Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 34 https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v6i2.340 RESEARCH OPEN ACCESS Systematising the Microstructure of a Modern Dictionary of the Language Olzhas Mirzakhanovich Shayakhmetov,†* Gulim Yesengaliyevna Imasheva,† Aliy Raufovich Almukhametov,† Rashid Srazhovich MukhitdinovῘ and Yktiyar Paltore Ῐ Abstract This article is concerned with studying the influence of conservatism on the modern Arabic lexicography, namely the structure of its dictionary entries and interpretation methods. "The Large Arabic Dictionary" of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo has been chosen as the object of research since lexicographers regard it as the newest stage in the centuries-long evolution of the Arabic lexicography. Based on "The Large Arabic Dictionary", the comparative analysis touches upon the peculiarities of a modern general purpose dictionary of the Arabic language, definitions, methods of recording primary and derived verbs, and types of supporting data. The consistency between modern dictionaries of the Arabic language and their classical, medieval counterparts is analysed with regard to methods of organisation and interpretation. Omissions made by medieval lexicographers due to complex definitions and unsystematised dictionary entries are critically examined. Keywords: Lexicography, General purpose Dictionary, Definition, Supporting data, Academy of the Arabic Language

† University of Nur-Mubarak, Al-Farabi Ave, 73, Almaty, 050060, Kazakhstan *Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] Ῐ Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Al-Farabi Ave, 73, Almaty, 050040, Kazakhstan ©2018 Shayakhmetov et al.. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Introduction root-vowel principle that was first introduced by Halil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (al-Hatib, 1987) Modern lexicographic handbooks of the Arabic language are based on reforms and centuries- in the 8th century. Thus, the Academy of the long lexicographic traditions. Monolingual Arabic Language in Cairo has not drastically dictionaries compiled by the Academy of the changed the macrostructure of traditional Arabic Language in Cairo can be called the Arabic dictionaries. However, the grand achievements of the modern Arabic systematisation of a dictionary entry is a result lexicography, namely "al-Mu‘jamal-uajīz" (the of all the reforms that took part in the practical Abridged Arabic Dictionary), "al-Mu‘jamal- Arabic lexicography. uasīt" (the Middle Arabic Dictionary), and "al- The golden age of the Arabic linguistics in the Mu‘jamal-kabīr" (the Large Arabic Dictionary). 8th century marked the beginning of a The Abridged and Middle Arabic Dictionaries centuries-long lexicographic tradition giving rise comprise vast lexical material aimed at a wide to a variety of dictionaries of different types, range of people from students to professional size and structure that are still widely used. The scientists. At the same time, "The Large Arabic authors of the first dictionaries tried to Dictionary" compiled by the Academy of the preserve their literary language for interpreting Arabic Language in Cairo is relevant for the religious texts (at-Tahanui, 1996). They paid monolingual Arabic lexicography as it is based much attention to gathering non-obscene on the classical lexicographical principles and words and arranging them in conformity with a European traditions. method established by lexicographic schools The reference point for monolingual linguistic while the systematisation of a dictionary entry dictionaries of the Arabic language is was of no importance for them (al-Jilyali, 1999). considered to be the explanatory dictionary "al- Therefore, the users of early Arabic dictionaries 'Ain" (8th century) by Halil ibn Ahmad (Nassar, had been facing severe problems till the end of 1988). The dictionary launched the beginning of the 19th century which arose from the the 14th-century practice of compiling following flaws in the macrostructure of monolingual dictionaries. However, despite dictionaries: such a long period of the Arabic lexicographic . No logical order of vocables within a tradition formation, modern monolingual group of words with the same root; dictionaries of the Arabic language are still . Spontaneous definitions of field-related firmly committed to conservative methods of vocabulary; compiling dictionaries (Hablas, 2006). . No definitions of archaisms; Therefore, the authors have attempted to . No unified method of forming verbs; analyse the degree of modernisation of modern . Subjective choice of definitions and dictionaries of the Arabic language. For this supporting data; purpose, the "Big Dictionary" of the Cairo . Time-bound and locally constrained Academy of the Arabic Language was taken as backing data; the study subject, since it is the latest and . Lack of graphical supporting data; largest project of the Academy (The Large . Lack of logic order in presenting Arabic Dictionary, 2006), and indeed represents supporting data; the latest generation of monolingual . Complicated perception of definitions dictionaries of the Arabic language. Speaking and supporting data. about the evolution of Arabic dictionaries, Due to continuity, conservative principles and linguists mostly mean gradual changes in the linguistic traditions not only influenced the arrangement of lexical units (the classical Arabic lexicography but also caused macrostructure of dictionaries), when groups of certain drawbacks in modern dictionaries of the words with the same root are presented in a Arabic language. Therefore, when the Academy single dictionary entry in accordance with the of the Arabic Language in Cairo was compiling

