my classmates not to try smoking even once because it can be addictive.”

Anti-Smoking Advertisement. The informants of this study were asked about the effect of different advertisements of anti- smoking message in the campus as well as neighboring places.

Many of them stated;

“With all those diseases that we can get from smoking, I am afraid now of its effect to my health. I will try not to engage in this habitual act.”

Also, a female grade 8 student added;

“Many of us were scared of the effects of smoking to our health. We are alarmed of the pictures in the tarpaulin.”

Figure 2 Campaigned used in the Study

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Film Showing. The informants were grouped into two and during their vacant period, the researcher allowed them to watch a film taken from YouTube. All the 3 video clips were about the effect of smoking to our health. (see figure 3).

After the film showing, most of them said that they will stop smoking or will never try to smoke. They do not want to die early. They do not want to get old easily.

Figure 3 Students Watched Youtube About the Effect of Smoking to Our Health

Lecture. Students learned about smoking in their Health class during their grade 8 level. In Unit IV which is “Prevention of Substance Use and Abuse” they discussed “The Danger of Cigarettes Smoking” in 4th grading period. Such orientation caters to the awareness of every individual the hazards that the smoking may inflict on them.

On the other hand, harmful effect of smoking to our respiratory system is being laid down in Grade 9 science curriculum.

In Grade 10 Health, one activity is about cigarette packs that deal about Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003.

Basing from the informal survey, I have found out that smoking is rampant at the early age. Therefore, in order to lessen this

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juvenile problem, if not to totally eradicate it, educational amendment should imposed in elementary curriculum. Consider that, the child at young age smoke maybe because of environmental influence, since they can see their father or even mother smoke at home. Another is that they are being asked to buy cigarettes to the extent they are sometimes asked to light one.

After our lecture, the informant number 4 said:

“Anti-smoking must be included in elementary level to warn the pupils about the consequence of smoking.”

Influence of Anti-Smoking Message

The advocacy was an effective method to orient students about cigarette smoking. Many of the informants believe that it gave a big impact to their lives. They have realized that they get nothing about smoking but only health problems.

From then on, two of three smokers will not try to smoke again. All the non-smokers will never engage in any activity related to smoking.

Most Effective Interventions

For almost 1 month and half after the implementation of the intervention, informants were interviewed for the last time. “Among the different interventions given, which is the most effective?” See Figure 4.

Informant number 1 stated:

“All the interventions were effective methods. I have already stopped smoking and I am frightened about the diseases it may cause me later.”

They also all agreed that the intervention were all effective to encourage them to stop smoking.

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Figure 4 The Researcher Conducted Interview to Selected Informants.

Conclusions

1. Educating the informants about cigarettes smoking in various interventions, such as symposium, posters and tarpaulins, lectures and film showing make them realized the effect on our health. Non-smokers were scared to try smoking. Second hand smokers promised not to go with friends and classmates who are smoking because they already understand that they are the most affected. Smokers will try hard not to smoke again and they also stop from escaping from classes.

2. The anti-smoking campaign really influenced the informants because many of them stated that they are now educated about the effect of smoking to their health. Health is a big factor to encourage students not to engage in smoking. Almost all of them were scared about health problems.

3. All the anti-smoking campaigns were effective according to the informants. All of them were really frightened about the effects of cigarettes smoking to our health.

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Nursing Theory. (2015). Health behavior theory. Alice Petiprin, Nursing- Theory.org. Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://www.nursing- theory.org/theories-and-models/johnson-behavior-system-model.php.

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Pae, H. J., Samiee, S., & Tai, S. (2002). Global advertising strategy: the role of brand familiarity and execution style. International Marketing Review, 19(2), 176–189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330210425024.

Peters, J. R., Kelder, H. S., Prokhorov, A., Amos, C., Yacoubian, S. G., Agurcia, A. C., … & Shegog, R. (2005). The relationship between youth exposure to anti-smoking advertisement: how perceptions differ by race. Journal of Drug Education, 35(1), 47–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/8063-QP4L-T5A5-B207

Pierce, P. T., Macaskill, P., Stat, M., & Hill, D. (1990). American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), 565–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.80.5.565

Smith, H. K. & Stutts, A. M. (2006). The influence of individual factors on the effectiveness of content in anti-smoking advertisements aimed at adolescents. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 40(12), 261–293.http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745- 6606.2006.00058.x.

The New Lexicon: Webster’s Dictionary of the English Language Vol. II. (1995). Lexicon Publications, Inc, USA. Retrieved June 4, 2015, from http://www.deped.gov.ph/index.php/component/search/?searchword=anti%20s moking&searchphrase=all.

Wakefield, M. A., Chaloupha, F. j., Kaufman, N. J., Orleans, C. T., Barker, D. C. & Ruel, E. E. (2001). Effect of restrictions on smoking at home, at school, and in public places on teenage smoking: cross sectional study. BMJ 2000;321:333. http://www.bmj.com/content/321/7257/333.

Walsh, G., Hassan, M. L., Shiu, E., Andrews, C. J., & Hastings, G. (2010). Segmentation in social marketing: insights for the European Union’s multi- country, anti-smoking campaign. European Journal of Marketing, 44(7/8), 1140–1164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090561011047562.

Wilkem, M. K., Turner, L. K., & Giuliano, A. T. (2003). Smoke screens: cross-cultural effectiveness of anti-smoking messages. North America Journal of Psychology, 5(3), 431–442.

Wolburg, M. J. (2001). Misplaced marketing: why television is the “wrong” environment for public service advertising campaigns. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(6), 471–473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000006153

Wolburg, M. J. (2008). Smoking cessation: why do smokers fail? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 25(2), 72–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363760810858800 www.soutalabama.edu. (ND). Qualitative Data Analysis. Retrieved September 29, 2015, from http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec17.pdf

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PAYING SCHOOL FEES THROUGH WASTES: EXPERIENCES AND HEALTH RELATED CHALLENGES OF AN ECO SCHOLAR

Mauro Allan P. Amparado University of Cebu Lapu-Lapu and Mandaue, Philippines

ABSTRACT The study explored the experiences of an Eco Scholar as he pays his school fees from the sales of recyclables under the Eco Scholarship of a university. This special non-academic scholarship of a university in the Philippines covers the tuition fees and allowances of the scholar and gives hopes to an aspiring student to finish the program. This case study interviewed an Eco Scholar from a university in Central Visayas. This Eco Scholar is a male student, 26 years of age and a resident of Sitio Panas, Sta, Rosa Olango Island, Mactan, Philippines. The researcher utilized participatory-observation. Consent was requested before the conduct of interviews, and the informant was told that he could withdraw from the study anytime if he decides to do so. The narratives of this case revealed the personality of the scholar, the qualities that an Eco Scholar should possess, and the difficulties he encountered while at work. The scholar shares the values he learned from solid waste management, his day-to-day struggle to make ends meet, and his dreams and aspirations for the family. The case study recognizes that the school system is vital part of our primary learning system and a powerful vehicle for change. It also reminds us that environmental awareness and protection is beneficial to the school and the society.

Keywords: Poverty, solid waste management, school fees, health-related challenges, materials recovery facility, Central Visayas, Philippines

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Introduction

Republic Act 9003 otherwise known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 is an act providing for an ecological solid waste management program, creating the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and penalties, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes (http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra_9003_2001.html ). The law was crafted in response to the looming garbage problems in the country. RA 9003 declares the policy of the state in adopting a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program that ensures the protection of public health and the environment and the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of best environmental practices. Moreover, it illustrates the potentials and benefits of recycling not only in addressing waste management problems but also in alleviating poverty (Aquino, Deriquito, & Festejo, 2013).

On December 12, 2008, the Republic Act No. 9512 otherwise known as the National Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008 was signed into law. This law recognizes the vital role of the youth in nation-building and the role of education in promoting environmental awareness (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2015).

Globally, RA 9512 is one of the Philippine’s concrete expressions of support to the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014), and the ASEAN Environmental Education Action Plan (AEEAP), and was later updated to the AEEAP 2014-2018 (DENR, 2015).

R.A. 9512 aims to promote environmental education through an inter-agency and multi-sectoral approach, involving various agencies in the Philippines such as the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Department of Education (DepEd), Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG), and Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD).

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These laws have guided the University of Cebu Lapu-Lapu and Mandaue to implement a solid waste management program in the campus. A Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) was created in 2015 for waste segregation and to identify recyclables that can be sold to support the education of students who are rendering services in the MRF. In line with the creation of the MRF is the implementation of the Eco scholarship. The Eco Scholarship is a special, non-academic scholarship of the university. Sales from the recyclables which includes used paper, plastic bottled water and boxes was utilized to pay off the tuition fees, miscellaneous fees and daily allowance of the student. The scholar works four hours per day in the university’s materials recovery facility and segregates bio-degradable and non- biodegradable wastes.

Objectives of the Study

In as much as the Eco scholars are segregating wastes, the researchers explored in this case study the experiences of an Eco Scholar as he pays off his school fees from the sales of recyclables. He also shared the health-related challenges encountered and how other students viewed his work in the university. The narratives of this case also revealed the personality of the scholar, the qualities that an Eco scholar should possess, and the difficulties he encountered while at work. The scholar shared the values he learned from solid waste management, his day-to-day struggle to make ends meet, and his dreams and aspirations for the family.

