Social Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations

Thesis

By

Anastasia Khmelevskaya

Submitted in Partial fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Arts In Communication and Mass Media 2018

Reader: Todd Nesbitt, PhD.

Statutory declaration / Čestné prohlášení

I, Anastasia Khmelevskaya, declare that the paper titled:

Social Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations

was written by myself independently, using the sources and information listed in the list of references. I am aware that my work will be published in accordance with § 47b of Act No.

111/1998 Coll., On Higher Education Institutions, as amended, and in accordance with the valid publication guidelines for university graduate theses.

Prohlašuji, že jsem tuto práci vypracoval/a samostatně s použitím uvedené literatury a zdrojů informací. Jsem vědom/a, že moje práce bude zveřejněna v souladu s § 47b zákona č.

111/1998 Sb., o vysokých školách ve znění pozdějších předpisů, a v souladu s platnou

Směrnicí o zveřejňování vysokoškolských závěrečných prací.

In Prague, 05.04.2018, Anastasia Khmelevskaya

Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I would like to thank my mentor, professor Todd Nesbitt, for all his patience, guidance and support throughout this project.

I would also like to express my gratitude to the Finnish gothic metal band H-I-M, who’s beautiful music, along with Ville Valo’s infernal voice, gave me the inspiration and energy required to get through this difficult time, and made the writing process significantly more enjoyable. The 2007 album Venus Doom is a true masterpiece that deserves a prompt vinyl release.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge my boyfriend Marvin Schulz, who once said: “I don’t think you will ever finish your thesis.” Rubbed it in your face, didn’t I?

Table of contents

I. Introduction 1 II. Overview of the field 4 2.1. Defining Advertising and marketing 4 2.2 Advertising history and development 5 2.3. Typology 13 a) Commercial vs. social 13 b) Mediums and purpose 15

III. Persuasive approaches in advertising and marketing 23 3.1. Traditional approaches 23 3.2 Societal concern (effects) 30

IV. Social advertising and marketing 34 4.1. Definition and purpose, examples, history 34 4.2 Success rates and problems 37 4.3 Tactics: commercial vs. social 41 4.3.1. Persuasive approaches in social marketing 44 4.4 Ethical questions 50

V. Case Studies 54 5.1. Montana Meth Project 54 5.2. PETA celebrity endorsement 55 5.3. Friends don’t let friends drive drunk 56 5.4. #EndangeredEmoji 57

VI. Conclusions 59

Appendix 61

References 97 Abstract

Social marketing is a powerful communication tool most commonly used by nonprofit organizations in order to communicate with audiences. The social issue aspect is frequently underrepresented in the marketing field. It is, however, an important subject, as it enables marketing professionals to influence human behavior using traditional marketing techniques, and create a positive impact on society. This paper compares and contrasts commercial and social marketing approaches, in order to assess prospective effectiveness. Various persuasion approaches used by nonprofit organizations are examined, and their effectiveness evaluated. The research demonstrated that nonprofit organizations frequently adopt traditional marketing persuasion methods in their communication. However, they usually need to be adapted to delicate social issues, which nonprofits wish to promote, as inappropriate use of these methods can produce the opposite effect. A higher sense of responsibility must be present when planning and executing social marketing campaigns, with careful consideration for the audiences.

I. Introduction

When we think about nonprofits, the following concepts usually come to mind: charity, activism, donations, “good cause”… However, we rarely associate nonprofit organizations with marketing, advertising, consumer psychology and behavior; in fact, those things are normally tied to for-profit corporations, which many nonprofits seem to be agitating against.

Nevertheless, some forms of marketing and advertising have been used by nonprofits since the beginning of their existence, with more and more charity organizations adopting them in their communication. In a way, the goals of nonprofit communication are similar to those of commercial companies: to spread messages, grab attention of target audience, and encourage them to act. Similarly to commercial brands, nonprofits also attempt to further the relations with the audience, and build a loyal base of customers, or supporters.

The task that lies before nonprofit organizations, however, is slightly more complex: instead of simply encouraging people to purchase goods and services that benefit themselves, they need to persuade the audiences to donate their money to a cause, change their habits, or even entire lifestyle. This is much harder to perform for multiple reasons: mainly, it requires more effort from the public’s side, with little to no immediate return. People have to make the conscious decision to transfer their money somewhere, instead of using it to buy products for themselves, or give up certain habits for a supposed benefit to their health, society or ecology. Therefore, the communication of nonprofit communications must be even more persuasive, with goals made clear and desirable.

To build such communication, nonprofits can use similar strategies as commercial companies, but oftentimes it is not sufficient or appropriate. In this case, new methods and tactics need to be invented.

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These traditional and new approaches will be explored in detail on the following pages.

The objective of this paper is not only to outline them, but also to analyze and assess their effectiveness. The second chapter describes the persuasive techniques used in traditional marketing, and deal with the societal effects connected with them. The following chapters looks at how these marketing tactics are used specifically by nonprofits, and illustrate the cases when they succeed or fail. Other aspects of nonprofit communication, such as the ethical considerations and various challenges will also be discussed in detail. The implications for further research will be outlined in the conclusion of the thesis.

To answer questions presented in this thesis, secondary research was conducted through looking at a varied scope of existing data. Since the thesis aims to answer “What?”, “How?” and “Why?” questions, the data for this project was collected and analyzed using mainly qualitative methods. A large part of the work involved description and interpretation. Data was collected from peer reviewed books and journals, as well as from the field (namely, examples of marketing campaigns by various organizations). These campaigns were analyzed using content and visual analysis. The context of marketing history and theory was given to ensure full understanding of the subject by the researcher and the audience.

Commercial advertising uses a variety of persuasive approaches in selling products and services to citizens. Social marketing and non-profit organizations, however, engage with themes that demand more careful consideration. This paper aims to explore the challenges in the field of social marketing in order to understand, how it's planning and execution differs from commercial field, and which traditional marketing tactics can help or hinder social communication.

Apart from analyzing marketing strategies and tactics of nonprofits, this paper also attempts to give the audience a better understanding of the type of work performed by these organizations, and the positive impact they have on the world and society.

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II Overview of the field

This chapter aims to define the concepts of marketing and advertising, and explore the historical progress of the field. It will further outline the two main types of marketing: commercial and social, and explain the difference between the two concepts. The various promotion mediums and the purpose of their use will be discussed.

2.1. Defining advertising and marketing

Advertising is a form of communication intended to inform and persuade the masses.

Philip Kotler, a renowned American marketing professor, defined advertising as “ any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of goods, services, or ideas by an identified sponsor.” (Kotler, 2001) In order to reach it’s audience, the message has to be communicated through a specific channel, or medium. In the book Contemporary Advertising William Arens traces the development of the field, starting with traditional mediums which included radio, television, print (newspapers, magazines, posters), billboards, leaflets, and so on. From there, he notes that nowadays the development of technology enabled advertisers to explore and successfully use new channels of communication, such as digital media, where ads take the form of e-mail messages, banners, paid social media posts, pop-up ads and video ads on streaming websites such as YouTube. Non-traditional advertising and marketing mediums such as shopping trolleys, branded items, celebrity endorsement and guerilla strategies are also being successfully implemented (Arens, 1999).

Advertising and marketing are complementary concepts, yet they should not be confused.

While advertising only deals with presentation and promotion of the product, marketing refers to the whole set of actions surrounding the sales process, from developing the product’s concept and introducing it to the market, to promotion and distribution. Arens provides the following definition of marketing: “Marketing is the process of planning and

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executing the conception, pricing, distribution, and promotion of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy the perceived needs, wants, and objectives of individuals and organizations.” Therefore, marketing is a set of strategically planned and developed actions or methods that take place in a specific order, one following the other. Advertising is part of the marketing process, which is introduced during the promotion stage. Although marketing has been traditionally used in commercial purposes for the promotion of goods and services, many nonprofit organizations are now adopting the marketing process as it provides leverage in promoting ideas and raising awareness. This chapter will further talk about the history and development of marketing and advertising and describe the various mediums used for promotion (Arens, 1999).