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 36 the biggest dictionary in the history of the lexicographic tradition to a new stage of Arabic lexicography called "The Large Arabic development. Dictionary", it implemented several new ideas Results concerning the macrostructure of dictionaries. The new microstructure of the modern Arabic This article explores the results of the analysis dictionary is expressed using systematising of the microstructure of the "Large Dictionary" introductory units within a group of same-root of the Academy of Arabic Language in Cairo. words, providing interpretation methods for The study pays attention to the explanatory native words and neologisms, giving and illustrative zones of a dictionary entry since etymological references as lexical equivalents the most of innovations introduced by the from other Semitic and Oriental languages, Academy were made precisely in these parts of offering supporting data (including graphics the dictionary microstructure. To solve the information) and presenting groups of same task, a number of methods were applied, root words. Let us take a closer look at all these allowing a systematic (Apresyan, 1995, changes. Danilenko, 2011) lexicographic analysis of the indicated zones of a dictionary entry. Interpretation Methods The Arrangement of Introductory Units within a Group of Same-Root Words The lexicographic method has been chosen as the primary research method since it makes it Classic Arabic dictionaries did not systematise possible to systematically analyse the lexical units within a group of same root words. representation of linguistic units in dictionaries, Despite adopting various methods of arranging ways of giving their definitions, procedures for these groups (phonetical and permutative, compiling dictionaries, as well as to study in alphabetical and circular, rhymed, alphabetical great detail the peculiarities and linguistic and root-related), the inner structure of the functions of the objects in such dictionaries groups was left in complete chaos (Kushliy, (synonyms, antonyms, phraseological units, 2002). For example, if one decides to find a etc.) (Rybalkin, 1984). We also use other derivative within a group of same-root words methods such as the contrastive-comparative "da-ra-ba" in "Lisan al-‘arab" Dictionary method. This method is used to define the compiled by Ibn Manzur, a dictionary user similar and distinguishing aspects in the would have to read all the entries within this concepts and structures adopted in "The Large group that make up even a bigger entry (longer Arabic Dictionary" and other thesauruses of the than 15 pages). Arabic literary language. The statistic method The dictionaries compiled by the Academy in deployed makes it possible to estimate and Cairo and "The Large Arabic Dictionary", in evaluate supporting data within an entry in particular, provide a new microstructure where "The Large Arabic Dictionary". Alongside, the dictionary entries within a group of same-root modelling method used helps us to analyse words are divided into smaller entries for each word-building patterns, ways of adopting new introductory unit and are marked by the "*" words and defining them in a dictionary that is symbol. The arrangement of these introductory established by the Academy in Cairo. With the units directly depends on the part of speech parametric method, the essential components they belong to. It means that verbs precede of a dictionary entry are described. The nouns. Furthermore, priority is given to verbs component analysis contributes to the with a single root-syllable in comparison with description of defining methods. Using the derived ones. Verbs with three letters in the above techniques, the research resulted in root are regarded as nuclear forms compared revealing a number of innovations introduced to the ones with four or five letters. Then by the Academy. This fact undoubtedly points lexicographers also pay attention to the to the transition of the Arabic monolingual category of transitivity and intransitivity,

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 37 phraseological features. They consider proper that adopted not only the units themselves but meaning to be the first one compared to also the definitions provided. Due to this metaphorical one; the same goes about continuity, modern dictionaries mention a wide abstract and material concepts. Unlike earlier range of archaisms that are defined in an out- dictionaries, the arrangement of quotations in of-date or complex manner (Hablas, 2006). In "The Large Arabic Dictionary" follows the particular, field-related vocabulary specific logic. Ancient lexicographers were documented on different stages of the mostly concerned with finding and development of the Arabic lexicography was documenting lexical units and ignored the defined about the development of the science problem of their arrangement within a of that time. The lexicographic works that dictionary. Thus, this problem had to be solved survived to the day contain lexical units by the following generations of linguists. describing plants, animals, anatomy, and other Quotations in "The Large Arabic Dictionary" are branches, which need to be defined in the right way. arranged as follows: . Context example; These problems were taken into consideration . Quran quotations; for compiling dictionaries of the Academy, . Hadith1 quotations; including "The Large Arabic