Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia Forestry and Wildlife Development Authority
Reports on Ethiopian Forests by Glen W. Russ
Kelecha
Addis £haba, Ethiopia March, 1979 r />0
y^=.«S. -
/A /oc'* jz*-/W 9 $- Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia Forestry and Wildlife Development Authority Reports on Ethiopian Forests by Glen VJ* Russ Compiled by:- Wolde-Michael Kelecha Addis Ababa,Ethiopia March, 1979„ -I- Introduction Glen W 9Russ is a distingiushed American forester who had the opportunity of undertaking studies of the Ethiopian forests during his mission to the country from 1940 to 19470 He has recorded his observations and an .account of his work in various reports which cover many fields: such as forestry, fauna, agriculture, honey and wax, people, food and drinks, topography, climates etcc These reports are not easily? available and the only copy I got is very old and same pages are illegible. For this reason I have tried to compile these reports in a book-form so that they can be used as a reference by foresters for future forest development in Ethiopia and also as a reminder of the once flourishing vast forests of the country destroyed through uncontrolled utilization, clearing and burning for agriculture® Most of the forests recorded in these reports have disappea red in the last forty years especially in the densely populated areas. These forests occured on steep slopes and through shifting cultivation of the forest lands the top soils have been washed away by water erosion in many areasc This land can now be made use of only by reforestation* \ A won' \ -II- Report No. I Page GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY 1 DRAINAGE BASINS * 1. -2 CLIMATE AMD RAINFALL 2 -3 ./GENERAL VEGETATION ' . 3-9 The Coniferous and Mixed Forests 5 -6 The Broad-leafed Forests 6 The High-grass Savannah 7 -8 Desert Savannah or Acacia Savannah 8 , v/T'SE FORESTS 8-18 Region I 9-10 Region II 11-13 Region III 13 -15 Region IV 15 -16 Region V 16 -18 ✓COMMERCIAL TIK3E3 SPECIES 18 -22 THE SAVJT1ILLS 22 -25 Chercher 25 Sidamo 26 Central Juniper Forests 26 -27 Southwestern Forests 27 PRODUCTION AND MAHX33TING 27 -29 LOGGING EETHODS 29 -30 CONSERVATION 30 -32 SOIL EROSION 33 TREES PLANTING 34 -35 ADMINISTRATION 35 -36 MINO.H FOREST PRODUCTS ' 36 \ III Pap;e . F U E L - rfCCD 3 6 - 3 7 CHARCOAL 3 7 - 3 8 . B33S7AX AND 3CN3Y 3 8 . S U B 3 5 R 3 9 - 4 0 C 0 3 A 3 I M A 4 0 , G U T ' S AMD INC3M3E 4 0 - 41 30TENONE 4 1 SUFJIARY 4 1 - 4 3 L I S T C F TRU3G 4 3 - 44 NATIVE NAF3S 07 rLiJJTG AND TREES 4 4 - 4 7 port N O ow I I 00000009000000000d6d6oooooooOO RESOURCES 48--52 The Exploitable Forests 48--50 S 1 Cl 3IH O ooooooeoaoooooooQooooo 50 S h O S r, oaoooooaooeoooooooooooc 50 Gambela ooooocoooooaooocoocoo 51 Summary of Exploitable Forests 52 Reserve Forests 53 Southern Sidamo <,00000»00<.0000 53 n rU S S l ooooooooooooooooooooaoo 53 S a l e eooocoooooe&onooooooooooo 53 Shoa ooooooooooooooooocooooooo 54 Gara Woti «„00«0000000<. 54 Gibati, Gara Guma and and Guder River . c «> o * 54 IV Page Southwestern Forests 00000000000<.*0000<,..0 54 Waliega cocoooooooooocooooooooooooooooooo* 55 Anflllo oooooo"ooo»ooooooocoooooooooorooco 3 ^ , Kandak o00oo*oo'50ooooooijoooooo©oooooopoooo 5d i ; f Kanto Forest ooooo^ooooooo©©©©©©©©©©©©©,.©*, 55 Bunno and Dabba Forest oooooooooocc^oooooe 56 Beni Shangul o.oooaooooooooooooooo.oooocoo 56 Go J J am OOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO —^ 6 T 1 CJ r e ooooooooooooooo«oooooooo«*ooooooocooo D / Taklease River Ooooooaooooocoeooooooooooceo 57 MalChie onoooooceoooooooooooocoooooooaoooo — 7 Compiled list of Reserve Forest and Areas a o «. © 58 Commercial Species List „,.<.o<>o©ooco©o®o©o©©o©oo 59-60 PRODUCTION 61-66 O a WITH 11s OOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOC^OOCOCOOOOOOO^OO 3 O ' — Chalanco-Chercher ..o©©©,.©©©*©©©©©©©©©©©©©* 63 Cunni-Chercher ©oco©c©©©©o©o©©©©©©©°©°co©© 63 Shashamana-Sidamo c,,©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©*©©©.. 63 Managash2“Shoa c«.oooeoeoeeoaooooooeonooooo 6 3 Ga j i-ShOa oo©**©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© 6-3 badjiro-ohoa o©ooo©oo©ooooocio©oooo©©o©©©©* 6^ — o 6 ADMINISTRATION 6 6—67 SUMMARY o © © © © o © © © © © © © o © © © © © © © © 3 © © © © © © © o © © © © © © © © © © © o . © © 68-69 Report No.Ill 70-97 DEDER SECTION O000000000©0aa©000©00000000©0000000000&0 /0 D€.'C:€r tO He r ar o90©©©©©o©©©oooo©o©o©oo©©oo©©©©©oo*> 70 Topography oooo©o©©©©©©©ooo = ©©©©oo©©©©©©©©©o©©©©©o 70 Climate O0OOOOOOQO©©©©*)©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© 71 Social conditions ^oo©©o©o©ooo©©©©o©o©©©©oo©©©oo©0 71-/6 V Paqe AQIT^CUI^UITG pooo&ooooeooooooooooooooao RoadS *oD«9 o»V9 *oaoooeoQOOt>»ooo»f>o«0 Aoeooee«of»o 79—83 J Fduno. OO«O^OOttOOOOttOOOOO«QO0 OOQOQ 9 OO 9 OPOOOOOtOO 83—85 VGQStStlOn ** 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c»0 f»0 0 0 0 d00000000000 c»000-000 85-86 Sawmills • <,<,*,. *oooo0 oooo©*oo»o«*o®<.*o*o*o*>®o«o* 86-91 The Forests *...... 91 Gara Mullata South • * • * * o..... «* ® «.<►<> *..... 91 Gara Mullata West .... <.4 *0 * 91 j ColXllbX #a»*^OAO«ooooDoooe»fiooo<)Ofrdooooo«9tt 92 Gegeba East • 92 Muti • 93 D 6 d.GJT o ©•» oooAooo^QaaootfooooooQcaoooeee^ootftf 93 — 94 Forest Administration ***,>**00 *** 0 0 * 0 0 0 .... * * * 94-97 R6 pOJril> No O IV flOBOOOO^OOPOOOOOOOOOOOflO^SOOOOOOOOO^^OOO® 98-fll9 Asha Tafan Section oo****Q*a*«0 *o******Dt»*oo£«oooo*oa 98 Gara Negus-Gara Muctar and Gara Saballe *«*.... . 98 Topography o***o**oooo*0 a9 *o*0 d*oo*o****«o« 98 Climate *0 0 ********0 0 0 0 0 *****0 0 * 0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 99 A^riCliX^UirC Off^ooooaDooooDooooo PoXj*tXC5 ^****+ RoadS AoceoooooooaoooeO0 ooooooo<>oa0 «ooooooD 104— 105 Vegetation ADOOOQooaoooo&oao«oa06O4Oftooo#oe 105* 10o MfiSOphy tlC ooAooo6CdeooooafrOo Wet Forest or Upper Mesophytic * 0 0 *0 0 0 *0 *0 * 106 see 215 Sawmills * * * * *...... ***.**0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0* 0*00 107 CUnnl ooAooftoooooosdOOooeooooooopoadooaA 107“109 Jale MlllS 0 *** 0 0 0 0 *0 *0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** 0 *0 0 0 ** 109— 110 VI Page Th^ F OJ!?e S^5 doooooooooooopoodeoo’oooooooooofloo® 111 GSJTS N0QUS ooooooooooooiotfooooffofiooo*6°®efl G ar a MUC t S r<><>00000o0®<10,0ao000000«>00<>0000«»« m** 113 Ruchelle Hardwood Forests b«»«<>oc«,„b<,oo«** 113 Asbd Taf cirX #0B#ao««o»*o»«®*a«»»900eoP®S0» 113— 114 Gara Saballe o<»oo®oooo«>©ooooooo«joo«oo«ooq* 114—116 Forestry «oeo0»»««oooaoo«gc«o4««apg«(io«»« No* V DOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOODOOOOOfPOOO'OOOOOOOOOO'a 120-152 The Forests of Southwestern Ethiopia 120-15 2 General »<>. <,<><.« 120-121 Topography 121-125 Climate • •<,eoe««ea<»«e«»<>°Ba0 o»«»0 »oBe Our a e4>0OO0O£O0[>OOOQ6OOO&OOOQPGO0 Barley o00000.0 0 Maize #0 0 0 »0 #i>o««ii»#«e##»®®l>0 »«0 «0 0(,,9a 131 Wheat oooeaaoBeaaaOBonoQOooopooooooooao 131 Kobo (Rus a Ensete) o<>o«oeoBB*<>oooaeo « b • « 131 ID a gu Sa aaoeeaBaeeooBO'eOBOsooBaeoBOBaaeo 131 Godare dDOfiOQODOOOCOdgOftaOAOOgAOOOOOOOft 132 Corrarima 6taaoao«oo««so»ceoeooooe<>o«a« 132 Coffee O O «OCOOOOOODOOOO0O00OOQO Th@ Forest o©.o0 »oopo-»oo*op«oooooooooo«oooooooo 138-150 /\2T6cl ODOOOO0QO99Otf0°OOI>09eOODOOOOOOOOfrO«O99 138<“139 Forest Types #o#ooo®9#««oo»«»««®««®»®®# The Wet Micrethermal Type • oo«o0 ooo«ooo<( 140-141 The Wet Macrothermal Type oooooooooooco. 141-143 The Wet Scrub Subtype ««0 0 «*oe««e<>«aoo<.« 143-144 The Macrothermal Swamp Subtype oe««eo*oo 144-1^5 Commercial Exploitation «,.„ooooooooo<*o«o 145-158 Rubber O O O O O © o 4 000000000000000000 ff« ® 0 0 0 0 0 148 — 150 Cororxma ODAOoooaofloo0 aaooflA4 O#«ooooAoOo 150— 151 Wax and. Honey eooooooooooocooeoooooooooe 151—152 Rotenone(Birbira) ,>oo<»oooo«oaooo«ooooooo 152 Summary 152 Report No VI 153—191 The Siddama Forests <,oooooooooo»oooo.,ooooooo«oo 153-191 The Forest of Arabe ooo®o*<*ooo0 oooo«o»oooo<» 153-154 The Damo Forest ©ooooooooo^oooooeooooooooo 154—155 The Giam Giam Forest 0000000000000000000000 15 5-156 The Magada Forest «a ooooooooooooooooooooocio 156—15 7 The Neghelli Forest ooo<»*ooooooooooo<»ooooo«. 15 7-158 Sawmills .^..oaooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 158-160 Transport and Roads oooo««o«oo«oooooooo«o»» 160-161 Commercial Possibilities**oo»o»«o»o o o • 161-162 Report No.VII 163-191 The Juniper Forests oooooooooooooooooooooooooaa 163—191 The Chercher-Gugu Forests 00000000000000000 163-4C5 The Bale Forests ooo»ooo«ooooo«<>»oooooooooo 166 The Forest of NegheHi eoooooooooaooooooooe 167 The Northern Juniper Forests o.ooooooooooo. 167-168 f VIIT - Page The West Central Forests 1 0 0 0 ® 0 168t171 The Blue Nile Forests 1 0 0 000 171-172' Ths Sawmills oooco«ooooo< i 0 O O 0 0 173-174 Logging and Sawmill Pract 1 0 0 0 0 0 175-178 Summary ooeooeoopoooooooc i 0 0 0 0 * 178-179 Native Names of Plants o< 1 0 0 0 0 Report No VIII * « 0 0 0 0 192-201 4 « O 0 O 192-201 Q0p4}0490OO#OQO4>QO4>OOQOO^40OQQQOOO0OOCkOQOO O O O O 202-214 Report on Ethiopia Sawmills and Timbers <,*<,000*00► O O O O O 202 Forest Resources doooo4oooaaooffooAoooo4doaooo«odo«lOOOOO 202 Operations oooooooooooaaa^po t C 9 O O O 203 Mill Equipment and Practices *0*0000000*0000000000► 0 O O O O 203-205 Sawmi11s oeooooooooooooooooo ► O 0 O O O 205-209 Bsdjiro 9000^00000 09600 t 0 0 0 0 e 205 Mecha Ot>OODQpAO6O0O«a OO 1 0 0 0 0 0 206 Wochacha o^oo«oooqoodoq 1 a 0 0 0 0 207-207 Shashamana *00000000000 ► 0 0 0 0 0 208 Gugu Mountains oooooooooooooooo >00000 208 Asba Taf an OOOOOODOOQOOOOOOOOOpOOOOOOOO 20S Meta Hara ooooooo 1 0 0 0 0 0 209 Northern Ethiopia 00000000*000000 000000000000>0 0 0 0 0 209 Species 209-213 » O O O O O 209 i n u m » 0 <> 210 >000000 210 Sombo, Loel, Ekbergis Rupeliana '•«•»•••< 210 Jalalaca, Wandebiu, Apodytes Acutifolia 211 J IX Page ACBCicl Spo oooQ0o#oooooo«o*a©o0©o*oeooo o ct oaoooooooooop 211 Woira, Eghersa, ©lea Chrysophylla e»»a«a»oi>o«c,Qoo«o»4o 211 K^out £ Motel KpniQ 0O0AoAO0OD»OOOdaOODQOOO«O9OOOOOQtfOO4d 211 Y a J 3 ofloc>QOoooooDoooo&4OOe»oooPODooaoeoaoooooOoooooO0« 212 CcltOn ^ ClISSOHlQ eooOdO MX 0 sga »p«oft6oooo«oo0oooaoaefioo9^ofioooaoooooooo»ooood0 212 Badessa, Syzygium Guineence 212 Kulkwal, Euphorbia Candelabra o«*»0 »o»«»««»ooo4««« 212 Trnaportation oDD«oopooa«o9flogDoooi>ooo0OBeoooooDooooeA 213-214 Stock S OO<»OOOO0i5OOOOOOOaO*OOO*»OO&O<>OO*OOt>aOOOOOO0OOOOO 214 Report No. 1 = (1944) I. GENERAL TOPOGRAFIJY Ethiopia is an extremely mountainous country lying between Latitudes 4 and 15 North and Longitudes 35 and 47 East. Almost the whole area is occupied by high volcanic peaks, ranges and plateaus, Some of these, as in the Semien range north of Lake Tana, roach as elevation of over 15,000 feet, and there are many peaks in the south and southeast which exceed 13,000 feet. The itfhole structure more resembles a mr.ss of jumbled peaks or a dissected dome than it docs an orderly chain of mountains, The main mass is of basalt contai ning layers of sandstone and limestone near its upper levels, and rests on a foundation of very old metamorphic rock. This mountain mass is split from southwest to northeast by the eastern branch of the Rift Valley, which starts in Ethiopia at Lake Rudolf and ends in the Danakil depression on the western shore of the Red Sea. Elevations vary in the depression or rift from 1,230 feet at the level of Lake Rudolf to nearly 6,000 feet at the Awash Watershed and down ag?,in to 350 feet below sea level in the Danakil, depression. Volcanic acitivity is apparent all along the Rift through the presence of hot springs and fismaroles and during the past 25 or 30 years there have been violent eruptions at both its ends, II. DRANAGE BASINS The southeastern part of the country drains to the Indian Ocean through the r'.rebi Schebeli and Juba Rivers; the southern, central and eastern sections drain into the Rift Valley depressions through the Cmo, Awash, and other smaller rivers; the southwestern part drains to the */hite Nile through the 3aro-Akobo system; and the northwest and northcentral part. .,/2 2. is drained by the H u e Nile and the /tbara. Tost of the rivers run through more or less steep and recent valleys, excepting the .-hite Nile tributaries which flow over an old lake bed near the 3udan border* The 3aro is'the only navigable river in Ethiopia and that for only about 200 kilometers into the country* The largest lake is Tana, at the headwaters of the Blue Nile, and there are eight large lakes in the southern Rift Valley as well as several in the Danakil depression. Nearly all of these are somewhat salty* There are many small* moun tain lakes -of little importance scattered over the country. None of the lakes are of sufficient size or proper location to be of value as waterways* III. CLIMATE AND RAINFALL Temperatures range from a reported 135 F* in the Danakil depression to far below freezing on the higher peaks, where frost and snow are an annual occurrence. Disregarding the extreme elevation differences to be found within each small area, and considering conditions existing between 6,000 and 8,500 feet elevation as representing the mean of the country, the climate can be termed truly temperate. The warmest part of the year is during the dry season, from September to April, when temperatures may go over 90F. During this season there is a short cold period in December and January which is more noticeable on charts than otherwise. The cool period occurs during the wet season, from April to October, when temperatures seldom rise above 85 F. and go down to as low as 40 or 45 F. at night. ihe seasonal distribution of the rainfall is very marked and during the dry season many stations have shown no trace of rain for three months at a time. The vet season is usually . ./3 divided into two parts, "the little pains” from April to June 15th, and nthe big rains” from June 15th to October 1st or *5th. During the "little rains'* light precipitation occurs every day or every alternate day and during the "big rains" heavy precipitation occurs nearly every day* In the south west the rainy season is of longer duration and, in fact, al most continuous. In the southeast it occurs much later than in other parts of the country. There are three centers of heavy precipitation in Ethiopi where the amount of rainfall reaches from 50 to 80 inches per year. They are: the Gojjam highlands in the 31ue Nile Bend; the southwestern highlands between Orore and Jimma; and the Arussi-Chercher plateau or ridgo southeast of the Rift Valley* From these centers precipitation grades down by degrees toward the outer edges of the country until in the Danakil depression and in the extreme south and southeast there is less than ten inches per year. Records are irregular and inadequate but it is probable that a very large percentage of the country has from 25 to 40 inches of rainfall annually* IV. SENEGAL VEGETATION The vegetation of Ethiopia can be divided most conveniently into four main types, each of which may be divided into as many formations as the needs of a particu lar study demand. These types are The affinities of the tree species in the high or closed forests of Ethiopia, (1 ) and (2 ); are directed mainly south, and they form the northern extremity of the East African flora* Types (3) and (4) extend both south and west, as this desert or semi-desert flora is of a wider general distribution and more adaptable to a variety of condition than the former. The strongest relationships are still with East Africa, and even such widespread central African genera, common a few hundred kilometers away in the Sudan, as Chloro- phora, Spathodea, Khaya and Fagaropsis are completely missing. It is peculiar that the extreme southwestern forests, where one would expect t" find an incursion of tropical central African species, are almost purely east African in their composition, while the forests to the north, from Gambela to Lekemti, show decided relationships with the western Sudan, The Imatong and Didinga Mountains in the southeastern corner of the Sudan, possess on their highlands a pure east African flora. They are not far removed in distance but are comple tely isolated climatically fror* the Ethiopia highlands by the ancient bed of the I’iletic Lake, It is upon this lake bed in the Sudan where one finds many of the central African elements. It may possibly to assumed that they have not yet had time to invade the corresponding area in Ethiopia, while the Gambela-Lekemtiarea was in a position to receive western elements before they included the four genera mentioned above. The i ixed-Coni.f erous forest is a climax type where unal tered by fires or human agencies, an' whether the coniferous element is Juniperus or Fodocarpus, is dependent upon elevation. The existence of the type is also dependent upon elevation (not latitude) and the accompanying climatic conditions. The Broad — leaved -.orests of the southwesty while having the rainfall necessary for the development of a high forest, have a mean anrsuaj. temperature so high as to exclude the coniferous species, • . ./5 This is probably the case with the gallery forests along the rivers at lower elevation, where the available water cones from the ground and not the sky. The Coniferous and i'ixoc: ~'o rests This type includes the whole ;vf the commercial forest of the country and all the closed or hig.:-fcrests except those of the southwest. Their character is quite inconstant and it is rare that two areas of like composition can be found. They are usually mountain or slope forests and have certain traits of composition in common Podocarpus graci lior is the dominant conifer at low elevations and in sheltered valleys, while Juniperus procera is found on ridges and at the higher elevations. These two conifers are the only ones found in the country. They may be, but rarely are, present in pure stands, as Podocarpus in Malghe Forest south of Alghe, and Juniperus on Cara Managasha near Addis Ababa* Both of these incidents are probably the result of artificial conditions. As a rule these forests contain a great variety of hardv/ood species, few of which are of much commercial value. The greater variety occurs with Podocarpus and includes Skebergia, Celtis, Pouteria, Pyrreum, Allophyius, ochofflera, Anorivtes. and Plea L-->chestetterii . Juniperus has as associates Hagenia, Plea chr.ysoohylla, 2hus, ilex, Allophylus, 3ersama, and Schefflera. It is a peculiarity of Junirerus that it occurs far out of its normal climatic habitat on metamorphosed schistz, as just north of Moyale and Mega where almost desert conditions prevail. This genus normally occurs on thin ridge- soils and at cold and high elevations. It does not regenerate in clc&ed or even open—floored forests, but comes up well in brush and grassland on ridges and steep slopes. Podocarpus, on the other land, posseeses high tolerance and regenerates only in shade. It is not uncommon to see it colonizing Juni perus 6, stands under conditions which will never allow it to reach maturity. The hardwood species included in this type are of secon- darycommercial importance because of tiieir infrequency, poor form, and the character of their wood. The most important are Pygeum, Celtis, Ekebergia and Apodytes in the order named, but the region of their optimum development is in the south west, far away from commercial centers* At the highest elevations this type breaks down to Erica brush lands in the dryer regions and to nearly pure bamboo forest of Arundinaria alpina where the rainfall is very high* These two probably represent distinct types. The bamboo areas are very extensive and may someday be of value as a source of cellulose for paper or other manufacture, but today they are only used by the few natives living in the area for the constru ction of houses and fences. The Broad-leaved forests These may only be a subdivision of the former type, as they differ chiefly in the lack of coniferous species. This type or subtype covers a large are« in the west and southwest but its location robs it of commercial value. It contains a few central African genera and is a transition stage between the central and east African floras. The hardwoods reach a far higher development here than they do at the higher elevations, and were these forests accessible they would be of great value. Common genera are Cordia, Croton, Zlceberpia t Mitragyna, Albizsia, Pouteria, Pygeum, Apodytes, Gyzgiua. Ilex, Sapium, Milietia and Eryt.hrina, Interesting stages in the development of the local climax formation may be observed here, as great areas which were cultivated under the old Kaffa Kingdom have reverted to brush and forest during the last 100 to 400 years. . The High-grass Savannah This type occupies a large proportion of the country, but surveys of great detail are necessary before the actual area can be estimated,, As a very rough guess I will place the figure at 50% of the total area of the country. This type is not contrrlled entirely by either rainfall or eleve- tion, but generally occurs below the high forest and extends downward in elevation where rainfall is spread over a relati vely long period in each year. Thus, in the southwest it reaches to the floor of the Nile basin, while in the Chercher it occupies only a narrow strip around the high forest, as here an equal amount of rainfall is limited to a shorter period* The species found in this type are very numerous and they are, for the most part, of wider continental distribu tion than those of the high forest, but the main axis is still directed southward toward the center of the east African flora* The genera include Acacia, Vitex, Lannea, Fremna^ Gardenia. Terminalia. Combretum, Schrebera, Protea, Cussoniat Euphorbia, Grewia, Ehretia, Zisyphus, Heeria» Stererspermum, Hymnodictyon, Hauwolfia, Dodonea, Gymnosporia, and many others; All are resistant to the annual grass fires and many are deciduous* The only species of commercial importance are the large Acacias when they are located, near the railroad* Oxytananthera is found in the extreme southwest and is of great value to the local inhabitants* The extremes of this type are the almost treeless grasssavannahs of the Akibo-Baro region and the dense gallery forests along some of the rivers. This gallery forest probably shoud be~considered as a separate type because it contains peculiar to itself, but it is quite limited in area and no studies have been made on which to base a report* Along with many Acacias it cont-ains Sapiun, ■diospyros, Coltis, ChrysophyHum, Teclea, Creobambua and others. > * Desert Savannah or Acacia Savannah Thits is the second largest type in the country and occurs at the lowest altitudes and where there is little precipitations, occupying about 40% of the area of the country. It usually, but not necessarily, grades from the '-’igh-grass Savannah and ranges from a fairly dense stand of tree-formed Acacias through brush to open desert. In contrast to the previous type, where the grasses are perennial and may reach 15 feet in height, those here are annual and rarely reach four feet, • and this type is not sc often burned as the previous, since the grasses more readily break up when dry. Its component genera are Acacia, Capnaris, 3auhinia, Grewia, vizyphus, lalaenites and Euphorbia. Its chief commercial importance lies in the fact that it furnishes a large part of the pasturage of the country. Affinities in this type are the most widespread of any and it is probable that temperatures rather than available moisture control the type distribution*. V* T *S F 0 T S 3 T S Almost all the high forests of the country are located in its southwestern quadrant, between 5 and 10 Dog, N, Latitude and 33 and 40 Deg. 3* Longitude. There is a strin running east along the Chercher range and a small area in the Somien Mountains outside these limits* They may be roughly divided into five geographical rerioncj each of which possesses certain floristic differences from the others. These are: I. The Chercher-Arussi Forests, located in the east- central mountains and extending from "larrar to the Rift Valley 9 drainage system and south tc the V'ebi Schebeli iver. II* The Siddamo Forests, located east of the Rift Valley and lying along the headwaters of the Jebi Schebeli, the Canale Doria and the Dawa Parma P.ivcrs* III* The Central Juniper Forests, north of Addis Ababa and west nearly as far as Lekemti, mostly in the upper Awash and 31ue Nile drainage systems. IV. The i/allega Forests, west of Lekemti and north cf the 3aro lUver. V. The Southwestern Forests, south of the 3aro and west of the Cmo divers. Region I The Chercher-Arussi Forests contain the most valuable timber stands of the country, since they are situated along the railway at distance of only 35 to 1P.5 kilometers and the region is well supplied with roads. There are four main sections and they will be described from east to west* The Challenko section extends from Gara KuXlata to !)eder and is made up of small areas of high forests of good conifer density. The most important is that at Challenko where a small sawmill is now operating. The stand is composed of Podocarpus and Juniperus,the former more common; with very few hardwoods of merchantable form. The sawmill cuts only Podocfirnus as it is most easily marketable* The forest area in this section is 107 sq. km. The Gara Tita section is just west of Deder and contains fine Podocarpus forest near *3icta, as v/ell as excellent pure stands of Juniperus higher up on Gara Tita. There are plans for the construction of a sawmill in the section, and since . */10 10. there is a road direct to the railway 33 kilometers away it should be successful. There are no usable hardwoods in the section and the area is estimated at 1?,0 sq. km. The Asba Tafari section is in the center of the Chercher Range and from 35 to 70 kilometers south of the Miesso railway station* The forests are located on i:/o mountains, Caras Saballe and Muctar, and are quite extensive. Podocarpus is the dominant commercial species but there is some good Juniperus on Gara Saballe. Celtis and Pygeum are present in fair quantity but the most important hardwood ie Euphorbia, which occurs in extensive stands and is of fine form. A single small sawmill operates here now, as compared to four in the section during Italian times. Great damage is being done to this forest by cultivation clearings. The total present area is 195 sq. km. The Gugu section is in the extreme west of the region on the height of land between the Vebi Schebeli and the Rift Valley-Awash drainage systems, and nost of the forest lies 125 kilometers and more south of the railroad on a road now out of repair. This stand probably contains the largest Juniperus stands of the country in addition to large quanti ties of Fodocarpus along its lower edges. Few hardwoods are present and there are no sawmills in the section. Fires are a danger here, and one which burned in March 1945 could be seen from more than 150 kilometers away. The section has great potential value as an area of commercial operation. The total forest area is conservatively estimated to exceed 800 sq. km. The total forest are of the region is computed at 1,220 sq. km. containing valuable Podocarpus, Juniperus and Euphorbia, all accessible to the railway and comprising the most commercially useful forests of the country. . . ./ll 11.? Region II The Siddamo forests are extensive and contain large stands of timber, but except for two small sections they are too remote from rail transport to be of commercial value. The Arussi section contains two small forests on Gara Chillalo and Gara Calama, both overlooking Lake Zwai , at about 100 kilometers distance south of Adama railway station. Podocarpus is the only well developed species and the forests are in strips along the upper slopes of the mountains. A small sawmill was established this year on Gara Chillalo near Aselie. The total area of high forest in this section is about 100 sq. km. The 3alo Forest is located in the mountain range south of the l/abi Schebeli and is very extensive, being 120 kilome ters in length from west of Dodola to Goba. The lower sections of the forest are contained in steep valleys and is composed of Podocarpus mixed with a great variety of hardwood species. Higher up on the slopes the main stand is nearly pure Junioerus and above that, at around 1C,500 feet elevation there are excellent Hagenia. The Juniperus has been damaged by the annual grazing fires* as this is a pastoral region, but there is an enormous quantity of fine timber left in the section. The Italians had established the largest sawmill in the country here, but its distance of 350 kilometers from the railroad prevents it from being commercially usable. The area of this forest is estimated as being at least 1000. sq. km. The Abaro Forest lies between Garas Duro and Abaro just east of Lake Awasa and consists of nearly pure Podocarpus with some CeltisT ^y^eum and Apodytes. The terrain is nearly flat and the for ct density is high, these charactcrs combi ning to make it a commercially valuable forest, even through it is 180 kilometers from the railv/ay station at Mojjo. The ../12 12. best operated an^ equipped sawmill in the country is working here now. The total forest area is estimated at 350 sq. km. The Sidamo forest includes the areas of Damo, Jem Jem, and >’agada lying between the Cansale 3cria and the Rift Valley at Lake f'argherita# This area forme a rough triangle whose point is just south of Lake awasa and whose base lies along a line between Neghelli and Alghe. This enormous triangle was once entire iy forested, but has been seriously out u d and degraded by fires and cultivation cleirings. The main forest species is Podocarpus and south of Alghe it occurs in nearly pure formation, while Juni perus is present only in iso lated patches of small extent. In the lower elevation sections there are large areas of hardwood forests containing good Celtis, Apodyt.es, Pygeum, Ekerbergia and Pouteria. There are no commercial prospects for this area at present, even though it may contain over half the total stand of Podocarpus in the country and much exceptionally fine hardwood, because of the great distance from any shipping point* The total forested area is about 14,000 souate kilometers, but clearings and fires have reduced the usable timber stands to an area of nearer 5000 sq. km. The Neghelli Forest lies along the Canale Doria-Qawa Parma ridge both north and south of Neghelli and is treated separately from the above because it is a pure Juniperus formation. Stands are heavy and the quality of the timber is very $ood. The Italians had a sawmill here to supply local needs, but the need and the mill disappeared together with the founders. The area of the forest is about 60 sq. km. The total area of high forest in the Sidamo region is calculated as 6510 so. km., of which :?ut 450 sq. km. are at present commercially usable. This region contains the country's . ./ 13 most valuable second reserve, as the forests lie just outside the present hauling range and contain very valuable species. 9 legion III The Central juniner Forests are ^thiopiA’s oldest commercial stands, both as a result of the accident of the location of Addis iibaba and because the natives had long had a preference for Juniperus because it could easily be split into house staves. These nearly pure Juniperus forests are all located fairly close to Addis Ababa and extend both west and north of the city, and one of the reasons for locating the capital in its present position was the abundance of this species in the region. Managasha Forest is situated on the upper slopes of the mountain of the same name just south rf the city. -.s a result of the continued cutting of hardwoods for fuel and charcoal burning, this forest is composed c£ nearly pure Juni perus. The stand is heavy and all the treoc are mature or overmature, with no reproduction beneath. There is one poorly maintained sawmill operating in this forest new and nearby is the site of the first sawmill in the country. Part of this forest has been reserved as a par^ and will not be cut. The total area is 30 sq. km, of which 10 sq. km. has been cut over. The forests .of Jem Jem, Ghirfita, Gajji and Chillimo are located west of Addis Ababa an:', north of the Lekemti road between the 60 and 100 kilometer posts. They contain nearly pure Ju^i perus with a few Podocarpus, Pyg c urn and "'agon i a. These forests are nearly cut out as they have been operated conti nuously for ovpr 30 years. There are four sawmills operating in the area and the forest covers about 15 sq. km.,[of which about 60% has been cut over. Mecha Coricha Forest is situated 3b' kilometers north of Addis Alem on the Le’-.emti road, and contains one of the best Juni perus stands of the region. It is nearly pure Juniperus 19. Pygeum africanum Tukur Inchet, Cmo, Omi , I-'oka * Dima, Sucche. This species is one of the most valuable hardwoods of the country on account of its distribution, form and timber qualities. It is cylindrical-boled, fairly straight, is up to 30 meters in height and ,75 cm in diameter,, The wood is dark red, very hard, and somewhat difficult to season and work. It is useful for all purpose requiring a timber of great strength and hardness# The weight is about 1.0 tens per cubic meter wet and ,85 dry. It is found in all the forests of the country but reaches its best development in the west and southweste Ekebergia ruppeliana Gombo, Loel A tall and massive forest tree with a columnar truck and small irregular buttresses at the base, attaining 40 meters in height and 2 meters in diamter* The wood is pinkish, hard and fine grained.not durable where exposed to moisture, easy to saw but difficult to season. It is useful for carriage work and furniture but must be protected from dampness. It is widely distributed but attains greatest size in the western and southwestern forests, Apodytes acutifolia Jalalaca, Uandebiu, Odda Badda. This is a large wot-forest species with a straight and massive trunk and carries irregular buttresses. In good forests they may exceed 40 meters in height and 2-1/2 meters in diameter. The wood is without uelX developed grain, medium hard, gray-brown in color, and easily sawn, seasoned and worked. It is not resistant to rot, but is excellent for furniture and interior finish. It is found in large quantity in the south and southwest, 20 21. of a wide variety of u s g s , E-tphorbia calycina Ku 1 kwaI A candelabra shaped tree with quadrangular, green, and generally leafless branches found in the south and west either in wet forest or dry savannah. The trunk is straight and reaches a height of 33 meters and a diameter of 1 meter. The wood is white, soft, light, very flexible and subject to blue stain and decay. It is not used now but would probably make good match stock, plywood component or fruit boxes. It has been used in the past for foundry patternas* Olea chrysoph.ylla V/oira , Eghersa A medium sized tree of the central and southern zone with a very hard, heavy, light forown wood. Cn account of its extreme hardness it is difficult to caw and finish. It is very oily and resistant to decay and ma'ies beautiful floors and table tops but is too heavy for general cabinet work. Olea hochstetterii Damot 'oira, Cigheda A tall and medium sized tree found in all the warm damp forests. The wood is dark brown, hard and heavy, but not as extreme as that of the preceding species. It saws seasons well and furnishes a fine cabinet wood* Acacia spp. A large number of species of Acacia are found in the dryer parts of Ethiopia. The wood is very hard, heavy, coarse, white or red in color and usually subject to borer and termite attacks. The only use to which they are put at present is as fuel for the railway and in charcoal making* The red species can oe used for railway sleepers or railway truck timbers. 22 22 . Diospyros nespiliformia Sbony Fairly large specimens can be found along the streams of the*south and southwest, Cnly a few of the older trees have the black heartwood of commerce but it is possible that a considerable quantity could be collected for export, Dalbergia melanoxylon False ebony This is a much branched savannah tree of the extreme west. The wood is very heavy and hard, blackish brown, and in demand among oriental people for carving and furniture making. It might be exported to or via the Sudan, Mitragyna stipulosa This is a very large and tall tree found in the wet forests of the west and southwest* The wood is fine grained, yellowish-white, soft and light. It seasons well but is subject to blue stain and is quite perishable when in contact with moisture. It could be used ac a construction timber and as boarding to take the place of the conifers which are absent from this region, Albizzia schimperiana Ambabecsa A tall, medium sized tree of good form in the west and southwest where it sometimes occurs in pure stands of great density. The wood is of medium weight and hardness, light brown and has well defined pore structure. It is fairly durable and is often hewn into boards and timbers for house construction. Its lightness and beauty make it usable as a furniture wood and it could be used locally for all construction purposes. The Sawmills before the Italian occupation Ethiopia did not have an export trade in timber and consequently the sawmills were few and limited to the vicinity of Addis Ababa, or were operated , , r 23 by the Missions in the west. They concentrated on Juni perus as it is the most common tree in the region of the city and is easy to season and handle* The first sawmill was established about 1900 on the slope of Gara Managasha and another uas put into operation about 1906 at Jem-Jem, 60 kilometers west of Addis Ababa. In the 1930's other mills were established in the same general region at Cfajji. ,rhen the Italians had become established in the country in 1935 they brought many sawmills and set up a widespread system designed to supply the developmental and industrial needs of the country. F'uch of the equipment they brought was built for use on small European estates and could neither handle large logs n^r saw very large quantities. In many cases they were unable to saw good quality timber from the local logs. The usual log saws were single out horizontals, light verticals, or the frame saw. The horizontals take from 6 to 30 minutes to make a cut through a four meter log and there is no possibility of selecting quality from a log cut on a frame saw. Since the Juniperus and Podocarpus logs often have bark convolutions reaching to I'alf their diameter this is an important consideration. A few of the more capable entrepreneurs imported Brenta band saws, which are high speed and extremely accurate machines, capable of the economic production of high quality lumber from large logs. During the reconquest of the country in 1941 several mills were destroyed or so badly damaged that they have not been repaired. Among these were two near Asba Tafari in Chercher, one at Gajji, one at Mai Ceu, cne near Dilla, and the two at Chidami and Dembidollo in vallega, Latigation has closed, up to the present time, the large sawmill at fleeha Coricha, west of Addis Ababa, ’rhen the Italian development program went out of existence the mill at A 'v'ith the return to conditions of internal peace there was an effort to turn as many as possible of these sawmills to the production of timber for the active export market, because this effort was based on the idea of '’skimming the cream" without proper capital investment, administration or technical direction, it has resulted in an almost complete failure. Almost all the sawmills which opened three years ago are now either closed down, producing unexportable timber, or operating for unexacting local needs. The majority are in a state of disrepair which is difficult to describe and the ordering of repair parts and supplies was only recently accomplished after month of pleading with the officials and businessmen concerned. rith but a single exception, the present industry has not been based upon carefully worked-out investment and management principles and the inevitable result of such practice is apparent today# The majority of the mills were located and laid out by men with little kncwledge of lumbering or engineering practice. Few have even a log deck, and it is necessary in most of them to roll logs over the carriage rails of one saw to supply another Elaborate equipment was installed and later allowed to lie or go to pieces because of the lack of trained men to use it. An example of such planning can be seen at the Mai Ceu mill; where a T3renta log-saw of 16 cubic meters daily capacity was installed beside the road over 1000 meters in elevation above a small Juni perus forest. A cableway 3 kilometers long was erected to bring the logs up to the mill; but the cableway could not handle over 6 cu. m. per day at an expenditure of more power than was required 25, to operate the rest of the mill at full capacity. The largest sawmill in the country, with a capacity of about 60 cu. m. in 24 hours, was established at a distance of 8 kilometers from a forest which could net have supplied it with logs for a full year's operation* L railway toward this forest had been partially completed. These two items are but typical examples of the planning that went into the establishment of sawmills here. They are no more stupid than the attempts at operation which followed the reconquest and have resulted in the destruction of most of the equipment which the Italians left in the country. There are now but two capable sawyers in Ethiopia, and the majority of the mills are run by men who relegate to unskilled labor work which should be done by highly skilled men. Labor-saving devises are so lacking as to result in gross loss of labor time, sticks are used in place of cant-dogs, and about eight men are required to do the work which one does in America. Logs are put to the caw as they fell on the carriage when proper selection of facs would sometimes double the saleable product. In 1945 there were 1?, sawmills in operation in the country, located as follows: Chercher Challenko Forest is the location of a small and poor iy