When we think of advertising, we usually refer to its commercial aspect, which is used to inform consumers about goods and services available on the market and convince them to make a purchase from the specific seller, who paid for the ad. Although branding, advertising and marketing are usually viewed as modern concepts, they are deeply rooted in history. In fact, they may be as old as the human society as a whole. The word “advertising” has an

Ancient Latin origin and comes from the word “advertere”, which meant “to turn to something”, usually aimed to evoke someone’s attention (Starcevic, 2015). Various forms of commercial advertisements date back as far as to the ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman and

Chinese civilizations. Back then, the most common mediums for advertising were written messages or word of mouth.

2.2. Advertising history and development

The ancient era

The earliest record of ancient Chinese advertising can be found in the “Classics of

Poetry” - a collection of Chinese poems and songs from 11th to 7th century BC, allegedly

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composed by Confucius; it describes people playing bamboo flutes and singing songs to sell sweets (Feng, 2009). Other sound ads included witty and memorable poems, which assured that the customer would remember the ad and recognize the product later on. Sign ads composed of paintings, calligraphy or decorations with physical objects (cloth, flowers, etc.) were hanged on the doors of shops, restaurants and pubs and were usually characterized by high detail. As printing with copper plates was invented during the Song dynasty, first ads printed on paper appeared. They usually featured descriptions of businesses such as shops and even images of the first logotypes. These ads are known as the world’s first printed medium (Feng, 2009). Similarly, people in Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome used papyrus, wood and stone carvings to make public announcements or promote their business (Starcevic,

2015).

The preindustrial period

The Middle Ages in Europe, sometimes referred to as the Preindustrial Age, also saw a need for advertising. as the marketplace grew and the need for products increased simultaneously. As the majority of population were illiterate, the advertisements were presented in the form of signs: images that symbolized a certain product or service. For instance, an image of a boot would symbolize a shoemaker’s shop, or a sign featuring a vest, a thread, and a needle would hang above the tailor’s store (Arens, 1999).

The real breakthrough for communication, trade and advertising happened in the 1440’s when Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith, invented the printing press. Before the invention, monks used to hand-copy books and scriptures, which took more time, and as a result books were limited in quantity and only available to few people. The new invention enabled for information to be reproduced faster and with less effort, which also made books significantly cheaper. This fostered the establishment of public schools, and increase in

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literacy across Europe (Briggs, Burke, 2009). The first mass medium – the newspaper – came to replace town criers, and news began to travel further across towns and borders. The new technology also made advertisement more affordable and easier to reproduce. The fist advertisement in English language was produced in London in 1472: it was a handbill offering a prayer book for sale. By the 1700’s various prints began to flood the big cities, which unavoidably lead to advertisers competing with each other. It is when the phenomenon known as puffery first emerged: in order to gain attention and stand out against competitors, ads offered “magnified” promise; ascribing unrealistic or exaggerated qualities to the product

(Arens, 1999). For instance, many advertisers claimed that their product is the very best on the market (“Nestle makes the very best chocolate”). The first American newspaper to carry ads was the Boston Newsletter, and soon most other newspapers followed, featuring full-page sections of advertisement. The first American to use images in ads was Benjamin Franklin; he also came up with using larger fonts for headlines and considerable white space which made the ads easier to read. Thus, one of the founding fathers of the United States is also known as the father of advertising art (Arens, 1999).

The mid-1700-s marked the start of Industrial Revolution, which originated in England and soon spread to North America. Animal power was largely replaced by machines, which lead to mass-production of goods. The increased availability of products also meant decrease in price; instead of working on the land to produce goods, people could simply buy them in the market. As a result, the urban population increased, as more and more people moved from villages to cities; this created new, rapidly growing urban markets, and the need for new advertising strategies surfaced. Earlier, manufacturers were only concerned with producing goods, and distributors, retailers and mail-order catalog companies dealt with the promotion.

But soon manufacturers saw the opportunity in promoting their own goods to increase demand (Arens, 1999).

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In the late 1880s the two earliest American advertising agencies were established: N.W.

Ayer & Sons in Philadelphia and J. Walther Thompson in New York (O’Barr, 2010). Ayer was the first agency that came up with the operating style agencies follow today: planning and executing full advertising campaigns. They also became first to establish a separate copy department and hire a full-time staff copywriter (Arens, 1999).

The invention of photography (1830s-1840s) and motion picture (1890s) opened new borders for advertisers. Now they could show how products and places actually looked, rather than simply describing them with words or illustrations. New form of print media – magazines – were the most popular carrier of photography ads as they could reproduce them in the highest quality (Pinney, 2012). One of the pioneers in photography advertising was

Edward Steichen. He was born in Luxembourg in 1879 and migrated to the United States in

1879. Steichen originally specialized in lithography and undertook the field of photography in 1896. By the 1920’s he became the most influential photographer in New York. Among his iconic works were ads done for famous brands such as Cartier and Camel (See image 1).

By the 1930’s the majority of visual magazine ads featured photographs (Handy et.al., 1999).

The industrial period

The end of World War I marked the beginning of the Industrial Age in Europe and United

States, and the beginning of the era of modern advertising (Arens, 1999). The mass production pivoted from war to consumer goods, which lead to saturation of commodity markets. For the first time, products on the shelf from different manufacturers began to differ in package styles: they were the first consumer packaged goods (Arens, 1999). This emerged due to the increased variety and the competition on the mass market. Before, products on the shelf were unbranded, and retailers advertised a type of product (e.g. soap) rather than a specific product from a certain manufacturer (e.g. Dove). Now, manufacturers took

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promotion in their own hands and began branding their products, which included a distinct, memorable brand name, logo, slogan, color, and package design. Among the first American brands during this time were Wrigley’s spearmint gum, Coca-Cola, Jell-O, Kellog’s corn flakes and Campbell’s soup (See image 2, 3, 4).

In 1923, the book Scientific Advertising was published. It quickly became the textbook and bible for advertisers worldwide, and is still regarded as a timeless classic today. It’s author, famous copyrighter Claude Hopkins, whom Ogilvy called “the father of modern advertising” declared that “Advertising reached the status of science”. He formulated a set of fixed principles that focused on selling and promoted a simplistic approach to copyrighting, which was based on repetition and outlawing humor, literary flair, and anything that could distract from the main goal (Arens, 1999).

At around the same time, radio was invented, providing the opportunity to reach consumers through a different sense. Not only visual techniques such as copy and images, but now also auditory forms of advertising became available. Along with voiceovers and jingles, advertisers would sponsor entire radio programs, in exchange for being mentioned in the program. The first radio jingle – “Have you tried Wheaties?” was a commercial for Wheaties

- a brand of oat flakes. It was sung by a barbershop quartet on Christmas Eve and is believed to have saved the brand (Arens, 1999).

During the Great Depression in the 1930s, consumers began limiting their purchases of goods. As money was scarce and unemployment grew, many urban households began to cut down their spending. Thus, advertisers had to come up with new strategies in order to sell the products. This is how research in advertising first emerged: advertisers and manufacturers became concerned with the psychology of consumers and realized the need to conduct studies in order to determine what influences consumer behavior and motivates them to buy. The first research groups were formed by Daniel Starch, A.C. Nielsen and George Gallup. The

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studies they conducted were focused on public opinions and preferences. These groups gathered information on consumer behavior, public opinion, sales of products and performance of ads and sold them to advertising agencies. Thus, a new area of business was formed: the market research industry (Arens, 1999).

In 1941, the first television was introduced, and this medium offered more opportunities for advertising than ever before. After the end of World War II, TV advertising spread rapidly due to growth of national revenue the war brought about: as more and more households were able to afford a television set, ads could reach larger audiences. In the late

1940s-1950s, the average consumer became more concerned with his or her perceived social status and attempted to elevate it by purchasing more modern and “trendy” products. As there was excess of goods on the market and everything was readily available, a new consumption trend emerged: people no longer bought products to satisfy their basic needs, but to achieve a certain status in society. During this time the major luxury brands appeared (Arens, 1999).