Dictionary", where . Quotation from the Arabic prose; field-related vocabulary and archaisms that . Abstract from some poems. came from earlier editions of dictionaries were given proper scientific descriptions revealing Quotations in the categories as mentioned the nature of a lexical unit and their distinctive earlier are also specifically arranged: features. In order to evaluate the significance . Quran quotations are arranged of these changes, let us analyse the definition following the arrangement of its of "al-babr" headword taken from "Lisan al- Surahs,2 with common "al-mutauātir" arab" dictionary (the 13th century), which is recitals mentioned before "šauāz" ones. the main source for "The Large Arabic . Their authenticity arranges Dictionary", and the definition of the same quotations, where "as-sahīh" headword given by lexicographers behind "The (authentic) are mentioned first Large Arabic Dictionary". Thus, in "Lisan al- in comparison with "al-hasan" (good) arab": "al-babr" (tiger) is an animal that looks ones, etc. like a lion but conflicts with it, a species of a . Abstracts from the Arabic prose written carnivorous animal; a loan-word assimilated by well-known authors are put earlier into the Arabic language" (Ibn Manzur, 1993, p. than quotations of some unknown 306). authors; quotations within each group Even though the definition is primitive, it are arranged in chronological order. corresponds to the life period of the author. . Quotations from the Arabic poetry are Though the presence of excessive banality in arranged in the same manner as the interpretation of vocabulary in later quotations from the Arabic prose. dictionaries, up to the middle of the Archaism Interpretation 20thcentury (Hablas, 2006), definitely indicates a stable continuity, inevitably generating a Lexical units documented in classical, medieval layer of archaisms in the explanatory zone of dictionaries served as a basis for most modern the dictionary entry. This also suggests a monolingual dictionaries of the Arabic language stagnation in the development of methods of interpretation. In the final part of the word 1 The legend of the words and deeds of the Prophet definition "an Arabized word, of a foreign , telling about various religious and legal aspects of the life of the Muslim community (Boyko, origin" one can trace the inherent desire of 1991: 262-263) medieval lexicographers to separate the pure 2 Each of the114 chapters of Quran is called «surah».

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 38 literary language of the era of the Islam birth, working under the Academy of the Arabic from any contamination with foreign Language in Cairo has accomplished a great job vocabulary. This trend lasted until the unifying terms and sorting out new loan-words. appearance of the first monolingual As a rule, as an alternative to borrowed foreign dictionaries of the Cairo Academy in the middle vocabulary, the Cairo Academy uses the richest of the 20th century (Nassar, 1988), when the lexical potential of the Arabic language itself or academy announced new principles for the adapts the borrowed vocabulary with the selection of lexical material, among which the Arabic language system (al-Alami, 1990, p. concept of literary Arabic was considered 155). As the Arabic language has a lexical without a time and local framework (The Large potential, terminologists managed to use the Arabic Dictionary, 2006, p. 7). Below we archaic words that had fallen from an active consider the definition of the same vocable, vocabulary in a new meaning instead of loan- proposed by the "Large Dictionary". words cluttering up the language. Thus, the "al- qitār" word initially meant "a group of camels "The Large Arabic Dictionary" offers a more detailed definition that is based on the Latin following one another", and now it denotes "a equivalent: series of wagons that are attached to one another and dragged by a locomotive" (al- "al-babr" (Felistigris) is a large feline qātira) (The Middle Arabic Dictionary, 2011, p. animal (Felidae), predator (Carnivora), 716). mammal (Mammalia), with the body’s length up to 3 meters, of a dark yellow Examples of the vocabulary approved by the color with thick black stripes, a white academy through this method are the belly, stronger and more aggressive equivalents presented in the following Table 1, than a lion, can climb trees, swim, lives where the original Arabic vocabulary is in Asian jungles" (The Large Arabic proposed instead of direct borrowings. Dictionary, 2001, p. 32). The adaptation of the borrowed vocabulary in As we can see, the example contains an the Arabic language system is carried out under encyclopaedic reference adapted for a the morphological, grammatical and phonetic modern reader. structure of the Arabic language. Newly-formed vocabulary is added to the glossary of the The definitions mentioned above manifest an "Large Dictionary". important social function of dictionaries. Both lexicographic works recorded the sum of General Meaning of Cognate Words within a knowledge gathered in that period. The Group of Same-Root Words dictionary entry mentioned as the first example Another change in modern dictionaries of the is based on the author’s assumptions who Academy of the Arabic Language, "The Large seemed never to see a real tiger while the Arabic Dictionary" in particular, is a group of second example gives a more scientific and same-root words that mentions the meaning of detailed definition. a cognate word closely connected with derived Neologism Interpretation lexical units within this group. The macrostructure of this dictionary is divided into The modern lexical system of the Arabic several chapters, each of them marked by language, like any other well-developed letters in alphabetical order, which form the national language, is being continuously nucleus of this group of same root words. All enriched with new words through their the derivatives within a group of same-root adoption, polysemantic processes and semantic words are connected through a single word changes of existing widely used words. The with a common semantic feature. Committee on the Control of Term Formation