Methodology

This case study interviewed an Eco Scholar from a university in Central Visayas, Philippines. This Eco scholar is a Marine Engineering student, male, 26 years of age and a resident of Sitio Panas, Sta. Rosa, Olango Island, Mactan, Philippines. For purposes of confidentiality, we shall refer to the Eco Scholar as Pedro. Pedro was interviewed for one hour throughout the period of 12 months. Participatory-observation was also utilized by the researchers. Consent was requested prior to the conduct of interviews and the informant was told that he can withdraw from the study anytime if he decides to do so.

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Results and Discussion

Theme 1: Coming from a Broken Family

Pedro comes from a broken family. He has eight siblings with four brothers and four sisters. His mother left their home in Olango Island, Mactan when he was 5 years old. Presently, he lives in a boarding house together with his two brothers and is taking up a degree program on Marine Engineering. Although he is supported by his elder brother who pays for his school fees when he was in first year, the second year of schooling was a harder time for them. Aside from the boarding house expenses and school requirements, Pedro’s family in Olango Island, Mactan relied on the salary of Juan.

“I used to work as a sales clerk in one of the malls of Lapu- Lapu City and receives 227 Philippine pesos per day. I supported Juan until he finished an Electrical Engineering degree. My father is a quiet man and he is 60 years old. He has concern for his children but he is torn between his first family and his new-found family. But, I do not hate him. With this situation, I will continue to work to support my education.”

Theme 2: Waste Segregation at a Young Age

As early as 6 years old, Pedro would collect empty plastic bottles and other scraps which he and his siblings would sell to junk shops. The sales of waste segregation were sources to buy food and school supplies.

Pedro recalled, “Olango Island, Mactan is a relatively poor community. When I was a kid, we would ride the public motorcycle or ‘habal-habal’ to go to school. But if we do not have money, we walk 1 kilometer from home to school. We go home at 12 noon to take our lunch. Sometimes we do it so that my classmates would think that I took my lunch. But there is no food at home. That would make a 4 kilometer walk in a day.”

Pedro further mentioned that being absent in school during his elementary and high school days was common. “If we do not collect the empty bottles in trash cans, we would not have money. And money is essential for us to go to school.”

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Theme 3: Paying School Fees through Wastes

Pedro read from the university’s bulletin board that the Community Extension Department was looking for an Eco Scholar.

“At first, I was hesitant to apply for the scholarship. Knowing that I to segregate wastes would bring back memories of how hard life was when we were kids. But I was convinced by my elder brother to grab this opportunity.”

The announcement on the bulletin board required a male applicant who will be assigned in the Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) of the university. “I felt down during that time. I was always thinking of what my classmates would say about my scholarship. I was thinking of how they will ridicule me. Yet I was ready to tell them that I want to finish school, that is why I am grabbing the opportunity. I will also help Mother Earth when I do recycling.”

Pedro dreamed of becoming a ship captain someday. But during the enrollment process, Pedro saw the long line of Marine Transportation applicants. “I realized that with the long line of applicants, it would also mean more graduates in the program. That was when I decided to take up Marine Engineering. Few graduates mean better chances of landing a job.”

The weekly sales of Pedro at the MRF ranged from P200.00 to P1,000.00. Sales were deposited to the school’s cashier. “With the little cash, it motivated me to work harder. More sales mean I will be able to pay my school fees. The more cash was depositing to the cashier, the more I segregated wastes.”

Theme 4: Health-related and Self-esteem Challenges

Pedro was a picture of hard work in the university. Not to mention the odor in the MRF, pests like cockroaches, rats and worms were a typical sight. “I would bring scratch paper and bottles from offices and the canteen to the MRF. People would look at me. But I did not mind.”

There were health-related issues. Pedro shared he had coughs and colds during the experience. The fumes of the wastes and

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the bad odor was unavoidable. “I would be in contact with the leachates and some wastes were wet. The odor would stick to my uniform. Though I had masks and gloves, the odor and leachates were undesirable.”

The MRF was also visited by rats and cockroaches. These pests are possible carriers of disease. Although there were no accounts of illnesses related to these pests, the eco scholar was always reminded to protect himself through masks, gloves and the use of boots.

Pedro became closer to the janitors. They would bring recycled papers and plastic bottles to the MRF. It was observed that the scholar would usually walk the hallways with head bowed down. Pedro stated, “I was asked by one of my classmates, ‘are you a janitor?’ I felt ashamed during that time but I told myself, I have to go on. I am used to the job physically. But not emotionally.”

He also had to bring trash cans to the MRF. “How I wish students are more mindful of segregating at source. Just imagine food items are thrown with paper and plastics.”

Theme 5: Money in Waste Segregation

“I have realized that there is money in waste segregation. It covered my tuition and miscellaneous fees for one year. It’s amazing.”

Pedro recalled that the first month was the most difficult since the total sales was less than P5,000.00. “I was wondering if I would be able to reach P30,000.00 which was the semestral school fees. But when students learned that the recycled papers and bottles would fund my tuition fees, that’s when they started to donate their old manuals, books and notebooks.”

Now on his 3rd semester as an Eco Scholar, Pedro is one of the candidates for graduation. “I am thankful that I have reached this far and the Eco scholarship has supported me in my education.”

Pedro said that this scholarship requires recipients who are assertive and focused. “They should not mind what their classmates

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would say. Your classmates will not be able to help you pay the tuition fees. But your hard work will. And the scholar should be able to dig in the different items found inside the trash can.”

Indeed a little sacrifice goes a long way. Pedro revealed that he would budget P50.00 to P100.00 to cover for 3 meals in a day.

Theme 6: Dreams and Aspirations for the Family

In the future, Pedro plans to establish a recycling business. He dreams of a land-based job in marine engineering. Pedro said, “I would like to see my siblings working in the business that I will establish. I have been doing this since I was a kid and I believe this will be a great business to be in someday. There is money in wastes. And I have experienced that.”

Pedro, during the interviews cried as he related his plans for the family. “I want my family to have a comfortable life. They are the primary reason why I am working hard. My relatives told me when I was young that I will marry early, that I will be a drug addict, and I will never succeed because we are poor. But I will prove them wrong because I will finish the program.”

Pedro related how he questioned God about his situation and the poverty he experienced. “I seldom go to church. But when I pray, I cry. And I always ask God why I am experiencing all of this. Yet, I thank Him for I am alive. I am hopeful that one day my hardships will end.”

Conclusions

Since its implementation in 2015, the Eco Scholarship has funded the tuition fee of one marine engineering student. Segregating wastes in the university and selling the recyclables has given hope to a poor but deserving student to continue his studies. Aligned with the 3rd statement of the university’s vision, “Give hope and transform lives,” this community extension program teaches the faculty and students that solid waste management in the campus can be a source of profit and inspiration.

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As we continue to manage our solid waste in the university, this case study recognizes that the school system is a vital part of our basic learning system and a powerful vehicle for change. It also reminds the university that environmental awareness and protection is beneficial to the school and the society.

References

Bernardo, E. C. (2008). "Solid‐waste management practices of households in Manila, Philippines." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1140.1 (2008): 420-424.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2015). Environmental education in the Philippines: Towards a sustainable future. Philippines: Strategic Communications and Initiatives Service. http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra_9003_2001.html http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=153&print=1

Macawile, J., & SiaSu, G. (2009). Local government officials perceptio ns and attitudes towards solid waste management in Dasmarinas, Cavite, Philippines. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation, 4 (1), 63-69.

Mbuligwe, S. E. (2002). Institutional solid waste management practices in developing countries: a case study of three academic institutions in Tanzania. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 35(3), 131-146.

Peralta, G. L., & Fontanos, P. M. (2006). E-waste issues and measures in the Philippines. Journal of material cycles and waste management, 8(1), 34-39.

Premakumara, D. G. J., Canete, A. M. L., Nagaishi, M., & Kurniawan, T. A. (2014). Policy implementation of the Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 in the Philippines: a case study of Cebu City. Waste management, 34 (6), 971-979.

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ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND PRACTICES OF SCIENCE STUDENTS: INPUT FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Danilo V. Rogayan Jr. Eveyen Elyonna D. Nebrida President Ramon Magsaysay State University, Philippines

ABSTRACT The role of the schools is very critical in order to develop environmentally-aware and ecologically-conscious students. This descriptive-correlational study sought to measure the level of awareness and practices of 100 Science students in a public secondary school in Zambales, Philippines. Findings revealed that the Science students are very aware on environmental concepts and state of environment; and very aware in environmental issues and problems. They often practice taking actions to solve environmental problems and sometimes practice the need to possess a high degree of commitment. The study found out that there is a moderate correlation between students’ awareness on environmental concepts and issues and their practices to solve the environmental problems and possess a high degree of commitment. The study recommends that information dissemination programs regarding environmental concepts, state of the environment, ecological issues and problems could be sustained by the school to keep the ecological awareness of the students high. Environmental advocacies and eco-movement may likewise be institutionalized in the school through student organizations like YES-O and Science clubs. The crafted ecological management plan is recommended for implementation to increase the degree of commitment of students towards ecological conservation.

Keywords: Environmental education, environmental awareness, environmental practices, ecological management plan, descriptive- correlational research, Zambales, Philippines

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Introduction

In today’s era of globalization, we are faced with a lot of societal upheavals including dilemmas pertaining to the environment. Rogayan (2016) reiterated that the earth is now suffering from innumerable afflictions at present caused by egregious human activities that relentlessly denuding the environment. The challenge for everybody is to take the wheel of action and move towards a common cause in preserving life on earth.