Advertisers, therefore, began to adapt new creative strategies: instead of simply describing the product and it’s qualities, commercials became preoccupied with selling a story. This time marked the Golden Age of advertising, with emergence of such industry giants as Leo Burnett, David Ogilvy, and Bill Bernbach, who formed world’s top advertising agencies and completely changed the way of planning and executing campaigns.

As products became more specialized, advertisers turned to marked segmentation, in order to determine special groups of people who’s needs would be satisfied with a certain product. The color-image era of the 1960’s was the time of a creative revolution: the product itself was no longer as important as the brand behind it. As products with similar qualities were competing against each other, they began to differentiate through brand story. For instance, Cadillac and Volvo are both car brands that offer quality vehicles that are capable of getting a person from point A to point B. Their brand stories, however, would be completely

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different: “luxury elegance” for Cadillac “Safe, reliable, family oriented” for Volvo, or

“Wild, adventurous” for Land Rover. This strategy helped for the brands to differentiate in prices, as they targeted different groups of people. Therefore, the market became more segmented: the market for cars, for instance, was separated into luxury cars, family cars, off- roaders, quality, and so on (Arens, 1999).

In the 1970’s marketers recognized the need not only to create a unique brand story, but also to acknowledge the strengths and weaknesses of competitors and place the brand separately in consumers mind, which led to the emergence of a new positioning strategy. The most well-known examples of positioning include Volkswagen (“Think small”), Avis

(“We’re only No.2”) and 7Up (“The uncola”) (Arens, 1999).

The postindustrial period

The early 1980’s marked the beginning of the Postindustrial Age. As people became more aware of humanity’s dependence on natural resources, higher environmental conciseness emerged and influenced lifestyle choices, consumption, and marketing industry.

In the industry of energy or energy-consuming goods, such as cars and electronics, advertising was used to encourage people to consume less. The new term demarketing, or marketing against something, emerged. Later on, this strategy began to be used in a more aggressive form by brands and politicians against competitors. It also was, and is still being, used by health companies and governments to raise awareness about social problems (Arens,

1999). Demarketing will be later discussed in detail in it’s regard to social marketing and advertisement.

In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell. Europe was moving towards a united consumerism economy, and, with the fall of the Iron Curtain, new global markets began to form.

Advertising agencies became concerned with growth, mergers and acquisitions, and began to

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operate worldwide. Brands began to seek more creative, “cutting edge” executions of advertising campaigns. With the scope of creative freedom and endless range of possibilities, advertising became an form of art, which began to be celebrated at the Cannes festival. The

American advertising, however, went through a recession period during that time and, driven by layoffs and cut spending, shifted the focus from flare back to basics – the branding (Arens,

1999).

The digital age

The new millennium brought about tremendous technological advancements. In the early

1960s Internet was invented, originally intended by the US Department of Defense to serve as a means of communication between government, military, and research facilities. Later on, the first personal computer was introduced in the end of 20th century, shortly followed by the commercial explosion of the Internet. Now, almost every person in the first world and developing countries owns one or more electronic devices with Internet access. The digital sphere became the new popular advertising medium. Consumers are being targeted through mobile ads (SMS), emails, search engine marketing (or search engine optimization), social media ads, and display advertising, which includes banners. Online advertising is cheaper, has great outreach, and can be tailored to each person based on his or her age, gender, location, and search history. (Schumann, et.al., 2014) For instance, if a person is considering to get a pet guinea pig and has recently been researching on Google about them, he will likely encounter ads promoting guinea pig food and husbandry or banners linked to websites of guinea pig breeders in his area. As online ads provide for more opportunity for interaction with audience, the new phenomenon of viral advertising has emerged. In the case of viral marketing and advertising, the sponsor is not always clear, and the campaign success relies on shares by Internet users (Koch, et.al., 2015). One of the successful examples of viral

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advertising is “The Old Spice Guy” campaign by Old Spice, a brand specializing on men’s toiletries. The first video of the campaign aired on Youtube and was shared thousands of times within several days (Kluch, 2015). Although online advertisement is generally effective and has recently been surpassing TV advertising in revenue, it raises multiple challenges and ethical controversies (Moraes, et.al., 2017). As the digital sphere is becoming more and more saturated with ads, Internet users are starting to be annoyed by banners and pop-ups which distract them from their activities, and are resisting by switching to ad-block software. The intrusiveness of online ads and the fact that search engine companies are selling users personal data to advertisers pose ethical challenges that are yet to be solved.

2.3. Typology

This section defines the two main types of marketing and advertising: commercial and social, and explores the various mediums used in marketing communications.

a) Commercial vs social marketing and advertising

Generally, advertising has been known to raise ethical controversies, which lead to disagreements in society. The proponents of advertising view it as a major social force that drives economy and plays a crucial role in improving the standard of living for people all over the world. It also informs consumers about the variety of goods and services on the market and helps them choose the products that would be best suited to satisfy their unique needs. However, the honesty of advertisers is often put into question along with the “puffing” techniques, which were mentioned earlier. The critics of advertising and consumerism claim that it drives people into constantly buying things they do not need, making them slaves to corporations. Furthermore, advertisement of products such as alcohol, tobacco and certain

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drugs is often criticized, as it directly facilitates potential danger to public health (Arens,

1999).

However, there are also ways in which advertising and marketing can serve as beneficial to society. This thesis will further deal with the area of social marketing and advertising.

Richard Jackson Harris, author of the book A Cognitive Psychology of Mass Communication, refers to it as “socially positive media”. Pro-social ideas can be promoted through films and television programming, which is especially true for children’s TV shows such as Sesame

Street (Harris, 2009). This work will, however, focus more on social marketing campaigns that are done is a similar ways as commercial campaigns, but follow the purpose to “sell” ideas and a certain way of life rather than a product.

Social marketing is an often underrated, but important field. It is growing rapidly and gaining more attention, with many successful advertisers turning to marketing social change instead of commodities (Harris, 2009). It is a relatively new concept: although governments have been known to attempt to influence society throughout history, it was not until the late

20th century that these attempts became systematic and organized. The term was first used by scholars Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman, who wrote an article which discussed the possibility of applying the traditional commercial marketing and advertising principles to health and social issues (French et.a.l, 2009). Social marketing is considered to be a convergence of two disciplines: marketing and social sciences. This suggests that social marketing is based on deeper research and application of historical knowledge than commercial marketing; it’s outcomes are also more difficult to predict and measure.

The first documented social marketing campaigns were introduced and successfully implemented in India and other developing countries in the 1960s and were aimed to address multiple issues such as reproductive health, family planning, HIV/AIDS, diseases in children, and so on. The government and health lobbyist in the U.S. recognized the opportunity in the

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1980s and began to use the marketing mix to raise awareness about the dangers of tobacco, alcohol, and drug abuse. Social marketing practice quickly spread and began to be used across the globe (French et.al., 2009). It is now evident that social marketing has a positive effect on society: since the launch of multiple campaigns targeting health and safety awareness, there was a distinct decrease in the rate of certain deceases, consumption of tobacco, and raised awareness of public safety and environmental concerns (Harris, 2009).

The further chapters will discuss in detail about the positive effects of social marketing and advertising, the relationship between social marketing and advertising, and various tools used by social marketers to achieve their goals.

b) Mediums and strategy

The first, and, perhaps, most visible component of marketing is advertising. It has also existed for the longest period of time. For marketers, advertising is a tool to spread the message, using someone else’s medium. Some of the “classic” mediums include print, posters, billboards and flyers, TV, and radio. With time, advertising found it’s way into new, more unconventional mediums, such as street art, public transport (such as large prints on buses), street benches, and the newest exponentially growing world of Internet and social media.