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Table 1: Translation Equivalent The term in the language of borrowing Equivalent А* Equivalent В** Telephone tilifūn al-hātif Bonjour (French: Good morning) būnjūr sobāhan Bonsoir (French: Good evening) būnsuār masa-an Club al-klūb an-nādi Porte-manteau (French: hanger) burt mantū al-mašjab Carte (French: card) kārt bitaqa Police būlīs Šurti Salon sālūn bahu * Direct borrowing, which was in use before the Academy approved a new term. ** Neologism, approved by the Cairo Academy to replace a direct borrowing and included in the glossary of the "Large Dictionary". Therefore, each group of same-root words in of all the derivatives. At the same time, the "The Large Arabic Dictionary" firstly mentions common root meaning is primary, neutral in the common meaning of all the following words stylistic and is context-independent, unlike the and only then present headwords. This method secondary derivatives of lexical meanings reveals the semantic similarity in a word- generated as a result of historical evolution. In forming chain used for the search of a desired this connection, the common root meaning lexical unit that makes this dictionary easier to does not always have a direct reflection in the use. This structure of groups of same-root dictionary interpretations and can be implicitly words was used in Ibn Faris’ dictionary called contained in the etymological reference or as a "Makais al-luga" (Ibn Faris, 1979). The result of the component analysis of the lexeme. description of this semantic similarity in "The Thus, the combination of the consonants "j- Large Arabic Dictionary" does not differ from nun-nun" in the opinion of Ibn Faris forms the the ideas expressed by Ibn Faris often quoted meaning "as-satr, at-tasattur" (covering, in the new dictionary. An innovation of "The hiding), which is implicitly contained in the Large Arabic Dictionary" is the systematic way meanings of such derivatives as: of providing common meanings numbered and 1. “al-janna” (garden): due to the density positioned from concrete to abstract meanings, and cover effect created by tree and from proper to metaphorical ones. The branches; group of same-root words "Hamza-ia-nun" in 2. “al-janīn” 1. (embryo): hidden in the "The Large Arabic Dictionary" begins with the womb of the mother; following meanings: 1. al-i‘ya (exhaustion); 2. 3. “al-janīn” 2. (buried): hidden in the qurbaš-šai (nearness). Then a quotation from grave; Ibn Faris’ "Makais al-luga" dictionary explains 4. “al-janān” (heart): hidden in the chest; that "hamza-ia-nun" denotes both exhaustion 5. “al-mijann” (shield): what is covering in and nearness. The first headword marked by the battle; the "*" symbol is given (The Large Arabic 6. “al-jinna” (insanity): covering the mind; Dictionary, 2006, p. 660). It is a special feature 7. “janan al-lail” (darkness of night): of "The Large Arabic Dictionary" to mention the covering everything around; common cognate word, which makes this 8. “al-jinn” (jinn): they are called so dictionary stand out from all the other modern because they are hidden from human monolingual dictionaries of the Arabic eyes; language. This method is important from a practical perspective as it is used for interpreting the lexical meaning of cognate words and mentions in the written form that related words have the same meaning typical

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9. “al-janājin” (breastbone): hidden in the (languages with close cultural and historical chest (Ibn Faris, 1979, p. 421-422)3 connections), it helps to establish the mutual The compilers of the "Large Dictionary" interference of these language groups and preferred to minimise the associativity of this trace the development of these linguistic units combination of root consonants "j-nun-nun" by in different time periods. Revealing lexical adding to Ibn Faris's meaning of "covering, similarities and differences between related hiding" the following variants of common root and unrelated languages, lexicographers also meanings, with a significant part of the lexical find incentives pushing the evolution of material of this word nest: semantic meanings, which is useful for compiling the historical dictionary of the Arabic “as-satr, al-ihfā” (covering, hiding); language – the next stage after "The Large “kasrat an-nabt” (abundance of plants); Arabic Dictionary". “al-halal az-zihni” (mental illness); Recording Verbs The relevance of these common root meanings The next step in systematising a dictionary with the lexical units of the word nest "j-nun- entry used by lexicographers is a new way of nun" in the "Large Dictionary" is considered in presenting verbs in the form of Past tense, the following Tables 2, 3 and 4. Third person. Earlier Arabic dictionaries did not follow any precise idea of recording verbs and The secondary nomination of objects of reality introduced them in past or present tenses, and the degree of their motivation are some of regardless of person, aspect and mood of the most urgent issues