The growing concern with environmental issues and their impact on general awareness is one of the most noticeable phenomena of the last two decades (Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Satheesh Kumar, 2013). The rapid depletion of the earth’s natural resources and the fast degrading environment are the realities which can no longer be denied. These are the grave scenarios that threaten the existence of both man and the earth (Marpa & Juele, 2016).

The Education for Sustainable Development of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reiterates that education is an indispensable tool towards sustainable development. Environmental education is a process aimed at developing a world population that is aware of and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems and which has the knowledge, attitudes, commitments and skills to work individually and collectively towards the solution of current problems and prevention of new ones (Jain & Raghunathan as cited in Puri & Joshi, 2017).

Different countries in the world continue to develop active environmentalism among the students and among the people in general. India, for one, has become one of the fastest progressing countries in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality (Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Satheesh Kumar, 2013). The environmental problems have become issues of great concern to many parties. However, many people in Ethiopia seem to have low level of knowledge about environmental problems (Hailu, 2016). In Turkey, the level of high school students’ environmental awareness is high as revealed by one study (Anilan, 2014). The level of environmental awareness and practices on

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recycling of solid wastes in one university campus in Malaysia was likewise gauged (Omran, Bah & Baharuddin, 2017).

In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in coordination with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and other relevant agencies, in consultation with experts on the environment and the academe, lead the implementation of public education and awareness programs on environmental protection and conservation through collaborative interagency and multi-sectoral effort at all levels (RA 9512, 2008).

Furthermore, one of the objectives of the Science education in the Philippines is to develop students who are environmentally- conscious and ecological-friendly. The month of June of each year is declared as the Philippine Environment Month by virtue of Presidential Proclamation No. 237 signed in 1998 by then President Corazon C. Aquino. During the celebration, various important events are being celebrated such as the World Environment Day on June 5, Philippine Eagle Week on June 4-10 and Philippine Arbor Day on June 25 (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2016).

People’s awareness has been recognized as a powerful tool in environmental sphere. Information through education has an important impact to alter behaviour (as cited in Gonzaga, 2017).

Several studies have been conducted to gauge the environmental awareness and practices of students in various levels. Foreign studies have focused mainly on the environmental awareness and practices of college students (Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Satheesh Kumar, 2013; Sharma, 2016), tertiary students’ environmental awareness in relation to their stream of study and their area of residence (Singh, 2015), college students’ level of awareness, attitude and participation in environmental activities (Bhat et al., 2016), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of tertiary students and their ecological awareness and practice (Milos & Cicek, 2014), the level of environmental awareness and practices on recycling of solid waste of college students (Omran, Bah &

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Baharuddin, 2017) and the high school students’ environmental risk perceptions and environmental awareness levels (Anilan, 2014).

In the Philippines, studies focused on the environmental awareness and practices of high school students as basis for disaster preparedness program (Marpa & Juele, 2016), level of awareness and extent of practices in green technology of college students (Gonzaga, 2016), and the environmental awareness of the graduating college students (Garcia & Luansing, 2016).

While almost all the previous studies conducted are focused only in describing the extent of environmental awareness and practices of the students, the present study looked into the environmental awareness and practices of Grade 9 Science students as an input in crafting a proposed ecological management plan.

Considering the facts that students must be ambassadors of the environment, it is hoped that this study can shed light as to how the students put into actions what they know about the environment which will serve as a baseline data in crafting the ecological management plan to be implemented by the schools and be extended in the communities.

Framework of the Study

The study is anchored on the National Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008 otherwise known as Republic Act 9512. According to RA 9512, Section 2, “consistent with the policy of the State to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature, and in recognition of the vital role of the youth in nation building and the role of education to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human liberation and development, the state shall promote national awareness on the role of natural resources in economic growth and the importance of environmental conservation and ecological balance towards sustained national development.” Hence, agencies like the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), the Technical Education and Skills Development

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Authority (TESDA), the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), in coordination with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and other relevant agencies, shall integrate environmental education in its school curricula at all levels (RA 9512, 2008). Furthermore, environmental education shall encompass “environmental concepts and principles, environmental laws, the state of international and local environment, local environmental best practices, the threats of environmental degradation and its impact on human well-being, the responsibility of the citizenry to the environment and the value of conservation, protection and rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment in the context of sustainable development” (RA 9512, 2008).

Objectives of the Study

This study aimed to find out the relationship between environmental awareness and practices of Science students in a public secondary school in Zambales, Philippines for the School Year 2016-2017 as input for ecological management plan.

Methodology

Research Design

The study utilized a descriptive-correlational research which sought to find the relationship of the respondents’ environmental awareness and environmental practices through the survey- questionnaire.

Respondents

The study involved 100 Grade 9 Science students divided into 56 girls and 44 boys of Subic National High School in Subic, Zambales, Philippines. The study used simple random sampling technique. Grade 9 students were chosen as they are already immersed with the school setting and can still have one school year to participate in the activities included in the proposed ecological management plan.

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Instrument

In order to gather the data on the environmental awareness and practices among the Grade 9 students, the researchers used a researcher-made survey questionnaire with an overall Cronbach alpha value of 0.92. The instrument measured the students’ Awareness of Environmental Concepts and the State of Environment (Part I), Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems (Part III), Practices on the Need to Take Actions to Solve Environmental Problems (Part III) and Practices on a High Degree of Commitment (Part IV). The instrument was content and construct validated and undergone a reliability test. A focus group discussion (FGD) guide which contains semi-structured questions was likewise used.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers secured approval from the school principal to conduct the study. For ethical considerations, parental consent were secured to ensure the protection of the respondents since they are minors. Upon approval, survey-questionnaires were distributed to the respondents. The respondents were given 10 to 15 minutes to respond and then the researchers collected all the accomplished survey-questionnaires on the same day. Select respondents were asked for a focus group discussion (FGD) to validate the findings obtained from the survey questionnaires. The researchers also conducted participant observation and documentary analysis on the environmental practices of the students.

Results and Discussion

Level of Environmental Awareness of Science Students

Awareness of Environmental Concepts and the State of Environment. The respondents are “Very Aware” on environmental concepts and state of the environment as revealed by the overall mean of 3.67 and standard deviation of 0.17 (Table 1).

The top items include the following: the ozone layer of the atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun (M=4.01); global warming is brought about by rising levels of heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in

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the atmosphere (M=3.86); and rainforests are the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems (M=3.80).

Table 1 Respondents’ Awareness of Environmental Concepts and State of Environment

Statement Mean SD VD Rank 1. Agenda 21 is a plan of the United Nations in 3.55 1.02 VA 8 which large developing countries promised to develop their industries with an eye toward protecting the environment. 2. Rainforests are the world’s most biologically 3.80 0.98 VA 3 diverse ecosystems. 3. Global warming is brought about by rising 3.86 1.02 VA 2 levels of heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere. 4. The ozone layer of the atmosphere protects 4.01 1.18 VA 1 life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. 5. Sustainable development means increasing 3.62 1.08 VA 7 standards of living without destroying the environment. 6. Desertification is the decline in the biological 3.63 0.93 VA 6 or economic productivity of the soil in dry and semi-dry areas resulting from various factors including human activities. 7. Acid rain is a form of air pollution in which 3.69 1.06 VA 4 airborne acids produced by electric utility plants and other sources fall to Earth in distant regions. 8. Indigenous peoples are those who have 3.62 1.06 VA 5 inhabited and made their living directly off the same environment for hundreds or thousands of years. 9. There is only one percent of all the water in 3.39 1.29 MA 10 the world that is available for drinking. 10. According to the Philippine Constitution, it 3.52 1.06 VA 9 is the state’s primary duty to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. Total 3.67 0.17 VA

Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware (MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware 1.00 – 1.49.

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Meanwhile, the respondents are “Moderately Aware” on the provision of the Philippine Constitution that the state’s primary duty to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature (M=3.52); and there is only one percent of all the water in the world that is available for drinking (M=3.39).

The findings is consistent with the study of Singh (2015) which concluded that the undergraduate students possessed a good average level of environmental awareness.

Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems. The respondents are “Very Aware” on environmental issues and problems with an overall mean of 3.59 and standard deviation of 0.28 (Table 2).

In particular, the indicators with highest means include the following: Bohol is greatly affected by a strong earthquake which caused colossal destructions in the province’s old-age churches and other structures (M=4.26); the Central Visayas is severely battered by Typhoon Yolanda which is considered as one of the world’s strongest typhoon in history (M=3.91).

The findings of the study is consistent with the results of the previous studies that the environmental awareness of the students is high (Anilan, 2014; Milos & Cicek, 2014; Singh, 2015; Garcia & Luansing, 2016; Sharma, 2016; Puri & Joshi, 2017).

The results of the study, however oppose the findings of Sahu, Roy, Monika & Rajkiran (2015) which found out that the overall level of awareness was found to be average. The number of students with high level of awareness is found to be extremely low whereas number of students with low level of awareness is found to be fairly high.