Print is the oldest form of advertising, which dates back to ancient civilizations. Today, this medium is still widely used, and proves to be effective. Newspapers and magazines are the common carriers of print ads. They allow the message to reach the masses, while also allowing advertisers to target specific audiences, according to their location, demographics, and interests.

At the end of the 20th century, newspapers were the second largest medium (after television) in terms of advertising volume (Arens, 1999). Although now newspaper ads are

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less popular, with newer mediums such as the Internet coming into play, marketers still frequently choose this medium for certain products and certain audiences. Newspapers offer a number of pros, such as: mass outreach, localized targeting, timeliness (usually read on the day of issue, ads can appear quickly), and credibility (readers find newspaper articles and ads more believable) (Arens, 1999). Newspapers store permanent records, unlike the ephemeralness of radio and TV, where ads only appear at a given time. Newspaper ads are also relatively inexpensive, since production costs are lower than with other mediums. This, however, may compromise the quality of ads: size of text, color of visuals. Some of the other disadvantages of newspaper ads include lack of selectivity (as newspapers usually cover large audiences within a location, but not differentiate by specific interests or demographics), short lifespan (newspapers are usually read in a day and then tossed away), clutter (there are usually multiple ads and editorial texts on the same page, so les chance the reader will pay attention to them). Unless the advertiser pays extra for specific positioning, he has no control of where the ad will appear (Arens, 1999). Also, more and more people, especially the younger generations, prefer to get their news from online platforms and mobile devices, which makes newspapers rapidly less popular. When choosing this medium, advertisers must keep in mind the limited demographic of readers. Many large newspapers now offer online versions of their publications, which are likely to be read by younger audiences, and can feature more personalized ads.

While newspapers offer a rather limited space for text and images, the magazine industry is a haven for advertisers. Magazines offer the possibility to place high-quality, large and colorful prints, and even include coupons or free samples (this trick is especially popular with perfumes and cosmetics). Magazine ads can be precisely targeted to the desired audience, since most of them are highly audience-specific (Tungate, 2007). There are magazines for different age groups, genders, professions, and hobbies. These include fashion and beauty

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magazines, celebrity gossip, cooking, health and fitness, men’s and women’s magazines

(such as GQ or Cosmopolitan), rock and rap magazines, and many others. Unlike TV and radio ads, which often get skipped through or muted, magazine ads are more likely to grab people’s attention, as readers take the time to look at the images and read the copy, while they are flipping through the magazine pages. Compared to newspapers, which usually get thrown away after reading, magazines have a longer life span (Tungate, 2007). Even after finishing reading them, many people still keep magazines on the shelves or on the coffee table, to look at them later and see the ad again. Even without purchasing the magazine, people can read them while waiting for their appointment at a hair salon, doctor’s office, spa and wellness center, fitness club, etc., since magazines and brochures are usually lying around at such places.

Among all mass media outlets, television has traditionally offered the largest creative opportunities for advertisers. TV allows to combine sight, sound, and motion in the ads, ability to demonstrate the product, use special effects, attractive actors and voiceover. TV ads are often deemed more believable, because the audiences can see the amazing qualities of the product right before their eyes. These ads often feature celebrities, experts and other opinion leaders. This medium offers a good degree of selectivity: as audiences vary depending on the channel, type of programming, time of day and day of the week, advertisers can choose the channel and airtime depending on the desired audience (Tungate, 2007). Since watching TV is considered a traditional family pastime, ads can simultaneously target the end users/influencers (e.g. when advertising products for children) and those who make purchasing decisions (parents or guardians).

One of the main drawbacks of TV ads are high costs. Depending on the chosen creative approach, the cost of producing a national commercial can go over 1$ million (Arens, 1999).

Airtime costs are also considerably high, averaging at $400,000 for a prime-time network

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commercial (www.adage.com), and over $5 million for special attractions, such as Super

Bowl (Wire, 2017). Therefore, this medium is only available to large companies with a higher budget; small businesses must seek more cost-effective approaches to advertise their products and services. An average TV broadcast usually features a lot of clutter, with multiple ads competing against each other. This creates a limited attention span for the audiences, and viewers can not always recall which brand was advertised, unless the ad is very catchy and memorable. Many viewers can find commercials annoying, and flip through the channels during commercial breaks.

Another traditional advertising medium is the radio. It is a more mobile medium than TV, as people can listen to the radio in various places outside of their home: in the car, outside, in a café, etc. It offers optimal reach and frequency, as radio is usually broadcast to mass audiences, who listen to it at certain times of day, regularly. For instance, a person may listen to the same radio station every day on their way to and from work. By buying a specific spot for an extended time period, advertisers can achieve repeated impact on the listener (Arens,

1999). Similarly to TV, radio allows to select the desired audience, but with even more precision. Radio comes in specialized formats, with each channel covering certain geographic areas and targeting specific audiences, based on gender, age, ethnicity or religion, education level, and special interest (e.g. rock/country/electronic music, automobiles, celebrity news, sports). Radio is highly cost effective compared to most other mediums, with simple and inexpensive production and low cost of air spots. National radio spots can be produced for just one tenth of the price of a TV commercial, and even lower price for local stations. Radio is a more active medium than TV in terms of audience engagement: listeners can request their favorite song to be played, send questions to the host, or participate in contests. Since radio is often listened to on-the-go, people are less likely to switch between stations during

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commercial breaks, rather sticking with their station of choice. Radio ads allow for timeliness and certain degree of creative flexibility (Arens, 1999).

The medium of radio was incredibly popular in the 20th century, but, as the new millennium unraveled, it begins to lose its relevance. While offering certain creative flexibility, it has obvious limitations: the message can be conveyed using only sound. Many advertisers find this unpractical, as the product cannot be shown. In order to be memorable, the ad has to rely solely on voice and/or music; therefore some ads feature “jingles” – a melody or rhymes, which allow the product to be remembered easier. This method, however, is not effective for all products. Radio commercials are often “half-heard”, as listeners play radio as a background noise, and do not pay attention to everything that is being said. Popular stations usually have more commercials, which leads to clutter: advertisers must make sure that their piece stands out from the others (Arens, 1999). Finally, with the increasing prevalence of digital media, less and less people tune in to radio regularly; as they can listen to music, get news updates and even watch TV on their mobile devices. Some advertisers adjust to this trend by broadcasting their ads through mobile platforms such as Spotify.

The oldest, and still highly relevant, medium is outdoor advertising, also frequently labeled as out-of-home media. This includes all mediums, which the audience is likely to see outside of their homes: posters, billboards, flyers, public transport, and so on. This method does not lose relevance, as people are always likely to look around when they walk outside or use public transport, therefore become exposed to ads. Among it’s many advantages, outdoor mediums allow for great creative flexibility (Tungate, 2007). Outdoor mediums offer a variety of shapes and sizes, color and motion. Advertisers always find new creative ways to use public buses, sides of buildings, standard or digital billboards. New digital technology offers for even more impressive features, such as lights, animation, and giant video screens

(See Image 5).

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Outdoor mediums have the highest reach and accessibility: the carriers feature the ad 24 hours a day and can not be muted, fast-forwarded or turned off (Arens, 1999). These mediums reach a wide audience, but the most common one consists of young, educated and mobile people living in big cities, which constitute an attractive target for many businesses.

Since many people usually follow the same route daily (on the way to and from work or place of study), outdoor ads ensure repeated exposure and memorability. Advertisers may chose certain neighborhoods and objects to feature their content, thus reaching specific audiences, based on their class, status, gender or interest group (e.g. advertising near universities, shopping malls, fitness centers, upper class neighborhoods) (Arens, 1999).

Compared to other major advertising mediums, outdoor offers relatively low cost per exposure, in the relation to it’s high impact. This medium allows building GRP (gross rating point) fast, and is ideal for campaigns with a short, simple, dogmatic message (Arens, 1999).