of the Arab particles (Mabruk, 2003). The lexicographers of lexicography. One of the attempts to solve "The Large Arabic Dictionary" also offered a these problems is the "Large Dictionary" of the new method of recording complex verbs with Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo, geminated letters inside a root like "radda", where the common root has a systematic "šakka", "zalla", which change their forms while format. conjugating. Most early dictionaries give Giving Etymological References as Equivalents examples of verbs with geminated letters and in Semitic Languages their possible transformations, which form the vocalisation (harakat) of the middle letter One more innovation of "The Large Arabic inside a root in present tense like "radda" → Dictionary" compared to previous and other "radadtu", "šakka" → "šakakna", "zalla" → modern dictionaries are the way it provides an "zalalna", etc. These examples use only etymological reference as equivalents in attached object 1st and 2nd person pronouns, Semitic languages. Most equivalents mentioned where geminated letters inside a root reveal in the dictionary belong to the Ethiopian, themselves and are properly vocalised. There is Aramaic, Syrian, and Hebrew languages, which no right descriptive sign to mark the middle are written in Latin letters and interpreted in letter inside a root in "The Large Arabic one or another language. Some equivalents are Dictionary" since the infinitive of verbs is given in the Persian language that does not fall represented by the form of past tense (third into the Semitic group but since the 3rd century person).It gives an example of a regular verb of the Hijrah4 it had adopted many Arabic that serves as a typical model for vocalisation words. The Arabic dictionary includes loan- patterns. For instance, "radda" is similar to words that have an etymological link and "akala", that is, "radda" is conjugated in the similar meanings in the Semitic languages same manner as "akala". However, this way of recording verbs is mostly used in the first part 3 Numbering and highlighting are made by the authors of of "The Large Arabic Dictionary", in the second the article. 4 The Muslim chronology, which is conducted from the part dictionary users have to rely on their own date of resettlement of the prophet Muhammad and his language experience to define the middle followers from Mecca to Medina in the year 622.

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Table 2: The Common Root Meaning “as-satr, al-ihfā” (covering, hiding) Vocable Interpretation Janna al-lail Ištaddat zulmat al-lail (cover grew darker, the darkness of night) Janna fulān šai’a Satarahu (hide smth) Janna al-maiit Uārāhu (bury the dead) + 17 lexical items with the meaning «hide, secrecy»

Table 3 - Common Root Meaning: "kasrat an-nabt" (abundance of plants, sprouting abundantly) Vocable Interpretation Junna an-nabat Tala ua iltaffa, izdahara (sprouting abundantly) Junnat al-ard Kasura nabatuha (the ground blossomed) Al-janna Al-hadīqa zāt an-nahl ua aš-šajar (a garden with trees and palm trees) + 6 lexical items with the meaning «abundance of plants, sprouting abundantly»

Table 4 - Common Root Meaning: “al-halal az-zihni” (mental illness) Vocable Interpretation Junna fulan Zala ʽaqluhu (go mad) Junna fulan bišai’ ua minhu uʽjiba hatta iasir kal-majnun (become mad of admiration) Ajanna fulan uaqaʽa fi majanna (go mad, lose one’s mind) + 5 lexical items with the meaning “mental illness ” geminated letter inside a root and its Supporting Data Zone vocalisation methods. Thus, the doubled verb Quotations from Literary Works "baraa" in the second part of the dictionary does not have phonetic clues, and therefore, Medieval authors behind early dictionaries of the definition of the middle root vowel of the the Arabic language, like Al-Jawhari, Ibn Sid, Al- verb is possible only with the user's own Azhari, Ibn Faris, and others strived to achieve experience of conjugation of this verb. the integrity of the language and the right interpretation of religious sources, so they used Verbs in "The Large Arabic Dictionary" are texts dated back to the period no later than the distributed following the number of letters 2nd century of the Hijrah (the 8th century) as inside a root, with each form of a verb supporting data . According to the compiler of mentioned within a group of same root words. the dictionary "as-sihah fi al-luga" (a correct Forms of three-letter verbs ("za-lla", "ja-lla") one in the language) Al-Jawhari (940-1002): and four-letter verbs ("za-l-za-la", "ja-l-ja-la") "The work contains only the correct vocabulary also fall into this category, which were gathered from the lips of the true-bred " mentioned within a single group of same-root (Al-Jawhari, 1989: 15). Whereby, true-bred words in early dictionaries (for example, "za-l- Arabs were supposed to live away from other za-la" in the group of "za-lla", "ja-l-ja-la" in the nations (al-Farabi, 1986). Quotations written by group of "ja-lla", etc.) and made it hard to find later authors and authors getting in contact necessary lexemes. A new way of recording with foreigners were not included in the verbs in "The Large Arabic Dictionary" category of texts, which showed the right usage corresponds to the initial concept of this of lexical units and were used as examples of dictionary and makes it fast and easy to find a twisted literary meaning. Most medieval desired lexical unit. dictionaries with time-bound and locally constrained supporting data were characterised by a prescriptive nature and did not show the real discourse of that period.