equipped sawmill with a capacity of about 6 cu. m, in ten hours. It has two horizontal saws and cuts Podocarpus only. '.rithin a year it will be necessary to move the mill to a new location, as the present area is cut out. Cunni, .just above Asba Tafari, is a worn out mill using a frame and horizontal saw capable of turning out 6 cu. m, per day. On account of its mechanical condition and the fact that its close by timber is cut out it will seen cease operation. Sidawo Chilolo sawmill, near Asella, has been established this year and can saw from 5 to 6 cu, m. per day. It saws only Ppdocarpus and there is reason to believe that it will be operated efficiently# Shashamanne sawmill is equipped with a Brenta band saw and well operated by expert sawyer* It has a capacity of 15 cu. m. per day of high quality ?odocarp Adola has a small sawmill of 5 cu# m* per day capacity furnishing mining supplies an:7, timber for a woodworking shop operated with it. It is the property of the Government# Central Juniper Forests Managaaha sawmill is owned by the Government and is in the process of reorganization. It is equipped with two horizon tals and a frame saw capable of turning cut 10 cu. m. of Juni- perus per day. A woodworking shop is to be erocted in connect ion with it. Jem-Jem sawmill, formerly operating a single waterpowered vertical saw, has recently installed a Drenta of 15 cu.m. per day capacity. Its Juni perus stands are not sufficient for a year’s capacity operation. Gajji sawmill operates intermittently on Juniperus with a single frame saw. Its capacity is about 5 cu.m, per day and the area is nearly cut out here also. Chillimo sawmill has a frame and horicental saw with a capacity of about 10 cu. m, per day. It saws Juniperus but is not in good mechanical conditions. There is sufficient timber here for five year’s operation. ,,/87 2?. Badjiro Forest has two sawmills, equipped with frame, horizontal, vertical, and small band log saws with a total capacity of 20 cu. m. per day* This sawmill cuts Juni perus, mainly,is well operated, and has a very large reserve of fine timber. Southwestern Forest 3elleta sawmill is the single mill operating in the region. This was formely a largo double mill and woodworking shop, but now operates a single band saw part of the time and can produce about 4 cu. ni* per day* It is cutting hard woods for road construction work in the area* Production and Marketing The present total production of timber is not over 350 cu. m. per month and Juni perus and Podocarpus are the only species being sawn. The mechanical capacity of the mills in operation now is about 100 cu. m. per day and the five good sawmills not now in operation could increase the total to about 200 cu. m. per day. The reasons for this low production is primarily a lack of supplies and skilled workers, but contributing causes are the inability to secure regular railway and ship transport ation for the timber and the lack of officient commercial contacts with the Egyptian and Arabian markets* There are only one or two capable sawyers in the country and conse quently the quality of the product has beer. low. Due to extensive bark convolutions it is rare that a Juniperus board is without more or less fault, and Podocarpus requires very careful seasoning to prevent blue stain* Uneven sawing is the rule, and poor handling when loading on shipboard at Djibouti completes the process of delivering a very low grade article to the consumer* 28* Th£ total exports during 1944 did not exceed 2000 cubic meters, all being delivered somov/here in Red Sea ports. The producer generally receives about Sh. E.A. 240 per cu, m, at the railway, and of this amount he has naid from Sh, 80 to l Sh. 120 for truck transport from the sav/mill except in some very favored places such as the Chercher region. The cost of shipping from Addis Ababa to Jibuti is Sh, 40 and sea freight charges from Jibuti to Suez are about Sh, 120, resulting in a total cost in Egypt of .no less than Sh, 400 or £ E, 20,000 per cubic meter. It is only the abnormal conditions caused by the war which enables timber of the present quality to be sold at this price. As soon as shirring facilities and eco nomic conditions have returned to normal after the war Ethiopia's exports of timber, except for specialty products, will proba bly cease. In 1938 Roumanian timber v/as be-in^ landed at Port Sudan for £ E, 3,500 per cu, m. The transport and handling charges alone from the nearest forest to Jibuti are £ E, 3,000 per cu, m. on board ship, and they can not be expected to be very much lower. If this country r./ishcs to take advantage of a market which can not last much longer than 3 or 4 years more, some of the more modern sawmills should be erected in the Chercher region and they should concentrate on the production of well sawn timber, Podocarpus. To do this it is necessary that capable sawyers be brought fror. outside the country. Podocarpus is a fine timber if properly manufactured, and if a good quality were put on the market, it might be able to compete for some time against low-priced European timber, Juniperus is not a good constuctions timber and should not be exported as much, but only on special order for cabinet and sash uses or as pencil slats. Aenya with an equal transport disadvantage, has had a profitable business in pencil slate for several years* Podocarpus is a resinless conifer of exce llent texture and since it does not transmit odors or taste ../29 > 29. *is ideal for food or fat containers* It is also an excellent match stock. There are several hardwoods which coul$b® used as spindles, etc., but there are none of the more valuable cabinet woods such as are exported from the forests of T.'est and Central Africa* o Lorging Methods The work in the forest is dene almost entirely by hand and mechanical deviccs are rarely coen. The axes used are shaped like a small mattock with the blade parallel to the handle and four inches wide with a six inch shank containing a round handle hole. Crosscut ue«ally have "V" teeth without set and are crudely filed, The trees are usually cut with the axe alone, but sometimes saws are used. They are most often felled down hill with the result that breakage is very common. The lors are then crosscut to a length of 1 to 2-$ ipeters and left in the forest nc matter how sound it may be. In order to reduce the lo 7s to a size convenient to handle and to facilitate rolling they are frequently hewn down, sometimes losing half their volume in this manner. This does not worry the sawmill operator, as lie has contracted for a certain quantity of logs delivered to the mill and pays royalty to the government on the basis of the quantity of timber sawn, The logs are then rolled i*ith sticks to the hauling road or in rare cases to a Decauville railway, or directly to the sawmill. The two most efficient mills use oxen to haul the logs on 2 or 4 wheels and two mills use Docauville railways up to 3 kilometers long. I have seen one dry sluice^ Due to lack of supervision and labour saving devices the work in the forest is extremely wasteful and costly# At one sawmill 120 men were required to effect the delivery of 6 cu, m# of lo^rs per day to the sawmill and the distance was less than five kilo meters. Labour is paid from Sh. 1.00 to 1.50 per day, but most of the work in the forest is done on contract by a local chief **/30 30. and it is difficult to know what theworlters got in this case. Conservation The Ethiopian peasant’s attitude to a forest or a tree is either that it interferes with cultivation or is a source of fuel. This attitude, coupled v/ith the vague definitions of forest ownership and the lack of a restraining authority, is resulting in the destruction of one of the Empire’s most valuable natural resources. The system of cultivation in uee here is a derivation from the shifting cultivation system, still practiced in less thickly settled parts of Africa, but lands are used for a longer period, or even permanently* New lands are usually taken up to escape misfortune, increase an individual's holdings, or to create farms for the younger generation* Forest land is always chosen whore it is available,, even though cleared lands of "better torography may be close at hand, becuase of the higher fertility during the first few years,. In some areas of the Chercher region as much as 20% of the commercial forest has been destroyed within the last five years, and the destruction is still going on uncheked. A common result of this clearing is cultivation on slopes of up to 50% which will be eroded to an unusable condition within a few years and then allowed to revert to brush or grassland. There is no economic merit in allowing the clearing of forest for agricultural purposes in this country, as its rigid prevention would force the peasants to make better use of the lands already cleared* Except in the pure Juniperus forests, there is little permanent damage done to the forests by commercial operations, &e they take neither the large nor small trees and effect the composition of the stands very little. These operations are almost invariably followed, however, by intensive grazing and clearing for cultivation, this having been %«/31 31. made easier through opening of the forest during operations. The result is a degraded or completely destroyed forest, capable of receiving a fire which could not have entered it in its natural state, and one which is oil its way out. Agricultural clearing is the most serious menace to the high forest and after there that comes the grazing fires. One of the country's great forests, in 3alo, has been so often and completely burned that it is now of very little commercial value. That this is a fairly recent practice is shown by the existence of scattered giant Junipers which could only have developed in an undisturbed forest formation. It will be several hundred years after protective measures have been adopted that their place will be taken by others of like quality, as ring counts on Juniperus indicate that a tree one meter in diameter may be over 400 years old. Ethiopia high forests are not as a rule subject to forest fires when in their natural state, and nothing like an American forest fire is over- seen here. The damage to the forest as a result of fires is chiefly in the destru ction of the associated undershrubs and the reproduction and grazing has the same effect. The mature trees are unaffected by these factors, but they by themselves do not constitute a forest and without the complete association it can not survive, Fires in the savannah formations are of anuual occurence, but whether or not they are detrimental is open to discussion. The trees are of little or no commercial importance and are very resistant to fire damage. The great value of this type is for grazing purposes and this would be difficult to realize if the old inedible grasses were not removed each year. This annual burning may have a slow cumulative effect which will eventually result in a change or degradation oftype, but since there is no knowledge of how long it has been going on it is ../32 32.* % : difficult to assess tNe effccts. The officials of Ethiopia, but do not seen to, realize that the major value of their forests lies in their stream and water conserving qualities’rather than in their commercial uses and that they should gauge their administrative policies accordingly. There are large areas of the country now almost uninhabited, at least partly*because of the lack of a pere nnial water supply, which were obviously once forested and were deforested by a population which could live there then. Even a brush cover at the headwaters of a stream may be suffi cient to prevent the flash runoff of the very seasonal preci- pation, and of far greater economic v~lue to the country as a whole than the like amount of land under cultivation or in pasture, since each acre here may effect the productivity of hundreds of acres below. _ The people of Ethiopia appear to live on an economy and philosophy of the present, but if they do not soon realize how important their forests are to their economy and well-being, both wi 11 inevitably find themselves in a very unpleasant situation. The present condition of forest ownership is vague and indefinite and therein lies the source of much of the evil. The Government considers that it holds title to or ability to dispose of all forests, even though the land may belong in some cases to a private person,. It thus becomes of inte rest to the private owners to get rid of the trees in order to assume full control and use of forest lands, while the responsibility and interest of the government in their conser vation is limited to areas of immediate commercial posibilities. One answer to this situation is for the government to assume full ownership of all forests by exchange or purchase and since the private forests are not reputed to be of great extent this should not be impossible to do. ../33 33, Soil Erosion In the northern half of the country and in the southern and southeeastern lowlands, soil erosion is of a spectacular and geological nature and probably beyond the control of man. This is an area where the climate an:: periodic nature of the rains are such that a vegetative cover is not naturally main tained the year round. Cn the high plateau poor cropping practices and widespread grass fires have resulted in sheet erosion which has seriously reduced the fertility of the area. The land is cropped and grazed to a point where the cattle approach starvation during the dry season, and it is possible that Shoa at least would benefit if it were to be used exclu sively for the grazing of the proper number of cattle. Spectacular gully erosion is not often seen except on the borders of the arable regions, as near Harrar, Jimma, and Soddu. In many places t’ie cultivators have developed contour cultivation, weed terracing, and good crop rotation systems* In the far south a previous dense civilization had constructed high-walled terraces, now unused, over great areas. The country is in no economic or social ccidition to undertake a soil conservation program of national scope, but much could be done by encouraging the spread of the good practices which already exist in many places, reducing the incidence of grazing on the uplands, and encouraging a diversity of crops in the place of the soil destroying cereals. It is significant that the >lue Mile, originating in the unforested uplands of northern Ethiopia, annually carries millions of tons of soil to Sgypt, while the Sobat, ©r ,rhite Nile, whose watersheds are almost coraj/letely forested, is almost clear when at fullest flood. Ethiopia exports each year via the -31ue Nile an enormous amount of irreplaceble wealth which she is not able to use as a foreign exchange credit* *« /34 Tree Planting Under Menelik II and later quite large areas of Eucaly ptus were planted in the neighborhood of Addis Ababa and other towns. This species thrives under conditions existent at the higher sltitudes and furnishes a good source of fuel wood and house timbers, but is not of much use as sawn timber. It is usually planted far too close for good growth and little care is taken to thin the coppice growth after cutting The Italians planted a few areas, principally near roads, but they also planted the trees one meter apart rfither than the optimum 2-^ meters. It seems possible, from the work they did, that the majority of the I'ilizia Forestale sent to this country were political colonisers. Vhile it is not necessary as a ner.sure to maintain the natural forests of the country, there is a definite place / for tree planting here. There are large regions of the country without a sufficient supply of fuel or house building material, and upon whose watersheds Eucalyptus or other species could be planted to double advantage, Dlack wattle grows like a weed in the uplands and could be used to protect watersheds, furnish fuelTwood, and as a valuable source of exportable tanning extract. In order to undertake this work there is required a positive effort on the part of the National Government, as the people do not have v/ithin themselves the necessary sense of community responsibility to do work which is not of immediate benefit to the individual. Given even rudimentary protection the native forests will reproduce themselves, Podocarpus repodueos in the shade and rerely in the open and, for this reason, it is necessary to exclude grazzing from these forests and preserve the commer cially valueless underwood. Juniperus never reproduces in shade but will come up freely in grass or brush at the edge of the forest or in openings v/ithin it, A Juniper is often naturally clean floored and thus is able to take care of itself if nan will treat it fairly# The wet hardwood forests of the southwest can only be destroyed by sustained effort, but their composition may easily be changed by artificial conditons, and the change is usually for the worse. Administration There is at present no effective organization for the administration of forests in Ethiopia, The control of state lands has been placed under the Ministry of Finance by Imperial edict but the administration of the forests and forest conce ssions is under the Ministry of Agriculture, with the inevitable result that neither does much about them,* Some areas have so-called "forest chiefs" who are supposed to protect the forests frcm encroachment and collect revenue from the users in their area. They collect revenue from the sawmills but they are definitely not interested in preventing cultivators from ruining as much forest as they care to. Proper forest administration in this country may be achieved by giving the control into the hands of a single ministry or by creating an independent office an:' naming them as Crown Lands, I think the latter course would be the most effective. The five regions should each have a trained forester in charge with one of them as chief# Under their direction should be the native district,chiefs, rangers and labourers. Their duties should be first to demarcate the permanent bounds of the forests and to consolidate the government ownership; secondly to regulate commercial and local users and to develop the maximum income possible; and thirdly to plant trees in needed areas for conservation and commercial uses and to develop the , • /36 36* value of the natural forests through, proper management.. This complete plan could possibly be developed at a gross cost for salaries of about '200,000 MT per year at present wage levels* Vith it should go a program of education to enable natives to eventually replace the forefgn personnel necessary at the start. This work of forest protection should not be looked upon as a luxury but as a vital necessity for the insurance of future agricultural prosperity anr1. the forward social development of the nation.' It is not necessary that the full program be developed at once, as any part is better than none. Until an independent organization for the admini stration of the forests is created it is felt that a greater measure of protection than the present could be achieved by giving responsibility to the civil administration of each province, i.e.., to the provincial officials of the Ministry of the Interior. Minor Forest Products The people of Ethiopia derive a very considerable revenue from products of their forests other than timber, in fact, there are tribes and ffeae whose people are almost dependent upon the forest for support. This manner of living is found chiefly in the wet and southwest and among the tribes who suoport themselves, this are the rungas, some of the Shankalla, and the I'asango. Fuel ^ood Based upon observation of practices and considering that a large proportion of the people live in areas of limited fuel supply, an estimate of the’total fuel consumption of the country for domestic uses is 4,000,000 cubic meters annually. This does not include the amount now being used by the railroad. ../37 37*, In areas where it can be founci the choice fuel wood is Olea chrysophylla and in the dry regions the various species of Acacia. The trees are usually cut by the men of the family and then splitered into pieces by the women and carried home on their backs. It is always brought from day to day as needed and is never stored for future use. The chief fuel supply for Addis Ababa and Dessie is obtained from the IZuca- lyptus globulus plantations and there is great need for the establishment of more of these in the vicinity of all the villages on the nearly treeless high plateau. During the war the railway was not able to obtain coal as fuel and Acacia wood was substituted. Results were not very satisfactory but it did enable the road to keep in operation. The larger trees are cut near the right of way and delivered in 30 cm. chunks, and uncontrolled cutting has denuded and permanently damaged large areas. It is not probable that the work will continue './hen shipping of coal is again possible, but these Acacia forests should be reserved and managed as a safeguard against the future recurrence of an emergency of this type. Charcoal The main use of charcoal in Ethiopia is confined to the larger towns and the few places whore native iron ores are smelted. It is more expensive than wood except in a very few places where transport is difficult. Hear Addis Ababa nearly the whole of I-anagasha 7orest has been reduced to pure Juni perus by the uncontrolled cutting of hardwoods for charcoal burning. This use has contributed to the eradication of the forests which formerly covored the elopes north and west of the city. Charcoal is now produced in considerable quantity from Acacia about 100 kilometers southeast of the city and ♦ • / 38 38o brought in by truck. There is a large amount burned in the plains near Dire De.ua for use and in 'larrar. Although none is exported at present, there is a market for large quantities in Cyprus, Egypt and in Arabia. The price offered at present in 2gypt is L. 28.00 per ton and this should permit a very good profit here if the problem of sacks could be solved. Their cost here is about Sh. 2.50 to 3.00 each and 60 are required per ton. It is possible that briquetting would enable t'ie product to be handled unbagged. Beeswax and Honey T'.rhile these two items are for the most part a cultured product, the culture is carried on in the forests almost entirely. About one third of the total marketed may be from wild hives and the percentage is definitely not as great as has been stated in the past. The cylindrical form of hive, made from two hollowed pieces of soft wood, bark, bamboo sheaths, or palm sheaths is hung in a high tree to keep it cut of reach of animals. A very high percentage of the hives are uninha bited and little care is taken of them* The wax is Roid in the markets in the form of bf.l Is containing from 15 to 40% of impurities. The merchants clarify this by melting in large kettles and allowing the impurities to settle cut in a 24 hour period after which it is cooled in the form of large rectangular cakes and boxed for shipment. Ethiopia has been in the past an important source of wax, but shipment are lew now because of the distur bance of internal transport an:1 commerce. Money is not exported but is a large item of domestic trade, being widely used in the mahing of the local wine, Tej, and is almost the only si*/eet used by a large percentage of the population. It is usually sole unstrained in bamboo tubes or in small skins and the present price at Addis Ababa is Sh. 48,00 per farasula of 17 kilos. The price of pure wax is Sh. 46.00 per farasula. . ./SO 39% Rubber The Liana Landolphia owarensis r.nc. perhaps other sriecics, furnish the wild rubber of Ethiopia* It is present in the forests of the west and southwest in large quantities and to a lesser extent in the southern forests east of the Rift Valley. The liana reaches a length of over 70 meters and a diameter of 20 cm. and is found in the wetter broad-leafed forests and along densely wooded streams* The original tapping effort was between 1906 and 1917 when a company operating in '/allega bought from native colle ctors. Exports were reputed to have reached 100 tons per year, but falling prices put an end to the work. In 1943 the British Ministry of Supply installed a semi-military organization of about 12C men and attempted to produce on a large scale, using hired native collecting crews. The organization and coagulating methods were unwiel- dly and after a year and a half of effort only 35 tons had been produced. This project was abandoned in June 1944. The Ethiopian Government then took over the equipment and is now attempting to get production going, using a simpli fied coagulation and administrative system. They are hampered by a lack of competent administrative personnel. The latex is bought from native collectors, \tfho null the lianes cut of the trees and tap at intervals along the main stem, A large liana may produce over a liter of latex, or a pound of rubber. The plant is not killed by this process and sprouts from the base again. The latex is carried to coagulation camps operated by two men, where it is heat coagulated in pans without the use of acids or chemcals, washed, and rolled into thin sheets. Smoking is sometimes used but is not necessary for the production of good rubeer. Landolphia rubber is stated to be equal in quality to plantation sheet, but often carries easily removable impurities. *./40 AC* The possible production in ILthiopia is about 1000 tons per year but the probable production is nearer 100 tons, There is a great deal of labor available and anxious to do the work but competent supervision is lacking. The possi bility of producing rubber at a profit may be expected to last another five years at most, but every effort should be made to continue the work as it is a considerable source of income to the people of remote areas* Corfrriroa Amomum korarima is a plant of the ginger family found in the wet forests of the west and southwest. It is never cultivated but some fo-rests contain very large quantities of the plant. The fruit is red, ellipsoidal about 6 cm long and contains many highly aromatic seeds* The dried fruit is sold in the local markets and exported to the Sudan and Arabia, where it is highly prized as a spice. It affords employment to a considerable number cf people and there is little doubt that a market could be fround for it in Europe and America, as it has great distinction as a flavoring for foods. Gums and Incense Frankincense is a resinous exudate from the bark of Boswellia papyrifera,a small tree found in the northern and eastern parts of Ethiopia. This has been collected in small quantities for export for many centuries and there is a considerable amount used locally* The Acacias which produce gum arabic are present over large parts of the country but little has been done with it commercially. The Italians granted a concession for the collection of incense and gum southeast of Adama tut no information on the quantities collected has been found. ’/ith proper guidance these two 41 41# > products could be worked into a considerable item of export trade. Rotenone Milletia dura is a large or meciiur.i sized Leguminous tree found in all except the drier parts of the country; whose needs contain over 1% of rotenone and other alkalods with insecticidal properties. It is collected for use by the local health authorities in their typhus control work and there may be possibilities for its commercial development There are also local species of Te^hrosia containing a higher percentage of rotenone than Mi lletir- which might be profitel'le as a cultivated crop and at the same time useful in a legume rotation system for maintaining soil fertility. Summary The high forests of Ethiopia cover a total estimated area of 50,500 square kilometers, or about 6% of the total area of the country. Only 3,100 sc[. km. are located in position to be of commercial value unless one counts the future possibilities of the western forests bordering the Sudan. There are two coniferous species in the country, both of value for export trade. These are Juninerus procera and rodocarpus graci lior«. There are none of the more valuable African hardwood species present and it is doubtful that there will ever be appreciable exports of other than the two conifers. Eleven sawmills are now operating in the country v.rith a capacity of about 30,000 cubic meters per year. They operate now at but a fraction of this capacity because of a lack of supplies and capable personnel. The majority are in a poor state of repair and the equipment is absolete. It would be good economy to close all of them except the five modern plants which could produce the same output ts at nresent far more . • / 4 2 *2 e economically. The exports during the past year about 2000 cu. m. despite an almost unlimited and profitable demand in Egypt and Arabia. This was due tc a lack of necessary milling supplies, difficulty in obtaining shipping space, and the exportation of an unacceptable product early in the year. Foreign prices may be expected to stay high enough to make exports possible during the ne xt feu years, but exports shpuld be limited to well prepared ?odocarpus in order to safeguard the market. There is a possibility of a permanent market for Podocarpus as food containers and match stock for Juni perus as pencil slats. There will be no shortage of timber for internal uses if reasonable safeguards to protect the forests are taken. The present danger to the forests does not come from the Lumbermen but from cultivation darings and grazing fires. It is estima ted that 20% of the commercial forests of the Chercher region have been removed through these causes during the last five years, and /grazing fires have destroyed enormous areas of good coniferous reserve forests in the southeast. The forests are at present without effective protection or administration and do not return to the national treasury even a snail percentage of what tb.ey are capable. The estab lishment of a complete forest administration with five trained foresters and full staff could be realised at a cost of about 30,000 per year, but in the interim if effective control is desired it should be given tc the ministry of the Interior as it is the only effective administrative organization with personnel working in the provinces to whom such an assignment might appropriately be given. ’ uch of the value of the forests t the people of the country is derived from the minor forest products such as fuel, charcoal, spices, beeswax and boney, gurcs, etc., and • . / *1 3 fi3». these should and could easily be expanded. The greatest value of the forests is in their water conserving capacities and un less they are retained Ethiopia will hecone a pauper nation, since her entire economy is based upon agriculture. Goil erosion in the north is severe, but due to climatic conditions is beyond the control of man. On the high plateau sheet erosion, as a result of over grazing, poor cropping practices, and grass fires, has seriously reduced the fertility of the region. The country does not have the surplus funds nor is its peasant population sufficiently educated to under take a full soil conservation program, but much could be done by the encouragement and diffusion of the good cultural practice already in existence in some regions. In the thickly settled high plateau areas there is need of tree planting to furnish a suj^ply fuel wood and house splints and this work could be undertaken by the government at little cost. The forests will perpetuate themselves with- c.t tree planting if given reasonable protection against agri cultural clearing, fires and grazing. neither the people nor the government seem to realize the importance of the forests to their economic well-being, and unless progress in this direction is made very soon, irre parable damage will be done. List of Trees g-l^served in Ethiopian Forests. The list of trees and shrubs recorded here is a result of observation in the forests of the southern and central half of the country and no reference is taken from other literature except in a single instance. This list is by no means comp lete, even for the regions studied, as reference works with which to study all the specimens collected have not been available. The most important genus in the country, Acacia is lumped together for this reason the extremely varied flora of the north has not been considered. . ./4# 44* Acacia, spp. There are very many species of Acacia in all the vegetat ive zones but since the literature necessary for their identi fication has been lacking they are no.t considered specifically The wood is hard, red or white,and useful for railway sleepers some construction work, fuel and charcoal, Gums are produced in the bark of some species and one yields a high percentage of tannin * Native Hames of Flants and Trees The following list of native plant, mostly tree, names represents information secured during a year and a half of travel in the Ethiopian forest* It has been difficult to secure accurate lists, as the natives have no great tradition of nature study and will often give inaccurate information in order to please the one who questions them. Names differ within tribes from locality to locality and quite often inter mixtures of people has seriously confused plant nomenclature* In some instances the Italian spelling is given. It will require several of intensive study to get what may pass for a complete list. The following symbols are used: Amhara (A); Aurssi (A3); Xaffa (K); Galla (G); Shankalla (Sh); Sidamo (S); v/o llano (fvr). Acacia spp.Gra (A); Laftu (G), Vyku ('.')* Acanthus arboreus Xosh-shile (A)* Albizzia schimperiana Sassa (/.); Ambatessa (G). Allophylus abyssiniouc Orabua, Selim(A); Seho, Sheho, Druba (G) r-!irkura (G); flirkum (Ar) Antidenma sp Mitanbera (3); Huda (S); (Ar) iipodytes acuti folia Jalalaca (A); ’./andebiu (G); Odaquet (3); Odd a 3adca (Ar); Odaquet (':/). arundmaria aInina Karkahar (A); Lemman (G); Shinato (K); 7aisha (7). . ./45 45#. Dalacnites ae^yptiana ladana (G)f Bersana abyssinica Azamerr (A); Giesa (G); Lolcissa (G); Terewacco (S) Karacha (Ar); Toco (K) Zcrsaoa sp ICarrarancho (3); Sisso (Ar). 3oscia salicifolia Kalkalohia (G); Tambo (v/). 'rachylaena sp ICarkarro ( ) Cassipourea ellicttiana Galis (G); Gima (S); Tehu (Ar). Catha edulis Chat (A); Kat (G). Celtis kraussiana Xaout (A); Neta Koma (G); Shishu (S); Amnia lac ca (Ar). Cir.usona anisata '/ulaia (G). Co re! i a abyssinica Vansa (A); .'odessa (G); Guduba (3); (Ar) Mokota (V/). Combretum ^uienzi i Agalo (A); LUka (G). Croton macrostachys Bcsano (A); 3acanissa (G); Masincho (S), tfeconissa (Ar); Anka (’'/); V/ush ( Sc). Dodonaea visccsa ICutkutal (^); Tadecha (G). Donbeya ,-oetzcnii V/olkafa, Tult (A); Kakanissa, Danisa (G). Dracaena afra-montane Shudu (X), Dracaena steudneri Arag (A); Lanuso (G). IDhretia cytnosa Garni (A); Ulngi (G). 3^eberp;ia rueppeliana Loel (A); Soembo (G); Cnono (S); (Ar) Anka (V/); $ shu (Sc) • Zliebornia sp. Atafaris (A). ■Hrica Arborca Labassc ('/). Srythrina excelsa Korch (A); V/alis, Uoleso (G); 3orto ('./); Dus (Sc). rLuelea. sp. Muresessana ('/). Euphorbia calycina Kulkal (,.); Tladami (G); Akirsa (W). ?icus spp. Ghola (A); Arbu (G); Gromo ( K ) ; Eta (.’0. Galiniera coffeeidos Solie (A); Simarariu (G); Didu (X). Gardenia imperialis Gambela, Gobil (A); Iuodo, Kobo (G). Gymnosporia senegalensis Atat (A); Xcmbolcia (G). Harden i a anthelminti ca Kosso (A); Fie to (G). • ./46 46 # ft I-iibiscus sp. Maicha (A); Kunchc (G); Togo (X). Hypericum spp. Erko (A); Inni (G); Mukaafono ('/). lie:: mitis V/okits (V/). Juniperus procera Tidh (A); Gatira (G); («*/). Landolphia owarensis Gebo (G); Yomo (K). Landolphia florida Dugi (G), Plaesa lanceolata Akalaua (A); Adojie, Abiu (G); Ghago (K) I-.alva sp. Ababa (A). KaniIkara sp. Paracassa (G). I-i llctia dura Birbira (A); Gotalu (G); Yago (2); Zagia (V/) ; Sari (Sc). riitragyna stipulosa 7orka (A); ,,roda (G); ’orka ( '). I-Iyre ine af ri canus Kacha'amo (A); Kacha (G). Clca chrysophylla Voira (A); Egersa (G). Ciea hochstetterii Damot V/oira (A); Agerguri (G); Sigheda (o), (Ar). Clinia usambarensis Kadis (G); Guna (S); (Ar); Nole (7) Gxytenanthera abyssinica Lemman (G). Phoenix rcclinata Hosanna (A); Mieiti (7). Fittosjorum abyssinicum Lola ( A ) ; Chekka ( :). Podocarpus graci lior 'Sigba (A); Birbissa (G); Dagucho (3); Birbissa (7). olyscias f u I v a .Gingero ’ ombera (A); Kariu, Sosche ( G) . Fouteria sp. Karraro (G); (C); Casa ('/). Premna angolensis Asquar (A); Addi (G). Protea abyssinica Aregifgafo (A); Ubdo, Gibbo (G). Psychotria sp. Sagad ( A ) ; Gallo (G); Shato ( ;). Pygeum afri canus Tukur inchet, Semlesh (A); Moka Dima, Omi (G) Sucche (3)t (Ar); Gmo (X); Garbi ( ). Tl^anea sp. Beba (7). Tlhamnus pau ciflorus Geisho (A); Geshi (G). .o.us abyssinica Kumu (A); Tadessa (G). -7us sp. Kaga (A). 48. Report No II REPORT'ON ETHIOPIAN FORESTS (October - 1944) 1. Resources Ethiopia’s forest resources are quite likely the greatest of any East African country and certainly contain the largest coniferous stands on the continent. Accessibility limits present-day commercial exploitation to one-third or less of the total forest area and divides the forest into two groups, the exploitable and the reserve forests. The Exploitable Froests Chercher- The chercher forests are in the northern part of the province of Harar and parallel to the railroad for a distance of about 250 Kms„ from above Diredawa. Opposite Awash station, they turn south west along the eastern slope of the Gugu Mountains for another 75 or 100 Kms. Most of the distance, these forests are from 25 to 40 Kms, south of the r railway; but the large Gugu forest is about 75 to lOOKms. away. The most easterly forest, on the Gara Mullata, is so situated as to be inoperable commercially, but is a valuable local reserve. The most important stand is on the Gara Duddela and its southern extension. A very poor sawmill is operating there at present, but will require a new location within a year as they have nearly out off the present site. Just west of Deder, on Gara Tita, there is a large area of forest through which the road to Massala passes. This is a commercial possibility, especially since there was in Italian times, a road from Deder to the railroad at Gota. If this road could not be repaired, it would still be ecomomical to haul via Zitka to Bicket station. o.|49 49 . At Zitka and Asba Tafari there are several small forests which are not of cornrercial importance*. At Zitka, there is the large and fine Gara Ades forest about 31 Kms, from the i railroad at Bicket. Plans are under way to erect a modern sawmill here this year. At Cunni and Asba Tafari there are two largs forests, Gata Sablle and Maktar on either side of the Chercher road. In Italian times, there were two sawmills on the northern slope of the Muktar, But one remains now, of a capacity of 2 cu,m. per day, and tath will close soon because it has cut out most of the zigba in its locality and all its machinery is in bad condition. There are large stands of operable timber on the north-west and south sides of Gara Muktar, Gara Saballe is just South of Asba Tafari and once had two sawmills, but only parts of one remain at present* The extensive forests on the north side could take care of three or four semi-permanent mills, but the south side has a low percentage of merchan table conifers and has been so damaged by cultivation clearing s that it is doubtful that more than one sawmill could be estab lished here. There are no more forests along the Chercher road untill the Gugu range is reached. This range carries what is probably the largest coniferous forest of the Empire® I have not been able to study it yet because of being here only during the rainy seasonQ The Italians, likewise, left no reports on it, but native accounts indicate that the zigba forests cover an area far in excess of the total for the rest of Chercher. This country is fairly accessible by the road from Guelenzo to Arba (47 Kms) and is quite surely a commercial possibility. There was formerly a small sawmill near Minne close to the southern end of the forest. . ./50 composed of pure tidh of low quality and is now being utilized by a sawmill which is the property of the Ministry of Publics Works. Mocha Corocha forest is a good tidh forest about 60 Kms. west of Addis Ababa and there is a fair sawmill of about 15 cu. m.per day capacity which has not been operated since the Italian occupation,, Jemjem forest is the oldest exploitted area in the country, 60 Kms. Its only species is tidh and the mill is a very small water powered installation, Geji forest at 80 Kms. On the Lekemti road, has a very small area of tidh remaining, and it contains two mills of about six cu.m.per day capacity each,, Chilimo forest, at 90 Kms. is a feirly large stand of good tidh and has been in operation for many years. The sawmill is in very poor condition and produces low quality timber., Badjiro forest is north of the Lekemti road, at a 100 Kms. on a 25 Kms0 track and is the most extensive and valuable in the province the quality of the tidh stand is excellent. Two sawmills are now operating here. Gambela The forests of Gambela are little known in so far as species and actual area concernid, but they are reputedly exten sive. There were formerly two small sawmills in the area but nothing remains of them now. If at suitable svad_lab'iLe timber can be found here it can be barged down the Sobat River to Khartoum for attractive prices. 