One of the biggest challenges of outdoor advertising is the “fleeting” nature of it’s message: potential consumers pass quickly, and are not likely to stop and read every ad they see on their way. Therefore, outdoor ads must be eye catching and “intrusive” (Arens, 1999).

The image and copy must convey the idea briefly, and in a memorable way. Outdoor messages are also influenced by their environment, outside of the advertiser’s control.

Surrounding objects can distract from the ad, or even alter its perception by audiences (See image 6).

Although outdoor mediums provide high exposure, the actual audience reach and demographics are difficult to measure. The planning and initial preparation stages of outdoor advertising can be complicated, time-consuming and run into high costs. Due to high demand, outdoor spaces such as billboards are becoming more expensive. Since advertising space is usually sold for a minimum period of 1 month, advertisers must make sure that the campaign will be relevant for that period of time. Currently, outdoor advertising is so popular

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that demand exceeds supply, and “standard” mediums, such as billboards or city lights, are not readily available. Some advertisers, therefore, look for new spaces to place their message, such as painting branches or spray painting on asphalt. Even though outdoor advertising can read broad audiences, many individuals object to it, regarding such ads as “visual pollution”.

They may, then, find the message annoying and build negative associations with it.

Finally, the newest and fastest-growing advertising medium is the Internet. By 2017, it has become the largest carrier of advertising. Most businesses nowadays have at least some form of online presence: from company website, to banner ads, to social media accounts.

This platform combines multiple features and advantages of all platforms listed above: it allows for endless creative possibilities, with the use of visuals, text, audio, and video. It is the most interactive medium of all, and can encourage direct response and participation of the consumer, especially on social media. The response is often immediate; it often takes mere seconds between initial exposure to the ad to visit to company website or purchase of the product, as ads are directly linked to the product (Tungate, 2007). Internet allows for the most selective targeting; by purchasing keywords, search histories and using cookies, advertisers can monitor the potential customers internet activity and target them precisely when they are in the market to buy the product (e.g. by featuring shampoo ads to people who recently searched for hair products). By buying ad space on social media, companies can precisely select their desired audience based on gender, age, location, education level, and even personal interests. While many consumers find traditional advertising annoying and have a negative attitude towards it, online ads can be designed as more subtle and less obvious, to the point that the audiences don’t perceive them as advertising at all. The development and production of online advertising is fast and inexpensive compared to other mediums; oftentimes, it is enough to just pay one graphic designer (Tungate, 2007).

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Among the few drawbacks of online advertising is the information overload, which usually surrounds Internet users. With multiple ads, articles and videos to click on, attention span becomes shorter and less focused. Campaigns, therefore, must be creative and stand out from the clutter. Some advertisers resort to more intrusive methods, such as pop-up windows, or Youtube ads that start playing before the video; more and more users, however, find this annoying and are more likely to tune out or close the ad without reading it’s content.

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III Persuasive approaches in marketing and advertising

The marketing industry relies on various forms of audience appeal, in order to create effective communication. This chapter will outline the various persuasive approaches and discuss their use and implications for society. The author will provide her own analysis of these approaches used in various communication examples.

3.1. Traditional approaches

In order to persuade audiences, message is often tailored to appeal to their basic needs, emotions, desires or beliefs. The art of persuasion in rhetoric originated in the Ancient times, and was popular among philosophers such as Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle (Rybacki &

Rybacki, 2011). Since then, this form of communication has evolved, and various methods of audience appeal, rooted in human psychology, were developed. These methods have been used for centuries by monarchs, political leaders, and other public personas to gain support of their audiences. Now, these persuasion techniques are being widely adopted by marketers and advertisers around the world, in order to make their communication more persuasive, and their product more attractive to customers.

In their book Advocacy and Opposition: an Introduction to Argumentation, communication scholars Karyn and Donald Rybacki outline the following main audience appeals: appeal to Ignorance, to the People (also known as appeal to majority), Emotion,

Reason, Ignorance, Authority, Humor and Tradition (Rybacki & Rybacki, 2011). These forms of appeal are frequently used in marketing and advertising campaigns; choosing the right type of appeal for the particular target audience often determines the success of the entire campaign.

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3.1.1. Appeal to reason

The oldest and simplest tactic in marketing and advertising is appeal to reason. Also known as rational appeal, this method implies simply demonstrating the qualities and benefits on the product in order to persuade the customer. As a form of proof, marketers use product demonstration, explain, how it could improve consumer’s life, or citing facts and testimonies from other satisfied buyers. Some of the frequently listed benefits include high quality and performance of the product, low price, durability, scarcity (no one else it, thus buyer is unique, limited edition products), economy (buy one get one free), ease to use. Another popular trick is the use of numbers and statistics; multiple consumer behavior studies have demonstrated that people are more likely to find information credible, if it’s backed by statistical findings. Most consumers rarely question the source of such statistics, since the mere presence of numbers in the message makes it appear more scientific (Zhang et. al.

2014).

Rational appeal ads are frequently used by commercial marketers and advertisers. They are usually designed to target a specific audience: usually members of the older generation, rational and pragmatic. This group of people likes to weight all the benefits, pros and cons of the product, and carefully consider all the variables before making the purchase; they rarely engage in “impulsive buying” behavior (Zhang et.al., 2014).

This Nokia Lumia ad is a classic example of rational appeal. It simply demonstrates a photo of the product over a pleasant background, lists its qualities in bullet points, and mentions extra benefits (free gift) (See image 7). This ad seems to be aimed at consumers who care most about functionality and efficiency when using a smartphone, rather than brand name and prestige.

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Another example of rational appeal is this ad by Burger King. By claiming that the advertised fries contain “40% less fat and 30% less calories”, it makes French fries seem as a healthy snack, suitable for those who are conscious about their weigh (See Image 8).

3.1.2. Appeal to emotion

Appeal to emotion is another major part of marketing strategy; when used correctly, it can not only persuade the consumer to make the initial purchase, but also establish a long-term connection between the customer and the brand or organization. Unlike rational ads, marketing and advertising that employs emotional appeal, attempts to play on people’s feelings instead of persuading them with logic. Apart from the actual content of the ad, elements of emotional appeal include pleasant voiceover, tone, appearance of the actors, music, sounds, colors, images, and so on. Such ads are generally more interesting and engaging for the consumer; they create strong emotional associations with feelings of pleasure, fear, guilt, empathy or envy; therefore are more memorable (Zhang et. al., 2014).

Studies have shown that, while rational appeal works better for low-involvement products, such as household cleaners, or utilitarian services, emotional appeal is far more effective for other fields of the service industry and personable products, and in creating a positive image of the brand. It is especially useful in social marketing and advertising. (Khal,

Sindhu, 2014).

Marketers are able to choose from the broad diapason of human feelings and emotions, in order to create the perfect strategy for their desired outcome. For instance, by appealing to fear, advertisements can induce a sense of threat, which can only be elevated by purchasing product or service, or completing certain actions. In commercial marketing, this tactic is used only occasionally, mostly when dealing with health-related products advertisement, such as this ad by Colgate: by warning about the never-resting bacteria, it makes people want to

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better protect their teeth (see Image 9). This method is also frequently employed in political advertisement, which demonstrates the horrors that await, if voters choose a different candidate, as can be seen on this image, which circulated during the 2017 Czech presidential elections (See Image 10).

Other types of emotional appeal include appeal to romance and sex appeal. Appeal to romance mainly applies to commercial marketing, and is generally used for a specific range of products in the health, personal hygiene and beauty industry (See Images 11, 12). It is also common when advertising the traditionally “romantic” goods such as chocolate, or jewelry

(See Image 13, 14). Romantic ads usually feature young, attractive couples who are clearly in love and happy. This way, consumers begin to associate the product with pleasure of love, happiness and romance. Some brands, such as the American high-end jewelry company

Tiffany & Co, have built their entire marketing strategy and brand image around romance.

Presenting a piece of elegant jewelry to one’s significant other is regarded as the highest, purest demonstration of love, and millions of women across the globe dream of a “Tiffany love story” (See Images 15, 16).