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Table 2 Respondents’ Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems

Statement Mean SD VD Rank 1. The environment is confronted with a myriad of 3.52 1.10 VA 5 environmental issues and problems at present. 2. There is an attempt to establish a coal-fired 3.32 1.06 MA 10 power plant in Subic Bay which can affect can pose threats to the environment and the health of the people. 3. The Central Visayas is severely battered by 3.91 1.07 VA 2 Typhoon Yolanda which is considered as one of the world’s strongest typhoon in history. 4.Bohol is greatly affected by a strong earthquake 4.26 3.23 VA 1 which caused colossal destructions in the province’s old-age churches and other structures. 5. Ormoc City experienced one of the severest 3.53 0.96 VA 4 landslides in history which killed thousands of people. 6. A total of 700 people were killed and hundreds 3.34 1.05 MA 9 were injured in Aurora landslide in 2004. 7. Major mine spill took place in 2005 which 3.52 1.02 VA 6 contaminated several bodies of water and caused fish kill in Albay Gulf. 8. Rice crisis happened in 2008 and continued 3.36 1.02 MA 8 landlessness and backward agriculture occurred. 9. Palawan clamored to the people in a signature 3.60 1.08 VA 3 campaign to never allow mining in the province which is considered as the country’s last ecological frontier. 10. Climate change is very evident in every part of 3.51 1.18 VA 7 the globe like the extreme heat experienced by Australia and excessive coldness in Canada. Total 3.59 0.28 VA

Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware (MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware 1.00 – 1.49.

Meanwhile, the respondents were “Moderately Aware” on the following: a total of 700 people were killed and hundreds were injured in Aurora landslide in 2004 (M=3.34) and there is an attempt to establish a coal-fired power plant in Subic Bay which can affect can

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pose threats to the environment and the health of the people (M=3.32).

The study refutes the findings of Bhat et al. (2016) which indicated that the students due to problems of population explosion, exhaustion of natural resources and pollution of environment are not having enough awareness and skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.

Level of Environmental Practices of Science Students

Practices of the Need to Take Actions to Solve Environmental Problems. The respondents “Often” practice the need to take actions to solve environmental problems as revealed by the overall mean of 3.68 and standard deviation of 0.18 (Table 3).

The top items include: turn off the lights and unplug appliances when not in use to save electricity (M=4.06); avoid throwing garbage anywhere and learn the science of segregation of solid wastes (M=3.67); recycle and reuse non-biodegradable materials to lessen solid wastes (M=3.76).

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Table 3 Respondents’ Practices of the Need to Take Actions to Solve Environmental Problems

Statement Mean sd VD Rank 1. Turn off the lights and unplug appliances 4.06 1.00 OF 1 when not in use to save electricity. 2. Harness solar energy, a radiation produced 3.76 0.93 OF 3.5 by nuclear fusion reactions deep in the Sun’s core. 3. Plant endemic trees in the vacant areas in 3.65 0.95 OF 7 the community to prevent soil erosion and get more oxygen to breathe. 4. Avoid the use of plastic and styrofoam 3.57 1.06 OF 8 which cause harm not only to the environment but also to human health. 5. Avoid throwing garbage anywhere and 3.78 1.07 OF 2 learn the science of segregation of solid wastes. 6. Keep a good food ethics and avoid eating 3.67 1.21 OF 5.5 with left-overs and wasting drinking water. 7. Lessen the use of detergents for they tend 3.45 1.05 SO 9 to create foam in gutters and in sewage- disposal plants and even appeared in naturally occurring ground and surface waters. 8. Practice the science of composting which 3.37 1.00 SO 10 produces partially decomposed organic material used in gardening to improve soil and enhance plant growth. 9. Recycle and reuse non-biodegradable 3.76 1.01 OF 3.5 materials to lessen solid wastes. 10. Use reusable water bottles or tumblers 3.69 1.02 OF 6 instead of buying bottled water in the canteen or stores. Total 3.68 0.18 OF

Legend: Always (AL) 4.50 – 5.00; Often (OF) 3.50 – 4.49; Sometime (SO) 2.50 – 3.49; Seldom (SE) 1.50 – 2.49; Never (NE) 1.00 – 1.49.

Meanwhile, the respondents “Sometimes” practice the following: lessen the use of detergents for they tend to create foam in gutters and in sewage-disposal plants and even appeared in

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naturally occurring ground and surface waters (M=3.45) and practice the science of composting which produces partially decomposed organic material used in gardening to improve soil and enhance plant growth (M=3.37).

The study corroborates the findings of Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Kumar (2013) that the level of awareness is high but the practice level is moderate among college students.

Practices of the Need to Possess a High Degree of Commitment. The respondents “Sometimes” practice the need to possess a high degree of commitment as revealed by the overall mean of 3.31 and standard deviation of 0.11.

Table 4 Respondents’ Practices on the Need to Possess a High Degree of Commitment

Statement Mean sd VD Rank 1. Discuss with friends and relatives about environmental 3.45 1.05 SO 1.5 issues and concerns that confront the community and the country as a whole. 2. Lobby for relevant laws on environmental conservation 3.27 0.96 SO 6 with the support of your political leaders especially the congressmen. 3. Write articles in the newspaper which encourage 3.10 1.05 SO 9 people to take part in responding to the different environmental problems. 4. Organize an environmental forum or symposium with 3.30 1.03 SO 10 your fellow youth and the community people. 5. Write an appeal to your political leaders regarding 3.33 1.09 SO 4 environmental concerns of your community. 6. Ask the support of the media in exposing anomalies and 3.18 1.07 SO 8 irregularities which led to the destruction of the environment. 7. Deliver a talk or discourse about environmental literacy 3.30 1.11 SO 5 to heighten the awareness of the people. 8. Volunteer to organizational groups which help for the 3.45 1.05 SO 1.5 preservation and conservation of the environment. 9. Encourage everyone to be ambassadors of the 3.26 0.99 SO 7 environment in their respective communities specifically your fellow youth. 10. Support initiatives and programs on environmental 3.44 0.91 SO 3 conservation like the National Greening Program of the present administration. Total 3.31 0.11 SO Legend: Always (AL) 4.50 – 5.00; Often (OF) 3.50 – 4.49; Sometimes (SO) 2.50 – 3.49; Seldom (SE) 1.50 – 2.49; Never (NE) 1.00 – 1.49.

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The respondents “Sometimes” practice the following: discuss within friends and relatives about environmental issues and concerns that confront the community and the country as a whole (M=3.45); volunteer to organizational groups which help for the preservation and conservation of the environment (M=3.45) and Support initiatives and programs on environmental conservation like the National Greening Program of the present administration (M=3.44) meanwhile the least “Often do the task” of the respondents is organize an environmental forum or symposium with your fellow youth and the community people (M=3.30)

This supports the claim of Puri & Joshi (2017) that the green attitude of the students is clearly visible in their action which is step towards Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Likewise, the findings of the study is consistent with the results of the previous studies that the environmental practices of the students is high (Puri & Joshi, 2017).

Relationship between Environmental Awareness and Environmental Practices of Science Students

Table 5 shows the correlation between environmental awareness and environmental practices.

Table 5 Correlation Coefficients among the Variables of Environmental Awareness and Practices

Variable 1 2 3 4 1. Awareness of Environmental - Concepts 2. Awareness of Environmental 0.680** - Issues 3. Practices on the Need to Solve 0.600** 0.582** - Environmental Problems 4. Practices on the Need to Possess a High Degree 0.410** 0.573** 0.573** - Commitment

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

There was a significant positive moderate correlation between awareness of environmental concepts and awareness of

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environmental issues (r=0.680; p=0.01) which implies that as the awareness of environmental concepts increase, the awareness of environmental issues will likely increase.

The awareness of environmental concepts was significantly positively related to practices on the need to solve environmental problems as revealed by the r-value of 0.600. (p=0.000). This suggests that as the awareness of environmental concepts increases, the practices on the need to solve environmental problems will also increase. Additionally, results of the correlation revealed that the awareness of environmental issues was moderately related with the practices on the need to solve environmental problems (r=0.582; p=0.01). This means that students who are aware of environmental issues were more likely to practice the need to solve environmental problems.

The students’ awareness of environmental concepts was significantly positively related to practices on the need to possess a high degree of commitment (r=0.410; p=0.01) which implies that as the students’ awareness of environmental concepts increase, the practices on the need to possess a high degree of commitment will likely increase.

A statistically significant correlation was likewise noted between awareness of environmental issues and the practices on the need to possess a high degree of commitment (r=0.573; p=0.01). This means that the students who are aware of environmental issues will more likely to practice the need to possess a high degree of commitment.

The practices on the need to solve environmental problems was significantly positively correlated with the practices on the need to possess a high degree of commitment (r=0.573; p=0.01). This implies that the students who practice on the need to solve environmental problems were more likely to practice on the need to possess a high degree of commitment.

The findings corroborates previous studies (Gonzaga, 2016; Marpa & Juele, 2016) that the level of awareness and extent of practices were positively correlated to a moderate degree.

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Meanwhile, the study of Sharma (2016) counter the result of the present study that there exists no significant correlation between environmental awareness and environmental practice. College students are aware of the environmental issues but when they are going to practice it they fail. Owens, (2000) in his study stated that increase in knowledge and awareness did not lead to pro- environmental behavior.

Proposed Ecological Management Plan

The proposed ecological management plan was crafted based from the survey results. The authentic activities included were based from the least weighted means obtained from the survey.