52. SUMMARE OF EXPLOITABLE FORESTS Area Preincipal Forest hectares Est*stand cuem species Chercher Chalanko 2500 10,000 Plus zigba, tidh,kaout Gara Tita 5000? zigba, tidh Gara Aden 5000? zigba, tidh,kaout Gara Muktar 6000 100.000 Plus zigba, tidh,kulwal, kaout, moka dima Gara Saballs 7500 200.000 Plus kaout, kulkwal, moka dima,zigba, tidh Gugu Mountains 60 to 100,000Plus very large zigba, tidh,kosso Sedamo Mount Abaro 10,000 Plus very large Podocarpus-sucche, galalaca,kaout,other hard woods„ Shoa (doubtful) Managasha 3,000 25.000 (1) tidh Mecha Corecha 800 25.000 (1) tidh, zigba,kosso, somboTjalalaca Jemj em 280 nearly cut out tidh Gaj i 400(2000 8.000 (1 ) tidh, zigba GWK) Chilimo 350(5000 18,000 (1 ) tidh, zigba,kosso GWK) sombo Badj iro 600 Plus 22,000 (1) tidh, zigba,kosso sombo (1) Italian estimates« o o /S 3 5 3c Reserve Forests Southern Sidamo i These forests are in the vicinity of Negelli, Adola, Wando, Dalle, and Algo, and cover .allarge area in their aggregate, They have not been studied by either myself or the Italians and no estimats of the total area or stand can be given* The chief species are tidh, zigba, and a variety of hardwoods,, A sawmill was formerly operated at Negelli, but it is now destroyed,, As in all these reserve forests distance precludes the possibility of present operation,, Arussi Excluding the Gugu forest, which lies partly in this area, the Arussi forests are relatively unimportant and should be reserved for local use. There is a strip of good zigba and tidh along the east slope of Gara Chillalo and another on the east side of GoGalama* Both are spotty in distribution and relatively narrow® Bale South, of the Webi Shebeli River, there is a very extensive forest on the mountain chain from Goba east to the Ganale Doria valley* The main stand is tidh but there is some zigba in the lower stream valleys and very large kosso on the upper levels. Most of this forest has suffered from constant grazing fires and the tidh I have seen is of poor quality, although there is an enormous amount of it* It would be difficult to estimate the forested area here but it is probably in excess of 100,000 hectares* The Italians had erected the most complete and largest sawmill of the country at Adaba but had not used it„ As it was 250 Kms, to any forest area, it is hard to know what they had in mind* This mill has now been removed and will be reerected at Gara Ades, Chercher* 54„ S hoa Gara Woti Situated about 20 Kms0 south of Debra Sina east of the Dessie road there is a forest estimated by the Italians to cover 2,000 hectares and contain 150,000 cu.m of tidh with some zigba« Heavy road construction is required to reach the forest, but it could quite likely be used to supply timber to the northern part of the country, Gibati, Gara Guman and Guder River In the vicinity of Jjnbo, western Shoa there are two forests of large extent south of the Lekemti roade The forest on the Guder River is estimated to cover 4,506 hectares while the Jibati and /Gara Gama forests areprobably more extensive. The princip-. 1 pecies are tidh and zigba and a considerable amount of bamboo* As they lie 200 Kms. west of Addis Ababa these forests will probably not be operable without a much better road and lower Diesel fuel costse South Western Forests Jimma, Bonga, and Kaffa possess great areas of forest con taining mainly hardwood species with zigba present in a few places. The Italian estimates of area are vague, but it is certain that they are of great extent, and may equal all the rest or Ethiopia's foresto As Jimma is 350 Kms, from the railroad, they will con stitute a reserve for the future* There was formerly a fine sawmill at jimma, but it has not operated since the Italians left and will likely be moved to a new site,, o-/55 55 o Walleqa ' 'Wallega, in the estimate of one Italian possesses 150,000 hectares of forest with an average stand of 60 trees of small trunk per hectare,, This latter figure seems to be a standard one as it appears in reports on several regions„ all these forests lie west of Gudo and are out of reach of the railroad, but the Anfillo forest might supply timber to the Sudan Via the Sobat and the Didessa forest via the Blue Nile* Anfillo This forest is located north and west of Dembidollo and contains a great variety of hardwoods, much bamboo* and little zigba. It is not thoroughly explored but much cultivation destruction is reported,, The Italian map shows 70,000 hectares* Two sawmills were once operated at Dembidollo but are now des troyed,, Handak Handak forest is situated in the Didessa plain, northwest of Lekemti and is a group of gallery forests rather than a single extensive stand,, It follows the Didessa to the Blue Nile and covers an extensive area in total„ There is good percentage of zigba and tidh here and it is quite possible that logs could be floated on the Blue Nile to a sawmill at Er Roseires in the Sudan* No estimate of the area has yet been made,, Komto Forest This forest lies east of Lekemti and is estimated to cover an area of 25,000 hectares, containing zigba and the usual hard woods,, It for-merly supplied a small sawmill at the Catholic Mission at Lekemti„ -o/56 .Bunno and Dabba*Forest t Bunrio forest lies south of Gimbie in the drainage of the Birbir and Gabba Rivers* It is reported to cover an area of about 100,000 hectares, to be very dense and contain zigba and hardwoods# Dabba forest is a sma3ler area southwest of Bunno# Other forests of varying size exist in this region but little is known of them* Except for Anfillo, which is reported to lack hardwood's, they all contain zigba, tidh, badessa-, sombo, kaout, and tukur inchet with much bamboo in the understory# The Italian army estimated the forest area of Wallega to be 150,000 hectares, but at the same time showed on their maj s about 400,000 hectares# I think the second figure to be the better approximation# Another Italian estimate gives 120,000 hectares for Anfillo alone# Beni Shangul The only true forest in this province is near Bombashi in the southwest part and it is not extensive# There are several ) areas of bamboo in the hills, but any forests her can be of only local use due to its great isolation* Go j jam There are no extensive forests in this province but some small areas on the high mountains north and northwest of Debra Markos, and a few galleries along the lower Blue Nile# The Chief species is tidh# 5 7e Tigre Simian Mountains contain fairly large forests of tidh and few hardwoods, but are in country extremely broken and hard to operate. There are no sawmills there at present but this area could supply the needs of the Gondar region,, No estimate of the area or stand is available at present. Takkaze River There is a large area of gallery forest with some areas of true forest along this rivere The main species are hardwoods with a little tidh„ Lack of roads make it completely inacessible at present. Maichio The Maichio forest is on the road from Bessis to Asmara and covers an area of about 600 hectares,, The stand is entirely low quality tidh, all the better trees having been cut out. A fine, small sawmill was in operation just before the Italians were driven out, but has not been reopened since 'and will probably be moved to a new locality. The forest is of such low quality that it isrnot commercially usable but might keep a few native pit sawyers busyT There are a few patches of tidh and zigba along the road between Dessie and Debra Sina but they are too small to be of importance*, c / 5 8 58 o Compiled List of Reserves Forests & Areas Province or Area Species District Forest hectares (see list) Sedamo Negelli 6000 tidh,some hardwood Wadara 2000 zigba,kaouct,sucche Ado la 3500 Wando Magada 80000 Jimma Kaffarsa zigba,and hardwoods Garsima hardwoods Belleta 6000 zigba and hardwoods Goj eb hardwocds Babia 100,000 hardwoods Santans hardwoods Gerra hardwoods Kaf fa hardwoods Shoa Gimirra zigba and hardwoods Gurafarda zigba and hardwoods Bale Webi Shebeli’ 100,000 tidh and zigba Arussi Chillalo 5.000 zigba and tidh Scioa Gara Woti 2.000 tidh and zigba jibati-Gara Guna 9,000 tidh and zigba Wallega Anfillo 70.000 hardwoods 120,000 Handak 100.000 Plus zigba,tidh,hardwoods Komto 25.000 zigba and hardwoods Bunno-Dabbana 100.000 Plus zigba and hardwoods One Italian repot gives the area of the Wallega forests excluding Anfillo as 4,000,000 hectares. The above figures are unreliable,, . / 5 9 58e Compiled List of Reserves Forests & Areas Province or Area Species District Forest hectares (see list) Sedamo Negelli 6000 tidh,some hardwood Wadara 2000 zigba,kaouct,sucche Adola 3500 Wando Magada 80000 Jimma Kaffarsa zigba,and hardwoods Garsima hardwoods Belleta 6000 zigba and hardwoods Gojeb hardwocds Babia 100,000 hardwoods Santans hardwoods Gerra hardwoods Kaf fa hardwoods S'noa Gimirra zigba and hardwoods Gurafarda zigba and hardwoods Bale Webi Shebeli 100,000 tidh and zigba Arussi Chillalo 5.000 zigba and tidh Scioa Gara Woti 2.000 tidh and zigba j ibati-Gara Gun a 9,000 tidh and zigba Wallega Anfillo 70.000 hardwoods 120,000 Handak 100.000 Plus zigba,tidh,hardwoods Komto 25.000 zigba and hardwoods Bunno-Dabbana 100.000 Plus zigba and hardwoods One Italian repot gives the area of the Wallega forest's excluding Anfillo as 4,000,000 hectareso The above figures are unreliable,. o/ 59 59 Commercial Species List Latin Names Local Name Uses Conifers Podocarpus zigba Similar to white pins, gracillior birbissa Not resinous, soft Matches, feed containers, J.umperus Tidh All general uses. Red Procera or pencil cedar-penci!:, doors, shches, boxes and general construction,, Gatira Splits easily. ooooooooo >00000000400 ooooooooooooo Hardwoods Celtis krauss Kaout, meta White, hard, straight iana Koma, amma grained. Similar to lacca, ciai, fraxinus. Tool handles, boat building and car riage work. Very strong. Pygeum Afri Tukur inchet Very hard, red and diff ca num omi, sucche, icult to work. moka dims? lEsed for heavy' constru- tion„ Known as Red Stink wood in trade0 Hagenia anthel- Kosso Hard, light red fine mintioa grain, Heavy construc tion. Finish and furni ture* EKbergia rup- Somb o very hard, fine grained peliana pinkish brown, For furniture, flooring and heavy construction. .o/60 60 o Latin Names Local Name Uses Syzygium guin- Jalalaca- A brown, soft hard-wood eense badessa Furniture, boxes,etc» Cordia Abycs- rcnea As walnut. Light,soft inica Wodessa For furniture, etc* Euphorbia Kulkwal White, soft, light plastic* Large sizes suitable for matches and plywood. Coope rage* . ../ 61 61. Production At present, there are eight sawmills operating in Ethiopia, with a total capacity of about 12,000 cubic meters per year. This production is dependent upon supplies reaching the operators at once, as no files, saws or other parts have come into the country since the Italians were here* The most important mill in the country is now temporarily closed fo... 1 .k or parts, and all will be shut down by April 1945 unless the situation is relieved. The majority of the mills operating at present are obsolete and uneconomical and with two exceptions, they are badly located and laid out. Most of the equipment consists of frame saws of up to one meter log-diameter capacity, horizontal saws and a few \ verticals* The honrizontals take six minutes to cut four meters and the verticals ten minutes for the same lengtho Little attention is paid to carriage alignment, and up to 50% of the lumber is badly sawn* There is a large amount of unused supple mentary equipment at nearly all mills, planers, moulders, table band saws, etce, which get little use. There are five fine bronta band saws in the country, but unfortunately only one is operating now. Elans are under way to place two of the others in operation at once and all may eventually be used. These saws are most efficient and produce accurately cut lumber economically but they must have skilled operators. Lumbering is all by hand and very costly when compared to American standards* Part of this is due to the location of the sawmills but more often it is a result of completely unskilled labor and lack even the most primitive mechanical aids and officient supervision and planning* About 50% of the lumber is missawn, ends are rarely trimmed, no seasoning is attempted and pilling is usually done without spacers. Only one sawmill produces a reliable product. »./62 The responsibility for the present conditions rests partly on the government, and partly on management* Most of the opera tors lack capital to put their mills in order, maintain a stock large enough to fill an order of any size or to allow fo'j? season ing* The government has failed to confirm any concessions since it returned to the country, and without some security, the oper ators cannot be blamed for failure to invest capital in the business* The government has been repeatedly warned that produc ction will cease unless it implements the importation of suppl ies, but so far nothing has been done» It is only the wartime demand for wood in any shape or condition which hhs allowed this industry to continue here« For the next five years, Ethiopia can find a market for her timber at paying prices in the Red Sea area* At present the price at the railroad is about L oE cA/lo80 to 2/00* Zigba is in greatest demand with tidh next- The capacity of the railroad for timber is about 12*000 cUoin.per year now and will increase if grain shipments decreasedo Hardwoods should be cut in order to accustom users who may be in the postwar market, but this is impossible before the arrival of mills supplies* Management must search for means of reducing costs and increas ing efficiency, if they wish to compete with foreign timber after the war, even in Addis Ababa* There is a great need for trained sawyers in tfie country to replace men who know nearly nothing of the business* Sawmills • • Chalanco-Chercher. Capacity 6 cu.m. per ten hour day, Two horizontal saws in very poor condition., The mill is badly laid out and the cutting area depleted* The mill should be moved and rebuilt. Cunni-Chercher. Capacity 2 cueim per ten hour day,two vertical *saws and whole mill in condition of disintagration<, The cutting area is depleted and the mill should be dismantled* Shashamana-Sidamo. This is the best mill in the country and produces the best lumber, one large Brenta and one smaller band log saw with a capacity of 15 cu.m0 per eight hour day. There is a large reserve of forest but the mill is now closed for lack of saws. This is expected to reopen very soon. Manaqasha-Shoa An elaborate mill built by the Italians and is now operated by the Ministry of public-s works. It uses two horizo ntal and one frame saw with a capacity of 6 cu.m„ per day* The product is entirely tidh and is not high quality* % Gaj i-Shoa A small mill is operating here with a single frame saw and produces about 6 cu»m0 per day. Its timber is fair but will cut out within a year or so. I 64. Badjiro-Shoa There are two mills in this area? The larger has a large frame saw and a band saw with a capacity of 10 cu.m. per day« The smaller mill is temporary, with a small band and frame saw, putting out up to 6 cu.m-.per day* There is a large reserve of timber here and those mills produce the best tidh sawn in Ethiopia,, There are plans under way to erect one Brenta sawmill in the region of western Shoa and another at Gara Ades in Chercher within the year. These two mills should increase the country's capacity by 60%. Ethiopia is not country of extensive forests when compared with those of America and her lumber industry will always be on a rather small scale* There will be a market for anytning which is cut and which the railway can haul for a few years to come. The present standards of the industry are lamentably low and it behooves the government and sawmills alike to take corrective measures if they wish to sell timber after the war demand is over© Prices and costs are ridiculously high and standards equally low, due in great part to insecurity of tenure and investment and to plain bad management0 To lighten the load on the railroad, a greater percentage of timber should come from Chercher and the zigba produced there is more readily accepted in foreign markets than the tidh from Shoan Hardwood is in great demand and should be sawn, both for the purpose of utilizing the forests to the fullest extent and to create a post-war demand for Ethiopia's produce. • o/65 The disbanding of the British Rubber Unit need not remove all hope of the country’s obtaining an income from this source I believe it quite possible that a considerable quantity - could be obtained from native collectors, with some consumer goods incentive and a little supervision,, For the future, or when normal trade is resumed, Ethio pia may be able to continue export of lumber to the Arabian and nearby Red Sea area, but all the old type mills must be scrapped and costs drastically reduced. I believe the medium sized porta ble sawmill to be more officient here than the present permanent type of installation* There may be the possibility of exporting some of the hardwoods at an attractive price, but the internal transport obstacle is a formidable one. It is quite likely that a market can be found for cedar pencil slats as Kenya exports them over a longer rail haul than that to Djibouti, Ethiopia’s resources of this material are very great* The Sudan is a potential market for softwoods, and close investigation of the possibilities for water transportation via Gambela or the ^iue Mile is needed. The production of gum Arabic and incense may be promoted to where they will produce an appreciable export revenue* Forest conservation has never been of very great interest in Ethiopia as the people view a forest as a source of firewood and something which prevents cultivation* At present, the total merchantable forest of Chercher has been burned and cleared for cultivation within the past five years. In Bale one of the lar gest forests in the country has been ruined by continous burning for grazing; the trees remain alive are so reduced in value as to unusable for timber,, Great areas of the drier slopes in the north are burned each year and erosion more severe. The forest is considered as. a source of revenus- by the government and rules prohibiting the cutting of large treeS are made but definitely not enforced. The forests must be preserved in order to protect the agricultural lands below them. Not only are the high forests * -ilue but the scurb bed acacia for ests are all that prevent large marginal areas form being grazed desert„ Ethiopia is need for a forest administration with an extensive organization of guards or in a very few years she will lose her most commercially valuable and important watershed pre- tection forests. As an item of public health, protected water reserves should be establisned near every populous village or city and brush or tree fiover should be established where necessary. Tree planting is generally unnecessary except in a few places, as Harar, to prevent destructive erosion of agricultural lands, and in some of the high plateaus to restore the fuel supply* With the slightest protection, the high forests will perpetuate themselves. Ethiopia's greatest need in forestry is a realization of the importance of forests to their agriculture,, Administration At present, the Ethiopian forests are considered as state property under the Ministry of Agriculture, which has a staff or perhaps ten men in the field. Their chief duties are the collection on fees from the sawmills, but they are also supposed to act as forest guards, They are singularly ineffective in preventing cultivation clearing on a large scale where it cannot be be seen from a main road. Most of the sawmills are the property of the Enemy property Custedian, leased to the operators«> They cut timber by agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture or the Governor of the province without supervision or regulation of any kind and pay from thal- ars MoTo 8 to sh. E„A0 10 per cu«m0 No concessions have been granted since the return of the gavernment,, It is recommended that control of all forest lands be placed in a division of Forestry in the Ministry of Agriculture or that they be made Crown lands with a seperate administration This would facilate regulation and protection and allow the standardization of concessions,, The lose of revenue under the present system is considerable* Concessions should all be reviewied and the more inefficient mills closed while the others should be encouraged to increase their utilization and the qual ity of their product,, Sawmills should pay for the logs they cut and not for the timber after it is sawn. Simple cutting regula tions should be effectedo Native pit saving should be oncouraged as a means of supplying local demand and increasing employment should be charged for the trees they cut in the forests and firewood should be collected primarily from dead or defective treesc All forests areas should be surveyed and proclaimed as Reserves, whether they are of commercial value or not, in order to discourage agricultural clearing,, 68o Summary High forest does not cover a great pescentage of Ethiopea and only a small percent of the area is of commercial valve* The two coniferous species, zigba and tidh are being cut by eight mills witha capacity of 12,000 cu,m0per year. This is also the capacity of the railroad under present conditions. Unless supplies of saws and ether parts are received, all mills will close by April 19450 Cooperatively large reserves of timber exist in the south west and western parts of the country and in all parts of the country, the forests will survive and pro uce if given a reaso nable amount of protection,, There is little chance of operation of larger sawmills and even some of the present mills should be replaced by medium sized portable installations„ With one ex ception, the present mills in operation are obsolete, but there are four good mills not now working,, Methods are primitive, and the lack of technical still results in a low quality products. There is a present market in the Red Sea area at good prices for the local timber, but the future will demand a far more car efully prepared and specialized product* Ad example of future i-O^sibility is the export of cedar pencils slats to America or Europe,, Damage to the forests by cultivation clearing and grazing burning is extensive and there is need for an extensive organ ization of personnel for their protection., Administration should be immediately consolidated under a single office, concessions should be reviewed and in some cases confirmed, but on a standard basis* Concessionaires should pay for logs cut and not for timber after it is sawn. Native users should be charged for use of the forests to make them con scious of its valueo 0/6 9 I 69c There is little need for reforestation but great benefit would be conferred on the country by the establishment of water reservations near villages and fuel plantations cn some of the bare plateau areas. 4-10-44 70 Report No III THE' FORESTS OF CHERCHER (July-August, 1944) This is entirely a preliminary report based on a survey made during July and August 1944, when the rains made travel and work in the forests very difficult*, DEDSR SECTION Deder to Harrar* Topography; The Chercher is a section of the country atop the south eastern planteau which abruptly ends at its northern edge in a ridge as escarpment containing some very tall peaks„ This ridge reaches its highest eastern point at Gara Mullata, about 25 km« west of Harrar and from there gradually slopes to the Hand and Ogaden* The peak of Gara Mullata is over 11,000 feet high and there are very many others in this section over 9,000e The Awash and Danakil basin drains the northern slope by torrents which are dry except during heavy rains« These streams are steep and torrentous* The plateau drains to the south to the Juba and Daua FarmaC?) by deep, cliffwalled rivers which usually carry water roost of the year* The chief ones in this section are the Ciulul, Mojjio,Arreri and Ramis in order from East to West* They all fan out near their heads into a wide catchment basin. •«./71 71 Most of the high mountain masses are stopped through geological causes and the upper stops contain very many small ponds and swamps 50 to 300 feet across,, The geological series as I have observed it from top to stream bed is basalt sandstone, deep limestone, deep sandstone,and older crystalline as far down as I have been. The 1:500,000 E.A. Survey map is usually accurate, but west of Gara Mullata there is a major error apparent between the Gegeba and upper Ranis valleys. Slopes are all acute and the only areas approaching plain are in the stream-head basins. Climate: Rainfall on the top of the "plateau" and peaks is around 50 to 60 inches annually, all falling from June 15th to October 15th. On both the north and south slopes it decreases with elevation until at 5000 the vegetation is quite xerophytic. During the night both in the wet and dry seasons the temperature drops considerably and 'except at the lower altitudes it is never really hot. Hail falls frequently above 8000* and frosts occur sometimes during August and September.. The canyon walled valleys are hot and moist and the lower northern slopes are hot and dry. During the rainy season in the uplands some rain falls nearly every day and the ground is always soggy. Social Conditions: - 2 The chief town of the section is Deder, which has a few firmly built houses, occupied by arab merchants and some good Italian government buildings. Agriculture and government are the sole occupations of the people. The only ones approaching any wealth are the chiefs who own the land and collect the taxes. o <>/72 The main population is Galla with a ruling class cf Amhara, much smaller in numbers, over them. They all live in grass- thatched, mud and wattle walled round center pole tuculs6 There are no windows and the fireplaces is a mud circle near the center* There is no smoke hole and a's a result they always stuffy and sooty. Some animals are kept in all the houses, usually without a partition between them and the humans® There is a raised mud sleeping bench and up to 3 skins on the floor and bench® Cooking is done in 2 or 3 earthern pots and the others utensils used are exclusively gourds® Manure from the animals is thrown on a pile adjoining the house and in time almost covers one side of it® Refuse water and garbage is usually thrown on the mud floor of the hut® Bed bugs of a peculiar local variety are present. Food consists of almost entirely cereals, as maize, dura and barley are eaten boiled or ground and cocked as a poor ingers® Much tala is drunk but tej is rare® Very little meat is used, cattle being slaughtered only when old or unproductive. Milk and butter are extensively used. The only communal life is had at the market althc-nh on feast days there is communal choral singing which re e jles somewhat in form the Shaker dances of early America. Disease does not seem very common® Most children have dis e ided stomachs but this may be from a grain diet as well as from malaria® I saw many mosquitoes but was bitten by none® Tapeworm is as always very common and most of the children have catarrhal infection. 74 The other district, with headquarters at Deder, extends from about the Gegertu River to the W cbank of the Ramis, Its head is the Fitaurari.Alemayu Derebe, a tough appearing and acting individual who does not seem to cart much for white men. He has many clerks keeping records and is reputed to be a very wealthy man,, There are major chiefs under him at Collubi, Shallenko and Muti all maintaining road blocks,, At Deder I once waited h of an hour because a soldier did r.it know whether or not he could leave his post to escort me to the office,, He mainatins a rather obnoxious bodyguard of men armed with tommy guns. At shallenko the chief is the young and intelligent Lij Tabeba Guangul who speaks French very well and owns many lands thereabouts. His father is the Fitaurari Guangul at Jigjigga* He is very friendly and obliging but I suspect not overpleased with work, Harrar is not entirely a selfgoverned province, as the Ministry of Finance and Agriculture both maintain independent office there. The head of the Agricultural office is Ato Matafaria UEde of Harrar© He* superintends the government building grain anc* what very little forestry is done. There is a Chief of Forests at Shallenko but all he does is to measure the lumber as it goes out on trucks. It became apparent to me during conversation with the Minister of Agriculture at Addis Ababa that there is little connection between the national and provincial governments. That little seems chiefly confined to the collection of taxes,which assume almost the form of tribute in the minds of both the taker and the giver, Ge *eral orders are issued and noted as received but not always put into effect. All the government ..../75 75 is essentially a government of clerks and there are no officials who maintain regular personal contact with the country over which they rule. No government activity which does not result in income t is carried on. All orders and communications must go directly to the political head of the province or sub-province, no matter how trivial it may be. A traveller as myself must first take his letter to Harrar, get one here for the- Chief at Asba Tafari, and go to Asba Tafari with it before he can do any work on Gara Fita, which is close to Harrar or anywhere else in the sub-province, I have been out in the back country with several district chiefs who obviously had never seen that part of their area before and on one occasion with one who saw for the first time large lands he owned in an area we passed through Road blocks are a curse of the Chercher, every official maintaining one. On the Chercher road from the Harrar Junction to Deder there are 4, or one wherever a man of such official standing as to maintain an office lives. From 15 minutes to a half hour are lost at each of them, and it can easily be imagined how this effects the profits of truckers and businessmen. They serve absolutely no useful legitimate purpose and although often reputed to be shake-down gates, I could find no one who wanted to offer instances of this. I traced the order creating them‘to the Fitaurarl Alemayu Derebe. If they are unnecessary on the main roads of the country, surely they can be done away with here. It seems that in this as in several other things the new Governmant of Ethiopia has absorbed some of the unpleasant habits of the Fascist regime* This observation has been corroborated by white residents of long years hers. .o./76 76 The area is voyry quiet and safe for travel<* Soldiers of the regular army are maintained at Graua and Deder and Territorials at Shallenko, Bedenno, Collubi and Carsa» Travel is difficult for'a white man on official business because of the load of attendants forced upon one. • On one small mule trip of 40 kilometers I had over 20 men, with me and would have much preferred to go alone0 I hever went out with less than nine men unless I left when no one was looking . Fitaurari Alemayu assigned a man from his office to be with me at all times and wherever we travelled the great and small chiefs, all with their guards and stirrup holders, accompanied us. A letter from Addis Ababa ordering only such help as the traveller asked for would be of great assistance here® When travelling the government officials never take provisions with them but at noon time sit down before a local chief's house and are served what is to be had, When they have selected a place to stop for the night they send a soldier out to order food and fuel from the local Gallas, without tecompense or thanksc They requistion a house for the night and in the morning those who brought dinner also bring breakfast,, I have seen the guards take what they wanted from the possessions of Gallas whom they met on the trail® Under these circumstances a few local disturbances are not to be wondered at. Travel here is made difficult also because of the incredible number of times these people stop to talk and drink coffee,, They cannot be persuaded to go directly from one point to another without stopping or deviating* They hate and fear forests and do everyting in their power to avoid taking me through them. I think most of the difficulty in official travel here is due to suspicion of foreigners, elthough they claim the escort is because of desire for my safety, as my warakits were "very strong". o../77 77 Agriculture: The great endeavour here is africulture, using approxima tely 90% of the labor. At this season of the year the barley is being harvested and the maize is ripening. The harvested barley represents an area of about 20% of the standing maize and dura whose proportions are about 10-30, Some land is being plowed now and sown to barley, say 10% of the total area under cultivation. About 45% of the Chercher along a strip extending 10 km, north and 30km, south of the road is under cultivation. The soil is prepared by cross plowing, using steel pointed wooden plows and going down as much as 6"0 This work seems to be done as a communal affair at least among the Gallas, Cultivation is done with a steel hou the size and shape of a flat spade placed at 45% on a 2 foot long handle. Land is not rested but may be recultivated some years after abandonment, although this seems rare. The maize is all of the pointed kernel sweet-corn type and is all subject to some rust or mosaic disease. Yields are one good ear and one small one. New diseases resistant and higher yielding varieties are needed but they must be distributed by the Government and planted in pure areas under supervision to avoid mixing and cross pollination. Grain is stored in two types of silos. One is an inverted cone mud and wicker, grass thatched, which holds up to 50 or 60 bushels and is usually located near the houses. The other is a pit dug in the ground, usually 4 feet in diameter and depth. ,/78 78 Grain is put in this without any preparation and covered with tamped soil*, They say it will keep well in this way for many months even during the rainy season and I saw some being filled while I was here. Agriculture in the valleys to the south is quite different from that of the uplands,, Coffee and catha are grown extensiv ely and barley and maize loss as one descends in elevation,. There is much sugar cane, banabas and some citrusc Irrigation is used extensivley and three crops are grown in the place of two in the uplands„ I saw very little coffee on the heights,, The walley people seem more prosperous and grow a far larger variety of foods for home consumption,, There are evidences, all through this country, of an old and different civilization which formerly existed here® On some of the valleys, particularly the Hamis, there are many square miles of terraced lands, now unused, and fine broad terraces can be seen even near the tops of the higher mountain. Ruins of stone towns are common and there are some extensive fortifications and dolmens on the Muti ridge and the north slope of the Chercher. Erosion is not serious in the Chercher proper, as most of the crops are planted some what on the contour and nearly all coffee and chat is terraced. I saw no damage from it in the southern valleys, but in Harrar, east of Gara Mullata at least 10% of the cultivated area has been lost* .c/79 79 Grazing is only incidental to agriculture as these are not a meat eating people,. The cattle are generally poor but there are some fine short horn draft oxen. Horses are plentiful and bad, being used only for breeding small mules. Goats are of the plain unimproved breed and the sheep are of the black head and brown short-eared type. Neither are in great numbers. Far to the south in the drier regions, large herds of cattle are reported* Their only use is for the production of butter which is marketed at Asba Tafari, Carsa and Grana, Many native beehives can be seen in the trees and some honey is brought to market, but it is not an extensive article of commerce. Extensive damage is done to crops by locusts each year and large flight were seen in the Ramis valley, A few hoppers were noticed* An efficient organization, supported by the Ministry of Agriculture, is needed for reporting flights and poisoning hoppers. Roads: The main Chercher road parallels the railroad at a distance ranging from 15 to 30 kmsc in a straight line. It starts at Dangago on the Diredaw^-Harrar road about 20 km. from Diredawa and follows very closely the top of the range all the way to Cunni, where it drops down on the southern slope of the Gugu mountain range* Its construction is of hand placed cobbles with a high center and there are very few culverts of bridges over the streams* 0../8O 80 Much of the way it passes through sandstone country which gives it a good foundation. Very little attention has been paid to grades and they are often so great as to tax any car except the large dieselo There are three connecting roads reaching the railroad,one at Zicta' going to Biche, another at Cunni going to Asba Tafari and Miesso and the third at Gelemso going to Celelaca and Arga. The Italian guide book reported a fourth truck road from Deder to Gota but the natives dony its existence, I have certainly seen a road cut into the mountainside at Deder leading in that direction and have an idea that a little work would open it. From Lake Aramai, 20 km, west of Harrar a secondary road goes to Grauae It is excellent as far as Curgacelli and can be used by even light cards but from there to Graua it is very bad with deep mud holes and very bad grades, not really passable during the rainy season. About 10 kmc north of Graua a branch leads to Furda and this section is the worst road I have ever driven a car over. There is much mud, 20$ clay-bed grades, rocks the size of one’s head and treacherous stream crossings, A few kilometers before Furda there is a branch south to Bedenno and Morre about 75 km, away which is not now maintained but is said to be passable when dry, From Furda the road runs north along the west slope of Gara Mullata to Uarabili on the Chercher road*, Grades are bad and mud and loose rocks the rule. The Fitaurari Tafarari Balechu does a commendable job at attempting to maintain his roads but his lack of knowledge of such work is a decided handicap, .../81 81 The main Chercher road is fairly good as far as Collubi and only requires filling of mud holes and ditch cleanningc From There to Ciallence it is very bad and from Shallenko to‘Deder* nearly impassable. No Reasonable attempt at maintenance has been made© Wehn a mudhcle is too bad for the government grain trucks to pass, more mud is thrown into it. No stream control work is done to prevent rocks washing onto the crossings and most of them are over unaltered detritus fans. No attention is paid to bank slope or ditch clearance and cross drainage is not to be found on the entire roade This work of road maintenance seems to be another example of work which brings no direct revenue. Each official wants the other to do work and supply the money and the Ministry of Public Works in Addis Ababa leaves it to the provincial officials in order not to leave their offices and get out into the country,, No money should be alloted to these roads until competent engineers and foremen are available’ to direct its expenditure® Without this guidance it will be entirely wasted. The Fitaurari Alemayu told, me that he maintained the roads during the dry season* In my mind the wet season is the time when they should be worked on most. He was quite displeased when I told him that they were in deplorable shape and did not like the idea of a resident engineer to supervise maintenance. At Harrar I was told by the province officials that the road to Deder was in excellent condition. They have been reading too many routine reports. e , ,/82 82 West of Deder the road has been unused by cars for months and for long distance has been churned to a deep mud river by the thousands of packs animals and cattle who go over it0 On the slop of Gara Tita there is a ditch four feet wide and five deep completely across the roado the explan-ation was that an unexploded shell had been found nearby and there were looking for more9 It never occurred to them to fill the hole again and cars will probably have to drive off the road there for some years to come. The south branch of the Burca River at Tita has piled a rock fan over the road which is impassable to any c3r except a 4-wheel drive truck, and about 2 km„ east of Burca the road is washed out over 10 feet deep, requiring a large bridge before it is again passable. It took me 5 hours to travel the 25 km. from Deder to Burca and the Deder officials had no knowledge of its condition. From Ciallenco a road goes south to the sawmill on Gara Duddela about 5 km. away and is in fair shape to there. The local officials have started and hearly completed what they term a road to Muti which is 10 or,12 km. further south on the ridge. It was laid out by a man on horseback with a string and contains both curces and grades quite impassable for any car. In some places as many as three preliminary roads have been cut into the hill before the right one was found. They hope to finish it when the rains stop but should not be allowed to spend more money on it. This is another reason why I insist that they should have supervisers who are acquainted with such workc Between Ciallence and Collubi there is a recently built road which rums 10 km. south to a Greek's flour mill. It is very well constructed and graded and is passable even during the rains. It could easily be extended down the Ramis Valley and tap an important agricultural area. ../83 83 Trails are certainly important with roads to the Ethiopian cultivators yet in all the Chercher there is not one constructed or maintained trail. Those now used have been formed through hundreds of years of use and are a constant series of unnecessary rises and descents. When a bush falls across the trail the traveller goes around and if a mud hole is too deep a new path is found. Any man may cultivate cross a trail, build his tucul in it or put his manure pile there. There seems to be no idea of public property of responsibility for maintenance in connection with them. In one place I know of, it is necessary to drop about 1500 feet into a valley and climb up again because the section of trail through a 4 km. forest became overgrown some years ago. The government should adopt a system of construction and maintenance for trails. I believe this trail program to be of equal importance with that