While romantic appeal is generally used to promote only appropriate goods and services, sex appeal has been employed to advertise literally everything, from jeans to deodorant to sandwiches. Ever since the “Sex Sells” dogma was first discovered in middle of the 20th century (see image 17), this tactic has been used and abused by advertisers in the Western world for decades, and even partially adapted by the Eastern cultures (See Image 18)

(Reichert, Lambiase, 2014). One of the reasons sex appeal has become so popular, is because it appeals to humans most basic, primitive instinct, and has a strong emotional, as well as physical affect on the audience. Ads which display attractive, semi-naked models in provocative positions are eye-catching and memorable; oftentimes they intend to sell a certain story to the consumer: by using the product, he/she will become irresistible to the

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opposite sex. Sex appeal is popular in clothes, makeup and perfume ads, and has been proven to be effective for this segment (See Image 19, 20), (Reichert, Lambiase, 2014). Calvin

Klein, the American fashion brand specialized on jeans, lingerie, unisex clothes and accessories, has based most of it’s recent advertising campaigns around sex appeal, which led consumers to associate the brand with youth, beauty and sexuality.

In the recent years, however, the market has become oversaturated with sexual ads, and many brands were subject to criticism for using sex appeal inappropriately (Reichert,

Lambiase, 2014). For instance, the fast food chain Burger King has received enormous backlash from critics and general public for it’s bold “7 incher” ad, which featured a phallic- shaped sandwich being shoved inside a woman’s open mouth (See image 21). Similarly, the

Danish toy company Lego has recently released a series of ads which seem to be targeted at adults, (or, in particular, men), and feature women in seductive positions (See Image 22).

Such marketing is frequently frowned upon for being unfit for the target audience and the product that is being advertised. Studies have shown that ads using sex appeal to sell unrelated products are, in fact, less effective, especially among the female audiences, who view them as offensive (Reichert, Lambiase, 2014).

The fourth element of Emotional appeal is appeal to Humor. There is no person in the world that doesn’t enjoy a good laugh, therefore, ads with a humorous message tend to be perceived more positively than regular adverts, which many people find annoying and invasive. Humorous ads provide entertainment, therefore, are more likely to hold consumer’s attention.

This method is suitable for low-priced and low-involvement products, such as food items, shampoo or deodorant. Consumers spend little time considering purchase of such products, and do not require a lot of factual information about them, which leaves space for humor.

When done correctly, this tactic can not only help to sell the product, but greatly increase

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popularity of the entire brand, and build positive associations with it. Some of the most successful humorous campaigns had even gone viral and gained popularity through countless shares online. One of the prime examples of such campaigns is the “Old spice guy” commercial, which consisted of a series of videos, originally released on YouTube (See

Image 23). This new media platform allowed the audience to like, comment, and share the videos, thus making the Old Spice campaign a truly interactive one, and establishing positive image of the brand.

However, several factors must be considered before choosing this communication approach. Most importantly, the message must be appropriate for the audience and the situation; otherwise, the ad might appear insensitive and even offensive, resulting in public’s negative perception of the brand. With many products (such as cars and other expensive items) this appeal is simply ineffective, because consumers need a stronger reason to spend their money than simply a good joke. Humorous ads tend to wear themselves out faster than others; therefore advertisers must keep in mind the relevance of the ad and the product, and make updates when needed.

A rather controversial aspect of emotional marketing is the so-called “shock tactics”. This method is characterized by deeply disturbing, shocking or inappropriate images, meant to catch attention due to their unconventional nature, and evoke strong feelings (usually those of fear or disgust), or spire controversy. Some commercial brands use this method to purposefully spike controversy, and create scandal and buzz around their ads. United Colors of Benetton clothing apparel is known using shock tactics, such as with this campaign

“Unhate”, which featured government leaders from around the world kissing on the lips (See image 24). When shock tactics are used by commercial brands, the results are hard to predict.

Such controversial campaigns can easily offend certain audiences, so most companies prefer to “play it safe” and make their brand appear in a positive light.

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3.1.3. Appeal to authority

Appeal to authority is another popular persuasion strategy. In argumentation, it is defined as a premise that something is true, simply because an authority figure or an expert on the issue claims it to be, even without further supporting evidence. Sometimes, a “false authority” is being used, which means someone who is made to appear as authority due to age, status, or expertise in a different field, although this person is not an actual expert on the matter at hand (Rybacki & Rybacki, 2011).

Appeal to authority is one of the traditional tactics in marketing and advertising. It is common to use testimonies of doctors, “scientists” and other undefined “experts” as proof. A classic example is this vintage ad promoting Camel cigarettes, based on the claim that doctors prefer this brand over others. The text is accompanied by the image of a man in a white coat smoking a cigarette (See Image 25). There is no evidence that this man is an actual doctor, nor any studies that prove the health benefits of Camels compared to other brands; the authority of medical experts is enough to make the claim believable.

Celebrity endorsement sometimes takes the form of appealing to false authority. We frequently see celebrities, athletes, and other popular public personas featured in ads, or recommending products on their social media; they are perceived as authority figures despite lack of expertise in the subject. In the eyes of the general public, the product becomes associated with youth and beauty, wealth, success, and other qualities possessed by these celebrities, even though in reality they have no connection to it. This ad for Lancome skin foundation features Julia Roberts, whose skin appears flawless in the photo (See Image 26).

The audience is made to see Julia Roberts as authority, simply due to her status, although she does not offer any expertise on cosmetics, and the appearance of her skin may be due to other factors, such as healthy lifestyle or photo editing software, rather than Lancome foundation.

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3.1.4. Appeal to majority

Appeal to majority is another form of appeal used to persuade audiences. Appeal to majority (also known as appeal to the people), as evident from the name, is used to argue that something is true, because a lot of people believe so, and the majority cannot be wrong

(Rybacki & Rybacki, 2011). When marketers use this tactic, they attempt to present their product as popular and desirable, by demonstrating how many customers already use and love it. For even stronger effect, advertising texts often have the words “bestseller” or

“number one product” in them (Tanner, 2013) (See Image 27). Besides the false logic, that implies the “truth in numbers”, such marketing also appeals to people’s sense of belonging, and the need to “fit in”, be like everyone else. This phenomenon is called “herd mentality”, or principle of social proof. Most people find comfort in being part of a group, and sharing similar tastes and interests as other group members (Meyerson, 2010). Some brands build their entire marketing strategy around this effect: by connecting their product with a certain social group or culture, they make it seem like a necessary attribute for those who wish to be part of that group. For instance, the American company Vans positions itself as a brand for young, free, adventurous and rebellious people. It has become a distinct part of skateboarding culture, as well as other street sports (Lam, 2014) (See image 28).

3.2. Societal concern

One can say, without a doubt, that advertising has considerable influence on our society, both positive and negative. The proponents of commercial advertising argue that it offers numerous benefits to consumers, providing them with valuable information regarding health and nutrition, helping to make better purchasing decisions, and overall improving the quality of life (Calfee, 1998). Advertising also facilitates the development and growth of capitalist

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market, therefore improving the nation’s economy; it creates healthy competition between companies, and creates and entire employment niche (Arens, 1999).

Despite it’s apparent benefits, advertising is frequently criticized for the distortive effects it can have on the audiences. Chait (2000) and Pollay (1998) both argue, that advertising acts as a “distorted mirror” by painting an idealistic, surreal picture of the world, and convincing the public that they could live this “ideal” life, if they purchase certain products. In reality, this ideal can never be attained, so people continue chasing it and try to fill in the void by purchasing countless items they otherwise wouldn’t need. Jay Chait, the 20 century advertising guru, has admitted that advertising can turn people into slaves by shaping their tastes, believes and ideologies, depriving them of the ability to think for themselves (Chait,

2000). Furthermore, advertising is said to foster the consumerist way of life; by giving too much focus to material things, our society gives less and less attention to fundamental values such as family, friendship, empathy, and freedom (Schudson, 2013).