Proposed Activities Person/s Expected Specific Objective/s Activity Title Duration Involved Output  To develop Project IEC Eco- Teachers, June to July Developed IEC localized, Material: Students, Eco-Materials indigenized An IEC material DENR, information production LGUs, Research Output education and project NGOs communication (IEC) materials on environmental education  To educate the Project Eco- Teachers, August to Attendance students on likula: Students, September sheet of the current and A film-viewing Resource participants, future activity with Persons monthly situations of interactive monitoring the lecture and report, environment film evaluation processing report  To practice the Project Teachers, October to Vermicast for science of Vermicomposti Students, March income composting to ng: Parents generation, improve soil A composting Photo and enhance project with documentation, plant growth. the use of Monthly vermi worms progress report,

 To lessen the Project Deter Teachers, November Attendance use of Detergents: Students, sheet of detergents. A symposium Resource participants, on the Persons, evaluation disadvantages Parents report, student of the use of and parents’ detergents manifesto

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 To conduct an Project Teachers, December Attendance environmental Usapang Students, sheet of forum or Kalikasan: OSYs, participants, symposium An Resource evaluation involving the environmental Persons, report, youth and the forum Community Commitment community highlighting People Form people. the present environmental problems facing the community  To produce a Project Eco- Teachers, Quarterly Newsletter, newsletter Gazette: Students, Official which A newsletter OSYs, Facebook Page highlights production Community articles on which reports People engaging the programs, people to projects and contribute to activities environmental being done by conservation. the school and community on environmental conservation.  To encourage Project e- Teachers, January- Attendance everyone to be COOL-ological Students, March sheet of ambassadors Drive: OSYs, participants, of the A series of Community evaluation environment in environmental People report, their respective programs to pamphlets communities be led by the specifically the students such youth. as coastal clean-up, endemic tree- planting activity, eco- bricks, and other environmental advocacy campaigns

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Conclusions

The study concluded that the Science students are very aware of environmental concepts and state of the environment; and in environmental issues and problems. The respondents often practice the need to take actions to solve environmental problems while they sometimes practice the need to possess a high degree of commitment. There is a significant high positive relationship between environmental awareness and environmental practices. There are significant relationships among the variables of environmental awareness and environmental practices. There are varied authentic activities included in the proposed ecological management plan.

The study recommends that the information dissemination programs regarding environmental concepts, the state of the environment, ecological issues and problems must be sustained by the school to keep the awareness of the students high. Environmental advocacies and eco-movement must be institutionalized in the school through the YES-O Club and/or Science club to increase the degree of commitment of students towards biodiversity conservation. The crafted ecological management plan is recommended for implementation to increase the degree of commitment of students towards ecological conservation.

References

Anilan, B. (2014). A study of the environmental risk perceptions and environmental awareness levels of high school students. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 15(2), 1-23.

Bhat, B.A., Balkhi, M.H., Ashraf Wani, M., Nusrat, Tiku, A., Ganai, B.A. & Sidiq. T. Environmental awareness among college students of kKashmir Valley in the State of Jammu and Kashmir and their attitude towards environmental education. International Journal of Innovative Research and Review, 4(2), 20- 25.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources, (2016). June is Environment Month. Retrieved on March 13, 2017 from https://goo.gl/dVReE6

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Garcia, E.C. & Luansing, B. (2016). Environmental awareness among select graduating college students in Region IV-A. LPU-Laguna Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(1), 1-10.

Gonzaga, M.L. (2016). Awareness and Practices in Green Technology of College Students. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 848, 223-227. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.848.223

Marpa, E. P. & Juele, M. H. R. (2016). Environmental Awareness and Practices among High School Students: Basis for Disaster Preparedness Program. Applied Mechanics and Materials,848, 240-243.

Milos, D. & Cicek, F. (2014). Findings on motivation and the environmental awareness and practice of future engineers in Zagreb. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems 12(2), 119-136.

Omran, A., Bah, M. & Baharuddin, A.H. (2017). Investigating the level of environmental awareness and practices on recycling of solid wastes at university’s campus in Malaysia. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 8(3), 554- 566. DOI:10.14505/jemt.v8.3(19).06

Puri K, Joshi R. Ecoclubs: an effective tool to educate students on biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity International Journal, 1(5):50‒52. DOI: 10.15406/bij.2017.01.00028

Rogayan, D.V.J. (2016). I Heart Nature: Perspectives of University Students on Environmental Stewardship. Paper presented at the 2nd SPUP International Research Conference, St. Paul University Philippines, Tuguegarao City.

Republic Act 9512. (2008). An act to promote environmental awareness through environmental education and for other purposes. Retrieved on February 2, 2017 from https://goo.gl/MmmiUt

Sharma, H.K. (2016). Environmental Awareness and practices in Bulandshahr. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 2(11), 1922-1926.

Singh, R. (2015). Environmental awareness among undergraduate students in relation to their stream of study and area of residence. Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(26), 2830-2845.

Sivamoorthy, M., Nalini, R. & Satheesh Kumar, C. (2013). Environmental Awareness and Practices among College Students. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 2(8), 11-15.

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THE MINDANAO DEATH MARCH: ESTABLISHING A HISTORICAL FACT THROUGH ONLINE RESEARCH

Robert John I. Donesa Saint Louis University, Philippines

ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to bring to the fore the rather untold story of the Death March in Mindanao – one of the only two death marches recognized in the Tokyo war crime trials as evidence of inhuman treatment to Prisoners of War (POWs). On 4 July 1942, surrendered Filipino and American soldiers in Mindanao were made to march on a rocky dirt road and under the blazing tropical sun, from Camp Keithley in Marawi to Iligan in Lanao – a distance of about thirty-six kilometers for the purpose of joining them with the rest of the Mindanao POWs at Camp Casisang, Malaybalay, Bukidnon. Transport trucks, although available, were denied the POWs. Without food and water, one by one the soldiers fell down due to exhaustion. Those who fell were shot at the forehead to prevent them from joining the guerrillas in case they recover. But the story did not end there. The challenge of establishing said historical fact is very difficult because of utter lack of records. It is, however, fortunate that some survivors of the ordeal left recorded interviews, diaries and notes which may now b found on online archives and libraries. But then again, historians and researchers are faced with the challenge of validating and admitting these online sources as primary sources of history.

Keywords: Online primary sources, world war II, death march in Mindanao, Philippines, Asia

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Introduction

During the World War II, there were two (2) death marches that took place in the Philippines. Both were presented at the Tokyo War Crimes Trials as evidence of inhuman treatment to prisoners of war (POWs). These were the “Bataan Death March” and the “Iligan Death March.” The Bataan Death March, which took place in April 1942, was an arduous 65-mile march from Mariveles, Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. The Mindanao Death March , sometimes called the Iligan Death March or Dansalan Death March, happened on July 4, 1942, was a 25-mile walk under the scourging heat of the tropical sun from Dansalan (now Marawi), Lanao del Sur to Iligan, Lanao del Norte.

While the Bataan Death March is a widely known indignity to the WWII POWs, there seemed to be very scanty account on the Iligan Death March. It is fortunate that at least four (4) of the American POWs who participated in the said death march eventually survived the gruesome war and narrated their ordeals before they died. They were: Victor L. Mapes, Herbert L. Zincke, Richard P. Beck and Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. These narratives, however, can only be found online. After validating these sources, it is now possible to retell the story of the Mindanao Death March for the present and future generations. Thus, this paper.

Notes on the Sources

Although the Iligan Death March took place in Mindanao, majority of the primary sources may only be found overseas. Thus, a few years back, it will take a persistent historian, with means, to access records from overseas libraries and archives to establish such historical fact. It indeed is fortunate that in the recent years, some survivors of the World War II left interview video records, memoirs and photographs which were posted online by the overseas libraries and archives.

Historians, before considering the expositions of a source, examine its intrinsic and extrinsic validity. The source should be historically verifiable in form and substance. Failure to pass these tests may result to the rejection of a document, record, narrative, interview and even memoir as evidence for the establishment of a

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historical fact. This is also true to sources found online. The four primary sources used in this work are primarily personal narratives of the survivors of the event. Two were published online, that of Richard P. Beck and Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. The other two are published memoirs, that of Victor L. Mapes and Herbert L. Zincke. The online sources, after triangulation, were verified and accepted as records for purposes of reconstructing the historical fact - the Mindanao Death March.

The first set of primary sources are the video interview and memoir of Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. He was a corporal in the US Army assigned at Philippine Ordnance Depot, 75th Ordnance Company. He survived the the Iligan Death March which he called “Dansalan Death March.” He was interviewed by Holly Edwards of the Veterans History Project of the American Folklife Center of the Library of Congress on September 15, 2003 at the Tyler Junior College, Tyler, Texas. He also wrote an unpublished account on his World War II ordeals entitled “Memoir of Frederick Marion Fullerton, Prisoner of War of the Japanese, May 27, 1942 - September 2, 1945.” These sources can be accessed online and cited as: Frederick Marion Fullerton, Jr. Collection (AFC/2001/001/15785), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress. The said memoir details the events before, during and after the 1942 death march.

The second set of primary sources are the video interviews of Richard P. Beck. He was a Master Sergeant of the 14th Bomb Group of the US Army Air Corps. He surrendered in 1942 and was held a captive in several Japanese prison camps days before being rescued by the Rangers from Camp Cabanatuan in 1945. He survived the Iligan Death March. He was interviewed by Janson Cox of the South Carolina Cotton Museum, Inc. where he narrated his ordeal. The videos of the interviews may be accessed online and cited as: Richard P. Beck Collection (AFC/2001/001/54751), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.