of the roads. Fauna The Chercher fauna is quite limited among the larger animals except in the arid southern part. Lions came up from there and recently have killed cattle near Garaua and Furda. They are re ported within the year to have eaten somepeople in the lower Ramis Valley but I have no visual proof of this. Leopards are rare in the eastern Chercher and the cheeta is unknown„ Too many people are about for any great development of the open, country animals. Hyaenas are to be heard every night but there are few jackals on the plateau. Wild pigs are very common in the wet forests and do great damage to the nearby crops. They are rarely eaten by the people but hunts are arranged every Sunday and when cornered the pigs are beaten to death with sticks. These people do not carry spears. . ./84 84 On the dry lower northern alopes there are many dik-dik, Kadoqua. sp* The^re are also hereto a few Giant Kudu, Strepsiceros kudu, Dibatag, Ammedarcas Ciarkei and the wart-hog,, In the uplands the Madoqua, larger than a dik-dik, inhabits the open brushy slopes but is rarely found in the forest,, In the forest proper there are many Dukula or Bush buck, Tragelaphys scriptus menelickii, a rare and beautiful animal but very common here* He does much damege to the grain crops, feeding at night and hiding during the day in the densest ravines* It is necessary for the farmers to maintain guards over their fields at night in order to keep them away* The Agazen or mountain Nyala is reported to be on Gara Mullata and if so this is the extreme eastern point of its range. There may also be wild sheep on these heights* Francolina of at least two species are common, particularly in the northern lowlands, and there are some guinea fowl* There are fish and good size in the Ramis at the Gizeba confluence and probably in the Mojjio* Snakes are rare, some small vipers being found in the valleys and lowlands and serveral harmless Colubriidae in the vallleys and upland* The natives have a great fear of any snakeharmless or poisonous and always kill them if they have the courage to do so* The Dassie, Procavia is represented by two species, a large brown one P. Brucei living in rocks in open country and a smaller gray one always found in the forest* The ground squirrel is common but I saw no true squirrels* The African porcupine is present everywhere but in small numbers and rarely seen as it *../85 85 travels by nighto The Guerezea Monkey is very rare here but baboons and tota are seen at the lower forest edge* I saw Guerezea at CLallenco, probably its crost eastern range. Vegetation The lowlands vegetation from 3000 to 6000 feet elevation is truly xerophytic in character* It must with-stand periods of as much as seven months with no rainfall at alio On the north slope this type consists of Aloo , Sanserviera, Euphorbis, Scrubby Acacia species, Banhinia, Capparidaceac and Grewia, The largets tree is Balanites and there are a host of scrubby species and herbs which I have been unable to identify as yet for lack or books* Along the streams there is a very large Sapotaceous tree, Terminalia Molle and Tamarindus indicae In this area no trees except the Sapota furnish trunks large enough to saw but the Acacias are large enough to be used for railroad fuel and much is cut in the region* Reserves should be created here and this cutting placed under control. The mosophytic type occurs at from 6000 to abcu 8000 feet elevation are lands that have been cleared as grayed and there are no forests on such lands in this section* The chief trees arc Acacia abyssinica, Cordia abyssinica, Dombeya Paychotria, Dodonea viscosa, smaller Acacias and other small species* On the southern slopes there are Dracaena stc u meri and Phoenix reclinata in the sheltered places* Here also there are indications of a well developed hardwood scrub forest but I have had no opportunity to study it. This type offers no commercial possibilities and is continually subject to grazing. * * */86 86 The wet forest type occupies the tops of the higher mountains from 8000 up to 10,500 feet here but by no means is every peak over 8000 feet high forested,, In the lower zones Podocarpus Gracilior (Zigba) and (Tidh) Juniperus procera are dominant0 These are the only important commercial species. The codominant hardwood is Olea chrysophyllum(Waira) near the upper edges of the forest Moka Dima and Domat woira, Olea hochstetteru are found in sheltered places. Lower down, kaout, Celtis kraussiana, is found sometimes in sawable sizes. The understory contains Teclea, Rubiaceous species, Guarea, Hystroxylon aethiopium ( atat), Ilex sp. Solio, Azamerr and Gatam, Podocarpus is supplanted by Juniperus at abput 9500 to 10,000 feet and is inturn gradually replaced by Erica tar.borea and harwood scrub to the limit of forest type vegetation. All this forest is wet and nasty, with vinos and underscrub so thick as to make progress almost impossible except on hands and knees*, Black berries are common and a large raspberry is present but rarec Lianas cover the trees and lichens and moss drape the branches* Everywhere the hellishly spined Acanthus arboreus covers the ground and twines its stems to twenty feet high, and in the deeper dark ravines there is a tangle of Dracaena Aframontana. If pigs and bush buck were a little taller,travel would be much easier. Orchids rarely colorful, cover the branches of the trees but the species of ferns are very low*, On the open slopes at high altitudes fine ground orchids are common,, Sawmills There is but one sawmill in this section, located about 5 km. south of Ciallenko on the Muti ridge at Gara Duddela. It had been operated approximately three or four years by the ..o/87 i 87 Italians before the reconquest# Since then it has lain idle until six months ago when it was started up by the united Enterprises firm of Addis Ababa. The establishment consists of a mill roof, boiler shed and two shacks for quarters* The white staff is composed of two Italians and the labor of about 25 natives, About 45 to 60 natives are used in the forest for cutting and rolling to the mill. This labor is all supplied by the local chief who is paid Sh.E.A per day per man for a ten hour day* I do not know how much he pays them, but he likes the idea of the mill being there* The equipment the mill now uses is two horizontal saws and an edger. There were formerly two band log saws here but one was destroyed during the period between governments by the natives and the other is out of use for lack of saws and the volition to work such a complicated machine. There is an unused surfacer in the mill. There is a tanning plant without roof beside the sawmill consisting of two large rotating drums, a French press and two shavers* Most of the parts seem to be around the mill somewhere and I think it could be put to use without serious expense* The power is supplied by a French steam engine and boiler of about 35 H.P* with broken grates and many steams leaks* The log saws use double cutting blades about 12cm « wide x 1,5m* long now much worn. Filing is done on a plain emery wheel.* All belts are broken and the mill loses about 24% of its working time for their repair» »o o ®/88 88 Horizontal saws are very slow, these cutting a 4 meter log in 6 minutes. Against this American portable mills will cut a 16 inch board 5 meters long in 18 seconds without losing speed* They will take logs up to about 80 cme diameter but the average is much lower. 47 measured logs averaged 55.2 cme at the middle. Logs are rolled onto the carriage and sawn as they land, with no selection of face,, The first two cuts after the slab are usually thin and others are up to 12 cm, thickness, usually 6 cm. Logs are not turned but the lower slab is turned and dogged again to get one or two pieces of thin material, usually 2h. cm. Some fine mateial is cut out but that is the fault of the logs and not a result of good milling practice,, Sawn mateial is carried to the edger by hand, large planks holding the saw up as long as 5 minutes. At the edger a native with a poor eye either cuts too deep as or too thin and causes much waste rrnd degrade. The ends are not trimmed. A present order for 12 cm. x 20 cm. dimension stock was taken and edging done on the log saws with great waste. The diameter and speed of the edger was too small to handle this size. The mill will cut up to 6 cu.m in a full day. The layout of this mill is extremely bad, nearly as bad as its operation and mangement. It is situated at the foot of the forest on a shelf with a steep slope above it and a 5 foot bank along its upper edge. The log saws are placed parallel running down slope so that it is impossible to put a log deck o o o //89 -y 89 for either one* Were they parallel with the contour one deck would do for both* It is now necessary to roll logs completely around the mill to one saw and across the slab yard and lumber piling trail to the other,, It is not uncommon for the saws to stand idle 15 to 20 minutes between logs«, The edger does not operate half time and frequently has several days cut piled around it and the log saws* Slabs are thrown directly from the edger and now plug up all ingress for logs and egress for lumber* The logs are rolled by hand with sticks about 5 feet long by a sleepy crew of six men. They take 20 minutes to move a log the distance one American lumber jack with a cart dog could in two minutes. Little seasoning is attempted, the lumber usually being hauled out as it is cute 5 cm» x 7 cm,.pieces are used as spacers between the tiers but there is no horizontal spacing of pieces™ The fault for such a condition surely lies in slack management one of the Italiana at the mill has had six yearsf experience in sawmills but is certainly no experto The other is a good mechanic,. It is possible to find better men than this but it would cost more*, The labor is extremely bad but no attempt seems to be made to train it or to insist on order and method in the mill. From a profit point of view this mill should be moved to the east side of the mountain and rebuilt in a proper way. A month lost doing this would repay 90 itself in the next three* The forest on the west side is now cut out and logs are being rolled about 2% km* at great cost. From the point of view of the Government, this mill should be closed until it operates more efficinetly, as a good forest is being cut into slabs and waste. In the forest I have seen good top logs ever 30 cm, in diameter and 4 meters long left to rot. I measured many logs in an attempt to learn the eficicncy of operation but gave up because qf the confusion and delay at the edger« The lack of parts, such as saw blades, files and belting is a serious factor in the poor output and utilization of Ethiopian mills and at this one the situation is a serious as elsewhere If the Middle East whats timber from this country , it must help in procuring the materials necessary to produce it. The idea that native labour cannot use mechanical tools efficiently can be carried too far, as I have also observed in equatorial Sudan. Such may held true for tractors, power fooding saws and other complicated devices but simple mechanical aids can materially increase efficiency and output0 The cant-dog for example, will allow one man to do the work of five using plain sticks, A smmple wheeled truck or roller ways would cost little and keep the edger area clear and usable. It is stated that the American type of axe is not used here because once a handle is broken it cannot be replaced. The increase in efficiency would greatly outweigh .the cost of a lathe for turning them. The usual crosscut saw here is patterned after a series of short without set or cutting edge. I have known two men to spend a full day cutting once through a 70 cm. Juniper log. With a good crosscut saw that should not take over half an hour. ..a/91 I 91 This mill is not operated under concession from the Ministry of-Agriculture in partnership with the Euke of Harrar* The lumber trucks are measured by the Forest Chief at Shallenko where 7 shillings are collected as exercise tax and 10 shillings for the Duke* The Ministry of Agriculture evidently does not dare do anything about it, but seems to resent the arrangement. The mana gers of the mill are very anxious that I stir up no trouble in this matter and I do not blame them as they now pay but 17shillings per cu„m. for lumber which will bring 270 at the railroad, less sawing and trucking costs® Under a concession they would pay over double that amount and all to the Government. The Forests: 1. Gara Mullata South; On the south slope of Gara Mullata between Furda and Curfacelli there is an extremely interes ting fringe of high wet hardwood foresj:. The two conifers are almost entirely lacking and the species consist of Woira, Damot Woira, Koshima,Gatam, Ayamerr,Sagad,Mokak Dima and other whose names I do not know* It is probably not operable except for some specially woods but is valuable as a conservation forest and should be made a reservation It may cover 30 s$» kilometers of area. 2. Gara Mullata Wests From Gola to Furda along both sides of the road there is a well developed Podocarpus and Juniperus forest extending up to 10,000 and well down into the valleys. It is obviously but the remnant of a once large area. Woira Gatam and Asquar are the chief hardwood in the formation. The area is not operable because of its horizontal nature and consequent long truck hauls for logs*, * o/92 The area is about 25 sq.km. and it may contain up to 3000 cu0m0 of sawable conniferous timber* This is valuable protection forest and should be reserved, 3. Collubi: Above the Chercher road on the ridge west of Collubi there is a mixed hardwood and coniferous forest of approxima tely 10 sq„km8 area, It may contain as much as 1,000 cu.m of timber but is rapidly being cut out by locals for fuel and \ house splints. It should be rigorously protected as a fuel and water shed protection forest. 40 Gegeba East: There are four small patches of of high forest on the east slope of the Gegeba opposite the Muti 2 ridge They total about 5 km » in area but probably contain little sawable timber. They are protection forests entirely and will soon disappear if not administered,, 5. Gara Duddelai The Duddela forest is the largest and only' really workable one in the section. It covers about 25 sq.km* and has been estimated to contain a further 6,000 cu«,m0 of Podocarpus. In addition to this I estimate 4,000 feet of sawabl Juniperus, making a conservative total of 10,000 cu0m«> The Podocarpus is particularly fine on the south west slope© The predominant tree is Podocarpus but there are also some very fine Juniper. I have seen Podo up to 175 feet high, 2 meters in diameter and containing 5 meter logs but such trees are not usual. The average is about 65cm« diameter breast high with 2% four meter logs* There are some sawable Kaout(Celtis kraussiana) in the lower forest and some excellent Moka Dima 93 in the upper. Other trees are the smaller Teclea, Ayamorr, * Asguar, Kosso in the upper regions, Woira,and the usual small understory trees,. The natives operate two charcoal kilns here and use Woira and Teclea Chiefly. The western slope has been almost completely cleared of Podocarpus by the mill and logs are now being rolled from the very top„ Some Juniper remains on this side and it should be utilized before the mill is moved to the south east. The chief of Shallanko , Lij Tabada Guangul, claims ownership of the eastern side of the forest but has as yet not established his claim with the government* This forest needs immediate and rigorous protection to prevent its eradication by encroaching cultivators and grazers* 6* Muti: About 15 to 20 kme down the ridge from shallanko there are two patches of forests, one west of Muti and the other south east on a branch of the Gegeba River, They total about 10 sq.km, That on the west slope is of no commercial value, although it contains excellent Damot Woira, Podocarpus and Woira, as the topography makes it forest on the west slope is very interesting botanically and has about 2,000 cu.m. of very fine Podocarpus wich could easily be operated if the road from Collubi were extended 10 km, further down by Gegeba® Lij Tababa Guangul also claims to own this forest and it is of value for watershed protection as well as for the timber it contains. 7. Deder: On Gara Deder, just north of the town and road there is a patch of forest of Podocarpus and Juniper of about 2 sq. km in extent which should be reserved*, It is too small to be of commercial value* 00„/94 94 These seven forests, with a total area of 107 sqokm* and a very roughly estimated sawable coniferous content of 15,000 cu.m, are the chief forest resources of the section,, Area estimates have been made from plottings on a Is 500,000 map and are unreliable while volume estimates are sheer guesses, as no volume tables have yet been prepared for these spesies and this region* Forest Administration: The Ministry of Agriculture maintains an office at Marar chiefly for buying government grain under Matafaria Uode* There is a chief of forests under him in the sub-provinces of Harar, Chercher and probably Arussio Their pay is reported to be CNT*50*00 per month and their duties are to collect the taxes on timber where there are mills, guard against hunting and destruction of the forests by cultivators9 There is nursery at Harrc-r and another at Lake Aramaia* ± The former contains at most 1,000 seeldings of Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Juniperus for roadside planting* Seedlings are placed in half oildrums when four inches high and planted out the next year*. It is obvious that the local officials have no conception whatsoover of a forest or other nursery* Trees planted by the Italians were usually Eucalyptus g.lobulus spaced 1 meter apart«, I have planted several million of this genus in Hawaii and experience show that 8 ft* x 8 ft* is the closest practicalble and I now prefer 3 meters. The total trees planted as forest plantations b^ the Italians in this province will not cover over 3 hectares* c*o/95 95 It is the general contention of the Ethiopian Government that they own all trees in the country,, There are also many individuals who claim ownership of trees and land. This point should be settle at once to allow for protection and administra tion of the forests,, and if private ownership is recognized the forest land should be required by purchase or exchange,, Such i'S the case with at least two forests at Shallanko and Muti. The destruction by cultivators is the greatest menace these forests face. I do not think it an overestimate to state that 20% of the forest area of this section has been destroyed thus in the last 5 years. It is supposedly contrary to the laws to cut large trees, as Zigba, Tidh, Sombo etc,, but there is no objection to clearing the other forest plants from around them and burning brush near them until they are dead. I am sure the forest chiefs never see these forests and if they do they take no action against 99% of the trespassers* A rule preserving the large forests trees in no rule at all as a forest is a complex organism and none of the larger trees can live without the secondary plants. The land thus cleared is planted to dura and maize for which there is now a market whose probable duration is not over three years. This land is usually too steep for cultivation and the prospects are that if it does not revert to useless brush for economic.reason it will be washed away in four or five years and the net result will be an irreparable loss to the country„ The trees a sawmill cuts from these forests normally make little difference to the forests as they cannot use the very large or small ones and take no defective ones0 Their work is very often followed by grazing and cultivation, however, and o f o a/ 9 6 96 that is the end Fire, except as an adjunct to clearing for cultivation is seldom a factor in this section. I have seen no instance of forest recently burned for grazing,, The natives use of the forest is primarily as a source of fuel rather than as a source of tuculsplints and grazing area. They chiefly use Woira as fuel and that and Ambus for making charcoalo The men cut a tree down and the women hack it into splinters and carry a load home each day. For house splints they always use Tidh, cutting a tree 50 ro 60 cm. in diameter and splitting up only the clear lower section* If a new standing tree is not available close-by part of the top may be used for firewood, but it is usually left to rot. They rarely or never use fallen trees, even though in perfect condition, for splints or firewood, I have seen trees cut for firewood with great labor adjacent to an area covered with trees foiled for cultivation which would be burned on the ground or left to rot. Unless driven to it by a scarcity of other species they do not use Zigba for fuel or splints, yet I have more than once seen large perfect trees foiled and left untouched,, Another and perhaps most destructive habit is that of cutting slabs of bark from Tid and Zigba. This bark is used for beehives mainly and they always choose a smooth trunked large tree or a vigorous young one about 25 or 30 cm. in diameter,, In some forests 25% of the merchantable trees have been ruined in this manner. It seems that most of the rural population spends its time in the forests hacking or trees and the presence of scattered and dying forest species, far from present forests, indicates the work they have done* .c/97 97 These forest should be surveyed, reserved, and protected at once by staff of paid officials who stay in the field and know their area. All cutting concessions should be directly from and under supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture. There should be very severe penalty for stripping bark from any tree. Trees which may be used fuel wood should be unmerchantable ones marked by the forest guard as should be also the ones used for house splints. Sawmills should be charged according to the volume of the logs and not on the sawn material, as a measure to increase efficiency of the mills. top diameters which may be left in the forest should be determined and set as low in reasonable© Natives should be charged for house splints on the basis of the volume of the tree selected at % the charge to the sawmillso No grazing or cultivation whatsoever should be allowed within a forest reserve at any time and severe penalties should follow such trespass. Unless vigourous and efficient protective measures are taken, there will be no merchantable forests left in this section within a ten year period at the rate at which they are now being destroyed*, 98 Report No IV THE FORESTS OF CHERCHER (1944) Section asba Tafari — Gara Negus -Gara Muctar and Gara Saballe,, TOPOGRABHY; This section of the Chercher is somewhat distinct in that the three main mountain masses, Negus, Muctar and Saballe, rise' up quite independently of the Chercher ridge Gafa Negus is the most easterly, while Muctar and Saballe lie just south of Asba Tafari* The peacks of all rise to about 10,000 feet elevation or over* Muctar and Saballe are of the ridge type vith very steep slopes and sharp ridges, while Negus is domed and more gentle, Muctar turns south east into long Sirie Guddo ridge, while Saballe termi nates in Gara Obi near Bidossa* Just south of Saballe on the main Chercher ridge lies the false valley paralelling this ridge starting near Gara Cuf and ending in the west of the Gar Galama ridge near Chelemso* The north side of Gara Saballe is cut up into narrow twisting valleys without much floor space, draining into the Bossoca Siro, Iadbo and Bilo-Bacaivers0 They all carry perennial water* On the south side Negus and Muciar drained by the Galletti Omaccio and Sacata rivers, all large branches of the Ramis <, These run into the usual long narrow canyons soon after leaving the main mountain masses* 9 O o/99 99 9 2 The petrography of Saballe and Muctar from the top is 1 „ soft crystalline acidic volcanic rock or trachyto; 2. sand stone with some heavy conglomerate lower down; 3. deep limestone to lower than 6000 feet elevation. At Cunni a small swamp formed in the falso lateral valley runder the east end of Gara Muctar through a limestone cavern, reappears 300 feet lower down and immediately goes underground again. Ait the head of the Rucchette river on the south side of the Gara another underground river is exposed for 200 meters by a chasm 20 meters wide and 50 or 60 deep. I detected no errors in the 1:500,000 East Africa Survey map here but it is difficult to use on account of its 500 meter contour spacing. CLIMATE: This section of the Chercher differe little from the others in climate, but may be a little colder and wetter because of the high mountain masses. The rains are prolonged until December but the main precipitation is over by October 15th« Hail is common on the upper slopes and occurs quite often in the lateral valley Frosts are said to occur at Cunni but I did not observe any and do not believe it happens very often. During the rainy season some very cold days do occur* In the valleys, as usual, the temperature is high0 Rains occur in the season nearly every day but I have seen a five day period quite dry in one localized area* .../100 100 AGRICULTURE: The agriculture of this section is the usual barley, maize and dura„ Barley is harvested by the end of August and represents perhaps 25% of the area then in maize and dura® The maize natures in late August and early Septermber and the dura in October,, The percentage of dura to maize is about 50 and nearly all of it is the curved neck, red variety although I have seen some red erect and narrow type* Teff is not grown here„ Bananas are raire except in the valleys and there are no citrus fruits. There are many peach trees about, coming into fruit in late Saptermber,, No Abaca is grown for flour, but a shrub called Bahar Teff is used for flour» The maize and dura seem unusually free from disease. The area of cultivation in the section is very great, ranging in the lateral valley from 1 to 8 kms in width, perhaps averaging 4; On the south side it extends about 10 to 15 kms down the ridges and is then con fined to the valley floors, On the north of the range the same distance marks the limits but it gets dry very quickly here and the unused ridges occupy much of the area* As it usual the wide hoe and steel-pointed wooden plow are the only implements. Cross plowing is oftenfinished in the contours and there is little erosion except from grazing. Coffee and chat occupy an important area west of Cunni to Bedessa,, The cultivated area shows an extreme tendency to extend upward into the forest but not down or on to cleared areas now used for grazing* This tendency may be due to population pressure but I believe it more likely to be a result of recent economic influences directed somewhat by ethnic factors„ The Amharas are a mountain people who will not occupy lowlands, and the Gallas have always locked upon a forest as a site for future cultivation or to be burned, as pasture. OO./101 101 SOCIAL CONDITION; The Social condition of the Ethiopian in the country is just one grade above that of the forest people who live day to day on what they are able to catch or eat from wild plants. They 2.1 ve in their houses with their animals and do not defecte in them; neither would the animals if they were free to go outside when they needed to. They collect enough wood for, at most, two days and their only regard for the future is a three or four months1 store of dura or maize. They are never out in the morning before eight and bodily exertion is rarely seen except when they are cutting a forest which doesn't belong to them. This may be partly caused by poor diet but is probably one of the concomitants of a climate which assures an existence, howover, poor, with a minimum of affort. A great deal of their life is determined by the Coptic Church* Every Wednesday is a fast day and the last of July and most of August are entirely devoted to fasting0 No meat not killed in the approved manner by a Copt may be eaten by one and even a knife which has been used to cut Moslem meat is unclean. These rules do not hold up very well when a Copt is alone with Europeans or Moslems, but are rigid when other Copts are about. My cook refused to cook ingera for me. as it was a woman’s work, until I told him that was what he would eat ona three weeks! mule trip in the southern desert. Asba Tafari and some of the region about is peopled by Amharas and they are the top stratum in the lateral valley. To the north of the range the population is entirely Muslim while to tha south it is entirely Galla, completely dominated by the Amharas. The northern valleys have a poor and impermanent aspect with grazing about equal to agriculture. In the lateral valley the houses are well constructed and commodious and lifje . . c /102 102 seems much easier,, Sctxth of this valley the Gallas live just better than their animals, I only saw one example of community social activity, and that was when a religious feast occured" in late Augusts After sunset the people of each village gathered into a line and sung or chanted songs to the accompaniment of a forward and backward stepping dance somewhat like the old American Shaker dances„ Later they went about singing at the houses of the upper levels and expected to receive a gift of money* POLITICS: The capital of Chercher is located at Asba Tafari, but it is the capital in name only; as each of the three district shiefs, residing at Deder, Asba Tafari and Colclcia, report directly to the Deputy Governor of H arrar Province at Harrar® The head of Government in this central district is Ato Machacha, an elderly and scholarly appearing man, who has been in office since about May of this year,, Under him are' the usual staff of clerks in an enormous office building* There is an office of the Ministry of Agriculture and a garrison of soldiers of the Ethiopian Army headed by an English B„M0M0E, officer, and a police garrison,, The high chief of the area resides at Asba Tafari and sees little of the country, Under him, at Cunni, there is Adarei Nagu, a nice man of the country without Sam Browne belts or other affection* Hailie Selassie Ababa from the main Chercher office atAsba Tafari and Adarei Nagu were delegated to accompany me on my travels and I found them good company* The Kynyazmach Hailie is chief ot eh country north west of Saballe and has a village near the end of the road above the Simba concession at Baka, The Grazmach Gugsa * *,/103 103 is chief of the country around the heed of Laga Saballe on the south side of the mountain and is an excellent and courteous old country gentleman3 The usual practice of eating off the countryside prevails in an extreme form here when officials are travelling,, On one occasion I observed some resistance to it., At Laga Saballe the Grazmach Gugsa said he had his fill of officials from Asba Tafari eating his ingera and never offering a thing in return* He invited me to his house but the officials stayed outside and ate roast corn that night„ On another occasion Kyn„ Hailie gave us a letter ordering food and shelter from whoever we might demand it in his district0 The business or requisitioning mules also not trouble after the first two trips, and I had to pay cash as the locals were sure that the Provincial Government would hever pay them, As soon as they know I would pay them mules were readily available- This district is not as bad as Deder in the matter of official accom paniment and shadowing but still there are usually a minimum of ten men on any trip,, Uarakits must be shown at Asba Tafari, Cunni and Bedessa, but I saw no read blocks as in the Deder districtc All the area seems quiet and well under control, FAUNA: This area is too well settled to have much large game, but Mountain Nyala(Agazin) were seen on both Gara Muctar and Gara Saballe, The bush buck, Tragelaphus scriptus menelickii, is very common in the forest. At the west end of Gara Saballe, in the corn fields and open grass lands Gerenuk are found and open slopes there is the Madoqua* The dik-dik is seen only occasionally on the Acacia plaine between Asba Tafari and Miesso but is common east of Miesso along the railroad® o ,,./104 105 a rock of over 5 0 lbs, weight, a log or a tree stump the ditch was carried out into the road around it* When the Negus returne'd tc Addis Ababa the work on the road abruptly ended. The road from Miesso to Asba, 25 kms, and on to Cunni, another 15 kms, is extremely rough, rutted and in need fo relocation., It has had no maintenance in two years that I know of. From Asba Tafari a branch runs about 12 kms, to Jalo sawmill on Gara Sabelle and this in turn branches half way up and runs up the central branch of the Ciro for about 10 kms. This latter road is well laid out and both are in fair condition for lack of use. From Miesso there is a secondary road running to Baca and up the B?_lu~Baca River to a point about 10 kms, beyond the village near the western ridge of Gara Saballe, Where I saw it, it was well laid out but unused in several years and I could find no reliable information on it. The lack of a system of trails, constructed and maintained by the government, is nowhere more acute than here. On the south side of Gara Muctar in one place it is necessary to detour over ?0 kms, 1500 feet down a cliff to a valley and up again instead Ox' going 2 or 3 kilometers on the level through forest. Every year cultivators plowing some section of a main trail and force it to a new location. An appreciable part of every cultivator’s life Is wasted carrying his grain up and down numberless unnecessary hills because local officials gain no revenue from road and trail construction, VEGETATION: Xerophytic: The dry vegetation type on the northside is an extension of the Banakil flora of Sanseviora, Euphorbia nubica, Grewia spp, Capparidaceae and Acacia, Near its upper limits Acacia pre dominates and something like a dry forest occurs. Grazing is o • o/ 106 106 the only use to which this type is put* I have yet had no opportunity to study this type on the south slope of the Chercher but will include a description later, MESOPHYTIC: The middle climatic vegetational zone is most interesting and contains a very varied flora. Commencing at approximatley 4500 feet it extends to 6500 or 7oooa In its lower areas Acacia and Bauninia predominate and there is a true forest of sizable Acacia just below Asba Tafari, In its middle zone and in the lower stream beds it is very varied, with Psycnotria, Gymnosporia, Rhus, Dodonen viscosa, and many other species present. Toward the upper zone there is Dombeya,(Diguta) Cordia Abyssinica, Erythrina excelsa shola, stunted Juniperus and a few Polyscias fulva. It is difficult to know the real composition of this upper flora, as cultivation and grazing have altered or eradicated so much of it. On the south side of Gara Muctar there are large areas, patchy from burning, of dry hardwood forest. These occupy the limestone slopes of the canyon valleys and very rarely the ridgesB Their flora is exceedingly rich, containing Psychotria, Gardenia, Combretum gueinzii Plea Chrysophyllum, Schefflcra Abyssinica, Erythrina Abyssinica, Mitambera, and very many other tree formed species. These trees are usually low and stunt€.-d and the forest is often burned for grazing. See page 215, Cassipoura elliottii is common as an understory tree but never attains great size, Pittosporum abyssinicum reaches good diameter but not over 30 feet in height and is common, Hagenia anthelmintica (Kosso) is of good size and poor form and occurs only in the upper forest. oo./107 107 At the edge of the forest at Jalo I saw many Trichocladus malosanus, as a small tree, for the first time in this province,, On high open ridges Dodonca viscosa, a trifoliate Anacar- diaceous tree(Rhus sp„?) Protea abyssinica and two species of Hypericium are seenc SAW MILLS Cunni: The only operating sawmill in the region, and one of two in all Chercher is at the foot of Gara Muctar, near Cunni«, It is in an open tin roofed structure and its only equipment is two vertical saws, shop band saw, 1 bed plane, 1 surfacer and an edger and an old 30 horsepower French boiler and engine. The saws are quite worn out and take 10 minutes to cut a board from a 4 meter log0 Carriages are driven by a hand rack and logs are hot turned but sawn through on the selected face. The boiler is leaky, without grates and probably delivers only a little over half of its rated power9 There are many shutdowns for belt and saw repairs. The largest log taken is about 60 cm. diameter and the capacity is 1\ cubic meters daily» About 25 men work in the mill, 120 on the logroll and cutting in the forest. These 120 men are so inefficinet that for months they have averaged but 8 logs of 4 meters per day* The forest work has now been discontinued for this reason0 It seems impossible to efficiently operate a sawmill in this country without an experienced white woods superintendent 0 o„c/108 108 The price paid for the sawn lumber is Sh; E,A, 12,00 to the Duke of Harrar and Sh. E.A* 7.00 per cu„ m«, to the government as excise tax0 There is a Decauville track 2 or kilometers long from 1 the edge of forest to the mill but only short sections are in use because the natives cannot figure out how to lay it straight and, as in their roads, never give it any maintenance. From the cutting area to the track there is a dry sluice of logs about 1% cm long* The mill is located on swampy ground and machinery is cons tantly out of line because of sinking foundations* There are many shutdowns for belt repairs and the edger is too slow to handle heavy material» Pay ranges from 1^ to 2 shillings per day for labor to for the native foreman,, An Italian with good mechanical but no sawmill experiences is in charge. The mill is about six years old being one of the first to re-open after the war. It formerly had a large band saw but that has disappeared and the rest of the mill is alowly doing the same,, Lumber is cross piled without spacers and much too close to the swampy ground * Despite good zigba logs much of the product is of poor quality,, During the rainy season it is impossible to haul out over the 2% km. of swampy road to the Chercher road. From there to Miesso is but 40 km„, but over a very rough track. All the forest near the mill has been cut out and the new cutting area will be some distance to the west. There is beside the mill a small ston dry kiln, now unused, which would be useful for seasoning some of the kaout in this area. „«, ./109 109 At present I can only believe that the sawmill is operated for sentimental reasons as it cannot possibly produce a profit*, For the good of the forests and the profit of the managers it should be abandoned, not moved, as they now contemplate*, It is another example of a mill laic cut in the worst possible manner, with no chance for a log deck and long hand carrys to the edge and pileso As usual, ends are not trimmedo All labor is without benefit of mechanical aids and as a consequence much time is lost by the men getting in each others way,, •J/J.O n r L; The remains of this abandoned mill are situated about 10km„ south of Asba Tafari on the north slope of Gara Saballe„ It has a fair road up the valley to it„ It had not operated long before the war and was evidently a specialty mill as much of its machin ery is for finishing,, The building housing the mill has completely disappeared as also has one of the log saws, probably a frame saws. The rest of the machinery and shafting remains but is without adequate protection and is deteriorating,. It consists of 1-35 or 40 HP steam boiler and engine, 1,20 HP steam boiler and engine 1-75 cm, framesaw, rails and 2 trucks, 2 surf acers, 15 and 20 inch,,, 1-12” sasn plane, 1 motising table, 1 table band saw, 1 band saw table, 1 edger carriage and arbor, 1 power grindstone, 1 hand forge blower, shafting and pulleys* The lay-cut was better than in most local mills but even here there was no space for an adequate log deck and logs had to be turned before going on tc the carriage,, Tidh was the species 110 mostly used but some Euphorbia boards are to be seen about and there is a stock of Kaout pick handles in one shed® I think there is adequate timber in this valley to run the mill for several years and would prefer that it remain here rather than be moved and roorected on a worse plan in some other place„ There was in Italian times another small sawmill at the end of the road in the valley to the west of Jalo, but all the machin ery has been reputedly taken to Adama* The only sign of it now remaining is a large quantity of Zigba logs rotting on the ground* In both valleys there are small pit saw crews at work, possibly four in all at any one time* The average crew is 8 men and their output is around 4\ cu.m, per crew, per week* Zigba is cut into 7 cm, x 7 cm* x 4 m« pieces and Tidh 12 cm* x 12 cm* and 2% m* x 25 cm* The latter species is preferred* The sawing is quite well done but waste, both in the tree and log, is great* This material is taken to Asha Tafari by pack animals and supplies the local needs of that region* As this report was being written orders came from Addis Abab or Harrar to stop this type or work, without giving reasons that I could ascertain* Two lime kilns are at work on the east end of Gara Muctar* Eight men are employed at each and it takes about 39 days to cut wood, break rock and bura a charge* Seven days are allotted to firing* The product is fair but un burned stones are carefully placed in the center of the contain ers The fuel used is mostly 63-ea and Rhue„ .../111 Ill THE FORESTS 1. Gara Negus: This mountain has one small forest on its west slope just below the top in a narrow strip running from N.W. to S.E. Its area is roughly 10 sq, km0 There is no road closer to it than the main Chercher road at Gatamitti, 8 km, in a straight line from its northern end-, Its composition is mostly Zigba, Gatam, etc,, with little Tidh. Due to its honrizontal location and narrowness it is not suitable for exploitation but is valuable as a conservation area'for the Cunni River water shed. 2. Gara Muctar: This mountain carries a very important forest, running from an elevation of 7000 feet on its western tip. to 9800 feet at the peake The estimated area is 60 sqc km„ of which perhaps 10 sq. km. has been cut over for Zigbac The slopes are generally steep but the valleys are wide and economical to operate0 The Chercher road parallels if for some distance on its north side three km. away, and there is a track leading to the sawmill just east of Cunni„ The one sawmill operating in the area is about at the end of its timber supply, now 4 km. away, and should be reerected to the west of the Woleso-Cunni ridge where there is a good supply of timber and a good chance for a roado The north eastern section of 10 sq. km0 which have been cut are not damaged as forest, as only Zigba under 70 cm* diarru was taken and there is good reproduction. On the north slope the main forest tree is Zigba, with Wolkafa becoming grogarious and dominant above 9000 elevation. c o o / 1 1 2 112 There is approximatley 15% Euphorbia of good size and form and there are some very fine Tidh on the north eastern slope* The chief subdominant accupying about 50% of the area, is Woira, while Damot Woira, Ambus, Kaout, Gattam and rarely Sombo are presento The common understory trees are Tukur Inchet, Asquar, Atat, Rhus soo, and some rare Galis» Acanthus arboreus is a pest and Kacha'amo and Dracaena aframontaxna are universal There is material for a sawmill for many years to come on the Uoleso slope. This valley was former completely forested with Zigba and Kaout for a distance of 10 km, below its head and clear over to the Saballe forest and fine specimens of both trees exist as isolated remnants, I am told it was mostly cleared about 15 years ago. At present there is not much clearing going on on this north side but there is some on the west end of the Uolaso slope. These slopes are too steep to carry cultivation safety. The south slope of the mountain carries some of the finest forest of Chercher. It in wetter than the north slope and a bit more luxuriant. No tidh was seen but there are large numbers of unexcelled Zigba. A curious feature of this slope is the presominance of Euphorbia which amounts to about 50% of the stand. Trees of meters in diameter and 30 meters tall are not uncommon and they may have as much as 20 meters of clear straight stem. This wood is valuable and must be conserved Woira, Rhus sp. and Gatam are the most common associ ates wtjiile on the upper slope Wolkafa and Pittosporum abyssinicum predominate. Some Damot Woira, Kanout and Moka Dima are present near the lower edge. All along this lower forest zone on this side tremendous incursions are being made by cultivators regardless of large unused areas on the slopes and in thr ~ ” ~ys .,./113 113 below* This must be stopped* This side of the forest could be operated from a road extending around the east end of the Gara but because of the cost of its construction this will probably not happen before the reserves on Gara Saballe are exhausted* 3* Ruchelle Hardwood Forests On the slopes and crests of the ridges in the Ruchelle drainage to the South of Gara Muctar, from Gara Gogo and Gara Dibale to Sirie Callo, there is a very fine area of dry hardwood forest* I did not havr time to map it accurately but an estimate of its area is 40 sq* km* Because of incursions by cultivators and burning it is in large patches and not continuous* It occupies the limestone ridges from an elevation of about 5500 feet to 7500 and runs up to the wet Podocarpus forest* It is on thin soil and the whole forest is strewn with jagged eroded limestone blocks* The dominant tree is Woira, fallowed by Sagad, Asquar, Gat am, Atat, Mitanbera, Korch, Shola, Gobil and Tukur Incnst as a shrub* Dodonca and Cho-cho are common shrubs* The trees are never in good form or size, and the forest is not of a type suitable for exploitation, but it forms a very valuable watershed conservation area for the headwaters of the Galletti and is a firewood source for the cultivators of the region* The present burning should be stopped* Because of its stony site little clearing is being done for cultivators* 4. Asba Tafari On the ridge south-east of Asba Tafari, mostly lying north of the Chercher-Asba road there is a patch of shrub Juniper forest of about 10 sq* km* in area* There are a few areas containing sawable Tidh which could be utilized by local pit sawyers, ' .