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The analysis of supporting data in dictionaries acquisition of new semantic features by compiled by the Academy of the Arabic old lexemes. This category is headed by Language in Cairo and in "The Large Arabic the Abbasid poet Bashār ibn Burd al- Dictionary" enables to divide the literary Ukaily (died in 167) because he started quotations used in the text into two major the epoch of the so-called "muhdasūn" groups under periods of authors' lives: authors who did not belong to the Group I: excerpts were written by classical period of fixing the Arabic authors who lived in the period of fixing vocabulary, according to as-Suyuti (as- the Arabic vocabulary, whose works Suyuti, 1988). were used as a proof for some The analysis shows that "The Large Arabic grammatical phenomenon, served as a Dictionary" uses many literary quotations taken lexical and semantic filter against non- from works written by authors from Group II. In Arabic borrowings that could spoil the the first part of "The Large Arabic Dictionary" language and ruin the understanding of there are 187 quotations written by 50 poets religious sources. who lived after the period of fixing the Arabic Group II: quotations written by authors vocabulary. They are , al- who lived after the period of fixing the Mutanabbi, al-Buhtari, Abu al-‘ala al-Magri, Ibn Arabic vocabulary (post-classical period ar-Rumi and Ibn Faris al-Hamadani. Figure 1 and later), whose quotations did not shows the frequency of quotations written by serve as a linguistic argument, but were these authors and used in the first part of "The included into early dictionaries to Large Arabic Dictionary": demonstrate their wrong usage or

Figure 1: Frequency of Quotations Written by Authors from Group II in "The Large Arabic Dictionary." The frequency of quotations written by other interpret lexical units. Drawings and maps were 44 authors ranges between 1 and 6 quotations. used for the first time in the "al-Wasiti" The rest of the authors from Group II is quoted dictionary compiled by the Academy of the once in the first part of the dictionary. Arabic Language in Cairo for describing some The fact that "The Large Arabic Dictionary" uses animals, plants and geographical locations in an quotations written by authors from Group II encyclopedia-like manner. "The Large Arabic proves that this lexicographic work is truly Dictionary" also uses graphic illustrations in the unique. However, the lack of modern form of historical portraits, geographical maps, quotations indicates that the concept of "The and images depicting animals, plants and Large Arabic Dictionary" is heavily influenced objects. by conservative tendencies. Collective Work on "The Large Arabic Graphic Supporting Data Dictionary" Project There are ideological reasons that ancient The most important result of the reforms that dictionaries of the Arabic language did not took part in the Arabic lexicography under the include any graphics supporting data to influence of the Academy in Cairo is collective work on dictionaries. Modern academic

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 43 dictionaries of the Arabic language were tradition in choosing a word-list and supporting compiled; the credit for this goes to the data, which aims to preserve the normative research conducted by scholars and scientists level of discourse, that is, the literary standard, working in different spheres. As lexicographers in all the spheres of official communication. work in a team, it excludes a human factor. This tradition is still taken into consideration for Individual efforts are insufficient, subjective, compiling modern dictionaries and helps to and unacceptable. The Academy of the Arabic highlight the unchangeable linguistic level Language in Cairo includes scholars from Iran, common to all the social groups and life Syria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, spheres. The same goes about supporting data, Libya, Palestine, Kingdom of Jordan, Saudi which includes Quran and hadith quotations, Arabia and Yemen. Literary critics made the abstracts from ancient prose and poetry working party of "The Large Arabic Dictionary", regardless of their interpretation of the chosen linguists, philosophers and other scholars who lexical unit and their semantic applicability. often ask assistance from their colleagues and Neologism Interpretation academicians from other scientific spheres (The Large Arabic Dictionary, 2006, p. 6). Alongside The neologisms approved by the Academy of the working party, there is also a committee on the Arabic Language in Cairo and later included scientific, economic, architectural and artistic into the word-list of "The Large Arabic terms (Nassar, 1988, p. 590). Dictionary" are formed following classical methods developed by medieval linguists, Discussion namely: Nowadays "The Large Arabic Dictionary" . "at-ta‘rībal-iqtibāsias-sauti" is a direct represents the biggest achievement of the borrowing from a foreign language