The third primary source is a published memoir of Victor L. Mapes. He was enlisted in the 14th Bomb Group of the US Army Air Corps in 1939 and served until his retirement in 1959. Upon his surrender at Camp Keithley in Dansalan in 1942, he served as the Camp’s cook, thus, the title of his memoir is “The butchers, the baker

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: the World War II memoir of a United States Army Air Corps soldier captured by the Japanese in the Philippines.” It cannot be accessed online. A copy may be found at The Filipinas Heritage Library (FHL), Ayala Museum, Makati City. On the Iligan Death March, Mapes devoted a detailed chapter on the event which he called the “Mindanao Death March.” Mapes’ work verifies the online accounts on the death march by Beck and Fullerton, Jr.

The last primary source is the published memoir of Herbert L. Zincke. At 18, Zincke enlisted in the 14th Bomb Group of the US Army Air Corps. He was a survivor of the Death March and even helped Beck survived the ordeal. He wrote “Mitsui Madhouse,” a memoir based on a diary he wrote during the war. Zincke’s notes on the Mindanao Death March is very similar in substance with that of Mapes. Nevertheless, it may also be used to validate the sources found online.

The identified authors were confirmed survivors of the WWII Mindanao Death March. Although they revealed their ordeals long after the war is over, their narratives were gathered and kept by the United States Library of Congress for posterity. The intended audiences include future researchers, filmmakers, storytellers and other stakeholders. All of the authors confirmed the existence of the Mindanao Death March and its gory details. All of the sources were assessed to be relevant, reliable and accurate. Thus, the following historical narrative.

Objectives of the Study

The objective of this study is to establish a historical fact - the Death March in Mindanao. It is hoped that this paper spurs interests among historians and researchers to reexamine Mindanao’s role during World War II to better appreciate it and to place more space for Mindanao in Philippine History textbooks.

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Conceptual Framework

The Conceptual Framework. The conceptual framework shows how online primary WWII documents, decrees, survivors’ memoirs, interviews, documentaries and movies were triangulated through cross verification with print and non-print sources to establish a historical event known as the Mindanao Death March.

Methodology

As the study involved a historical problem or a need to establish a historical fact, the methodology used is historical approach and triangulation. Data about the Death March in Mindanao were mined from online records, memoirs, statements, testimonies and as well as printed books and triangulated the same with contemporaneous print and non-print sources.

The data collection includes: (1) mining online libraries, archives and other sites for relevant public documents, statements, testimonies, edicts, decrees, memoirs, books, documentaries and movies among others; (2) combing Philippine libraries and archives for published WWII books authored by some survivors; and (3) looking into the secondary sources - the published the works of historians and scholars found in Philippine libraries.

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The collected records and documents were evaluated as regards their extrinsic and intrinsic validity. They were cross-validated with existing print and non-print sources through triangulation. They were then classified as primary and secondary sources. The verified primary sources were given primacy over secondary sources. Secondary sources were consulted only when the primary sources were ambiguous or contradictory.

Results and Discussion

A. The Tokyo War Trials and the Iligan Death March

On January 19, 1946, the victorious Allied powers—France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States of America— established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) in Tokyo, Japan. The IMTFE had the jurisdiction to try individuals for Crimes Against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity committed during the World War II. The subsequent trials held were collectively known as the Tokyo War Crimes Trials.

The IMTFE was authorized to try and punish Far Eastern war criminals. It presided over the prosecution of nine (9) senior Japanese political leaders and eighteen (18) military leaders who were considered to be the prime movers of the World War II atrocities. Eventually, the tribunal found all the defendants guilty and sentenced them to punishments ranging from seven-year imprisonment to death. Two of them died during the trial. The Japanese Emperor Hirohito and the members of the imperial family were not indicted. The Emperor was permitted to retain his royal position, although on a diminished status.

General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, as authorized by the IMTFE Charter, appointed judges to the IMTFE from the countries which signed Japan’s instrument of surrender: Australia, Canada, China, France, India, the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Each of these countries also sent a prosecution team.

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The Tokyo War Crimes Trials were held between May 1946 to November 1948. The Philippine Prosecution Team presented and proved before the IMTFE at least sixteen (16) incidents of indignities, torture and barbarities committed against the Filipino and Foreign Prisoners of Wars (POWs) and civilians. These incidents were as follows:

1. The Bataan Death March 2. Bataan General Hospitals 1 and 2 3. Camp O’ Donnell 4. Iloilo Camp 5. Corregidor Fortress 6. Iligan Death March 7. Cabanatuan Camp 8. Gapan Camp 9. Bilibid Prison 10. Davao Penal Colony 11. Nichols Field 12. Tayabas Road Detail 13. Puerto Princesa 14. Bombing of Oryoku Maru 15. Execution of Two American Fliers 16. Los Baños

Each of these incidents is a bundle of gruesome stories and tales of human sufferings. The Bataan Death March, notorious as it was, overshadowed all the other incidents in history books. In fact, of the 16 incidents, only the Bataan Death March appeared in history textbooks. All the others remained unknown.

And because the evidence against the accused were overwhelmingly strong, the Iligan Death March, along with others, were only summarily presented and proven during Tokyo War Crimes Trials. The trial records summarized the incident as follows:

“A milder counterpart of the Bataan Death March happened on July 4, 1942, in Lanao. On that day, American and Filipino forces were forced to march from Keithley to Iligan, Lanao, a distance of about thirty-six kilometers with Malaybalay as their destination. During the march a prisoner was sick and unable to keep pace with

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the rest was shot. No food or water was given the prisoners. One died during the march.”

B. Guests of the Emperor

The Japanese landed in the Southern part of Mindanao, in Parang, Maguindanao. From there, they began advancing northwards to the Province of Lanao. The Philippine Troops and Moros formed the Bolo Battalion under General Guy Fort. The plan was to defend Ganassi, Bacolod Grande on the southern end of Lake Lanao and stopped the advancing Japanese troops. Gen. Fort planned a guerilla warfare.

However, on May 6, 1942, Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright IV, the Allied commander in the Philippines, surrendered the Filipino and American Forces in Bataan and Corregidor. Gen. Homma threatened to kill the American surrenderees from Bataan and Corregidor unless all American and Filipino forces surrendered. Subsequently, on May 10, 1942, Gen. Wainwright ordered Gen. William Sharp to surrender all his US and Filipino troops in Mindanao which he complied.

At Bubong, Lanao del Sur, a large number of Filipino troops escaped to the hills. The Americans were ordered not to desert or face court martial. On May 26, 1942, soldiers walked 6 miles from Bubong to Dansalan, where they surrendered their arms. The Japanese Commanding Officer declared them as “guests of the emperor” and not “prisoners of war.” Soon, the surrenderees realized it was just a lip service. There were 46 Americans and some 300 Filipinos under General Fort who surrendered.

While awaiting instructions from Gen. Homma, the POWs were billeted in an abandoned building once used as a mint for producing provincial money. Soon, the Japanese guarding the POWs were replaced with extremely young men. These spirited new guards forced the prisoners to count themselves in Japanese language. Anyone slow in learning Japanese numbers or committed mistakes in counting received a hard slap on each cheek.

Beginning June 10, 1942, the young Japanese guards invaded the POW sleeping quarters. During these nightly invasions, the Japanese looted the POWs of their belongings, beat and abused

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them physically. These incidents resulted in hushed talks about escaping. To avert possible escape, the Japanese guards adapted the Honor System, that is, for every soldier who escaped, their officers will be executed.

On July 1, 1942, Cpl. William Knortz, Pvt. Robert Ball, Seamen Jas S. Smith and William Johnson escaped. Under the Honor System, Col. Robert Hale Vesey, Captain A.H. Price and Sgt. John L. Chandler paid the price. When asked about the whereabouts of the above- mentioned officers, the Japanese interpreter only remarked: “They died like soldiers.” The Japanese were very angry with the escape. As punishment, all POWs were required to walk instead of riding to Iligan.

C. The Iligan Death March

At 8:00 A.M., July 4, 1942, the POWs lined up for the march at Dansalan (now Marawi), Lanao. The Americans were arranged by four abreast and were strung together, in columns, by a gauge wire through their belts. The Filipino POWs, though unwired, were to walk barefooted. As it was the fourth of July, the march was mockingly dubbed as the “Independence Day March.”

A truckload of Japanese soldiers with a mounted machine gun followed the prisoners, ready to shoot anybody who will try to escape. As the day progressed, the midday tropical sun became unbearable.

Without food and water, one by one the soldiers fell down due to exhaustion. Those who fell were left behind, however, they were first shot at the forehead to prevent them from joining the guerrillas in case they recover.

D. The Death of Childress/Kildritch

Mr. Childress, or in other documents - Kildritch, was an American civilian who owned a coconut plantation in Mindanao. Fullerton, Jr. shared that Childress married a Filipino and settled in Pagadian, Zamboanga. When the Japanese landed at Parang, Southern Mindanao, he volunteered for duty. During a skirmish at

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Ganassi, Lanao, Childress was separated from his unit and wandered for days in the jungles around Lake Lanao. While asleep on the side of a trail, a Maranao attacked him, wounding him on the left side of his body. The Maranao took his rifle, and left him unconscious

Lt. Ali, the leader of the Maranao guerrilla battalion, found the unconscious Childress and brought him to Camp Keithley, a US Military Reservation in Marawi. At that time, the camp was already under the control of the Japanese Imperial Army. Lt. Ali had to intoxicate the Japanese guards for Childress to be slipped in. Lt. Ali believed that the patient will be better taken good care of at the camp’s medical facilities and supplies and by Major Luther Heidger, a US military surgeon.