Furthermore, there exists an ongoing debate regarding the deceiving techniques in advertising and marketing. Although most countries, including the U.S., have laws regarding false advertising, the definition of deception is usually unclear or too narrow, allowing advertisers to find multiple ways around it (Carson, 2010). The humor appeal, for instance, is often used to mask misleading or exaggerated claims (Shabbir & Thwaites, 2013) (See Image

29).

The food, fashion, and cosmetics industries are best known to produce deceptive advertising messages. To create appetizing images of food, advertisers often use shiny plastic or wax figures in place of real products, or other unattractive techniques, such as motor oil instead of syrup, or hair spray on fruits to make them appear fresh (Carson, 2010). A large portion of the sector is dedicated to junk food, candy and sugary drinks, and many advertisements of these products target adolescents and children. Such ads commonly feature

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young people who engage in fun, adventurous activities while consuming junk food (e.g. skateboarders doing tricks after eating a Snickers bar), which creates an illusion of health benefits connected with such food. As a result, many children and adolescents in the Western world develop unhealthy eating habits, with prevalence of sugary and processed foods in the diet. The deceiving nature of food advertising was found to be linked with obesity in both children and adults (Folta, et. al., 2006).

When promoting fashion and beauty-related products to women, advertisers often use excessive makeup and shameless airbrushing in order to hyperbolize the claimed benefits of the products. Since results never match the advertised expectations, many female customers feel dissatisfaction not just with the product, but also with their own appearance (Fowler et.al,

2015).

Advertising also acts on an individual level, often causing serious psychological distress in those who are more vulnerable to media influence. For instance, the abundance of eroticism in advertising is believed to have concerning affects on women and gender relations. In the book: “Sex in Advertising: Perspectives on the Erotic Appeal” scholars Tom

Reichert and Jacqueline Lambiase discuss the differences in representation of both genders in advertising, and the chain of effects which goes far beyond the impulse to buy the product.

The prevalence of semi-naked female models in ads suggests, that the content is targeted at the male audience, and the ad uses the female body as ”bait”, nothing more than a sexual object. Women in sexual adverts are typically portrayed as submissive, promiscuous and easily “available”: oftentimes, advertisements show a man who becomes irresistible after using a certain product, and women who are immediately ready to engage in sexual activities with him. The female body in these ads is viewed as a trophy, which leads to even further objectification; when an ad features a man and a woman, the male is usually seen above her, in a powerful, dominating position (See Image 30). Some researchers argue that such

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representation leads to men having misconceptions about sex and relationships with women in the real world, and can even result in sexual harassment and violence (Reichert, Lambiase,

2014).

Further, sex appeal advertising is frequently criticized for the negative psychological effects it can have on women’s self image. The overwhelming majority of ads feature flawless, young, thin models of Caucasian ethnicity. Such lack of diversity creates a very narrow standard for what is accepted as “beautiful” in society; as a result, some men develop unrealistic expectations for their partners, and women struggle with self-esteem and body image (Lavine et.al., 2009).

Finally, advertising can have a harmful impact on the most vulnerable members of our society: youth and children. According to the data of the American Psychology Association, over-exposure to advertising from a young age results in children growing up with materialistic attitudes, and regarding new toys or other possessions as the primary sources of happiness. In fact, most parent-child conflicts are said to be caused by parents’ unwillingness to buy the desired toy or food item for their children. Furthermore, children reported positive attitudes towards tobacco and alcohol consumption based on the advertising, and demonstrated high brand recognition among these products. This way, advertising directly contributes to the ongoing problem of underage smoking and drinking. As mentioned above, the prevalence of fast food advertisements targeting youth leads to childhood obesity and unhealthy lifestyle (Wilcox et. al., 2004).

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IV. Social marketing and advertising

This section will define social marketing and explain how it came into being. It will also look at how it has evolved over time, and provide notable historical examples of influential campaigns. Further, it will illustrate various problems, which social marketing professionals face in their work.

4.1. Definition and purpose of social marketing, examples, history

Social marketing has evolved as a separate marketing discipline in the 1990’s, and had been widely present in our lives ever since. Nevertheless, there still are some misconceptions and lack of understanding surrounding this subject. Social marketing is often mistakenly associated with manipulation and propaganda, or confused with social media (Lee, Kotler,

2016). To clear the confusion, this chapter will begin with interpreting, what exactly is social marketing. In the book “Social Marketing: Changing Behaviors for Good” (2016), Nancy R.

Lee and Philip Kotler provide the following definition of this subject: “Social Marketing is a process that uses marketing principles and techniques to change target audience behaviors to benefit society as well as the individual. This strategically oriented discipline relies on creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have positive value for individuals, clients, partners, and society at large.”

The primary goal of social marketing is to influence behaviors; by encouraging people to adopt beneficial behaviors and abandon potentially harmful ones, it has the potential to improve quality of life, health and well being, and bring positive change to society as a whole. Social marketing has educational value: besides persistently targeting issues which are known to the majority of people (such as dangers of drunk driving and drug use), it also effectively informs the public on topics they would otherwise not know about (Lee, Kotler,

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2016). For instance, the information about animal species facing extinction, or the dangers of pollution, is commonly spread to mass audiences through the means of social marketing and advertising.

Although most social marketing efforts are viewed as beneficiary to society, certain topics may evoke controversial responses from the audiences. A good example of this is the subject of bodily autonomy, which includes abortion, organ donation, and euthanasia. While many individuals and organizations hold a positive view of these topics, others can oppose them due to religious reasons. In fact, women’s right to abortion is a heated subject, which is widely debated in the Western societies nowadays, and both sides use social marketing to spread their agenda. In that sense, social marketing is merely a tool used by governments and nonprofits, in order to promote behaviors, which they consider to be beneficial (Lee, Kotler,

2016).

As a tool to influence behaviors, social marketing is not a new concept. Some of its primitive forms were used throughout history to facilitate social change, such as abolishment of slavery, or promote women’s rights to vote (See Image 31, 32). The idea of modern-day social marketing began to shape when G.D Wiebe posed the question: “Why can’t you sell brotherhood like you sell soap?” (Wiebe, 1952) The idea behind this question was that NGOs at the time were not effective at “selling” their causes. In his article, Wiebe proposed that

NGOs should adopt some of the tactics used by commercial companies, who are clearly successful at selling their products (Kotler, Zaltman, 1971). Two decades later, the formal term “Social marketing” was first introduced by Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman in 1971, thus marking the start of a new discipline. In the 1980’s, social marketing departments began to be organized within healthcare organizations, and in 1990s several universities began recognizing it as a separate academic program.

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The first documented implication of marketing to address a social issue took place in the

1960s Calcutta, India, where K.T. Chandy proposed and implemented a family-planning promotion campaign. The campaign targeted low-income population groups, and aimed to educate them about safe sex and reduce birth rate through promotion and distribution of condoms. (Chandy et.al., 1965). Since then, similar strategies were adapted in developing countries in order to combat the spread of HIV and other deceases (Lefebvre, 2011).

In the 1980’s social marketing began to be used in the U.S. by public health organizations, such as the National High Blood Pressure Education Program (Lefebvre,

Flora, 1988). Over the next years, the use of social marketing spread into other social spheres, such as active lifestyle and fitness, ecology and animal conservation, environmental protection, education and literacy, public safety, and others (Lefebvre, 2013). In 2000s, social marketing began to be implemented on national levels, as U.K. and U.S. governments announced the establishment of social marketing departments (Lee, Kotler, 2016). Since then, annual Social Marketing Conferences began to be held worldwide, and 2010-2011 marked the launch of the International Social Marketing Association. The ISMA was created wit the aim to connect social marketing professionals around the world, and provide a platform for networking, exchange of information and experience, as well as updates on the current events and developments in the field. Later on, the first Social Marketing career center was created under the initiative of ISMA (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

At the rise of the new millennium, new possibilities of social marketing are being explored. In his book “Social marketing in the 21st century”, A. Andreasen challenged the traditional view of social marketing as a tool to only influence behaviors of individuals downstream, such as promotion of responsible drinking or recycling. He criticized this approach for being too narrow and not accounting for the full potential of social marketing.