centuries-long evolution of the Arabic written employing the Arabic alphabet lexicography. Its structural innovations precisely or partially following the initial comprise a systematised arrangement of phonological structure, described by a introductory units within a group of same-root Baṣrī grammarian as-Sībawayh (the 8th words, interpretation methods, interpretation century); of neologisms, etymological references as . "at-ta‘rībal-iqtibāsial-uad‘I" is a equivalents from other Semitic and Oriental complete transformation of a loan-word languages, supporting data (including graphics in accordance with morphology, information) and formation of groups of same grammar and phonetics of the Arabic root words. At the same time, the concept of language revealed by al-Jawharī (the "The Large Arabic Dictionary" is based on 10th century) (al-Alami, 1990, p. 155). conservative methods of choosing a word-list, This type of a loan-word is also called supporting data and metalanguage of "at-taulid" (Daif, 2004, p. 39). interpretation. The interpretation of neologisms completely Level of Continuity depends on the two methods of adopting loan- The continuity of Arabic dictionaries becomes words. When interpreting the term evident when one analyses the sources of "pasteurisation" (from French Pasteurisation) quotations in the dictionary under study where authors of "The Large Arabic Dictionary" have religious texts and classical poetry written by two ways of building a dictionary entry and authors for Group I are given a priority. providing definitions. The first approach is to Abstracts from the works written by authors form the Arabic equivalent of this term through from Group II are used less often, which proves a direct borrowing described by as-Sībawayh a conservative approach was the main one for (like "bāstūrīzāsiūn"). The second approach is the compilation of "The Large Arabic to form an equivalent under al-Jawharī’s Dictionary". During the history of the Arabic method when a loan-word is fully adapted to lexicography, dictionaries follow a specific the language system (like "al-bastara"). The

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 44 first equivalent cannot give rise to any additional meanings used alongside the derivatives, so its contextual usage in various common one. As a result, the authors of "The tense and mood forms like "pasteurised" (Past Large Arabic Dictionary" not only adopted the tense), "will pasteurise" (Present tense), explication of the common cognate meaning "pasteurise" (Imperative mood) suggest for lexical interpretation but also fully auxiliary units and additional definitions. The reproduced the model of presenting primary second equivalent "al-bastara" is fully adapted cognate meanings of lexical units in various to the morphological system of the Arabic semantic contexts andin accordance with ideas language through many derivatives of medieval lexicographers. ("muštaqqāt"), which contains the The common cognate meaning is primary, interpretation of the given lexical unit within a stylistically neutral and does not depend on single dictionary entry in accordance with a context, unlike secondary lexical meanings that unified paradigm and mentions all the were formed during the historical evolution of additional derivatives with their specific the Arabic language (Ibn Jinni, 1955). definitions. The interpretation model is as Therefore, the common cognate meaning is not follows: "al-bastara" (Pasteurisation) => always mentioned in dictionary interpretations definition => "bas-ta-ra" (Past tense verb and can be implicitly included into etymological without definition) => "u-bas-ti-ru" (Present references as a result of component analysis of tense verb without definition) => "mubastir" lexemes. (active participle: "pasteurising" without definition) => "mubastar" (passive particle: Collective Work on Dictionaries Compiled by "pasteurised" without definition) => "bastari" the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo (relative adjective: "pasteurising" without The idea to compile a dictionary by a group of definition), etc. authors was adopted from Western colleagues Denoting the Common Cognate Meaning of who represent scientific academies and work Derivatives together on large lexicographic works of different types. However, it is still unclear Ancient linguists like Abu Ubaidah (728-839), al- whether "The Large Arabic Dictionary" should Asmaʿi (740-828), Shamir bin Hamdauiya (died be regarded as a successful initiative if it has in 869), al-Mubarrad (died in 899), Ibn been in work for many years and has not been Qutaybah (828-889), Qurra an-Naml (died in finished yet. The work on "The Large Arabic 922), az-Zudjadji (died in 951), Ibn Jinni (941- Dictionary" has been in progress for more than 1002), Ibn al-Anbari (884-940) and others took 70 years, and it is the oldest lexicographic an interest in the ordinary cognate meaning of project in history. A lack of funding could have derivatives and covered both theoretical and