Indeed, Childress improved under Major Heidger’s care. However, he was not fit enough for a long walk. During the “Independence Day” march, the throng had not gone far when Childress collapsed on the road. He had to be carried by three other prisoners wired with him. They were soon exhausted and called Col. Mitchell for intervention. Col. Mitchell descended from the truck and explained the situation to Lt. Osawa, who was in charge of the march. But Lt. Osawa angrily replied, “this march is my responsibility.” He ordered Col. Mitchell to get back to the truck.

A Japanese guard unhooked Childress from the throng and brought him to the rear. Col. Mitchell hoped that Childress would be placed on the truck. Instead, the Japanese guard led him some 75 yards behind the column and into bush and a shot was heard. When the guard came back into sight, Lt. Osawa screamed ordering him to make sure Childress was dead. The guard returned to the bushes, leaned over, fired another shot and rejoined the column. The march became a death march.

E. The Psychological Trauma of Richard P. Beck

Richard P. Beck was one of the lucky survivors of the war. He been maneuvered into a safe spot as General Fort's orderly while a prisoner at Camp Keithley. And during the march, Herbert Zincke, a sturdy sergeant, was tied next to him. It was obvious to everyone that without help, Beck would not have made it through the day.

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The march became traumatic for Beck as he saw people getting executed without reason. Beck felt like he was the next to die as he was hardly moving. Zincke slipped his arm around Beck’s shoulder and helped him along. “Had it not been for him,” Beck later recalled, “I would not have made it through the march.”

F. The Death of Major Jay J. Navin, Commanding Officer, 84th Regiment

Lt. Col. Barnes, the medical officer of the 81st Division, loaded himself down with beddings, canned goods and medical books. This load slowed down not only him but also his whole file. His companions, Lt. Robert Pratt and Major Jay J. Navin, had to pull like hell to keep up with the rest of the column. The other prisoners tried to convince Barnes to throw off the yoke before he, or his comrades get killed, but to no avail.

The Japanese guards allowed a ten-minute rest for every hour of walk. But the rough and rocky country road, the burden of pulling loaded comrades and the mercilessly blazing tropical sun have taken its toll. After two hours of walk, Major Jay J. Navin, the Commanding Officer of the 84th Philippine Regiment, was in bad shape. Suffering from exhaustion, Major Navin fell to the ground.

Victor L. Mapes offered him pineapple juice and tried to get him on his feet. It did not help. Major Navin asked for water. Zincke handed him a canteen but insisted that Navin only drinks a little. Instead, Navin turned the canteen upside down and drank half of it before he could be stopped. He became delirious and was gasping for breath. His comrades laid him on the ground, opened his shirt, and called Major Heidger, the surgeon. A watching Japanese guard stopped Major Heidger, walked over and looked at the unconscious Navin. He pulled him off the road by his collar and shot him in the forehead. Then, the death march continued.

G. The Death of the Filipino Soldiers

The Filipino soldiers, being resilient people, started the march at a lively pace. They were not tied together. But unlike their American counterparts who wore military shoes, they walked barefooted. Few hours into the walk, the hot rocky dirt road started

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to burn their feet. So unbearable that some of them started crawling. One was left behind. The Japanese guard, tired of prodding him to walk, bayoneted him to death. As the march continued, the Japanese killed four more Filipinos, including a Medical Officer with a Red Cross band on his arm. By the end of the day, Fullerton, Jr. estimated some ten or twelve Filipino soldiers who were killed by bayoneting or shooting.

H. At St. Michael’s Academy, Iligan

By mid-afternoon, when the throng was about 3 kilometers near Iligan, the gauge tie was removed. They arrived in Iligan at around 7:00 P.M. in the evening. All tired, thirsty, hungry and were at the point of complete exhaustion.

The POWs, both Filipinos and Americans, were housed at rickety two-storey school building of St. Michael’s Academy, located across the St. Michael’s Church in Iligan. The Filipino POWs occupied the first floor while the Americans were locked at the second floor. Physically drained of the long walk, the Americans struggled their way up the stairs. They were cramped in a small room that when they tried to sit down, their legs became entangled. The prisoners were irritable. They growled at each other like wild animals on slightest provocation. It was only when the Japanese realized that their prisoners were manageable when properly hydrated that they allowed the men to obtain water from the nearby well.

I. The Death of Lt. Robert Pratt, Finance Officer, 81st Division

During the march, Lt. Robert Pratt, a young and conscientious Finance Officer of the 81st Division, was positioned in front of Lt. Col. Barnes, the Medical Officer. The fat Lt. Col. Barnes couldn’t keep up with the pace of the throng. He was further burdened by his baggage, which he refused to let go. As a result, Lt. Pratt was forced to pull him all the way to Iligan. This left him completely exhausted and dehydrated by the end of the walk.

That night, Lt. Pratt was violently vomiting. Some of his comrades tried to comfort him by giving him whatever they had - water, juices, etc. The physicians in the group, Lt. Col. Barnes and Major Heidger, said there was nothing they could do for him. He was

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delirious and he passed out. Before dawn, Pratt died in the arms of his comrade, Victor L. Mapes, with a faraway look in his eyes. He was buried in a shallow grave at a nearby Catholic Cemetery. Atop his grave, they placed a wooden cross with Lt. Pratt’s dog tags.

J. Off to Camp Casisang, Malaybalay, Bukidnon

The POWs stayed in Iligan for two (2) days before they were ferried away to Cagayan de Oro. The Japanese, every now and then, confiscated the POWs’ money, valuables, gold rings, wristwatches, etc. on the pretext that the POWs had to purchase their own food or transportation. Afraid of another dreaded march, the POWs gave whatever they have that are of value to the Japanese. On July 6, 1942, the POWs boarded a canon boat and sailed a hundred miles east along the shore of Mindanao to Cagayan de Oro, a town in Northern Mindanao. From there, trucks took them to Camp Casisang, Malaybalay, Bukidnon where they joined other POWs from Mindanao.

Conclusions

The story of the Mindanao Death March, through all these years, remained relatively unknown. This speck of Philippine History was neither available nor accessible to the Filipino reading public until online primary sources became available. Triangulating and verifying these online primary sources with other available printed and non- print sources made possible the admissibility of these sources as historical records to be used as evidence for the writing of this historic fact - the Mindanao Death March.

As shown, it was a tragic story of how the American and Filipino POWs experienced undue brutalities and indignities during the WWII in Mindanao. They surrendered and thus, under existing laws of war they expected, at least, some civilized treatments from the Japanese victors. It is now time to rewrite the Philippine History textbooks and place more space for the participation of Mindanao in the WWII.

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References

Bassiouni, M. C. (1999). Crimes against humanity in international criminal law. The Hague, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.

Chen, C. P. Invasion of the Philippine Islands, 7 Dec 1941 - 5 May 1942. https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=46. Accessed August 25, 2018.

Fullerton, F. M. Memoir of Frederick Marion Fullerton, prisoner of war of the Japanese, May 27, 1942 - September 2, 1945. Frederick Marion Fullerton, Jr. Collection (AFC/2001/001/15785), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.

Mapes, V. L. (2000). The butchers, the baker: the World War II memoir of a United States Army Air Corps soldier captured by the Japanese in the Philippines. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company.

POW Summation - Appendix B, Part II Summary of Evidence in Relation to Treatment of Prisoners-of-War, Civilian Internees and Inhabitants of the Philippine Islands Between December 1941 and September 1945. https://dspace2.creighton.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10504/74573/Summ ationAppB-Part2.pdf?sequence=4 . Accessed May 16, 2018.

Richard P. Beck Collection (AFC/2001/001/54751), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.

Zincke, H. (2003). Mitsui madhouse: memoir of a U.S. Army Air Corps POW in World War II. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company.

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LIVED EXPERIENCES OF PUPILS LIVING FAR FROM SCHOOL Elmo P. Ador Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College

ABSTRACT This qualitative study was conducted using a narrative inquiry approach to describe and understanding the experiences of pupils living far from school, their struggles and challenge, happiness and lessons learned. The objectives of the study were to determine (1) the struggles and challenges experienced by the pupils, (2) the lessons learned by the pupils, and (3) what makes the pupils happy despite their long journey of going to school. Three grade VI pupils were chosen purposively. The data were gathered through the use of an in-depth interview with the pupils and parents. The study found out that pupils who lived far from school experience walking in the rain, tracing uneven path, walking the muddy and rocky way, passing along the sleepy hill. In their daily journey towards school, they also experienced braving the cold and freezing rain, breezing wind, their tired body had endured as they walked everyday from home to school. The experience of the pupils along with their journey also implied the same feeling and emotions regarding happiness. Interestingly, they learned the value of sacrifice, perseverance, commitment to finish their studies towards the goal that they need to attain. They realized that patience should be the virtue of every individual to strive and to undertake the challenges to school.

Keywords: Narrative inquiry, struggles, challenges

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Introduction

“The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step” - Lao Tzu

People experience and attribute meaning to life by telling stories. Researchers in many disciplines collect and study these human narratives as a part of qualitative research.

A story is a depiction of a journey. In a story we follow a character or a series of characters on a journey as they pursue something up against obstacles. It is a telling of an event either true or frictional. It is also a means of transferring information, experience, attitude, or point of view.

The following are the life stories of the three grades six pupils of Aglanot Elementary School who are living far from school.