*e * * o/114 114 form and distribution of the trees does not allow for the establishment of a sawmill* The forest is a useful source of fuel an house timbers for Asba Rafari as well as ‘offering protection to the headwaters of the Ciro and Bossoca Rivers* At present it is suffering from both cultivators and graziers fires. 5o Gara Saballe This is the largest forest area, in the section and probably the most economically important one in the Chercher proper* It lies south-west of Asba Tafari and extends to the Chercher road, covering an area of about 75 sq/km* at altitudes ranging from 8500 feet to 10,050 ft* At the head of the east branch of the Ciro, from Cunni to Jalo ridge, there are two valleys of fine forest. The bottoms and heads contain Zigba in sufficient quantity to justify a sawmill and its form is excellent* The south slope of the ridge is drier and shows signs of burffling in the past* There a stand is almost pure Tidh with a mixture of Sagad low down and Wolkafa and Atat at 9000 feet and above* The Tidh is knotty but in the middle and upper zonz there are great numbers of fine telegraph poles and much sawable material* Cultivation is encroaching somewhat in this valley* The Jalo valley is composed of two branches directly south of Asba Tafari and each has a road running to the forests* In Italian time there saw a sawmill in each but now only the eastern one is left, and that not operating* The lower slopes and the ridges of the easternvalley are pure Tidh, while the « o/115 115 valley and upper head basin are nearly pure Zigba with Kaout, Gatam, and ^ome Kulkwal mixed in. The extreme head of this valley is very steep and covered with brush. There is enough forest left here to justify the reopening of the sawmill; which is well laidout and located. The west branch of the Jalo signs of having large areas recently cleared for cultivation as there is a narrow strip of very fine Zigba, about ih. km. long, left in the stream bed. The road up this valley is in good condition and well laid out but now unused. There was formerly a sawmill at the edge of the forest but now no trace of it remains except many logs lying about. There is a great amount of Zigba in this valley and it is a good site for a sawmill on account of the existing road and its proximity to the railroad at Miesso. The next valley west of the west branch of Ciro, contains probably the largest stand of Zigba of anyone in this forest. It is narrow and long with steep sides and will be quite easy to log but requires about 10 or 15 km. of road construction from the end of the Baca road. Zigba, Gatam and Kaout form the main stand with the usual understory trees0 The valley carried a good sized perennial stream. West of this valley the forest narrows down to a long strip at high elevation running nearly to Gara Obi., The road running from Miesso to Baca extends up to 2 or 3 kms. of the eastern end of the forest and is usable. There is enough Zigba here to warrant a sawmill. There is great deal of large Sagad and small Tukur Lucket and much fine Kaout here* The slopes are steep and the valleys short with dense stands. Quite a lot of cultivation encroachment is going on here. 116 On the south side of the Gara the forest is narrow and the only appreciable stands of Zigba are at the west side of the Laga Saballe head basin. They are scattered and are not suf ficiently large to warrant a permanent sawmill, although there is considerable forest in the central branch heading out just west of Saballe peak. The chief components of the stnad are Zigba, Kaout, Gatam Woira, and Kulkwal, with Aregifgafc, Atat, Asquar and Wolkafa on the ridges and at higher elevation® Grades are very steep and the valleys are short„ The head of Laga Lafta contains heavy forest predominantly- Kulkwal, with a few Zigba, Kaout, good Moka Dima and Damot Woira, It is not operable except for the fine Kulkwal, Cultivation clearing is the most severe on this side of the mountain of any place I have seen in Chercher* The forest formerly extended to Gara Muctar at the head of Laga Lafta and Laga Uoleso and a few fast disappearing clumps of Zigba can be seen on the ridges* This land is too steep for cultivation and is far more valuable to the country as forest. The 5 forests of this section total 195 sq, km, in area according to my rough estimate. It would be presumptuous to attempt to estimate the volume of timber they contain without doing at least a sample cruise, as the topography composition and density of the stand and its quality are very varied. They are very valuable as commercial forests but more sc as watershed protection areas* FORESTRY The forests of this section are of importance because of their size and proximity to the railroad and because they protect the watershed of one of Ethiopia’s most productive agricultural 117 districts* They have been materially reduced in size and value during the past 25 years by cultivation clearing and burning and this clearing is still going on, on the south slopes of both major mountains,, It is supposedly against the laws of the country as forests are looked upon as State property, but efforts to control it are definitely half hearted. I was told, that the local forest officer made the circuit of the forests twice a year, after each crop, to collect from cultivators illegally using forest lands® The local government more nearly approaches the practice of forest management here than in any other part of Ethiopia* The chief of the Chercher forests, Basha Oured, resides at Asba Tafari and takes some interest in his work* His only staff, howover, is clerical and he is physically handicapped* He tells me that in the dry season he goes around the big forests each month, but his lack of knowledge of the traile on their more remote sides leads me to believe otherwise* When I was with him he arrested many land clearers but I think my presence had much to do with that, as there are evidences of continuous clearing going on all about* Usually after these men have been fined they return and cultivate the same lands so the forest is the loser no matter how the coin turns* There is little burning for grazing to worry about except in the Ruchelle Hardwood forest, as around Asba Tafari that is now rigidly forbidden* There is not as much tree cutting in the forest by natives here as there is further east and they make good use of the trees they do foil* The sawmill cutting is wastful and in need of regulation* * o/118 118 The pit-sasing operations by natives are healthy use for forests and labor and should be encouraged with proper regulation. Waste is now quite large* The price charged is M«T0 10.00 per cu.mo of sawn lumber while the highest charged a sawmill on concession is/M.T. 8.00. When I stated that the natives should be charged about half the sawmill fee, as encouragement and because they use a lower quality tree and unoperable stands, the suggestion was not received with favor* The officials hate to give up any monetary ground they have gained. The cunni Sawmill is another which operates as a part nership of the Duke of Harrar and not under concession a regu lation by the Ministry of Agriculture. This situation should obviously be remedied unless one is to consider the province as a private domain. There is no, or very little, need for tree planting in the section but there is need for grazing control and reservation of some open lands in the west branch of the Ciro and in the Baca—Bilo valleys to prevent destructive erosion by allowing the land to revert to brush. The Italians maintained a small nursery at Cunni and had planted a few Eucalyptus trees, all one meter apart. For this area three meters in about correct* A reconnaissance cruise is urgently required on the Gara Muctar and Gara Saballe forests to determine the location and amount of operable timber present. The present sawmill should be discontinued and a new one more economical and practical to operate should be erected some distance to the west* -0./119 r 119 For adequate protection this section should have a well paid Forester in charge(thepresent man receives M*T* 50o00 per month) and a staff of guards® One is needed for each of the smaller forests, Gara Negus, Rucehelli Hardwood and Asba Tafari, two on Gara Muctar and four on Gara Sabelle, They should be paid regularly, mounted, and charged to continuously round their areas* These five forests should be surveyed and reserved before, further loss of area takes place. Ownership of the forests should be with the Government and control and revenues under one Ministry or Office. Asba Tafari should be the head office for forests administration of the whole of the Chercher-Harrar- Gugu Forest District. 120 Report No V The Forests of Southwestern Ethiopia (January,1945) GENERAL Much has been written by the Italians on the forests of the Southwest, but, with the exception of the lechi Report and the descriptions of a few new species of tree by Ciovadenza, the majority of this work is of too general and vague a nature to be of much use in evaluating the area. Their tendency had been to deseribe in glowing terms both the value of the individual species and the forest as a whole, and it was to check on these reports that this reconnaissance trip was made. This reconnaissance covered the triangular area between Jimma, Bonga and Gore, and included the areas of Belleta, Cuoccora, Caffa, Butte, Charga, Goiscia, Amarro,Didu,Ilu-Babor, Lemman,; Gomma, Ghora and Angichar. During the courseof the trip the valleys and headwaters of the rivers seen included the Boru, (Duco), Naso, Chinnai, Gogeb, Gangi, Baro,Sor and the Gabba0 The complete unreliability of all the maps of this region make it impossible to accurately chart the course of travel, but the accompanying map gives a close approximation of itc The party included two men of the Ethiopian Ministry of Finance and myself mounted on mules. At the start of the trip the total of the party was 39 men, most of whom were porters. These are considered to be more reliable than mules in this extremely difficult country. About half-way from Jimma to Gore the party was split and I want on alone wi^h 13 porters'' and a guide. The trip up from Belleta to Gore took two weeks,sight .../121 121 days of which were spent in travel, the rest of the time being spent in resting and reprovisioning0 On the return trip eight days were taken without time out for rest0 The average distance travelled per day was probably about 30 ki-lometers, but there were days when over 50 kilometers were covered© The men did not carry heavy loads as they were not professional porters, the average being perhaps 45 lbs0 Under the extremely muddy and steep conditions which we found on these trails this load and distance seems to be the limit of endurance for porters, in fact they and the mule were both at their limit of endurance when we returned to Belleta0 The total distance covered on the trip was around 600 kilometers,, This reconnaissance overlapped the north-east corner of the area covered by the Iechi survey of the Italians, and at one place it was possible for me to see clear across their area to Gara Uota near Scioa Ghimmira., On the return trip I had intended to go east from Gore to Eachio and than south-east through the Sai Mountains and forest and cross the Gabba River in north-west Gomma but all the natives of that region say there is no trail and that the country is "impenetrable" On account of this inability to find a guide I was forced to come south-east for three days travel before I could swing north-east and pass through the Goro-Lemman sections of Gomma and get into the upper Gabba Valley0 These two reconnaissances furnish a small knowle dge of about a third of the forest south of the Gambela-Gore-Jimma motor road, but there are no reports on the great forests of Masango, Mochia, Ghimirra, Tisciana or Saio TOPOGRAPHY The areas of Caffa, Didu, Ilu Babor and Gomma are located on the large domed shield which separates the Blue Nile, White Nile and Omo drainage basins0 c o / 1 2 2 122 The northeast corner, represented by eastern Gumma, drains to the extreme headwaters of the Didessa, which in turn flows into the Blue Nile* The north and western sides of the area are drained by the Gabba and Baro Rivers, both tributaries of the Sobat which in turn flows to the White Nile* The 1:500,000 E „ A . S „ map is very confused regarding the drainage area occupied by the Gabba, and attempts to make it run in a westerly dirction toward the Baro watershed. On the return trip I crossed it in the Lemman country north of Ghora flowing northeast and was here a large riverc From a vantage point I observed that it soon changed its course to a little west of north, A few miles further east I crossed a large branch of this river called the Bodoche, which rose in northern Ghora and drains the north slope of the Tembo Mountain group. It is difficult to understand how a river of this size should be so little known, unless it is because the extreme difficulty of travel in this region has made surveys in other areas more attractive. The south and southeast area drains into the Gogeb and its tributary the Naso, and in turn the Gogeb joins the Omo. The Gogeb heads in southern Mocha and Bachi and carries a very large volume of water at the Naso confluence. The Naso is its last tributary of importance jjefore it ppsses through the low dry country of Gonta. Its southwest branch, the Ginnai, is a stream of considerable size. Just north of Buca on the western trail I crossed a large stream and in a little distance a smaller one, both flowing northeast contrary to all information of both maps of this country. It is my belief that these streams flow • o./123 123 around the Geisha mountain and join the north branch of the Gogeb but it is possible that they represent the extreme southwestern headwaters of the Gabba, as the volume of water in this river where I crossed it in Lemman does not seem readily explained by the drainage area otherwise available to it. Th^ majority of this country is on a gentle southwest slope, with steep and deep valleys and large areas of nearly flat or gently rolling topography,, The Sai Mountains in north ern liu Eabor and the mountain chain extending from Ghera to the north branch of the Gogeb are the only real eminences in the region, although the extreme point of elevation probably lies in the Balo range in the northern part of Lemraan. South and south-east of Gore the country is nearly flat, cut by many streams and studded with hundreds of small volcanic peaks up to three hundred feet in height* Ascertaining the dorrect names of the mountains and streams proved exceptionally difficult in this trip. Both the Italian Tourist Map of 1:1,000,000 scale and the E.n.B. 1:500,000 are unreliable as to the names of mountains and villages, the direction of streams and the location of rivers and trails. None of the names of mountains in this region are recognized by the natives and the large mountain mass on the Italian map, Monti Seccia does not appear to be on the ground The Buca-Gore trail and the ngaro-Gore caravan route are certainly much further apart than shown on that map all the village names on the route shown on the EAS map are unknown to the local inhabitants As a result of all this can only vaguely indicate ;xy route from Ilu Babor to Ghera. o ./124 124 Between the North and main branches of the Gogeb there is a large mountain, called Gara Geisha, which is about 9000 ft, highc This is the last mountain of any size which is seen between the Gogeb and Gore on the western route. In northern Gomma there is a range of mountains called Bale running for some distance northeast and southwest toward the Sai Mountains« The Gabba river rises in the Lemman highlands somewhere between the B alo Range and Geisha Mountain, parallels the Balo on the east side and flows through the gap between them and the Sai Range into the Guma country0 In southern and western Chora there is a large group of mountains, the chief of Ciallac It appears to be over 9000 feet high0 Just west of Cialla at a distance of about 10 kilometers the smaller Gara(G«) Wara and further peaks can be seen extending all the way to the Gogeb0 Gara saddero is a long ridge between the Naso and Boru(Ducco) Rivers and Garra Santamma is an isolated ridge near Agaro at the headwaters of the Didessa River* Central and eastern Gomma and Gherae is a nearly level rolling country draining to the Didessa* The whole of the area covered was composed of black basalt with the exception of the highlands near the western end of the Balo Range and the top of Saddero, which are of a much weathered coarse structured pink ineous material, some igneous conglomerate was seen in the beds of the Gabba the Naso and a few smaller streams* Nowhere was sandstone or sedimentary rock observed. A curious feature of the region is that all the valleys are silted up, possibly as a result of recent tilting0 Some steep sided valleys are filled to a depth of 500 feet and are over a .„/125 125 kilometer across at the present surface* This filling is of pure organic muck where it was examined and there is every indication that they were lakes not long ago0 The upper Gabba runs in a very steep sided valley which is only 2 or 300 feet below tie generally flattened surface of the Lemman plateau, indicating, to my mind, a very recent change in the rate of erosion* On the eastern trail, just south of the village of Colla in Ilu-Babor, there is a large stream flowing north east carrying a large volume of water over a 60 foot waterfall* There is a fine site for a dam at the fall and a large storage basin above it* The name given me was Dibo, but the Dibo flows west and I did not pass any stream north of here originating to the east of the trail which carried this volume of water, so I conclude that it must be a branch of the Gabba„ Should there over be use for power in this region here is an ideal site* CLIMATE The climat of the forest of the Southwest is not the hot, humid type that fiction, at least, usually associates with jungle forest of density* At the low point of elevation reached, around 4500 feet, at the Gogeb-Naro crossing, it is quite hot in the daytime, but the nights are cold and there is a heavy dew* On the western slope, between 5500 and 8000 feet elevation, it is never hot during the daytime and is often quite cold at night* The high Lemman and Gomma country, part of which must be close to 10,000 feet above sea level, is often quite cool in full sunlight and frost was observed at our camp on the bank of the Gabba River. On some nights three doubled wool blankets were required over one for comfort. * * */ 126 126 This region is marked on most rainfall maps as being the wettest part of the country and this is undoubtedly true. The area of maximum precipitation is roughly between 6.30* to 8.20T Ne Lat0 and 35.0f to 36.30* E. Long. The seasons are not divided into wet and dry as in other parts of Ethiopia but it may, and usually does, rain all the year round. From the months of April to September the rains occur daily and during the rest of the year every second or third day. The rainfall maps show about seventy inches as a maximum but I think it must be over hundred in the Lemman plateau. There are, to my knowledge no records of this region available. All the streams are perennial and the rivers carry a very large volume of water, even in the "dry" season. During the summer months travel through this region is quite impossible as none of the larger streams are passable. POPULATION The population of the whole area is predominantly Galla of the various types and this language is the one most commonly used. The Caffa people and language predominate south of the Gogeb and in Ghescia Amhara are found at the present time only along the Gimma-Boga road, near Gore and there are a few in the villages as officials. They had settled large areas of land given them by Menelik after his conquest but were killed or driven out by the Galla at the time of the Italian occupation. There is a large cleared area on the south end of Saddero Mountain, at Gurae in Machi Ghera, which has been abandoned within a few years. On enquiring the cause I was told it was because of Schifta, or bandits, and animals. Further enquiry revealed that the Schifta were the Galla who reclaimed their lands when the Italians came and the wild animals were babboons and monkeys who destroyed the crops of the Galla upon their return. .../127 127 The first Munga, or forest people, were encountered in the Ginnai watershed and a few were seen all the way along the trail to Gore0 They live in the forest all the time and are chiefly occupied with the collection of wild honey and Garamon, but a few have cleared lands and grow barely and dura. They are not numerous and are looked upon as an inferior people by the Caffa and Amhara, perhaps because they eat the flesh of the Guereza monkey«, A few Shankalla can be found in the area and they probably represent past days of slavery, as their country is far to the west and they are loath to leave it except under compulsion. I was unable to gain much information on the reported alave dealing activities in the region at present, but such informat ion as I did get indiactes that it still goes on. One of the striking features of this region is the lack of population in an area which seems among the richest agricult urally and healthy of the whole country,, Except for a narrow strip along the Bonga road and the country of eastern Gomma and Gherae the whole area is almost unbroken forest, with an occasional clearing here and there*Most of the villages marked along the trails do not exist and where they are only a few houses in the middle of a clearing of at most a few hundred for a thousand acres. The entire Gogeb Valley west of the Bonga Ilu Babor east of the trail<, The Sai area is said to have no trails across it and to be completely unknown to the local people. Occasionally one can get a very long distance view west from the trail across the country of Butte, Bache, and Mocha but nowhere can a sizable clearing or anything except dense forest be seen. The solid forest extends within ten kilometers south of Gore„ . «./l23 128 The Kingdom of Caffa, which probably took in most of this region was only conquered as recently as the time of Menelik II, although the Portugese Chroniclers recorded a visit to it with the then reigning King in 1550, It was long reputed to be a populous and powerful Kingdom and is one of the oldest centers of Christianity in the Empire, There are floristic evidences that great areas of this forest region have been cleared and cultivated or grazed, but it reverted to forest again a very long time ago, probably more than 1 or 2 hundred years agc0 Since the predomi nant religion in the region at present is Moslem, it seems probable that the conquest by the Muslims from the east and the slave trade which flourished under them up to a very recent date resulted in the present almost completed depopulation of the region. New conquerors are rarely agriculturists and when they are also slave traders the incumbent agricultural people are very apt to disappear*, The government of the area centers in the Province capitals of Gore and Gimma and is passed on down to the Amhara Sub-province Governors appointed from them. Districts have an appointed Meslane and perhaps a Treasury Official, non of who are likely to be natives of the country in which they serve. The real powers among the people are the Blabats or hereditary chiefs, and their position is probably of very ancient origin. They usually own considerable land and may have an imposing group of houses as a seat, but they are unostentatious and their control over the people seems to be of a spiritual rather than material nature. Their graves are carefully tended, marked with a stone cairn and sometimes a moat, four or six phallic posts, and are usually surrounded by a fence of wood or tree-fern trunks, I saw no other evidences of paganism in my travels than the trophy symbols and pairs of horns over such graves. • o e/ 129 129 These people do not follow the custom of the Siddama to worship the Ryaena hanged by the roadside as a warning to their kin. The local courts are presided over by the Balabat and usually consist of a tree-form trunk palisaded enclosure beside the main trail» On two occasions I have seen a Dukula skull on a stick before the entrance and usually there is a series of three posts set close together slose to the trail* The inhabit ants are courteous and peaceful and seem contented* The main food of the region is Ko'icho, a sorry, sour and evilsmelling bread made from Musa ensete; ingera made of teff, dura, maize or a combination of these; and a heavy but pleasant loaf made by baking pounded maize or barley under the ashes and coals of the fire„ Tej is to be found in every village but the native beer brewed from barley, Tala, is only found in the northern and eastern borderse Its place is taken by a beer brewed from dura flour and fermented,. It is quite thick and of very unpleasant appearance, but drinkable after a little practice* Sheep are about the only animals available for meat, cattle and goats being very rare and most of the country is unsuited to game. The money in use over most of the region is the Tomini, a small silver coin which is nominally a sixteenth part of the Maria Teresa Dollar* The value of these coin stands at 12 to the Dollar at Gore and it goes as high as 11 or 10 in the interior. Only unworn ones are accepted and because of their scareit, trading is made very difficult. In the area dominated commercially by Gimma the Italian 5 Lira silver coin is most commonly used. Its current value is „50 EeAa Shillings and in the markets it is difficult to use shillings, but nowhere outside this area are Lire accepted,, o.o/lSOi 130 AGRICULTURE Except in the immediate vicinity of Gimma, Gore and the Bcnga highway the agricultural activity of this region is of a subsistance rather than a commercial nature,, This is forced on the people by the lack of transportation routes other than very poor mule trails which are completely impassable during at least half of the year* Dura is of course the main crop of the region and the Misingo (Amhara) or Shangada(Galla) variety seems to be prefered. This is a very tall variety, up to 18 ft,, , with white seed and an upright open head It does not seem to bear as heavily as the red bent-neck variety but is reputed to have good storing qualities in the Sudan and may be preferred here also because it will make a white ingera* Some of the red bent-neck variety, called Singa(Amhara) or Shuri(Galla) was seen but it is not very common* The stalk of Misingo carries no sugar while Singa is quite sweet„ There are many hybrids between the two and the nomenclature may be found to be more detailed than I have given above* Over most of the area the Dura was ready for harvest during the first of January0 Teff is grown throughout the region and constitutes with barley the second or third crop of thu region* Three varieties are grown, the white, black and red and it is quite probable that the entire crop is consumed locally* It is made into ingera and usually mixed with dura or maize* Barley is widespread in the higher parts of the region and exceptionally fine crops were seen in Gomma and Ghera* The heads are large and varieties seem more constant than in Scioa,although some admixture of purple heads were seenQ ns with Teff, the *00/131 133 | Young seedlings are not removed and the result is anything but a commercial plantation* Coffee grown around the villages in the open is usually interplanted year after year with teff or other grains and this practice together with sunburning and . drought during the dry months soon results in complete unprodu- ctivity0 There are several large Government owned coffee forests in this regjion, such as Limmu and Agaro north of Gimma with an area of about 4,500 acres; Waldia and Afallo in Gnera and others in Caffa, Bonga and Scica Ghinrniirac I inspected the Agarro and Ghera areas; and found them in a very bad state from overshading and general abandonment® It will be possible to bring them back to production within a period of three years if good cultural practices are introduced® At present they produce nothing which goes to the treasury* I do not place any credence in the often repeated statement that Caffa is the natural home of the coffee* It is not a natural component of these forests but naturalizes easily and is widespread around the site of old plantations, which often require careful inspection and study of the forest composition to dtermine as much* There are records which indicate that coffee has been exported from Caffa for several hundred years. Legumes of various sorts, chiefly the tall heavy-stemmed been and the purple flowered pea, are very common and probably are used in rotation following the grains® They are ready for harvest early in the year and form an important item of the diet of the people. Not as much care is taken with cultivation in the southwest as in other parts of the country* Fields do not seem to be weeded after planting and very often lie fallow for a year instead of being annually rotated® .../■134 134 Some clod terracing and contour plowing was seen to be practiced on hillsides and in a very few places irrigation ditches were in place* Regardless of the apparent lack of pride in appearance, the yields derved were in excess of those of any other part of the country and there seemed to be a complete freedom from disease* All crops, such as barley, teff, etc., are picked or pulled by hand rather than cut, although the harvesters carry sickles* Community plowing and harvesting is the rule, but I believe the fields and crops are of individual ownership and do not know the basis on which such collective work is carried out* Plowing is done with oxen but I did see a pair of digging sticks lying in one filed0 Animal Husbandry Animal husbandry, as is to be expected, is not well developed in such a predominantly forest area. At this time of year the cattle have been brought up from the savannah-grass valleys of the Gogeb, Naso, Boru etc., and held near upland watering places while the tall grass is being burned, which starts in the Omo and lower Gogeb about the first of December and is finished in the upper elevations by the middle of January. Then are returned to the lowlands along the rivers when the new grass appears and kept there until the grasses are too tall to use. A large mineral spring just west of Shabe on the Bonga road is a favorite holding place and is considered very health ful for the cattle* The cattle seen were usually of the ordinary medium sized humped variety with short horns but they vere all in excellent condition* In northern Ghera, near the village of Galla, an extremely fine herd of fawn white short horns were seen* ^t Gore a small herd of milk cows with udders about twice the size normal to the country were observed* In this herd three out of twenty animals were naturally hornless. -» c/l35 134 Some clod terracing and contour plowing was seen to be practiced on hillsides and in a very few places irrigation ditches were in place, Regardless of the apparent lack of pride in appearance, the yields derved were in excess of those of any other part of the country and there seemed to be a complete freedom from disease* All crops, such as barley, teff, etc*, are picked or pulled by hand rather than cut, although the harvesters carry sickles® Community plowing and harvesting is the rule, but I believe the fields and crops are of individual ownership and do not know the basis on which such collective work is carried out„ Plowing is done with oxen but I did see a pair of digging sticks lying in one filed* Animal Husbandry Animal husbandry, as is to be expected, is not well developed in such a predominantly forest area. At this time of year the cattle have been brought up from the savannah-grass valleys of the Gogeb, Naso, Boru etc,, and held near upland weltering places while the tall grass is being burned, which starts in the Omo and lower Gogeb about the first of December and is finished in the upper elevations by the middle of January, Then are returned to the lowlands along the rivers when the new grass appears and kept there until the grasses are too tall to use, A large mineral spring just west of Shabe on the Bonga road is a favorite holding place and is considered very health ful for the cattle* The cattle seen were usually of the ordinary medium sized humped variety with short horns but they vere all in excellent condition. In northern Ghera, near the village of Galla, an extremely fine herd of fawn white short horns were seen. At Gore a small herd of milk cows with udders about twice the size normal to the country were observed* In this herd three out of twenty animals were naturally hornless, -../135 135 There are many more sheep than goats, the former coarse- hatted and of the usual fat-tailed type, very mediocre in breeeding as a rule* Mules are widespread but few in actual numbers and very poor in quantity• Donkeys are almost absent from the region, all the packing and especially the long distance caravan work, being done by men or mules- Horses are rare and usually poor, but there are some good ones in the extreme southeast* This region offers great oppurtunities for controlled resettlement of agricultural workers and I saw two areas which appeared to be ideal for this purpose* Thr first was in the vicinity of Ourabbo in Ilu Babor, two days journey south of Gore* The land here is comparatively level, extremely fertile and well watered and the brush and forest covering is light enough to be removed without great effort* The second is the western part of Gomma and Ghera where again all the requisites for successful agriculture are present* Both these areas are healthful and the country-side is pleasant in the extreme* On questioning the officials of Ghera they stated that they had considered the question and would welcome a settlement scheme in their district* Yield in both these areas are about 50% higher than they are-in the Scioa uplands and the amount of land available is the amount one wishes to clear of the inferior forest covering it* FAUNA • As with the human population the most outstanding characte ristic of the fauna of the southwestern forest is its scarcity* This is partly due to the fact that most of the large animals of Africa are savannah and grassland dwellers and shun a forest * * * */136 ! 