explained this delay, but the Academy of the practical aspects in their works. This practical Arabic Language in Cairo submitted data on its aspect was revealed in the interpretation of annual budget, which is 7,000,000 EGP, or lexical meanings of cognate words, with 272,200,000 Kazakhstan tenge or 787,000 USD authors explicitly stating the ordinary meaning per year (Abd al-Mawla, 2007, p. 62). of these words. Ibn Faris (918-1002) used a Therefore, critics explain the extended work on well-systematised approach to study the "The Large Arabic Dictionary" by the Eastern analogous common sense in both theoretical personality which strives to make oneself a and practical regard and recorded his ideas in name, create something unique and leave the "Makais al-luga" dictionary, which served as one's signature on the pages of history. When a basis of the "Large Arabic Dictionary" and people work as a team, it changes the inner provided quotations for denoting the common dynamics, and the one who works up a sweat is cognate meaning. Lexicographers of "The Large no different from all the others and gets the Arabic Dictionary" mostly regard the common same reward in the end. This opinion can be cognate meaning like Ibn Faris did, except for supported by the fact that all the previous

Shayakhmetov et al. Space and Culture, India 2018, 6:2 Page | 45 classical dictionaries are unique and compiled Arabic language, p. 384. : Union of by individual authors. Arabic Writers. Conclusion as-Suyuti, A. R. (1988). Al-Iktirah Fi İlm Usul An- Nahv, Vol. 1, p. 112. Cairo: Academy of the "The Large Arabic Dictionary" is often seen as Arabic Language in Cairo. the latest contribution to the development of at-Tahanui, M. A. (1996). Encyclopedia of the the modern Arabic lexicography. The peculiar art and science terms, p. 2185. Beirut: microstructure of "The Large Arabic Dictionary" Maktaba Lubnannashirun. is expressed in systematised lexical units within Boyko, K. A. Prozorov, S. M. (Ed.). (1991). Islam: a dictionary entry— new methods of fixing encyclopaedic dictionary, p. 315. [in same-root words and their derivatives, Russian]. Мoscow: Nauka, GRVL. mentioning common primary meanings of Daif, S. (2004). Scientific terminology. Collection derivatives, unique ways of presenting of the Academy of the Arabic Language in definitions and supporting data. Cairo, 102, 252-240. Unlike in classical dictionaries, supporting data Danilenko, V. P. (2011) Methods of linguistic is not influenced by local or time constraints. analysis: a course of lectures [in Russian]. The Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo Moscow: Nauka. utilises traditional methods of adopting Hablas, M. Y. (2006). Definition in the Arabic neologisms as equivalents to loan-words that language. The Literary Journal of Ain Shams are expressed in the definitions provided by University, 34, 76-92. "The Large Arabic Dictionary". However, the Ibn Faris. (1979). Dictionary of Makais al-luga consistency of Arabic dictionaries becomes Vol. 2, p. 512. Amman. evident when one analyses quotations in the Ibn Jinni. (1955). Al-Hasais, p. 585. Cairo: al- chosen dictionary and reveals that they are Haya al-amma lil-kitab. mostly taken from religious texts and classical Ibn Manzur (1993). Lisan al-arab, Vol. 1, p. 566. poetry written by authors from Group I. The Beirut: Dar al-Ihya al-Turas al-Arabi. abstracts written by authors from Group II are Kushliy, H. (2002). Evolution of the Arabic used more rarely which proves that the Dictionary from the 19th Century to 1950, compilation of "The Large Arabic Dictionary" (Research, analysis, criticism), (p. 456). has been made in accordance with the Beirut: Dar al-minhal al-lubnani. conservative approach. Mabruk, N. A. H. (2003). Studies of the Arabic lexicography, p. 320. Cairo: al-Amana. References Nassar, H. (1988). Lexicon Arab origins and Abd al-Mawla, M. (2007). Art of compiling evolution [in Arabic]. DarMisrliat-tiba’a. dictionaries in the Academy of the Arabic Rybalkin, V. S. (1984). Principles of the Language in Cairo, Vol. 1, p. 144. Cairo: construction of Arabic lexicographic works of Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo. the VIII-XVIII centuries: Candidate of Apresyan, Yu. D. (1995). Selected works. Philology's dissertation thesis (p. 24) [in Integral description of the language and Russian]. Leningrad. systemic lexicography, Vol. 2. [in Russian]. The Large Arabic Dictionary, Vol. 2. (2006). p. Мoscow. 700. Cairo: Academy of the Arabic Language al-Alami, I. H. (1990). Loan-words in the Arabic in Cairo. language, ISESCO, 34, 266-280. The Large Arabic Dictionary, Vol. 2, p. 768. al-Farabi, A. N. (1986). Kitab al-Huruf, p. 272. (2006). Cairo: Academy of the Arabic Beirut: Dar al-mashrik. Language in Cairo. al-Hatib, A. S. (1987). Modern Arabic The Middle Arabic Dictionary, p. 1112. (2011). lexicography, p. 128. Beirut: Dar al-garb al- Cairo: Academy of the Arabic Language in islami. Cairo. al-Jilyali, H. (1999). Procedure of giving definitions in modern dictionaries of the