First, we have Isabel Dumalaog. She is the second child among the three siblings in their family. She is 11 years old and currently a graduating pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident of Sitio Agluy-a Dumarao,Capiz . She is a simple nice girl with simple dreams, to finish her studies and to help her family overcome poverty. For her, the distance is not a hindrance for there are many ways to overcome the distance like playing while walking and doing some pranks.

The next one named Kent Vincent Guinanao. He is a second child among the three siblings in their family. He is 12 years old and a Grade VI pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident of Sitio Agluy-a, Dumarao, Capiz. He is a short boy, with fair complexion and good - looking boy. Kent is physically healthy. He is also friendly to other people. An obedient child and a dedicated pupil in school and home. For him, education is very important and the key to success.

The last but not the least, we have Angel Punsalan. She is the sixth child among eight siblings of their family. She is 12 years old and currently a graduating pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident of Sitio Viray, Tina, Dumarao, Capiz. She is a cute and charming girl who looks innocent, a silent girl but always keeps smiling every time people meet her. Angel is a smart, a positive girl and also a very friendly girl. She is a physically healthy child where one can see the

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enthusiasm in her personality. To her, financial difficulty is not a hindrance to continue studying and be able to succeed someday.

Framework of the Study

This study used qualitative format of research to have suitable ideas about describing the experiences of pupils living far from school.

According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), a qualitative research is involving an interpretive naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative research study things in their natural setting, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning of people bring to them.

This study was anchored on the theoretical perspective of interpretivism in order to have deeper understanding of the experiences of pupils who are living far from school. Interpretivism refers to approaches emphasizing the meaningful nature of people’s participation in social and cultural life.

Klein and Myers (1999) considered that interpretivism plays a crucial role in interpretive research in information systems. Theory is used as a “sensitizing device “to view the world in a certain way.

Particular observations can be related to the abstract categories and to ideas and concepts that apply to multiple situations.

Narrative is a powerful tool or methodology in sharing of knowledge and it captures the emotions of the moments described. Narrative is a way of characterizing phenomena of human experiences and its study which is appropriate to many social science fields.

According to Bamberg and Mc Cabe (2011), narrative inquiry is devoted to providing a forum for theoretical, empirical and methodological work on narrative. It draws upon a variety of approaches and methodologies as a way to give contour to

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experience and life, conceptualize and preserve memories, or hand down experience and values to future generations.

Based on the definition of D. J. Clandinin and F.M. Connelly (1999), narrative inquiry is a method that uses stories, autobiography, field notes,journals, interviews, conversations, family stories and life experiences as data sources. It focuses on the organization of human knowledge more than merely the collection and processing of data. It also implies that knowledge itself is considered valuable and note worthy even known by only one person.

Objective of the Study

This qualitative study aimed to understand the experiences of pupils who are living far from school. Specifically, this study sought answers to the following questions:

1. What are the experiences of the pupils living far from school?

Methodology

This study aimed to describe the struggles, challenges and happiness as well as the lessons learned by the pupils living far from school.

The study used a qualitative format of research to have suitable ideas about describing experiences of pupils living very far from school.

In order to describe the experiences of pupils living far from school, the qualitative study using interpretivist perspective took the methods of narrative inquiry.

Czarniawska 's and Franzosi's (2004), the definition of narrative identified the plot present in the story that ties together of different parts of events, experiences or actions into a meaningful whole.

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It is based firmly in the premise that, as human beings, people come to understand and give meaning to their lives through story (Andrews, Squire and Tambokou (2008).

Aside from interviews, a number of data collection method were used like letters, conversations, interviews, journals, field notes, photos, family stories and life experiences (Clandinin and Connelly, 1999).These were used as basis of getting information and capturing different stories and life experiences that happen in the lives of the respondent.

Participants/Respondents

The respondents of the study were three grade six pupils of Aglanot Elementary School who were living far from school. These pupils live between 2 to 4 kilometers away from school. Their ages vary from 12 and above and were purposively selected by the researchers.

The respondents in this study were selected based on their free consent and experiences regarding home and school distance.The participants and parents’ consent to become the subjects of the study were solicited first after rapport was established with them. With due respect to the respondents, other sensitive information about their personal data were not divulged to remain its confidentiality. Important information told by the respondents themselves were considered.

Data Gathering Instrument

For the purpose of this study, the researcher made an interview guide. It contained questions which focused on pupils’ personal experiences such as happiness, struggles and challenges as well as their lessons learned by living far from school. The teachers, parents, some relatives of the respondents and friends discussed and gave further information about the experiences of these pupils.

With the consent of the respondents, recorders were used during the story telling, with the agreement not to publish the said recording but with the purpose to validate what they said.

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Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers initially discussed with the adviser the experiences of the pupils living far from school. The adviser suggested that qualitative research will be used in the study. After it, permit of the study was made. The researchers talked and met with each other and the adviser talked about the initial plan in conducting the study. After an hour discussion, the researchers decided to go to Aglanot Elementary School where the study was conducted. The researchers need to have an amount of money to spend for fare in riding motorcycle in 52 kilometers travel from Tina, Dumarao, Capiz to the town of Dumarao.

Prior to that event, a dialogue was made between the researcher and the principal of the school regarding the study. The researcher gathered information from the principal and identified who were those pupils qualified as the respondents. After listing the names of those pupils, the researchers chose three pupils who had the most interesting stories from the initial interview.

The researchers met the respondents and asked whether they were willing to be part of the study, and they positively responded to the request.

Permission was also asked from the parents through letters regarding the approval of making their child as a respondent. The researchers visited the place of the respondents to experience how far they walk or how the scenario happened to these pupils during class days. The researchers personally interviewed the respondents with their consent to honestly answer the given questions in the areas of concern of the study.

The one -on - one interview with the respondents was at least one to two hours, depending on their willingness, responses and readiness to answer the questions. The whole event was a recollection of their stories which was gathered through individual interviews. Rapport was established with the participants by starting with non- threatening questions. Smooth and spontaneous interaction was facilitated between the researchers and the respondents. In this study, the researchers were directly involved in gathering the data, no other persons were allowed to see any

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information in the study to secure its privacy. Thereafter, the data were gathered and subjected for data analysis or triangulation.

Results and Discussion

1. The study found out that pupils who lived far from school experienced walking under the rain, tracing some muddy and slippery roads, tracing uneven path, feeling the cold rain and breeze of the air and enduring their tired bodies as they walk everyday from home to school. 2. The feeling of happiness helped these pupils to continue their pursuit of knowledge despite the hardships they met in their lives. They also felt happy in school because they were inspired by their teachers who create difference in their lives. 3. At the end, they learned the value of perseverance, commitment and sacrifice towards the goal that they need to attain in their life and poverty is not a hindrance to success in life. They feel blessed that they were in school because they were lucky enough to acquire education in spite of the situation that they were living far from school. They believed that success comes within a person who is full of patience and faith in God. They realized that patience should be the virtue of every individual who lived far from school in order to strive, to continue and to undertake challenges in order to succeed.

Conclusion

1. The pupils living far from school believed that the distance of their home to school does not urge them to stop or quit schooling, instead they considered these as a challenge that gave them strength and courage to face the problems or the demands in their lives.

2. One of their major goals is to liberate their family from poverty. Their family served as an inspiration for them to study very hard, to strive as they valued the sacrifices and

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hardships of their parents. According to them, they could pay back the sacrifices of their parents if they pursue to finish their studies without any let up and hesitations.

3. They also felt happy as they made footprints in the mud every day. They still perceived good life, by having positive disposition in their lives.

4. Commitment, hard work , perseverance and sacrifices were the ingredients to attain their goals in life. They also had strengthened their faith in God as they go along with their journey in life.

References allaboutlifechallenges.org/life-challenges.htm

Andrews, M., Squire, C., & Tambokou, M. (Eds.) (2008). Doing narrative research.

Bamberg, M., & Mc Cabe , A. (2011).Narrative Inquiry.

Berg,B. L. (2009). Qualitative research methods for social sciences. Boston, Massachusets; USA: Allyn and Bacon, boston.

Barbara, C. J. (2004). Narratives in social science research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Clandinin, D.J., & Connelly, F.M. (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Clandinin, D.J., & Connelly, F.M. (1990). “Stories of experience and narrative inquiry.” Educational Researcher 19, no.5 (June –July 1990):2-14. family.lovetoknow.com/definition-familyinnerwisdom.com/the-family concept.htm itravelyork.info/journey-planning/going-to-school/active- travel-to-school- the benefits/ joshweinstein.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/the-problem-of-education-in-the- philippines/

Klein, H., & Myers, M.D. (1999). A set of principles for conducting and evaluating interpretivee field students. lawyerment.com/library/articles/Self_Improvement/Motivation/317.htm mountainprofessor.com/mountain-people.html

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Punch, K.F. (2005). Introduction to social research, quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Riessman,C.K. (2000). Analysis of personal narratives in hand book of interviewing.

Snowden, D. (2004). ”Narrative patterns: the perils and possibilities of using story in organizations,” in Creating value with knowledge, Eric Lesser and Laurence Prusak (eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/motivation/section1.rhtml youearnedit.com/blog/30-inspiring-quotes-to-push-you-on-overcoming challenges/ostaustria.org/bridges-magazine/item/8229-mountains-and- their-grand-challenges.elephantjournal.com/2013/03/challenge-vs-struggle- tria-aronow/

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