136 i unless driv,en into ito A contributory factor is the possession of rifles for large number of years by the natives and a complete lack of game law enforcement* At the present time game can bej brought in some of the markets and when asked why the Gogeb valley was without any animals at all the locals ! replied that they had all been killed off during community hunting drives a few years ago. This area formerly abounded l in Roan Antelope and Oryx gallarum while now not even a Hidaqua can, be seen during several days Journey« There are three isolated elephants in the Abagaccio forest of southern Ghera and I saw fresh signs of them* The newt herd, reputed to number over a hundred, occupies the Omo watershed east of Bonga and Maji* There si probably a large herd west ? and south of Gurrafarda, and black Rhinoceros have been reported and near Maji* Rippopotamus are found in the Gogeb, Omo, Baro and other large rivers of the south and we-st0 i There are a few buffalo in Bonga and Caffa and they are reported in:upper Ilu Babor, They are very common in the forests and:along the rivers further west. Mater Buck are rare but widespread in the meadows of the drowned valleys0 i Dukula are almost universal throughout the region7 b u ‘:‘ tend to keep close to the inhabited areas where they can feed on the grain crops,, Madoqua are common and inhabit the forests here rather than;the open grass plains as in the rest of the country* The Reed Buck or Bohor is said to be present in the hills of lower Ghera and around Ghera„ I think the roan antelope has disappeared from all the region except around the southern and western borders,, The Lesser Kudu has been seen recently between Bonga and Scioa Ghimmira and Oryx gallarum is present in herds in the lower Gogeb valley and on the plains of the sout^* ( ° ®/l37 i 13-7 The most numerous of the animals here are the various monkeys and they include two varieties of Babboon which live near the open and cultivated lands, causing great damage to cropso The Chenna is a beautiful dark blue monkey, probably related to Cercopithecus, which occupies the densest forest and is difficult to see* The Colobus Guereza is present in countless numbers throughout the forest and in many places shows little fear of man* This monkey furnishes food for the Munga people of the Caffa foresto The small Red Forest Pig, Choiropotamus larvarus, and the Giant Forest Hog, Hylochoerus meinertzhaqenii ? are widespread throughout but are eaten by none of the various people* Crocodiles are widespread, particularly in the west, but have been seen in the Gogeb as far up as the Ginnai confluence«, Shankes are very rare in the eastern part but they are common in the west, particularly the Python* A single Black Mamba, three meters long, was shot in the Abgaccio forest of Ghera and they are reported to be confined to that place and extreme scuth. Vermillion Mamba are reported in the Gogeb valley and the Green Mamba is present southwest of Gore* A small species of true squirrel is present throughout the forest but is rare and shy« No Hyrax or Dendrohyrax were seen but they undoubtedly exist where there are cliff outcrops. There are a few lion in the middle Gogeb valley, and very many in the Omo valley, the plains of the south and west near Gurrafarda* The Leopard, both spotted and black, is found in all the area but are not common* Hyaena and Jackals can be o.o/l3S 138 heard every night and signs of the two species of Viverridaie can be seen along every miles of the trails* Zebra are found on the edge of the forest west of Gurrafarda and Masango* Fish of several species, including Barba and Tilapia, are found in all the larger streams* Some reach a weight of three or four pounds ‘and are excellent sport with a light rod. The natives use them for food, and they are really very good but quite bony, but eat them only on the two fast days on each week and avoid them rigorously at other times® THE FOREST Area The Milizia Forestale of the Italians placed the area of the forest south of the Gambela-Gore-Gimma round and west of the Omo River at 20,000 square kilometers* It is my own opinion, based on inspection of some percentages of this region, that 30,000 square kilometers is a closer figure* This estimate excludes savannah and orchard forest but does not take into account the small cleared areas within the main forest area. It will require several years of reconnaissance before an even apporoximately close estimate of the gross area can be made* Except for a small section of cultivation west of Gimma, Agarro, and along the Dembi-Bedelle road, there is continuous and unbroken forest to about the latitude of Maji* According to my information the forest estends toward the west to near the foot of the Massango Mountains and the Akobo Plain* The only breaks I Saw in about 600 kilometers of travel through the center and northeastern part were small village clearings of ten square kilometers or less each* At one place it was a o o 139 -1--' 139 possible to see with the aid of field glasses a total expanse of forest 150 kilometers wide* It should be understood that not all this forest is of commercial quality, and in fact the area which carries especies of concentrations too low for profitable operation for exceeds that with commercial possibilities,, Again there are enormous bamboo forests which, in the proper location, would be of great value but must be classed separately from the commercially valuable timber forests. FOREST TYPES Senni, in his report of the Forest of Iechi, differentiated four major forest types* I have excluded the erophilous Steppe and the Savannah types from this report on the grounds that the former is not of great extent in this region under confederation and that the Savannah type should be made the subject of a separate study to avoid confusion* The Arundinaria type is universal but I will divide the Wet Macrothermal into three sub-types. None of this grouping is made as the result of sufficient study to warrant permanent consideration it is used merely to facilitate preliminary understanding of the forest and to indicate that differences in association were observed. Arundinaria Type Arundinaria alpina, the hollow-stemmed Bamboo, is known in Amhara as Karkahar and Galla as Lemrnan. It occurs almost exclusively in pure formations, thee density of its growth being such that boardleaved trees cannot survive with it* The largest of such formations is probably that of Lemman in Gamma and southern Ilu Babor where I estimate there are about 1000 square „oo/140 i 140 kilometers1 of pure bamboo» The pure formation is seen in this l section only at elevations of over 7,500 feet above sea level and continue up to the highest point, which may be slightly over 10,00.0 feet elevation.. This bamboo is Lemman is one of the most vigorous and robust of all the species and in this forest there are incredible amounts of material* The clumps ore rather open but as closely set as the crowns requirement of light will; allow and the canopy is such that the ground under thon is bare and constantly damp. The height of the stems runs fro:.i 50 to; 60 feet and the diameter is uniformly 5h inches for fully gro’.-n specimens, with walls about one inch thick at the butt* A few v;ere attacked by borer but this did not seem damage the plants Properly managed such a forest could produce an enormous amount of cellulose for the manufavture of paper or other products requiring this material, Arundinaria is reported to grow inipure formations in the west at elevations below 5000 feet, but I suspect it to be the Oxytenanthera abyssinica which occurs in the savannan forests at low elevations in the eastern Sudanv 'Another reed-like bamboo, possibly Oreobamqs, was seen in the gallery forest along the middle Gogeb* The wet Microthermal Type i This type is small in area and I have hesitated to give it the distinction of a type, but considering that its components, are v/ith one exception, not found in the Wet Macrothermal Type I do not belive it possible to place it as a sub-type under the latter* It is a very high elevation swamp type found in H u Babor, the Lamrnan and the Sai Forest<. In the Lemmo it is within the Bamboo forest but not a part of it® Its largest and main species is iSapium ellipticum, Bosoca, and only this one occurs in the Macrothermali type* Kosso, Haqenia anthlemintica; i Kacha-amo, Myrsino africana; Geisho? Rhamnus pauciflorus i — — — — ' I .../141 j 141 or prunoides; and Erko, Hypericium sp. are the only tree formed species in the type and these are stunted and gnarled# The epiphytic mosses which mark the Macrothermal type are replaced by lichens and the only orchid is the loafy stemmed radical species usually seen far to the north. This type is completely without value as a commercial timber forest. The wet Macrothermal Type X do'not consider this designation to be the best one for the Ethiopian forests, as it is apt to convey the idea that they are ^elated to the true wet tropical forests of Central Africa, whereas in fact they are very widely removed from them both in composition and character. I have adapted it, however, from the Italians, as an expedient pending the publication of an authoritative study of the whole forest region* The true type of this.association represents the Climax forest of .the region and is probably a stable association except where in fluenced by man's actions. At one time it probably extended over the whole area between 7,500 and 4j500 feet elevation but now it occupies considerably less than half. The reason for this is undoubtedly that large areas have been cleared for cultivation or grazing, as the nature of the forest is much that periodic fires cannot penetrate into it. It is certain that there are several different associations within this main type, but a great deal of Study is necessary before they can be differentiated. The dominant species, and the only ones in the forest with commercial possibilities are Fygeum africanum, Omi; Ekberqia reppellians* Sombo; Pouteria sp.; Kararro; Albizzi£ schimperianat| Ambabessa; Mjtragyna stipulosa, Worka; Croton ! .*./142 I 142 macrostachya Besano; Syzygium guineensis, Badessa; Apodvtes acutifolia, Uandebiu; and Cordi* abyssinica, UanzaP There is in addition a large tree common in the region of Gore and also in the east at Ghera, whose name I could not ascertain, Croton and Cordia are usually considered as elements of the wetter steppe formations but both reach their maximum development in this association and area. The co-dominants are Milletia ferruginea, or dura, Birbira,Erythrina excelsa(?), Korch; Schiefflera abyssinica, Gatam; Euphorbia candelabra, Kulkwal; Ficus sp„, Shola; and Polyscias fulva, Kariu. All these species are, by the way, of great versatility as to habitat and of widespread occurrence throughout the region and country » The secondstory species are B~rsama abyssinica, Azamerr; Celtis kraussiana, Ciai; Schefflera sp,, Tambelel; Dracaena aframontana, Shudu; Draceana steudneri, Hagenia anthelmintica, Kosso; Sapium ellipticum, Bosoca; Teclea sp, Adossa ? AHophyllus africanus, Sheho; Gymnosporia sp., Atat; Maesa lanceolate, Akalaua; Dombeya sp0, Wolkafa; Pittosporum sp* , Sole ?; Vernonia amygdalina, Graona; Galiniera coffeoides, Solie; Wotilo; Uonjo; Wuluaia; Ulagi and several other unidentified trees, Cassipourea elliotti, Galis; a species resembling Sagad and Psychotria, and Trichocladus malosanus, Madtissa, were seen but are not common* The most common undershrubs are a small Meliaceous tree; many species of Rubiaceae; arborescent Senecio; the Tree Fern, Cyathea sp,, which is found in the high wet valleys; arborescent Lobeliaceae; Meseriche, and Acanthus arboreusy Kosh—shilac e a/143 Lianas are very common and include Landolphia Owarensis(?), Gebo; L.florida, Dugi ; Embebelia schimperi, Angkoko; Smilax and several unindentified species. Zigba , Podocarpus gracilior, which has been often reported to exist in great quantity in this forest, is almost completely absento The trees were seen on the top of a hill at Sciagge in Caffa and a few were seen in the clearing north of Celia in Ghera. It is quite likely that this is the southern extension of this species and it is possible that it exists in quantity in the Sai Forest. Its absence greatly reduces the commercial possibilities of the forest. The Wet Scrub Subtype. This subtype represents an early stage in the transition of open grassland back to high forest. It must be definitely understood that the open lands referred to are the result of man's work and not the true savannah grasslands, as the latter are the result of climatic influences and the grass association itself is a climax association. From observations in the northeastern part of ‘"his forest region I would say that this subtype covered at least 50% of the whole area, and is an in time dicaticn that at one^there were very large areas cleared for agriculture and pasture. The age of this scrub is difficult to estimate but may vary between 50 and 200 years. The higher members do not form a closed canopy and the general appearance is very ragged, v/ith lianas, vines and brush being the most common and numerous forms, It has no commercial timber possibilities. 144 The species which compose this type are all of the widest distribution and most flexible ecological requirements,, They are for the most part adapted to living by themselves and are not necessarily dependent upon particular associations for their survival or reproduction* The two most characteristic species and also the largest of this subtype are Erythrina excelsa and Schefflera abyssinica. Croton macrostachys, Euphorbia candelabra, two species of Ficus, Draceana steudneri, Dombeya sp«, Albizaia schimperiana and in some places Pygeum africanum. The most common smaller trees and shrubs are Maesa lanceolata. Vernonia amygdalina and Acamthus- montana. In some places this subtype may change to pure Albizzia Schimperiana and when well developed this represents a very valuable commercial stand. Macrothermal Swamp Sub-type This sub-type does not occupy a very large area in many one place but in the aggregate represents perhaps 10 to 15% of the total Southwest forest„ It is confined to the flat, swampy, drowned valleys and never extends ont6 hilly or rolling lands0 The most characteristic species are Phoenix reclinata, Sapium ellipticum, Pittosporum spa> Cymnospcria sp»f Ucnjo,and in the west Mitragyna stipulosa« It is rarely a continuous forest and is spotted in clumps within broad areas of savannah grasses and sedges or as a continuous margin to the flat and wet areas® It is of no commercial value as the usable species, Mitragyna, is of only sporadic occurenceB *„o/145 / 145 The species of trees and shrubs which make *up these formations are entirely East African in their affiliations , and there is lacking any single representative of the Central African forms.. The Sudan representative is Mitragyna stipulosa alone and that is also widely distributed in Uganda and Kenya. This marked differentiation between the composition of the East and Central African forests is a very interesting study, and is not easily explained by the existing climatic and geographic factors* A thorough botanical survey of Ethiopia and the highlands of the southern Sudan are needed in order that the relationships and differences between the two floristic regions may be better understood. Commercial Exploitation The only sawmill in the whole Southwest Forest is at Belleta, 45 km. south of Gimma on the Bonga roadB It was construsted by the Italians for the primary purpose of supplying timber for use on the roads and in the town of Gimma. It has not operated since the war except for a few days but will probably be opened in a few weeks to supply bridge and culvert timbers for the reconstruction of the Bonga road* The chief obstacle to its opening for operation has been, as with other mills in the country, the inability to secure a clear cut concession. This mill is equipped with large and small band log saws, a frame saw and numerous wood-working tools such as planers, surfacers, matchers, band saws, etc*, but there are not any blades, knives or parts for its operation at anything except a fraction of its capacityD There are two steam boilers and engines, of about 20 and 35 horsepower respectively end is probable that the mill has a capacity of 12 cubic meters per day of hardwoods. . a »/146 145 The species of trees and shrubs which make *up these formations are entirely East African in their affiliations, : and there is lacking any single representative of the Central African forms, The Sudan representative is Mitragyna stipulosa alone and that is also widely distributed in Uganda and Kenya, This marked differentiation between the composition of the East and Central African forests is a very interesting study, and is not easily explained by the existing climatic and geographic factors* A thorough botanical survey of Ethiopia and the highlands of the southern Sudan are needed in order that the relationships and differences between the two floristic regions may be better understood* Commercial Exploitation The only sawmill in the whole Southwest Forest is at Belleta, 45 km* south of Gimma on the Bonga road. It was construsted by the Italians for the primary purpose of supplying timber for use on the roads and in the town of Gimma, It has not operated since the war except for a few days but will probably be opened in a few weeks to supply bridge and culvert timbers for the reconstruction of the Bonga road. The chief obstacle to its opening for operation has been, as with other mills in the country, the inability to secure a clear cut concession. This mill is equipped with large and small band log saws, a frame saw and numerous wood-working tools such as planers, surfacers, matchers, band saws, etc,, but there are not any blades, knives or parts for its operation at anything except a fraction of its capacity. There are two steam boilers and engines, of about 20 and 35 horsepower respectively end is probable that the mill has a capacity of 12 cubic meters per day of hardwoods* » a »/146 146 The forest of Belleta is a valuable commercial forest both because of its location and the species it contains, but it is not of great extent- There is perhaps enough saw timber within hauling distance of the mill to keep it in operation for a period of three or four yearse The principal timber here is Omo; considerable amounts of Badessa, Sombo, Jalalaca or Uandebiu and much fine Kararro# There are the othc-r usual species of minor commercial importance but they will not be cut except for special uses or in emergency« Saddero Forest, on the east slope of Saddero Mountain, contains large stands of Uandebiu, Kararro and Bedessa and is not too far from the Bonga road to be impossible to use, particularly for local uses0 It is quite extensive and contains a very large quantity of timber„ Regi Forest, located on the southwest end of Gara Saddero, contains the finest stands of Uandebiu that I have seen in the whole region* It is nearly pure and the trees reach diameter of from one to two meters and most of them are ever 35 meters in height« They are mature but seem to be still in good condition* There is some Kararro mixed in with them but not a great deal* Omo is almost entirely missing,, The Forest of ^vnderachia or Afallo occupies the lower Naso valley end the slopes of Gara Gwara in western Ghera* It also contains fine Jalalaca, Sombo and some Badessa. Omo is more common here. The Gara Timbo Forest, at least on the north slope and quite probably over its entire area, contains among the finest Sombo forests of the country,, There is in addition much Omo and Kararro and some Badessa., This forest appeare to cover an area -•/147 147 of about 100 square kilometers and contains a large volume of fine timber. With the improvement of the roads to and around Gimma it is not out of reason to assume that these above forests will have commercial possibilities in the future, in view of the fact that there is a shortage of good sawable hardwood in the country* In Caffa, south of the Gogeb River and all the way from Dadibano to Charga at the Ginnai-Gogeb confluence, there is an excellent forest containing Ambabessa, Karraro, some Jalalaca and Badessa, and the finest Uanza I have seen in the whole country,, The Uanza occurs between Badibano and Buta and reaches a diameter of 1^ meters and a height of 30 or more meters® It is here straight and clean boled, in contrast to the usual short-boled and branching specimens of the rest of the country* This area of good forest probably covers an area of over 15oo square kilometers in Caffa and Butte and extends to as far south as Scioa Ghimmira. North of the main Gogeb stream, from Geisha all the way to the town of Guedoma in Dido the forest is the degenerate Korch-Gatam type which represnts second-growth on old cleared landso This extends north and east to the Lemman Bamboo forest but it. is not known how far it extends to the west. There are within it a few areas of good Sombo and Jalalaca and along many of the streams and wetter flats Badessa of form occurs in pure stands, but in general the most valuable tree it contains is Besano* */148 148 The northern edge of the forest between Guedoma and Gore has a strip about ten kilometers wide containing very fine pure stands of Albizzia schimperiana of good size and form* It is quite possible that this could be sawn for use around Gore and in construction on the roads of the region0 All the forests to the south are at present too far removed from transport facilities to be of commercial value* The Bamboo forests of the Lemman in Gomma contain millions of tons of cellulose but again they are too remote to be of use at present* RUBBER One of the most valuable and certainly the most immediately usable product of the southwestern forest is rubber,, This is present in the Landolphia owarensis liane which has furnished large quantities of rubber during the present war* Landolphia florid^ is present and is very similar in appearance but does not furnish a latex of this resource in July 1945 with a quasi-military organization of 120 Britishers known as the Ethiopia Rubber Development Unit® Their plan of operation was to train native laborers as collectors and coagulators operating from base camps under British supervisors* They constructed several large camps at Belleta, at Dembira, south of Bonga, and in the region of Gore* Much time was spent on tapping and coagulation experiments, camp and road construction etc*, and by the end of August 1944 production had amounted to 35 tons* At that time the Ministry of Supply decided to suspend the operations and the equipment was sold to the Ethiopian Government* Their failure was probably due to the use of too elaborate an organization, the use of day labor rather than the purchase of the latex from native collectors, and poor management* * a/149 149 It is the plant of the Ethiopian Government to continue the work on a much simpler basis. They will use two-man coagulating crews located within the various Landolphia areas and buy the latex from the natives at' a rate which will give them a wage of 1 shilling E«Ao per day, the prevailing wage for the region. Transport to Gore will by mule or porter and shipment will be made from Gambela* Active work will start before February 1st*, The factors governing the distribution of Gebo, Landolphia Owarensis, are very difficult to determine, but I believe atmosph eric humidity to be the most important and soil moisture and heat are next in order* It is most often found on the steep and densely covered slopes of streams, but one of the heaveiest concentrations I have ever seen was under tall climax forest on an unbroken slope at over 9000 feet elevation* It is often found on densely wooded flat lands, but never in swamps, and may be completely absent from areas or associations where one would except to find it from past experiencee It seems to be most often found in the Pouterla-Apodytes climax association* One of the main purposes of this reconnaissance was to determine the distribution and density of this species, - There is a fair concentration of Gebo in the Belleta Forest and on the east slope of Gara Saddera, but it was thoroughly tapped by the British, who had their base and experimental camp there* On the southwest slope of Gara Saddero there is a very dense and quite large untapped stand* On both banks of the lower Naso River there is a good quantity, but its completely absent from Gara Timbo and all the Lemman country to as far north as Ourabbo, two days journey south of Gore* * */150 150 There are good concentrations in the forests bordering the middle Gogeb and fair amounts in the forest all the way from the Badibona crossing of the Gogeb to Geisha Mountain and the enormous forests of Butte, Bitti and Chaca are said to carry heavy stands* As soon as the trail leaves the upper Gogeb gorge in Geiscia it disappears, except for fairly heavy concentr ations in the steep stream valleys, until one reaches Guedoma* From there to Gore, a distance of 35 to 40 kilometers and extending east through Ilu-Babor into the Sai Forest, it reaches the highest concentration I have observed» There are reports of large a mounts of Gebo in the Sai region, Wallega and Lekemti as well as in the extreme southwest, but I have not had time to visit these regions to confirm them® It is definite that there are very large amounts of Landolphia owarensis in the country but anything resembling an accurate survey of the amount or location would require six months of mule-back and foot travel. If the Ethiopian Government’s efforts to develop rubber are properly managed a considerable tonnage can be produced® Corrorima Amomum Korrorima, Corrorima or Cardamon, is a spice of world wide use and particularly relished by Arabic people* It occurs wild in favorable places in the vicinity of Gimma and throughout the southwest forest from Gore to near Majie It grows about four feet high and resembles a ginger plant; being found in the densest forest and along streams where the atmospheric humidity is high* It bears a red fleshy ellipsioid fruit about . o/l51 151 three inches long containing the spicy seeds, which mature about the end or middle of November; is collected and sold by the natives in the local markets* It is exported after drying to both the Sudan and Arabia and a very considerable quality is used in the country® The price it commands in the Addis Ababa market .is quite out of proportion to the cost in the country markets and the transport charges. There is a very great chance that this can be developed to a major article of commerce for the region, and experiments with cultivation should be initiated immediately. At present there is not a single cultivated plant in the country® Wax and Honey Honey is widely produced in the region but rarely enters into anything except local commerce, perhaps because the transport facilities are so limited*, In the vicinity of every . village or clearing many hives can be seen in the trees, sometimes as many as a dozen can be seen in a single Ficus or large Beasano and they are usually placed up to 100 feet above the ground* Their form is cylindrical, usually 31/2 feet long and a foot in diameter* They are made of palm or bamboo stem- sheaths, matting or bark and I believe that a large percentage of the hives one sees in the trees are empty,, Most of the honey is used locally for brewing of tej, the native wine, but near Gore and Gimma a small quantity is sold in goat skins for shipment to the higher priced Addis Ababa market. None is exported from the country,, The wax is sold in the markets in the form of balls containing up to 40% dead bees and impurities. The natives do not melt or clean their wax in any manner. The merchants who buy in the markets purify it by melting and ..../15 2 151 three inches long containing the spicy seeds, which mature about the end or middle of November; is collected and sold by the natives in the local markets* It is exported after drying to both the Sudan and Arabia and a very considerable quatity is used in the country* The price it commands in the Addis Ababa market is quite out of proportion to the cost in the country markets and the transport charges*. There is a very great chance that this can be developed to a major article of commerce for the region, and experiments with cultivation should be initiated immediately. At present there is not a single cultivated plant in the country* Wax and Honey Honey is widely produced in the region but rarely enters into anything except local commerce, perhaps because the transport facilities are so limited* In the vicinity of every village or clearing many hives can be seen in the trees, sometimes as many as a dozen can be seen in a single Ficus or large Beasano and they are usually placed up to 100 feet above the ground* Their form is cylindrical* usually 31/2 feet long and a foot in diameter* They are made of palm or bamboo stem- sheaths, matting or bark and I believe that a large percentage of the hives one sees in the trees are empty* Most of the honey is used locally for brewing of tej, the native wine, but near Gore and Gimma a small quantity is sold in goat skins for shipment to the higher priced Addis Ababa market* None is exported from the country* The wax is sold in the markets in the form of balls containing up to 40% dead beea and impurities* The natives do not melt or clean their wax in any manner* The merchants who buy in the markets purify it by melting and * «•e/152 15 2 allowing to settle for a period of about 24 hours but some of them improve the product b^r the addition of animal fats or paraffin,. The pure wax commands a high price in the export market and there is a very good opportunity to strengthen the economy of this region by intelligent and well manged exploitation of this resource® Rotenone One of the most widespread trees in Ethiopia is Milletia dura (5yrtoMoferruglnea); locally known as BirbiraD It is particularly common in the forests of the southwest and is found in the drier sections as well in abandoned clearings and degraded high forests« The natives use the seeds as a fish poison and experiments at the Biological Laboratory at Addis Ababa have shown a concentration of at least 1% of rotenone as well as other alkaloids possessing insecticidal properties. It is particularly officient against against lice and scabies and should be of commmercial importance when further investifations have shown the nature and exact amounts of effective substances in the seed. This tree is particularly abundant and well developed in western Gomma between Ghera and Limmu and near Agarro, It is also present in quantity south of the Gogeb near Daditano0 Studies of its properties will be continued and efforts will be made to develop this product commercially, at least for internal consumption* 153 Report No VI ( February, 1945) THE SIDDAMA FORESTS The forests of Siddama are the most easterly extension of the large broadleaf forests of east Africa* They lie just east of the Rift Valley, and extend from 5 degrees 80 min® to 7 degrees 20 min® north latitude. They occupy the highlands separating the Rift Valley lake drainage system from that of the Uebi Schebeli, Ganale Doria and Daua Palma Rivers toward the east. High forest extends down to an elevation of 5500 feet and up to the tops of the higher hills at about 9500 feet® Gara Gamba, which reaches to nearly 11,000 feet is covered with Erica Arborea at the higher elevations. The forest of Balo, which lies farther east is not considered here because of its distinctive®composition and its lack of continuity with these of Siddama* Roughly speaking, the outline of the forest is in the form of a right triangle with the point a little north of Sciasciamanna and the base, the line between Neghelli and Alghe*, The area thus enclosed is 14,000 square kilometersj and it was probably nearly all forested no very long ago, but now about three-quarters of it has been deforested by cultivation clearings and fires0 THE FOREST OF ARAB'S This is most northerly of the Siddama high forests, being located southwest of Lake Shala and 180 kilometers south of the railway at Mojjo, It lies between elevations of 7000 and 8500 feet above sea level on gently sloping country with few precipi tous valleys. The area is probably in excess of 100 square kilometerso ../ 154 154 The dominant species in this forest is Zigba, Podocarpus gracilior which reaches very fine development and probably presents two-thirds of the total volume of timber® The larger hardwoods are Olea hochstetterii, (Sigheda), Olea chrysophyllum (Woira), pygeum Africanum, (Sucche), Ekbergia ruppelliana(Onono), Syzygium Guineesse, (Adessa), Celtls Kraussiana (Ammalacca), and Apodytes sp» (Odda Badda)® The native names given here are limited to this section and do not correspond to the native names for the same species in other parts of the country* Of the above hardwoods, the most valuable commercial species are Ammalacca and Sucche, but some Badessa and Onono is cut® The second story species include Allophyllus Africanus, Manilkara sp«, Bersama sp«, Teclea sp®, Cassipourea elliottii, Croton macrostachys, Trichocladus malosanus, Schefflers abyssinica, Polyscias fulva, and unidentified species called by the natives Huda, Sissa and Guna® The Zigba reaches the best development of any part of the country here* Trees of 60 to 80 centimeters in diameter yielding four 4 meter logs are quite common* The hardwoods are not as well developed as in the southwestern forests, but nevertheless are of considerable commercial importance® All of the above listed are not dominant in size and form sufficient to furnish timber® Juniperus procera has not been seen in this forest but it is probably present on the upper slopes of Gara Abaro® THE DAMP FOREST The forest area is situated south of Hake Auassa and runs east to Gara Gorte® It is not continuous, as is the Abaro Forest, but has been reduced by clearing for cultivation to many small and scattered areas except for the stands on the slopes of the two large mountains, Gara Garamba and Gara Gorte® The large plain north of Uondo and near Dalle has been so recently cleared that there are forest type zigba and hardwoods every few hundred feet® The main ® o ®/155 155 species in this section is Zigba, but Sucche is more common and both it and Onono are better developed than they are farther north* Landolphia owarensis, the rubber vine, is present along the first branch of the Ghidabo above Uando. It is quite impossi ble to estimate the area of this forest without detailed reconnai ssance as it is so discontinuous in character. THE GIAM GIAM FOREST This forest area occupies the country south of Uando between the Neghelli and Iavello roads as far as the lowlands of the Dima River. It lies at the headwaters of the Conga River, on the south branches of the Chidabo River and on the Urga, which is the north branch of the Auata River. The terrain is very broken and mounta inous, with elevations varying from 5500 to 9000 feet* As in the Damo region, this forest is quite broken, but there are very large continuous areas at the headwaters of the Giam Conga and along the heights of the Giam^range. Zigba is present but is not the dominant species in the forest«, There forests are more of the southerwestern type with hardwoods dominating. In the Conga River'Valley, Sucche reaches nearly to its optmum development and Cordia abyssinica, Uonza, is of excellent size* The palm, Phoenix reelinata, is quite common here but rare in other parts of south. On the heights at the headwaters of the Conga the pure hardwood forest is -the best developed of the whole Siddamo region and is quite up to the quality of the good southwestern forests. Pouteria sp. is present only here and Odda Badda and Onono are of very fine size. Badessa is common along the streams, but is not well developed. ../156 156 Landolphia owarensis is quite common in the forests and there seems to be sufficient to warrant the government establi shing collection centers in connection with its program of development. Again, it is difficult to make any estimate of area for this section, as the center portion is quite unexplored, but natives report the forest to be continuous between the two roads from the Conga River to just above Adola and on this information the area must be very large* THE MAGADA FOREST This forest area lies south of the Dima River and runs from the Iavello road in the west to the Ganale Doria River above Adola in the east. The forest is about 40 kilometers long. The portion that is entirely forested is not at present known, but it is quite large and may exceed half the total. The Italians had estimated the eastern portion, Magada proper, to have an area of 800 square kilometers and two smaller forests north of Adola, named Uadara and Adola, at 550 square kilometers* If anything, this is an underestimate and there may quite easily be closer to 2000 square kilometers of forest in this section if any reliance can be placed on native accounts* The northern portion of this section contains a mixture of Zigba and hardwood species in about equal proportions* The hard woods are not very well developed* Sigheda and Sombo being about the only ones of sufficient size for cutting. The forest here is quite dense and carries a large volume of timber, but the Zigba here is not as well developed as it is farther north; two logs per tree being about the average. The understory trees most 157 common are Teclea sp*, Hadesa; Gymnosporia sp.., Combolcia ,’ Pittosporum abyssinicum, Bersama sp*, Allophyllus africanus and Cassipourea elliottii« Along the southern edges Premna Anqolensis and Kauwolfia oxyphyJj.a come in from the adjoining savannah forest» An extremely interesting phenomenon; which is present in this forest, is the pure Zigba formation along its southern edge, under conditions of drought in which one would not expect to find this species at all* The density is very great but the tree are not up to the standards of development found farther north« Even considering this, there is an enormous amount of saw timber in this formation, and were it not for the difficulties of transport, there are few forests in the country which could so easily supply a sawmill as this© The hardwood species are better developed at the lower elevations just north of Adola than they are along the western part of this forest,. There is an isolated patch of Juniperus procera in a valley just south of Alghe, and this indicates that forest of this species may be found between the two points. Landolphia owarensis and florida exist right down to the southern edge of the high forest and may be in sufficient quan tity in more elevated interior to justify tapping. THE NEGHELLI FOREST This forest, which lies between Adola and Neghelli, is unique in the region in that it is composed of pure Juniperus procera* The area is estimated at 60 square kilometers and it is of very high value* The stand is thick and the quality of the timber is superior to that of this species from the northern re gions o The sawmill, which was operated here by the Italians, is now in ruins and it is doubtful that operations will be resumed, at least within the next several years* ***/158 158 Fringing the forest on the west and south, there is a narrow strip of xerophytic savannah formation of great interest. The species composing it comprise Fremna angolensis, Rauwolfis oxyphylla, Rhus abyssinica, Schreber a alata, Gardenis imperialis Combretum sp., TerminiXia sp., Prote-S abyssinica, Schrebera alata, Cussonia spB, Lannea sp., and Acacia spa , None of these species attain a size to be of more than local interest or value. In the lower elevations west of the forest near the Rift Valley lakes and south of the forest to the limit of the tree ve getation, there are extensive acacia forests* In the valleys where subsoil moisture is available, the zerophytic savannah formation is present* The acacia forest is not of sufficient density or development in form to warrant commercial operations other than charcoal production* However, if a railroad were ever to built through this region, these forests would furnish an ample supply of cross-ties® THE SAWMILLS The only sawmill operating in this region is in the forest of Abaro at Sciasciamanna. This is the best managed and equipped in the country, but at the present it is not operating because of lack of supplies. The establishment is divided into two sections about seven kilometers apart* The main log saw is equipped with a Brenta log saw, resaws and edgers and powered with a fine German high-pres- sure boiler and engine. It can cut in excess of 15 cubic meters per day and when supplies are availableit usually works nearly to capacity* The other mill is equipped with a small band log saw of about ten cubic meters per day capacity and a very large and well equipped wood-working establishment. .•0/159 159 Material here is usually sawn to order in sizes ranging from one centimeter in thickness up to large balks, and four meters in length„ All 2% centimeters and most 5 and 6 centi meter timber is trimmed to 30 centimeters width. Some six meter timbers are sawn for use in bridge construction on the local roads* All timber is trimmed to length, and end stacked after sawing, later being piled for partial seasoning before being shipped* Stacking is well done, and the quality of the product from this mill is infinitely better than that from any other producer in the country. Zigba is the main species used for but some Sucche and Ammalacca are sawn. The woodworking shop is used for the production of packing cases for the tomato canning factory operated by the same company and for furniture and other minor work* Zigba is used in the packing cases with excellent results* Logs are cut in the forest by day labor with white super vision and not by contract with local chiefs as is usual in other places. The result is far cheaper logs and better utilization of the tree* They are not barked or adzed in the forest but are sawn as they come in, showing that this expensive and unnecessary practice might be done away with in other regions. Saws are used for felling and bucking, and the logs are hauled to the mill on rubber tired axles drawn by six or eight oxen. There is the remains of a small sawmill on the banks of the Gnidabo River near Dalle which was destroyed when the Italians were driven out. There are no extensive forests very close to it, and it was probably used for supplying road cons truction materials* •oo/l60 160 During the Italian occupation a sawmill of ten cubic meters capacity per day was operated in the Juniper forest at Neghelli« This is now completely destroyed and it is probable that it will not be reconstructed unless for supply of local contractors working on the highways® TRANSPORT AND ROADS The distance of the only operating sawmill in the region that it Sciasciamanna; from the railroad at Mojjo is 180 kilo meters over what, at present, is an extremely bad dirt road* The only rodcoming feature of this route is that it is nearly all without grades* This road is of great importance as an outlet for other produce of this southern section and will probably soon be put into better condition* South of Sciasciamanna it improves somewhat as far as Uondo, where one road continues to south to Kenya and another branches southeast to Mogadiscu in Italian Somaliland, The Kenya road runs.through and on the edge of forest through all its length to below Alghe and it is 400 kilometers from the southern edge of the Magada Forest to Mojjo. With the present prices for tires and diesel oil, it is out of the question to haul that distance* This road has been abandoned for the past two years and only one or two cars per month now go south to Dilla, through traffic to Kenya using the eastern road and branching off below Neghelli. The eastern road to Neghelli is in better condition but still hardly possible for profitable use on such long hauls* The distance from Neghelli to Mojjo is 440 kilometers and requires from two to three very hard days travel for a diesel truck, * a #/161 161 The distance from Neghelli to Mogadiscu is 720 kilometers, and part of the road is paved. This has not been used for the past three years and is probably in very poor condition* The cost of transport of timber from Sciasciamanna to Mojjo is at present 120 Sh* E*A„ per cubic meter* This is exactly half the total price realized by the sawmill operator at the railroado The hauling is done by seven ton diesel trucks and about twelve hours are needed for the trip* Material hauled from south of the Conga River would probably bear a charge of twice this amount* COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES Because of the quality and density of the Zigba and the ease of logging operations, the Abaro Forest is of very great commercial importance* The operators have been able to survive the high cost of transportation and poor condition of the roads by keeping the quality of their lumber at a point where it com mands a premium over that of other mills® There is not how ever, room for another sawmill in this forest® There is a possibility that a sawmill cutting Onono, Sucche, and Odda Badda in the forests south of Dilla could be made to pay, particularly after the road north of Sciasciamanna has been put into better~condition® This is about the same distance from the railroad as the smaller forests south of Jimma and the haul has fewer grades® The Zigba forests here are too remote to be of value at present and could not compete with those of Chercher in Harrar or with that at Sciasciamanna* • • o / 162 162 When the market for Juniper pencil slats is opened, it may be possible to reopen the sawmill at Neghelli and truck the finished slats to .Mogadiscu„ The very much greater ton value may overcome the extreme distance to the haul* Except for this, there is no commercial prospect for this southern region of the forest in view at presento The Ethiopian Government plans to start collection of Landolphia rubber in the Siddama Forests in the near future and this will supply some income to a large number of people now out of work, but this is an activity which will cease within a few years® 163 Report No, VII The Juniper Forests February, 1945 « The Ethiopian forests of Juniperus procera, Tidh, are unique in the country in that they tend to form pure stands, where as all the other associations are of a mixed type* This species is confi ned for the most part to the upper elevations and has one of the widest distributions of any African tree, extending from the Nubian Hills in Southern Egypt all along the East African plateau west of the Nile Rift to Nyasaland* On rare occasions, it will extend down along ridges into very hot and dry country, but for the most part it prefers the cold high ridges regardless of the amount of rainf all present* It occurs throughout the central Ethiopian plateau, being absent only from the southwest, southeast, and the Danakil plain® The Chercher - Cugu Forests In the eastern Chercher forests, Tidh is not of as much im portance as Podocarpus® It occurs mainly as small patches of very well developed trees or as a poorer type on the high elevations® There are a few small areas northeast of Harrar, but they are neither of the extent or of sufficient development to warrant any commercial activity® An excellent Tidh forest exists on Gara Tita, near Burca and here it exists as a pure stand so close as to completely exclude undergrowth® The trees are not of great diameter, being all under 70 centimeters, but they are tall and limbless and will produce a ® * ®/164 164 high percentage of utilizable material* Unfortunately, this forest is being badly injured by agricultural clearings and the attendant fires. There are probably from 10 to 15 square kilo meters of such forest here* Just south of Asba Tafari,the Jalo Forest represents the most extensive Tidh forest of the Eastern section, covering an area of about 30 square kilometers as operable forest and another 25 square kilometers of lower quality* The latter forest is located on a range of hills east of Asba Tafari and because of poor site conditions is of more than local value for probably about a fifth of its areaB Jalo Forest is situated on the southern slope of Gara Saballe and is easily accessible by three roads running up to the actual forest<> The lower slopes are covered with mixed forest and there is a very fine Podocarpus along the streams. The two abandoned sawmills in this area concentrated for the most part on Podocarpus and a few attendant hardwoods while they were operating<> In the lower and wetter forests, the Juniper is for the most part of fine form and size, but sporadic in occurence. Trees of 55 meters in height and l h meters in diameter are not unknown, and such will yield as many as seven 4- meter saw logs* On the upper slopes and ridges pure stands are the rule, but here neither the size nor the quality are up to the lower forests * The trees in the better sections are about 25 meters tall and 60 meters in diameter but they are limby to the bas and often attain diameters out of pro portion to their height with consequent poor form-class* o.a/165 165 This forest could best be used -for the supply of piling and telephone poles for the country, as it is unlikely that sawmills will work on this species as long as there is an abundant supply of the more easily salable Podocarpus* A few hand pit-saws are operating in the region, using Tidh for .the most part and these should be encouraged because of the fact that they can utilize lower grade trees than the sawmills* There are evidences that fires were, common in these forests in the past, and this may account for the limbiness of the upper forests Fires are not an important factor at present. The remaining forests of eastern Chercher contain only a small percent of Tidh; it represents possibly ten percent of the merchantable stand at Ciallenco and about five to ten at Gara Muctar* This will be used mainly by the local inhabitants as tukul staves because of its ease in splitting* The Gugu Mountains carry the largest well developed and at the same time accessible Juniper forests in the country* It has not been studied, but its area may represent as much as 800 square kilometerscThis forest is located in the highlands in the western part of Harrar province and is connected to the railroad at Arba by a rough road, the forest lying from 70 to 150 kilometers from the station* There is no sawmill in the area at present,but it is a good commercial possibility* a t, */!66 166 The Bale Forests These forests arG located on the very high mountain chain south of the headwaters of the Uebi Schebeli River in the southeastern Harrar province® Their distance from the railroad, which is 250 kilometers to the nearest point at Adaba, precludes the possibility of their present day commercial use. The species occurs here between the elevation of 8, 000 and 11,500 feet and in nearly pure formation on the slopes and ridges* In the bottoms of the valleys a few very large Podocarpus and mixed hardwood species are seen, and at elevations over 11,000 feet Erica arborea mixes in and eventually replaces it to form pure stands* The general quality of this juniper is poor, due entirely to the long continued practice of burning, as the people in this region are purely pastoral in pursuit* Where areas have been protected from fires, excellent examples which surpass 60 meters in height may be seen* At the upper elevations, a few very large specimens of Hagenia AntheImintica can be seen but these are not in sufficient quantity to warrant operations for their specific utilization© No estimate of this forest has ever been made on the ground, but it may exceed 10,000 square kilometers in area*The Italians had located the largest and best equipped sawmill in the country in Adaba, evidently expecting to export the product via Mogadiscu, but the fact that the road to that part was never completed and the distance to the railroad at Adama made it completely imposs ible as a commercial project* The mill has now been dismantled and the machinery moved to the Chercher region* This forest is a valuable reserve for use when the transport facilities of the country have been better developed* e o o/l67 167 The Forest of Neghelli The forest of Neghelli, according to Italian reports, is of an area of 6,000 hectares*, It is nearly pure juniper and the trees are of good form* This is the most southern extension of the type in Ethiopia, being located 500 kilometers south of Addis Ababa, and about the same distance from Mogadiscu- The area between Neghelli and the Rift Valley has not been explored, but the presence of the Juniperus procera of fair development on the road between Alghe \ and lavello, indicates that there may be some forests of importance containing this species between these points* These would lie approximately on a line of 5 degrees, 15-30 Min« N* Lst*, and this may be taken as the extreme southern extension of the species in this country* The Italians had granted a concession and started a sawmill at Neghelli, but its importance was limited to the supply of local needs rather than the export of timber. The sawmill was ruined during the last hostilities but should be re-erected for road construction and such work of interest to the country. The timber sawn from these forests seems denser and darker than that from the northern forests, and if such is a characteristic of the region, these forests should be of great value as a source of supply for cabinet material* The Northern Juniper Forests The largest area of Juniper in the northern part of Ethiopia is the forest of Uoti, about 20 kilometers south of Dibra Sina, with an estimated area of 2,000 hectares* The Italians estimated the Juniper in this forest to amount to not less than 150,000 cubic meters of operating timber* Due to the necessity of constructing a difficult road over 20 kilometers lenght to this forest, it has never been exploited* Since it is only about 120 kilometers north 168 of Addis Ababa this is probably fortunate, as in the near future a realization of the value of this species for pencil slats and other usee may make it of great importance as a resource of the country, At Mai Ceu, north of Quoram, there is a small forest of pure Juniper of 1,000 hectares in ar£a* The quality of the timber here is not of the highest, as this location is at a low elevation and the dry season is long and severe* A sawmill was located on the main road, just above the forest and the logs were hauled up from the valley via an overhead cablcway had a capacity of but six cubic meters per day, While the mill was designed to saw 15 cubic meters This mill has not operated since the reconquest of the country in 1941, and may be removed to a new location. There is not sufficient saw timber left in the forest to warrant its re-opening at that site* The remaining areas of Juniper in northern Ethiopia are in the Semien Mountains of the Gondar region« They are probably not of great importance , but there are no reports available on their composition or area, either by the Italians or by other investigators » The West - Central Forests This region, quite possibly an account of its proximity to Addis Ababa, is the oldest commercially used forest area of the country, the first sawmill being located on the northwest slope of Gara Managascia about forty-five kilometers west of the city<> It is still the site of the majority of the operat ing sawmills of the country, but on account of the preference of the export markets for timbers other than Tidh, it may be expected to lose its dominating position in the ftear future. a o a/169 169 The Forest of Managascia is located on the upper, south western slopes of Gara Managascia just southwest of Addis Ababa. The area covered with true forest is estimated to be 3,000 hectares, and the major part of this is pure Juniper* Many of the trees are of very fine development, but are overmature and conseq uently result in a low southwest slope of the mountain and a sawmill of indifferent design and equipment is located here* It has a capacity of about 12 cubic meters per day, but due to the quality of the logs brought in, and to very poor technical management, the product is hardly usable. The Italian estimate of 25,000 cubic meters of saw timber in this forest may be taken as somewhat high, as a large percentage of the trees will show defect up to 50%. This forest should be made into a National Park, due to its proximity to the Capital, and the present sawmill should be dismantled and its parts used elsewhere. The Giam Giam, Ghirfits, and Gaggi Forest are located in a narrow line parallel to the road from Addis Ababa to Lochemti between 60 and 85 kilometer posts* There are three sawmills located in these forests, the oldest having been established at Giam Giam over thirty years ago. They are all of frame saw type and range from six to twelve cubic meters per day capacity. It is doubtful that they will warrant the expense of removal to a new locality when the present 'location is cut out. The total area of the forest in the three areas is not in excess of 1,000 hectares and within three years of partial operation of the saw mills, it will be completely cut out. No measures towards reforestation or protection of natural regeneration have been instrumental in bringing these areas to the point of complete deforestation® .../170 170 Chillimo Forest is located 90 kilometers west of Addis Ababa and is really an extension of the areas described above. Its area is approximately 360 hectares and the Italian estimate of 20,000 cubic meters of saw timber may be taken as extravagant,, The sawmill located here is also of the frame type with a capacity of about ten cubic meters a day. It is so worn as to be quite incapable of producting a good grade of timber. This area is are about half cut, but there^still fair quantities of hardwoods left in the forest. Badjiro Forest is the most westerly of the series of forests within the immediate orbit of Addis Ababa, and is at the same time the most important of the Juniper forests being operated. It is located north of the Lechemti road about 95 kilometers west of Addis Ababa just at the headwaters of the Awash River. The forest lies on the north and west slope of the Gara Uota between the elevations of 7,000 and 9,500 feet and contains an area estimated at 600 hectares * The forest is of nearly pure Tidh and the intermixture of hardwood species is negligible. All the Podocarpus which e. sted in the valleys at the lower elevations has been cut out by the Italians but the Tidh has, to the present time, been hardly touched. Some of the finest examples of the species in the country can be seen here, and trees have been measured with a height of 180 feet and a diameter of 4 feet 2 incheso Trees of four to six saw logs of four meters each are not uncommon, and actual messurements of areas have shown a stand of 450 cubic meters per hectare to be a not uncommon occurence„ The forest is not continuous but through cultivation clearings has been reduced to patches in the steep valleys and at the headwaters of streams. There is not less than 25,000 cubic meters of sawable timber in this forest .,./171. 171 The two sawmills in th© valley are of’a combined capacity of up to 25 cubic meters a day. They are in good condition, and represent the only mills now operating ‘in Ethiopia which are- capable of turning out marketable Tidh, Meccia Goriccia Forest is situated northeast of Badjiro Forest and is reached by a track running for 35 kilometers north of Addis Alem, which is itself 55 kilometers west of Addis Ababa, This forest is of the same type as the Badjiro Forest and is of 800 hectares in extent. It probably contains 30,000 cubic meters of sawable Tidh, A sawmill located in the area during Italian times is not now operating. Its capacity has been reported at 15 cubic meters per day. These two forests repres ent the majority of the Tidh availlble for immeditate convers ion and will undoubtedly figure largely in future export oper ations if specialty uses are found for the product. The Forest of Malcha, Bghersa and Agalo are situated south of the Mechemti road about 150 to 200 Kilometers west of Addis Ababa near the headwaters of the Guder River, This forest is predominantly of Juniper but contains a fair percentage of podocarpus, and at the lower elevations is not continuous. The area is estimated at 4,500 hectares. Its distance from the railroad makes it a difficult commercial proposition at present, but it is a valuable reserve for the future. The Blue Nile Forests In west central Ethiopia, there are known to be fairly large forests of Tidh on the heights to the south of the Flue Nile, notably along the tributaries of the Didessa. Little is known of these forests, but should they prove of sufficient quality, it is possible that they may be used to supply the ..,/172 172 Sudan with soft wood timber which its own forests lack* Expl oration of the resources of this area is urgently needed* The areas given in the list below are conservative. Forest Province Area in Sq. Kms, Notes Gara Tita Harrar 10-15 Commercial Jalo « 30 ft Asba Tafari ” 25 Poor form Gugu Mountains •» 800 Commercial Bale Bale Harrar 1000 Non-commercial Neghelli Siddama Good but remote Semien Tigre No information Mai Ceu it 10 Cut out Uoti Wollo 20 Remote Managascia Scioa 30 Good national Park Giam Giam, Ga~ t| ggi aftd Ghirf- 10 Nearly cut out its Chillimo ” 5 Commercial Badjiro 11 6 if Meccia, Coriccia M 8 (i Malcna, Eghersa fl 45 Remote Agalo Blue nile Wallaga Possibly commercial The total area of true forest, not including the high or dry scrub type, is in excess of 2,000 square kilometers,- and may be very much greater than this. .../173 173 The saw Mills There are nine sawmills located in the Tidh forests and operating at present or in the past for the most part of this species® Of these, three are not at present operating and at least two of them will not reopen* These two are at the Adaba mill in Bale which has been, or is being removed to the Chercher Podocarpus forests, and the Mai Ceu mill in Tigre Which so cut out its area that it will not be economical to reopen® The third will not operating is the Meccia Coriccia sawmill northeast of Addis Ababa. This is a well-equipped sawmill of about 15 cubic meters daily capacity, with an excellent forest to draw on. The chief reason it has not reopened are the legal difficulties connected with re-granting the concession following the expuls ion of the Italians, but the cost of maintaining the long road necessary is a contributory factor. The two Badjiro mills are the best equipped and managed Tidh mills now in operation, although the frame saws used there do not allow sawing of first quality stock. There is a small band logsaw not at present in operation, two vertical saws and two frame saws and some smaller equipment. The total capacity of these two mills, which are operated by the same management, is about twenty cubic meters per day. A fair stock of logs is kept ahead of the sawyers, and there is usually up to 300 cubic meters of sawn timber in the yard. Stacking is poor, and any seasoning done is purely the result of sales of shipment not keeping up with the sawyers,, Regardless of these factors, the best Tidh produced in the country comes from here„ The usual practice is to saw plants at random widths, six centimeters in thickness and four meters long. Lumber is trucked cut in the dry season to the railroad at Addis Ababa. .o./174 174® The Chillimo is equipped with a frame saw but is now so worn that it does not produce salable stock® Its capacity is about six cubic meters per day, but.it is rarely in operation due to breakdowns® Much of the best Tidh has been cut out from this forest, but there is still perhaps 10,000 cubic meters of timber which could be produced with improved equip ment. The two operating mills in the Gaggi - Giam Giam area are badly equipped and are now operating in forests which are alm ost entirely cut out® They have each a capacity of about 6 cubic meters daily, but the Giam Giam Forest is completely cut out and the Gaggi area will be so at the end of another year or two of operation of the mill® The Managascia sawmill is equipped with two horizontal saws and a frame saw, the latter in poor condition# Liko most of the old mills in Ethiopia this is so worn that it is almost impossible for it to produce a salable timber,, There is almost a complete lack of technical knowledge here, and the attempt to produce quantity rather than quality has only resulted in lessening the amount 6t standing timber. The cap acity is about ten cubic meters dayly® The total capacity of the Tidh mills in the country, if they operate at full capacity, is about a thousand cubic meters per month, but at present, the production does not exceed 450® This is mainly due to the lack of supplies but is in part due to the pest shipment of produce which does not come up to the standard of acceptability in the foreigh markets® It is to be expected that when supplies reach the country, the production will go up to about 80 cubic meters per month, for a time at least® /175® 175 o Logging and Sawmill Practices / The logging practice in the Tidh forests, is probably the most primitive to be found anywhere in the world, and if acco unting were to be made of the costs, it might also be found to be the costliest,, The sawmills rarely employ their own wood crews, and as a rule do not even maintain a woods foreman to superintend the work. The most common practice is to contract with a local chief for the delivery of some quantity of logs per month. This chief subcontracts to other natives who usua lly operate in crews of from six to ten men* Trees are felled a native axe and sometimes a saw, and lack of skill results in about half the trees breaking when they come down. This is made more usual through the practice of felling the trees down-hill or across a valley to reduce the distance the logs must be rolled* Few trees over 80 cen timeters in diameter are taken, and any not giving two 4-meter logs are also left* Little attention is paid to the lenght of log to be cut to obtain the best utilization below a crotch, and a full 4-meter log is often left in the top0 Very often, the tree is butted for a distance of up to three meters, even though it is entirely sound, to reduce the work of trimming it down to a true cylinder. This adzing operation is quite common in this type of forest and is probably a result of the hand rolling method of delivering the log to the mill of the bull- roade As a result of this, at least 25 percent of every log is wasted, and the loss may equal half the orignal volume of the log0 There is no supervision of cutting or utilization in the forest, ether by the operater of the sawmill or the Govern ment who owns the forest, and the waste and loss to both are very great* The finished logs are rolled down the slopes ooo/176 176 . either t« the bullroad or directly to the mill if the slope is correct* Two-wheeled bull carts are used for the final haul in some cases. The natives do not use a cant-dog for moving logs, but pry them with a short stick about four and a half feet long. About six men are required to do the equivalent of one m a n fs work on such an occupation in America. At one mill cutting ten cubic meters per day, a woods crew of 130 men were required and at another mill 120 men were unable to supply four cubic meters daily. From three to four Kilometers distance from the mill seems to be the limit of operation with these primitive methods. There is rarely a considerable supply of logs in reserve at the mill, and often the shut downs on account of lack of lo gs amount to a considerable part of possible operating time. Logs are sawn as they fall on the carriage, as with the frame saw there is but little chance for selection anyway, Since Tidh logs are usually quite fluted the result is over 50 perc ent low grade lumber. Few boards or planks are seen which do not have bark holes running clear through, and from six to ten knots in a four met ers length* This is not so much a fault of the timber as it is a result of poor equipment and a lack of knowledge and care on the part sawyers. It is not possible to buy anything app roaching a No. 1 common grade in quantity and even stocks which will grade to No2 common on the average are very rare. Stacking is always carelessly done, with no regard for differ ences in the requirements for proper seasoning during the wet and dry seasons. As a rule, only three spacers are used for a four-meter length, and quite often boards and planks are piled directly upon each other without spacers. ... /177 177 The usual sizes cut are four-meter lengths with some three meters and thicknesses are from four to eight centimeters* On order and to utilize the slabs closer, 2^ centimeter thickness- es are sawn, but this is not usual because of the greater cost involded in sawing* Widths range from 15 centimeters to an extreme of 60 centimeters, with an average of 30 prevailing* There is rarely a stock of lumber exceeding pencil slats will enable a far greater utilizatibn of this species which is difficult to saw to high quality in the larger dimensions. It is quite possible that a considerable export of small- dimension » stock for sabinet work and interior finish could be achieved, and it is certain that semi-finished window framing stock should be exported* The area of the commercially operable Tidh forests, even if one allows for a continuation of the present high prices, which stand at about E*> A* 18s00 per cubic meter at Djibouti, are not so great that their protection may be disregarede by the Government* The present sawmills, concessions and methods of operation and utilization are such that a very valuable part of the nation's natural resources are being wantonly dissi pated* It is my recommendation that every existing concession in the Tidh forests be cancelled within the present year, and that they be re-issued only in the Badjiro, Meccia, Coriccia and Gugu forests* New sawmill equipment should be required and every concessionnaire should be required to employ compet ent technical operators* Stampage should be charged on the basis of the cubic content of the tree, with a severe penalty for usable material left in the forest* The use of the frame saw should not be allowed because of its extreme waste in qua lity* .* */178 178 The Government should carefully supervise every cutting operation and protect from native depredation all the remaining forestse Burning to enhances forest grazing has already resulted in the degradation of the greatest Tidh forest in the country, that at Bale, and is a serious menace in other areas. The sawm ill in the Managascia forest should be discontinued and dismant led, and the forest turned into a National Parko It is the only forested area within easy motoring distance of Addis Ababa and should be preserved for the enjoyment of the people of the Capitol, and as a reminder of the large forests already destroy ed in this vicinity*, The Government of Ethiopia must realize that its forests are not inexhaustible, and that they will not endure without care and protection,, SUMMARY The true forest region of southwestern Ethiopia lies south of the Gambela-Gore-Gimma road, west of the Gimma-Bonga road and east of the Akobo grass plains<> The total areas in actual forest is between 20,000 and 30,000 square kilometers0 The total population of the region is very small and the area devoted to cultivation is negligible „ From the area actually seen and from Italian reports it seems reasonable to assume that not over 35% of the forest contains merchantable timber trees, an additional 10% is very high quality bamboo forest, and the remainder is open land and scrub forest,, Except for very small sections in the vicinity of Gore and Gimma there is no present possibility of coo.179 179 commercial exploitation of the timber resources,, Even those two areas are so far from the railway and other shipping facili ties that their exploitation will be limited to the supply of local needs. It is possible that exportable timber will be found in a subsequent exploration of the area south of Gambela, as there is a market for nailable timbers in the Sudan, but it is likely that if such timber is found there it will be in the savannah type and not within the true southwest forest* The varieties of timber in this forest are numerous but there are none of outstanding value sufficient to off-set the cost of hauling the distance of three hundred or more kilometers to a shipping point* Omo, S0mbo; and Badessa are good structural timbers, Uonza is suitable for furniture and interior work but rather coarse; and Ambabessa can be used for boards and sheath ing, but is not very resistent to decay* The largest tree of the forest, Kararro, produces a rather coarse wood which is not considered to be durable or termite resistent*, The greatest possibilities for commercial development of the region lie in the minor forest products, such as rubber, spices, wax, honey and possibly d'-ugs and insecticides. There is great opportunity for settlement of surplus population from other parts of the country in areas which are healthy, fertile and pleasanto At the present time there are no serious inroads being made in the forest by cultivation clearings, but it is imperative to delimit and reserve the sections of high forest which will form a reserve of timber necessary to the economic self-sufficiency of the region. Forest areas at the headwaters of certain streams, whether scrub or high forest, should be preserved to ensure a steady flow of water during the dry season. 180 Ivative Names of Plants Collected in Caffa, Geisha, Ilu Babor and Gomma Dec0 1944 (Information marked "?" is of doubtful value). Scientific or Description Amhara Galla Caffa Scianklla Wollamo Cotelo Mllletia dura Birbira Sotalu Yage Sari Zagia Albizzia schimperiana Sassa Ambabessa Podocarpus gracilior Zigba Birbira Ziga Syzygium guineensis Dogma Badessa Gino Aacha Oicha Apodytes acutifolia Jalalaca Uandebiu Pygeum africanum Tukur Inchet Omo Omi Garbi Ekbergia ruppelliana Loel Sombo Oshu Wongo Croton macrostachya Besano Bacanissa Wush Anka B ersama abyssinica Azamerr Lolcissa Boco Cordia abyssinica Uonza Wodessa Mokota Celtis kraussiana Kaout Ciai Pouterla sp0 Kararo Kararo Kararo Kararo Gasa Mitraqyna Stipulosa Work a Uoda Worla Schefflera abyssinica Gatam Buto Schefflera spc Tambelel Kero Erythring excelsa (?) Korch Ualis Dus Borto Dracaena afra-montana Shudu Ficus spp« Shola Arbu Oromo Eta Hagania anthelmintica Kosso Fieto Sapium ellipticum Bosoca ?Shihu Allophyllus africanus Sheho Polyscias fUIva Kariu Arundinaria alplna Karkahar Lemman Shinato Waisha Landolphia owarensis (?) Gebo Yemo ft © £> / 181 181 Native Names of Plants Collected in Caffa, Geisha, Ilu Babor and Gomma Dec<,l944_ (Information marked is of doubtful value) Scientific or Description Amhara Galla Caffa Scianklla Wollamo L_o_^lorida D ug! Gymnosporia spc Atat Combolcia Hibiscus sp»(Lq,vel.fls) Naicha Kunche Togo Malva sp» (Small pink fls0)Abeba Maesa lanceolata Akalaua Abiu Chago Hypericiuro sp»(CompoInflo) Erko Dombeya sp„ Wolkafa Danisa Myrsine africana Kacha-amo Kache Rhamnus pauciflorus (pruncides)? Giesho Geshi Galiniera coffeoides ? Solie Simarariu Didu Phoenix reclinata Hosanna Cassipourea elliottii Galis Vernonia amygdaline Graona Obicha Small understory, pinnate Leaves, many small White flowers in long Wnbranched racemes Waluaia Medium understory tree Juglans-like pinnate leaves, many pendulous Unbranched racemes of Small sessile yellowish Flowers(Bersama spD?)?Birbira Wotilo Large tree-simple rhom boid leaves-fruit % diam* covered with greenish)yellow resin Uonjo Chacara Medium-sized Psychotria like tree Shato 182 Description of Some Trees and Timbers Found in South western Forest* A - Amhara Name G- Galla Name T - Trade Name Podocarpus gracilior, Zigba Ac Birbirsa G* Podo or East Afri can Yellowwood, T* Sp* G* 55-65* It is a fine grained, odorless, tasteless wood some what resembling white pine but more fissile. It is easy to work, durable when not in contact with soil, and perhaps the most generally useful of all African timbers® The trees grow to large sizes, being up to 2meters in diameter and 40 meters in height with columnar crown form* Ekberqia ruppeIliana,Lool A* Sombo G«, One of the largest broad leaved trees in the forest, reaching a height of over 35 meters in diameter of over 1 meter* The base is moderately buttressed with thick irregular sections rarely extending over 2 meters up the trunk* The Ethiopian Sombo has a Sp» G« of 55- 65 and is light pinkish brown and quite hard* It is useful for truck flooring and other work requiring strenght and surface hardness but is not durable not particularly attractive® The Uganda species is reported to have a Sp* G* of *32 -40 and I believe there are two species confused as one in Ethiopia, as the Loel of Bale is said to be soft and light whereas that of the west produced the timber described above* It is one of the most common large trees in the forest of the southwest* .../183 133 Albizzia schimperiana Ambabess G. This species attains very large dimensions and occurs in pure stands in some areas of the southwest. It invades grass lands and recently aban doned agricultural areas but is not a component of the climax type for the region* The wood is yellowishbrown is color with a Sp. Go of 65-75 and easy to work. It is said to be adapted for use in furniture making. It should be of use in refores ting open lands if protected from fires, Syzyqium guineense Dogma A,, Badesa G. is widespread throughout the southwest, particularly in the wetter areas. It does not attain great height and the trunk is badly fluted and contorted throughout its length. The wood is dark reddish- brown non-fissile and amorphous in texture but difficult to work because of interlocking grain. It is durable and does not polish easily. SpQ G. 65-75. It is an excellent timber® Apodytes acutifolia, Jalalaca A. Uandebiu G. Is one of the four largest trees in the southwest forest and is deciduous during the month of December. Its dimensions may reach two meters in diameter and four meters in height and the trunk is buttressed coarsely and unevenly for a distance of up to three meters, It tends to form nearly pure stands in places. The wood is clear brown varied with gray, is easy to work, strai ght grained and takes a good polish. It has a Sp. G.of 55-65 and is usable for furniture making and general construction work. It is one of the country’s most valuable hardwoods. Pygeum africanum Tukur Inchet A. Omo G. This is perhaps the most valuable hardwood in Ethiopia and is known to the European trade as RedStinkwood. It attains large dimensions and is not buttressed. It is equally at home in open brush or grass lands and in dense forest and is widespread throughout • . . 184 184 the country,, The wood is very hard, dark red, and difficult to worke It is adapted to railway construction, bridge timbers and other uses where great strengh and resistence is equired* Its Sp„ G* is* 75, It reaches great development and is abundand in the southwest* Cassipourea elliottii Galis F<, Pillar Wood, To This is a small tree, rarely exceeding ^ meter in diameter but with a tall straight stem and only a few horizontal branches at the extreme top® It is widespread throughout the forests of the country but attains best development in the southwestern forests® The wood is pale yellow-gray, straight grained and very fine textured0 It is strong elastic and durable and useful for work requiring great strength and elasticity such as railway truck conctruction* SpeG0 about 75«, Croton macrostachya, Besana A„ Bacanissa G 3 One of the most common and widely distributed trees of the country,occuring both as a component of closed forests in open country„ It reaches its highest development in the southwest and often attains great size and good fornu The wood is yellowish white, soft and very perishable„ The fibres pick up badly with the saw or plane but has used for rough interior sheathing where protected from moisture« Its Sp* G„ averages about 60 and it should be more commonly used for temporary local work,as it is the most abundant species in Ethiopia* Dombeya Sp„ near qoetzenii, Wolkafa A, Damisa G» A fairly common tree in the country usually limited to upper elevations and in some places gregarious* It rarely attains great height but will furnish a four meter log or two in places where it is 0 * . /185 185 well developed® The wood has a Sp® of 42 according to Uganda officials and*90 according to the Italians® The true figure is somewhere between the two® The wood is brownish white, fine grained, soft and easy to work and nail® It has not been used here but should be very useful for rough construction and board ing® It appears to be fairly resistant to decay® Bersama abyssinica, Azamerr AOJ Lolcissa G® A common tree throughout the Empire attaining best development in the Chercher forests but small and badly formed in the southwest® The wood is white, soft and subject to decay® It is used by the natives for bowl and other small work but has no commercial use at present® The Sp® G„ is reported to be ®62* Sapium ellipticum, Bosoca G* A common tree in the southwest but not found in other parts of the country® The trunk is up to a meter in diameter but rarely attains good form or length* The crown is rounded and the tree prefers wet or swampy ground* The wood is whitish, not durable, has a Sp®G® of® 60 and has not been used in this country® Cordia abyssinica, Uanza A® Badessa G e This is a very wide spread tree more commonly found in open lands but attaining its best development in the Caffa forest, where it exceeds 35 meters in height and 1% meters in diamter with a clean straight bole® It is most widely used by the natives for carving and turning and is a fine wood for the construction of furniture and interior finish or panelling® The wood is a rich brown in color, soft and marked with fairly large pores, and it takes a very good polish® Its Sp® G„ is «60 to ®650 o « «/ 186 186 Hagenia anthelmintica, Kosso A., Fieto G. This is a wide ly distributed tree at the higher elevations and rarely attains good trunk form but is of great diameter in the Bale forests# Xt is not common in the southwest* The wood is hard, difficult to saw and season, dark red to red-brown* It has been widely used where a strong hardwood is required and is recommended for furniture. Its Sp. G. is reported to be 60 to .70. Coltls kraussiana, Kaout A,, Meta Koma or Ciai C, This is a widely distributed tree in the wetter forest of the low regions, attaining best development in Siddamo. Its color Is yellowish white to light brown* It is hard and shows well developed seasonal growth rings* It resembles Fraxinus in appearance and character- sties and may be put to the same uses, such as tool-handles, carria ge and truck body construction,, It is perhaps the best hardwood in the country and has lately been successfully used for boat construction© Its Sp. G.is *70-.80„ Pouteria sp. Kararro G. This is one of the largest trees of the country and is limited to the southwestern region, where it occurs as a dominant member of the climax forest* It possess es enormously developed narrow wing buttresses up to a height of four meters but above that the trunk is of excellent form. It is common in the climax forest but never forms pure stands* The wood is clear rose or whitish, difficult to saw but takes a good polish* It is not durable nor termite resistant but is usable in rough construction* It has a Sp. G* of 055-*65. Euphorbia candelabra(?) Kulkwal A., Adami G* This is the common leafless Euphorbia of the country, widely distributed throughout the middle climatic regions and attaining optimum development in the lower Chercher and southwestern forests* . • . /187 187 It may have a diameter of one meter and a clear trunk height of 25 meters* The wood is white, soft, straight splitting and without noticeable grain. It picks up under the aaw and plane and is difficult to season on account of blue stain, but is well adapted to use in plywood, fruit boxes and for match splints • It must be considered one of the valuable trees of the Empire and more rigidly conserved than in the past. It Sp. G. is .39. Milletia dura, Birbira A., Cotalu G, This is a widely dis tributed tree but is not common except in the southwest, where it forms almost pure stands in the dryer valleys of the middle zone or following disturbance of the original foresto In Ghera it has been seen to attain a diameter of .80 meters and a height of 25 meters with straight bole. It is usually much smaller and is often a component of the climax type. The wood is whitish, showing seasonal rings, tough and fissile, but reported to be perishable and difficult to season., It is said to be usable for tool handles but has received no use in this country. The most important feature of this tree is the insecticidal properties of the seed. Incomplete examination has shown the seed to contain at least 1% of rotenone and a considerable quantity of other insect toxic alkaloids which are particularly effective against lice and scabies. Further investigation may show the seeds to be of commercial importance. Mitraqyna stipulosa, Worka A„, Uoda G. This species is confined to the ext rent; western part of the country and the first are encountered not more than 30 kilometers east of Gore. It grows in swamps and along perennial streams and reaches enormous height, with a well formed trunk. The wood is uniformly yellowish a • o / 188 white, soft, without noticeable grain and uniform in texture* There are conflicting reports of its durability under moist conditions but it has lasted as flooring over 100 years in West Africa* It nails well and can be used for mouldings or other fine uses® Its Sp0 is about a65 and it should be used in place of Zigba where that is not obtainable. Ficus spp» Shola A0Arbu G, There are about three species of Ficus in the southwestern forest which attain large size and a further bushy form along the streams which may be F 0 verruculosar The most common forest form appears to be Fc capensis but there may be some Fcsycamorus in the westo The natives do not as a rule have separate names for the various speciesa They all, with the exception of F, verruculosa, start as epiphytes and in the high forest often attain great size* They are common in the scrub forest,. So far is known the natives make no use of the soft and quickly perishable wood but the branches of the larger trees are a favorite place to hang their bee- hives® Erythrina excelsa, Korch A,, Ualis G, This is a very common tree's of great height occuping swampy places and re populating abandoned clearings * It is one of the most characteristic members of December when it is in a leafless state and covered with quantities of red of orange flowers<, There is also a rare white flowered form in Caffa and Dido* The wood is pulpy and of no commercial use, although the natives sometimes make their cylindrical beehives from it because of its ease of working,, Its Sp® F« is <,35 to „40<» 189 Schefflera abyssinica, Gatam A, Buto Gc This is one of the most massive trees of the forest and is distributed all through the forests of the country* It is not tall and is very striking in appearance because of its enormous contorted trunk and great crown spread* Specimens three metres in diameter are common® It always starts life as an epiphyte and usually retains the host within its trunk in an apparently healthy condition0 It is deciduous in December and January<> The wood is soft,white,even grained and well adapted to pattern making, but the contorted trunk render it extremely difficult to cut and saw0 Schefflera sp* Tambelel G*(?) This species is limited to the southwestern forests, is much smaller than the preceding species and is not deciduous at any season of the year* It is invariably an epphyte when young and is in many places a liane* Its wood has not been' studied* Allophylus africanus (?), Sheho G* This is a widely distributed second-story tree in the high forests of the country, but I have nowhere seen it to attain large dimensions or good form* When it is at its may be 50* metres in diameter and furnish two four metre saw logs* The wood is white with lucid grain markings, well marked seasonal rings, soft and easily sawn and worked* It takes nails easily and should be used for sheathing and general construction work where not exposed to moisture* / Teclea sp* Adessa (?) G* There are probably two species of this genus in the forests of Chercher and the southwest but they do not reach great size and have not been cut for timber. They are secondstory members of the climax forest* The wood is hard, white and very even grained* The natives use it for tool **„ 190 190 handles, walking sticks and spear shafts<, It could probably be used for bobbins and turnery requiring a good finish and strength and might be very valuable for use as tool handles® Polyscias fulva, Kariu G, This species is of wide distribution in the warmer regions but is not very common in any area. It has a tall straight bole and reaches notable dimensions. The wood is soft and light, white, and in Uganda is reported to be suitable for boxes but has received no use in Ethiopia up to the present0 Its fine size and form indicate that it should be tried for such use here, Gymnosporia sp, probably senegalensis, Atat A, , Combolcia G 0 One of the most common and widely distributed trees or shrubs in the country, attaining large diameter but poor form at higher elevations in the Chercher forests and present as a swamp species in the southwest. The wood is reported to be yellow-white, hard, fine textured and straight grained, durable, sawing well but splitting during seasoning, Its Sp, G0 is about ,75 and it has been suggested as a substitute for Boxwood, It have found no record of its having been sawn in Ethiopia® Maesa lanceolate Akalaua A,, Abiu G, This species is more usually a shrub than a tree but it reaches ,30 metres diameter and 15 metres in height in some places in the southwest. It is one of the most common shrubs of the country and is usually found in abandoned clearings or at the edge of forests. The wood is white, soft and perishable with a Sp, G. of ,60, It has no uses locally but should furnish a large quanity of cellulose for paper making. ®«»o 191 191 Vernonia amygdalina, AragOA©) is not common but is usually found where high humidity and temperatures combine and is common in the Caffa forests© The wood is watery and fibrous and entire ly useless but the leaves are used for making a very fine grade of matting in Caffa. Hypericium Sp,, Erko A„ This is usually a small tree or shrub at the highest elevations or in swamps lower down*, In Ghera I saw a few trees in high forest which were „35 metres in diamter and 15 metres high, but this is entirely exceptional© The wood is red or rosy brown, hard, loose fibred, and has a Sp*G.of ©70© Its only use has been for firewood and charcoal. Arundinaria Alpina© Karkahar A0, Lemman G© This is the hollow stemmed bamboo and is confined to the highest and coldest parts of the west and southwest, where it covers enormous areas in pure stands© The stems are about ©13 metres in diamter, 2©0 centimetres in wall thickness at the base and reach 20 metres in height© Native villages located near the stands make extens ive use of them for hut construction and for fences but up to the present it has had no commercial use in this country© The Italians experimented with its use as reinforcing in temporary concrete construction and suggested its conversion to cellulose for paper manufacture© The latter use seems sound and there is an unlimited quantity available* 1 192 Report No VIII 4 » •FOREST OF IECHI(Galla & Siddama) Report by L» Senni, April,1940- Translation by Glen Russ The knowledge which we have of the forest conditions of the Governorate of Gimma(Galla and Siddama) is fragmentary and uncert ain; however, one knows that, as in the fields of agriculture and * mining, from the standpoint of forest resources this also represents one of the richest Governorates of Italian East Africa, but the great distance from the sea complicates its evaluation for the major part of the territory. ( During the last month the Conturion Engineer Sofio of the forest Militia of Gimma has completed the reconnaissance of the forest of lechi, and it seems a useful thing to review the results of this survey in order to add to an always more exact knowledge of the forest resources of this south-west extremity of the Abyssi nian plateau. This exploration, which was made notwithstanding the difficul ties of travel through every type of forest, also presented precious materail to the botanist, and is in confirmation of the tradition of notable assistance furnished to science by their observations, and which have furnished most important assistance also in Italy. The reconnissance was started from Bonga and going by Accevo, Murra,Checcia,lechi, and Abera. It w?.s closed again at Bonga after a voyage of nearly 800 kilometers, enclosing an area of 3275 square kilometers, through wild and most difficult country,, ooo/193 The forest formations are in nearly uninterrupted succession in this zone, in a series of spurs and buttresses which slope gra dually .in a north to south direction, at first rapidly, and then more gently until they end at the basin of the Baco River, which cuts this plateau at the south and west. The highlands divide the basin of the Omo Bottego, an affluent of Lake Stephanie, from the basin of the Nile, of which the Baco or Baho represents an affluent (Ghile-Pibor-Sobat-white Nile)* The wide plain of Iechi occupies the lower confines of this level plateau, of the mountain system of Moccia, truncated at the south-west by the deep canon of the Baco. Iechi (1510 rru) is a little group of cabins built around one of our forts, at the western margin of the plain, dominating the valley of the Baco and from which the spacious view toward the north extends to Moccia, toward the east to the divide of the Omo, while toward the west it opens on the wide valley of the Akobo, only in part limited by the montane group of Gurrafarda(2179 m,) In order to more easily localize the position of Iechi I refer one to Sheets No. 3 of the Map of Italian East Africa, 1:1;000,000 scale’, edited by the Italian Tourist Association,from which the annexed sketch has been taken, taking into account that Iechi is found at 7° 10 Ne Lato and 35° 2C Long* east of Greenwich„ It must be realized that 90% of the internal zone is occupied by forest, the remainder is open and uncultivated, occupied by savannah, which for three-fourths of the year are swampy grass lands with sparce tree, which formation regresses to a more or less xerophilous state, substituted for the original forest where fires have manifested their more violent action, frequently repeated in this zone. 194 Geologically this tract is an extensive alluvial plain, ori ginating from the overlying formation of volcanic rocks which constitute the base of the Galla plateau and the mountain core of Ethiopia On an immense basaltic bench, which presents a southwest slope and which constitutes the marginal expansion of the lava mass, originating from the north, the alteration and disintegration is favored by the continuity and the violence of the precipitations, a well as by the action of the temperature and the vegetation, which have created an accumulation of deep organic soil, rich in chemical components originating from the decomposition of organic substances, to which, by the work of the left branches of the Baco, is added, to the load of disinteg rated materials from the upper Gurrafarda region where among the eruptive rocks are mixed the most ancient crystalline and schis tose substrata* The forest occupies most densely the ridges and valleys which descend from Moccia toward the Baco while the plain sections are steppe-like,, The precipitation aggregates from 1200-1300mm„; we lack data on the temperature. The forest types are in succession from upper to lower elevations in this order: 1 Arundinaria type (2500-1500rru ) 2 Wet Macrothermal type (1500-1000 ma) 3 Xerophilous Steppe(1000-500 m.) 4 Savannah with high herbs(2-4m.)with scattered trees or woods(Tamarind), 500-600 m. while along the river courses are encountered very interrupted gallery formations. «, o */195 195 These notes which have been made available from the reconnai ssance of the Forest Militia of Gimma, complete the knowledge which we have had from the explorations of Bott’ego, limited to the low plain, which constitutes the course of the Giuba or Akobo. The plan of succession in south-west Ethiopia enables us to complete the imperfect knowledge which we have of that region. The forest of lechi is nothing more than the extreme southern province of the forest formation which from the valley of the Baro in the north extends according to the various physical features of the country and with varied floristic composition, up to the canon of the Baco, a vast checkerboard interrupted by mountain chains which slope from 1500 to 2500 meters from the central abyssinian mountain mass toward the Sudanese depression,, • Open to the warm winds of the southwest, with the precipitation which the dominant monsoon carries and in its higher sections dominated by the north-east trade winds which are also carriers of precipitation, although in a lesser measure*, The forest can be calculated as having an area of around 30,000 hectares developed along the course of the Baco and inter sected by its affluents, between the elevations of 1250-1650mo, with a rainy season continuously from January to September, with numerous water courses on the surface without banks, and with a high warmhumid temperature,, That which characterizes the forest of lechi, and which has carried to fsill development one of the best formation known in Galla and Sidama, is in relation to the regularity of the conform ation of the land, and to the uniformity of the climate, dominated c/196 1 196 as it is by the warm humid winds from the south which invest •everything there, the perfection of the individual trees, the continuity of the life of the forest as a constitutional, entity, guaranteed by the presence of the smaller diameter classes of all thd species represented, more numerous where the dimensions of the trunks are greater, of shrubby vegetation, dense and tiring- It is the forerunner to a typical climax formation which human agencies have not yet modified: However, the fires,common in the zone, are prevented by the high degree of humidity and the obstacle constitued by the Baco from being widely spread by the dominant south-west wind. The forest is distinctly arranged in various stata, The upper, of a height of from 30-35 meters, dominates the remainder of the vegetation and is formed of plants of great dimension,with codominants tending toward pollardism, stimulated in longitudinal increment by the density, as examples of the same species of in ferior diameter class. From the identification as reported by the Forest Militia, there are in this stratum the following species in irregular distribution, taking into account that the possibility that the lack in the list of some less common species does not exclude their presence: Cordia abyssinica R, Br« Galla: uadessa; Amhara Pygeum africanum Hook.f. omi; Syzygium guineense(W,) DC. badessa; Celtis kraussiana Bernh. ciai; Schefflera abyssinica(Hochst) Harms gatama Manilkara Butugi Chiov, butugi; Croton macrostachys H 'Chst. baccanisa; Pouteria sp, .cararo; ,,/197 197 Ekbergia Ruppelliana A.Rich Sombo Apodytes acutifclia Hochst uandebiu; Bosqueia phoberos Baill shcro; Polyscias ferruginea(Hiern,) Harms cario; Albizzia Schimperiana 01ivo ambabessa,mucarba; Hagenia abyssinica(Bruce) J<,F0Gmel„ cosso; Mimusops Kummel Bruce colati; Olea Mussolinii Chiove baia; P)uteria Giordani Chiov. euro; Ficus sp. arbu; Ficus sp. chiltu; Trichilia ? shigo; Phoenix abyssinica Drude ______hosenna, zimbada; The second stratum, 10-15 meters high, is constituted by: Ilex mitis Radlke mucarba; Bersama abyssinica Fres, lclcisa; Milletia ferruginea Hochst. aschira; Erythrina abyssinica Lam. uclensu; Sapium ellipticuiii (Hochst*) Pax bosoca; Allcphyllus africanus P.B. seho,cacae; Pittosporum abyssinicum Del. sole; Ficus sp. alalc; Gymnosporia? combolcia; Teclea sp adessa. The third stratum is an underwood mainly composed of shrubs and suffruticose plants, among which are numerous species of large dimensions Ferns are present, which in the vicinity of I water-sourses become arborescent in form and are used by the natives in the construction of shelters. 0,0/198 198 Present here and there are coffee plants as remains of old plan tations, only cured in small quantities in the vicinity of the little native settlements® Among the lianas a Landolphia sp# is stated to have been recognized# In the densest parts of the forest the understory is always dominated by the canopy of the large trees and is greatly reduced in its component species and in individual dimensions# The forest reveals itself, in divers zones, as being not of uniform density nor presenting uniformity of development in the individual trees# The classification of the various species encountered is stated to have been made after observation or inferred from the native names, nevertheless it appears on the whole to be sufficiently reliable, with certain limitations as to the specific names* The association could be referred to the broad-leafed pluvial montane forest (‘according to the Senni-De Phillips classi fication) and more exactly to the warm-temperature sub-type, that which replaces on the west side the forest of the upper slopes, rather than that which is seen on the east# Lacking in this are any Sudanese or Central West-African ele ments (Entada, Clausenopsls, Morus) which are encountered in Wallega» Elements of the temperate sub-type and the Hygromesop- hylous Montane Forest(Apodytes, Ekbergia, Hagenia, Pygeum, Bersama) and steppe elements(Cordia, Croton) are observed, but finally there is lacking the sclerophytic elements in this grouping (Candelabra Euphorbia)# « # #/199 - 199 ! It. alters at high elevations to bamboo forest (Arundinaria alpina) and at low elevations" to open woods in the valleys as that of the Baro or the Ghie, influenced by the hot, dry Sudan winds, or to orchard savanna in^ the plain of the Akobo or Guiba; where the ecological factors are the action of the humid southwest monsoon and the profoundly alluvial soils* The presence of the Phoenix confirms that the distribution of this species on the high plateau is, more than by temperature, regulated by soil moisture, as it is found at very variable altitudes* The presence of arborescent forms demonstrates that the station, when compared to similar association of the Didessa basin(Uollega), is a transition form of the warm-humid association of central Africa* A botanical exploration could throw much light upon this question which is simply touched upon here* Examined from the industrial point of view, according to the observations and computations of the Centurion Engineer Sofio of the Gimma Command of the Forest Militia, the forest presents a sufficiently regular distribution; above all there are present trunks with a diameter at breast height of 60-80 cm* and over, while another point made is that the volume of wood reaches in some places around 500 cubic meters per hectare, excluding from the evaluation trees with a diameter of less than 20 cm. at 1*30 meters above the ground, Not few are examples which at breast height exceed one meter in diameter in the finest vegetative state and of perfect conformation* •Oa/200 200 It may be calculated that the existing volume of mature wood over the whole area is not less than 200 c,m. per hectare; and for the total area of 00 hectares an existing volume of mature wood of 6,000,000 cul jc meters« command The GimmaAof the Forest Militia has also studied the eventual utilization of the forest as sawing in the beginning the choicest quality representing a third of the total existing mature volume; which 6 7 c.m, per hectare corresponding to about 20 trees, and which equals 2,000,000 cubic meters for the entire area- The actual value of the stumpage is fixed at 30 L; per cubic meter and the progress of utilization will be in relation to the workmen and the means of transport available. An eventual utilization should be studied which takes into account that excessive or rapid de^ ° : e station might induce a passage to steppe conditions, as has happened in adjacent lands, becausethis climax occupies the lower altitudinal margin of its distributional plan and because the cover gives rise to those ecological factors essential for the' conservation of the humus and the humidity it contains. The trees which constitute the forest are adapted to use as construction timbers(Pouteria) but above all for cabinet work and in the list above will be found some fine woods, but there is lacking woods of extraordinary value* The lack of precious woods and the distance from centers of consumption or exportation makes it advisable not to use this forest at present, in fact, it is 255 kilometers distant from ../20i 201 Gimma, to which it is connected by a truck trail not always passable, on account of the rains which fall for many months of the year, and Gimma itself is 1238 kilometers from Assab, though fortunately united to this port by one of the finest roads. Because of this there is excluded for the time being any convenient utilization of the timber- But nevertheless, it is advisable to consider its transformation to cellulose or, by saccarification, for the production of alcohol, there being in the vicinity the richest stands of bamboo which has many of the more favorable requisites for this use: uniformity of the raw material, great «ase of cutting and transportation, ease and rapidity of reproduction. Because of this it appears that the forest of lechi will re quire for the time being to be conserved, safeguarded from the peril of fire and from the desire on the part of the whites and the natives to transform it to cultivation* It might be advisable to augment its over-all value with properly established plantations of the rubber liana(Landolphia) In short, improve the road system, increase the needs of the local population,’ then it will be possible to study which utiliza tion could be the most convenient for this enormous forest resource* — * 202 202 Report No IX REPORT ON ETHIOPIAN SAWMILLS AND TIMBERS November, 1942 FOREST RESOURCES The overall area of the Ethiopian high forests is great, out those containing species of present day commercial importa nce represent but a fraction of the total* They are further limited by the lack of adequate transport facilities to Addis Ababa or other points along the railroad line to Djibouti« However, these which are now exploitable contain several million cubic meters of fine soft arid hardwoods which can be prepared with the existing equipments. The most important forests are mixed coniferous and hard woods situated on steep slopes at an altitude offrom 7000 to 8000 ft„ They are usually small in individual area and are ? scattered throughout the country« There is one large area of the type in the Wollega region; north of Gambela, as yet unexp loited, and there §re probably fairly large forests south of lake Tana. There are several forests along the road from Addis- Ababa to Asmara. There are large areas of tropical hardwood forests around Gambela, In Siddamo, and at Gore, where the Italians estimated a stand of 10,000,000 cubic meters® The acacia type is situated in the hotter lowlands and along the rivers, particularly in the Auasch* There is acacia all over the country, but in few places do they attain a size of trunk which makes lumbering profitable* 1 203 OPERATIONS iThe forest land and the trees on them are the property of the Government, in some places seem to have been granted to members of the Imperial Family,, Gutting concessions are grant ed to the actual operations of the mills on a percentage of production basis, which is usually taken in cash at the time of sale, but may be taken in kindo The ownership of the mills is either with the Imperial Family, the Government of concessionaire, and the complexity of relationship is in most cases so great that its true nature is difficult to understand * The cutting is done by the natives and they deliver the logs to the mill at a piece rate* After cutting, the logs are hand hewn to reduce the wings near the butt and fit the larger logs to the capacity of the mill, resulting in a loss of approximately thirty percent of the sav/able lumber in the tree* There is a definite need for the Imperial influence in these lumbering operations, as otherwise it would be difficult to persuade the natives to work regularly. Logs are cut all the year round but work slews down during the rainy seasons, MILL EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES All the mills are small, corresponding to the average por table mill in America capacity<» They are usually located at the foot of the forest, about three kilometers from the cutting area, and a few are supplied by the portable railways<> Logs are sawn as they are received and few mills make an effort to build a reserveo There are about ten gang-saws in the country and three fine Brents hand machines, the remainder mills using narrow blade bandso The largest logs sawn are about thirty-six inches in diameter and thirteen foot long, the average being less than twe nty-six inches diameter* c / 2 0 4 204 There seems to be a universal tendency to neglect the importance of an accourate carriage track and as a consequence there is much POOR sawing. Gang sawing is done through and through without slabbing and the band saws slab and cut into timbers or planks of the desired dimensions™ No circular or head-saw combinations were seen* A”few mills are equipped with re-saws, planers and shapers, but in most of them little effort is made to utiline waste from the board saws by preparing small dimension stocka Some material is sawn to 1 inch thickness, but by far the most of it is 2, 3 and 4 inches thick and the width varies from 6 to 18 inches* 2 by 4 are almost never sawn but there is some 3 by 3 and 4 by 4. Almost every piece of softwood shows some bark on the surf ace or the side, due to channels in the log„ Hardwoods are sawn 1 and 2 inches thick and the boards are not edged* As a rule very few hardwood logs are brought to the mill except on order and Acacia is not eut unless a high price is obtained because of the scarcity of sawsB Almost no reserve of sawn timber are held at themill, and little attempt is made to seas on timber before sale* Where this is done at the mill results are good, as the stacking is more apt to be done by a man who understands it. There are two grades of timber recognized, cull and usable, and all stocks should-be carefully inspected before purchase as it is rarely that commission agent knows anything of his product. For the most part the direction of the mills is in the hands Of Italians; who are good mechanics, •../205 / 205 but there are not more than one or two trained sawmill operators in the country. The actual sawing is done by Italians or the better class of Ethiopians and the labor by local natives. Most of the mills are left in poor condition due to looting at the time of the Italians evacuation and there are several mills not operating because of the lack of some essential part. scar city of saws and triangular files is an important item and should be taken into consideration by the buyer who wishes large quantities of timber. The mills of this country could not oper ate at capacity for a period much greater than three months with their present supply. The total mill capacity now in operation is about 1300 cubic meters per month, and this could be increased to 2000 if the large Badjiro and Challo mills were placed in order* Due to lack of saJLes the mills are not at present oper ating at much over half their capacity* SAWMILLS Badjiroo This area is located about 95 Km. west of Addis Ababa on a macadamized road and the two mills are 18 Km# north on a very rough piste. The forest in the area is extensive and contains mostly Tidh with a small amount of Zigba and hardwoods. The mill in operation has one band-saw with edgers and very little other eguipment. Sawing is fair and it is possible to secure good clear Tidh here. There is a stock of over 300 cubic meters on hand at present, half of which is seasoned but also half or it is cull. Most of it is 2 and 3 inch by 13 feet and it has been stacked carefully. The capacity of this mill is about 100 cubic meters monthly. Three kilometers south of this mill there is another which was damaged by bandits and has not oper ated recently. It has two good-gangsaws, band saws, and a a../206 206 complete assortment of supplementary tools, part of which were electrically operated* It was the best mill in the region and could quite easily be repaired. Mecha0 In the Mecha Range, 90 Km. west of Addis Abab, there is one large and several smaller mills. The Chillimo mill is 6 Km* north of the road in a forest of Tidh and gcod hardwoods. This mill is owned and operated by the Empress and is the best in the region it has two gang saws and a wood working shop with a total capacity of about 300 cubic meters monthly. There is good stacking space at the mill * At Gaggi a few Km. east of Chillimo, there are three small mills below a limited reserve of timber. At the eastern mill there is one gang and one band saw* Poor sawing and seasoning practiceis observd here, but there is a stock of seasoned Tidh at the mill which is usable, including an amount of 1 by 3 floor stock. As an example of what could be done here and there are 3 beams 12 by 28 ft. long which were sawn some time ago. The capacity is about 150 cubic meters monthly. The central mill is opening after a long shutdown with a reserve of very poor logs. It has one band saw and will be able to put out about 100 cubic meters per month* The western mill has a capacity of about 100 c.m. per month and at present has a stock of hardwood planks, most of which are poorly seasoned. At Jamjamj 68 Km. west of Addis Ababa and 18 Km. north of the main road is located the oldest mill in the Empire, founded in 1898. Its timber reserves are now being opened. It is equipped with a gang saw and edger but does not appear capable of producting a high quality of product. It has a capacity of about 100 c.m. per month. * **/207 207 Wochacha* This area is south of Addis Aslem and the mill is not now being operated* Inhere is a stock of about 450 c.m* of Zogba and Tidh held by the Ministry of the Interior about which there has been difficulty in obtaining informaticn,’ Shashamanna* On the boundery between Arussi and Siddamo pro vince, opposite Lake Chala, there is an important forest. The direct road from Addis Ababa follows the Railroad 40 miles to Modjo station and then turns south along the lakes 110 miles to the mill area* The forests of this region are on gentle slopes and even fairly flat plains and are quite tropical in character* They are the western extension of the high Gugu Mountain forest, which reach even beyond Harar* They contain no Tidh, but Zigba reaches its best development here and about eight species of hardwoods are in merchantable quantity. They are Sucche, Badessa, Woira, Mocconiso, Guna, Onono Sigheda and Ammalaca, Sucche is identical with the Tukur Inchet of the west and Onono is similar in wood characteristic to Sombo, The main sawmill is not large but it is the best equipped and managed of any seen in the Empire, Power is furnished by a new type German steam engine and the saw is a Belgian Brenta with a 6 inch band and automatic set* Edging and trimming is done accurately and all lumber is stacked well. A Zigba Board 1/8 "by 20" by 13” was sawn in my presence without a fault in its entire length, from a log which was not specially selected. Some distance away there is a large and well equipped wood—working shop which produces every kind of specialty from chair parts to sectional houses. Battery separators can be produced here from Badessa, Zigba or Onono, It is my opinion that the best wood of Badessa, but tests should be made* This was the only mill seen which could be relied upon to produce accurate hard wood or tongue and groove lumber without personal supervision. ,/208 The woodworking shop is operated by a hydroelectric installation and is staffed with capable Italians. The capacity of the sawmill is about 3J50 to 400 c.m. monthly and it is owned by Mr. Rapetti, a capable and industious engineer* There are reported to be two other small mills in this region but they were not seen and cannot be reported on* Gugu Mountains* In the Chercher province of Harar, from south of Arba railway station to the City of Harar, there are important reserves of timber, chiefly Zigba, which are at present only being worked at Asbar Tefari because of the transportation difficulties. There are reported to be mills near Arba but I have not seen them. Asba Tefari* This area is also Chercher province,25 km* south of Miesso railway station on a good secondary road* At Challo Mountain, 10 km* from town, there is a well equipped mill containing a 30 inch gang saw and several smaller tools* It has not operated since the evacuation of the Italians but could produce about 150 c*m* of hardwood and Zigba per month. This mill has produced handle stock from kaout, which is comparable in quality to American Hickory,and has experimented in the production of venner backing from Euphorbia* At Gara Mukdar, 17 km. from the village, there is another small mill operating two band saws,trim mers, etc*, with a capacity of about 150 c.m* monthly* It has sawn Zigba \ **by 16*’ with quite commendable accuracy. The Zigba of this region is straight grained and seasoned well^ but the Tidh is quite poor, most of the trees being stunted* There is a local hardwood in this region, possessing some of the qualities of Tukur Inchet, but near the Olive in hardness and weightf which / 209 209 seasons remarkably well. The name could not be determined. The importance of this region rests on the possibility of rail and ship transport, as the distance from Addis Ababa is too great for truck haulSo Meta Hara, Between the stations of the Meta Hara and Miesso in the Auasch plain, there are large lowland areas of acacia, the tree bing sufficient in size to produce two logs between 3 and 4 meters each. There are no mills operating in the area at present, one reason-being that the wood is very hard on saws which are dif ficult to obtain. All this area is in the immediate vicintiy of the railroad and besides hardwwod timbers could produce a great number of sleepers. Northern Ethiopia, There are reported to be several mills in the forest of Wolloo, including one with fine equipment near the Eritrean border. There are almost certainly forests on the slopes of the Ras Dasan near Gondar and this region should be carefully studied by Eritrean users, as the truck hauls from central and southern Abyssinia are economically unsound, SPECIES Zigba, Birbirsa, Podocarpus Elongata, A tall dominant conifer columnar in from, up to 10' in diameter and 150* tall, with some folding at the base; bark dark drown scaling in small plates, The wood is white, stringy and tough, with good resistance to trans verse strain, not resinous or aromatic, and shows very few growth rings. It seasons well if properly stacked but is liable to blue stain; is not termite resistant and probably rots easily when in o,/210 210 contact with soil or moisture. It is the most important timber of the country and is probably the best for rough structural uses or match stock. Its weight wet is 700 kg. per c.m. and 620 dry.* It* is reproducing well and the seedlings are quite tolerant of shade. Tukur Inchet, Omi, Sucche, Pygeum africanum. A subdominant tree up to 20” in diameter and 100” tall in the forests. It is in fairly large quantity in all the colour, porous and rough grained, interlocked, of medium hardness and weight. It is very strong and seasons well and where a fine finish is not essential it is an ex cellent hardwoodo It is quite abundant but is only cut on order, as are the other hardwoods. The weight of these woods can be roughly calculated as 1000 kgc per c.m. wet and 850 dry. Kosso, Duccia, Brayera anthelmintica A red an smooth barked tree with male and female flowers on separate trees, growing at the edge of the forests. It branches freely but logs up 16’ in length can sometimes be obtained. The wood is red, heavier and harder than Tukur Inchet, takes a fine finish, and would be useful for trucks floors. It is available in fair quantities. I Sombo ,Loel, Ekbergis. rupeliana, a tall slender forest tree up to 18" in diameter and 75' tall. The wood is light, hard- surfaced, of pale brown color. It is very strong and tough and could be worked into thin boards. It finishes very well with a satiny sheen. This timber seems excellent for use in truck siding and furniture but is available in moderate quantities only. ..o/211 f 211 ! Jalalaca, Wandebiu, Apodutes acutifolia. A medium weight hardwood, light brown in colour, somewhat like the American Red- gum but without the sandy feel when finished. It is very strong, easily worked, takes a very fine finish and can just be dented by the thumb nail. It could be used for floors, furniture and for all truck body construction. Acacia sp; One of the most common trees of Ethiopia but rarely of size or form suitable for sawing, The wood is, v&ry hard and heavy in proportion to its strength. It takes a rough finish and is useful for railway car construction, sleepers, trucks sills, etc; where other hardwwods are available it is not advisable to use it. Some quantity is available but mill operators are not anxious to saw it out. Woira, Eghersa, Olea Chrysophylla, An abundant and massive tree growing at. the edge of the forests, up to 3f in diameter and 80' high. The wood is heavier and harder than any other native species, light brown with black variations, and quite oily. It is quite hard to saw and finish but takes an iron hard smooth surface, It seems too heavy for truck floors but would make fine table and desk tops or speciality work benches, Kaout, Meta Koma, A medium sized tree found in the forests of Chercher province which was used by the Italians for the production of tool handles. The wood is white, hard, porous- grained., very tough and takes a good finish, A supply of handles turned by the Italians and exposed to moisture for tv/o years is still usable. It closely resembles Hickory and seems an excellent wood for this use, .o,/212 ?12 Yaja. a wood found in the Chercher forests also used for handle stock. The woo'd is lighter than Kaout but does not appear so strong nor does it take as good a finish. There is also a wood in these forests which was used by the Ethiopians for gun stocks. Gatam, Cussonia (?). A largely badly formed tree, fairly common in all the forests. The wood is light brown or whitc0 very light, with fine straight graining* It curvcs easily and seems to be an excellent pattern wood. Logs up to 2* in diameter and 10' long can be obtained and there is much dead wood in the forest whose wood is thoroughly seasoned but contains 1mm. worm holes. Miesga. A wood slightly heavier and coarser grained than Gatam which could perhaps also be used for pattern stock. It is found in the Mecha forest. Badessa, Syzygium guineense. A grey-brown hardwood of me dium weight and hardness, found in nearly all the forest. It is porous grained, without apparent growth rings, seasons well, and can be recommended for the greatest variety of uses where beauty is not essential. It would sec-m particularly well adapted for battery plates or venner stock. Kulkwal, Euphorbia candelabra. A very common cactuslike tree attaining a diameter of 5 * and a height of 75 * in Chercher and a russi. The wood is white with no apparent graining, very soft, light and quite elastic. It has a large cellular pith and many of the larger trees hollow. If care is taken it seasons well but it is subject to blue stain and collapse. It is used * a * ' 213 at the Asmara Arsenal as pattern stock and the Italians are reported to have experimented with it for the production of plywood backing and wooe'en r^ish^so It could perhaps be used as a match stock. In addition to the above hardwoods there are in every forest other species which possess good qualities and some are in merchantable quantity, a translation of an Italian list of trees has been appended to this report. TRANSPORTATION: The most serious problem confronting the timber industry in Ethiopia is the lack of roads and equipment for transporting the lumber from the mills to the railroad and market centers. As consequence the price is very high and little material is being brought to Addis Ababa except on order. When it is possible for the purchasing agency to supply its own trucks the lumber should be brought at the mills, particularly in the Mecha and Badjiro regions. The 100 Km* trip to the mills is make the round trip in one day. The usualy hauling charge by local contractors is 25 MT or 200 MT per load for partly drawn lumber to /Addis Ababa. The Shashamanna region, 250 Km. over a dirt road from Addis ^baba, is not practical for truck hauls beyond the railroad except for special material and when no other supply is available. Timber from this region comes to the railroad at Modjo while that from Asbar Tefari comes to Miesso0 If it is decided to use water transport to Massawa these two regions will be very inportant. It would seem however,to be more suitable for Eritrean users to operate some mills in .c/214 214 northern Ethiopia and haul by truck, as the railroad steamship, truck system by way of Massawa entails very many handlings. STOCKS: * v The stocks of timber on hand in Ethiopia are very small and there is no prospect of their increasing in the near future. Most of the timber in Addis Ababa and much of that at the mills is of poor quality and it is doubtful if there is even 100 c.m. of harwood on hand today. There seems to be about 2000 c.mc I of Tidh and Zigba on hand. Qf this amount 1000 c.m. is a stock in Addis Ababa of completely unusable quality. Of the remainder at the mills and along the railroad perhaps one-half is also cull* Much of the timber is recently cut and carries such a high per centage of moisture that transport would be very expensive* There are two ways to secure good lumber of the sizes and va rieties needed* One is to contract for a year's supply and have it properly stacked at the mill as it is cut. The other is for the buyer to operate a mill himeslf in some conveniently located region. The cost of transportation would be greatly reduced by the partial seasoning of the timber, the quality would be im proved by proper stacking, and the species and sizes would be exactly as the buyer wishes. The necessity of using one of these methods can not be too strongly urged. About 60 percent of the softwoods bought should be Zigba, since it is not so brittle or easily split as Tidh and hence more useful for rough boarding and construction. For the present uses at Asmara about 50 perecent of all lumber should be in 1” boards and the remainder in planks and small dimension stock. It is difficult to use and wasteful to resaw the 2,4, and 5 inch timbers common at the mills in this country, although a small quantity of softwood 4x4 and hardwood 3 x 8 could be used. 215 Insert this page in page 106 before Cassipouria elliotlii, fifth 'line from bottom.' I WET FOREST OR UPPER MESOPHYTIC: Because they have been driven up by cultivation the wet forest here begin at about 8000 feet elevation, but I believe 7000 feet is normal as scattered individuals of that type occur down to this elevation* This type of forest is limited to the upper slopes and valleys of the three mountain masses, Garas Saballe,Muctar and Mec.. o and extends to their tops except where thin soil limits it. * In the lower parts there is the usual association of Psychotria, Juniperus, Podocarpus, Gatam, Asquar, Olea Chrysophyllum, and Hochotfcterii. Under shrubs are Discopodium penninervum, Atafaris, Rubicceons shrubs and Acanthus arboreus. In addition tc these there are here kaout, Celtis, kraussiana in quantity; Ombus,(Allophyllus sp.)of good form and size; some Sombo, a very large amount of Euphorbia sp. Moka Dima; and large Dombeya. On the south side of both Saballe and Muctar at least 50% of the stand is Euphorbia sp. of great size and fine form; while on the upper slopes, above 9 5 0 0 ’., Dombeya gostzenii (?) occupies fully 70% of the stand. Moka Dima is a fine tall and straight forest tree but not common. Tukur Inchet(?) is only a shrub or small tree here but another tree with trifoliate leaves closely resembling and entirely confused with it by the local foresters is the most common understory tree*