Andreasen proposed the targeting of social marketing upstream as well as downstream, and

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influencing the behavior and decisions of policy makers the same way it is used to influence the general public. This way, he claims, social marketing initiatives can induce social change on institutional level, not just individual (Andreasen, 2006). An example of such upstream targeting is this campaign against animal testing, which addresses the Canadian government

(See Image 33).

4.2. Success rates and problems

Despite the significant advancements in the field, there are still obstacles and challenges, which social marketing professionals need to consider. This section will explore the various problems occurring in different stages of the social marketing campaign executions, and what is being done to overcome these challenges.

The first challenge faced by social marketers occurs at the planning stage of the campaign. Similarly to commercial marketing, successful implementation of social campaigns requires prior market research. While multiple secondary data on product rates and consumer behavior is readily available in the commercial marketing niche, it is not always the case in social marketing. Although data on people’s attitudes towards smoking, alcohol, and illegal drugs can be found in health journals, it is not always up do date and is not completely reliable. While most consumers are willing to honestly share their purchasing habits and product preferences, they may not be as sincere when responding to more personal questions regarding health and lifestyle (such as eating and drinking habits, sexual practices, or recycling), and may provide skewed responses to make themselves appear more favorable.

In order to collect more reliable answers, it is advised that marketers design questionnaires with open-end questions instead of scale/multiple choice, or organize personal interviews and focus groups. However, such data collection methods are expensive and time-consuming, and

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social marketing does not always receive enough funds to conduct primary research (Bloom,

Novelli, 1981).

Funding is another major obstacle in development of social marketing campaigns. NGOs and social organizations tend to rely on donation-based funds, and have very limited budgets set aside for marketing initiatives; therefore, marketers are limited in their options for campaign planning and execution. Oftentimes, they cannot afford to conduct their own market research and have to rely solely on secondary data; as discussed above, this data is not always reliable. The financial aspect also limits the further planning and execution stages. At the end of the 20th century most social marketers were unable to use paid advertisements, and had to mostly rely on public service announcements (Bloom, Novelli, 1981). Now, the situation has changed for the better, and more and more NGOs can afford advertising spaces in the media, outdoor and online. However, not all media outlets are willing to air controversial or graphic messages, in fear of offending their audiences. Finding the media platforms, which support their idea, is another task, which makes social marketing campaign execution more complicated, than commercial (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

Another difficulty may arise when social marketers attempt to segment their target audience. In traditional marketing, target audiences can be easily divided into narrow segments, then several more desirable segments are selected, and an effective marketing strategy is developed specifically for these segments. The segmentation in commercial marketing is profit oriented, and groups likely to bring the most revenue are selected. In social marketing , however, target audiences are more broad, oftentimes consisting of entire nations, and including various social, demographic, and special interest groups. It is then more difficult to select specific segments, because the goal of social marketing is not to generate profits, but to improve quality of life for the entire society. Moreover, clients of social marketers (usually governments and NGOs) tend to disapprove the use of

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segmentation, as they want their communication to appear inclusive, and appeal to everyone.

As a result, such broadly oriented campaigns may appear vague and not bring the desired effects (Bloom, Novelli, 1981). For example, if an animal rights group decides to use social marketing in order to reduce meat consumption, they would typically wish to target all meat eaters, who can be found in all kinds of segments of various ages, social groups, and income statuses. However, large segments of this target audience may be far less inclined to change their eating habits, such as members of the older generation, or people living in rural areas, who rely on farming and have limited access to meat alternatives. Attempting to appeal to these segments, then, would mostly be a waste of effort. The more effective solution would be to target higher-income, young people living in cities, who are more likely to favor the welfare of animals and are more open to change, and, therefore, more likely to be influenced by the campaign.

In fact, the majority of social marketing campaigns target people who feel most negatively towards their “product”: drivers who dislike using seatbelts, people who enjoy eating meat, drinking alcohol or using drugs, teenagers who are inclined to engage in unprotected sex, people who litter, etc. This makes social marketing significantly more challenging, as opposed to commercial marketing, which targets people who are already predisposed towards the products (Bloom, Novelli, 1981).

Furthermore, defining specific product concepts and unique selling proposition tends to be far more challenging for NGOs, than commercial companies. The product they are selling is usually intangible, and consists of a series of complex behaviors, which, in some cases, need to be repeated over prolonged periods of time. Selling beneficial behaviors is more difficult, because it requires more efforts on the consumer’s side, while offering little to no immediate benefits. To reach the desired outcome, social marketing communication has to be even more persuasive and powerful, than that of traditional marketing.

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Social marketers, however, are finding ways to overcome this and other challenges through exceptionally creative campaigns, designed to trigger strong emotional response

(Bloom, Novelli, 1981). For instance, in order to convey elaborate pieces of information in a single message, without risking it appearing dull and overloaded with text, social marketers use powerful images, which can tell an entire story. This advertisement against plastic waste is a good example of a “picture that is worth a thousand words” (See image 34).

Another feature specific to social marketing and advertising is the creative use of space.

In order to attract people’s attention to the important issues, marketers use various mediums to create truly interactive campaigns, which are impossible not to notice. Oftentimes, such executions end up costing less than traditional mediums, and accomplish a far more powerful impact. This powerful message from the American Disability Association uses stairs in a public space, such as metro corridor, as a medium (See image 35). The image of mountain peaks is painted over the stairs, and the powerful copy reads: “For some, it’s Mt Everest.

Help build more handicap facilities”. The ad aims to give audiences a sense of the struggles, which disabled people have to go through on a daily basis, and evoke feelings of empathy.

This unconventional use of spaces to attract attention is often referred to as guerilla marketing, which is characterized by gaining large effects with smaller budgets (Hutter,

Hoffman, 2011). Another example of guerrilla marketing is this public restroom installation from World Wildlife fund (See image 36). A transparent shape of the South American continent (which is currently losing it’s indigenous rainforests) is carved into the disposable paper towel dispenser; the paper towels are colored green, and each time someone uses one, the continent becomes more empty. Such interactive approach is designed to make people understand the direct impact they cause on the planet, even with such seemingly small actions as using paper tissues, and encourage them to use less paper, or chose other eco-friendly options such as electric hand dryers.

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Finally, social marketing campaigns pose a challenge in success evaluation. In order to determine the effectiveness of a campaign, marketers must assess, whether it reached the predefined goals. In commercial marketing, goals and objectives are based on profits and brand awareness, they are usually clearly outlined and can be evaluated shortly after the campaign was launched. Goals of social marketing, however, are not always clear to marketers themselves, or even to their clients. When an NGO orders a social marketing campaign, they do not always state clearly, whether they want to spread awareness of the issue, reduce risky behavior rates, or save lives. The results of the campaign are not immediately accessible; in fact, it can take many years since the initial intervention, until the change of behavior and desired social impact become visible. Furthermore, it is often unclear, whether the change was influenced by the campaign, or affected by other factors (Bloom,

Novelli, 1981). For instance, if statistics demonstrate a nationwide reduction in cigarette consumption, it is not clear whether this was caused by the social marketing efforts, or other factors, such as increased cigarette prices.

4.3 Tactics: commercial vs. social

The idea of social marketing is rooted in applying commercial marketing principles to social issues. Indeed, the structure of social marketing planning resembles traditional marketing practices in many ways. First of all, it applies the traditional marketing mix, or the

4-P theory: Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. In order to create truly effective communication, marketers must consider all four of these elements, and create an integrated, multidimensional strategy, instead of relying solely on advertising (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

In the case of social marketing, the Product stands for the desirable behavior that marketers wish to promote, such as responsible driving, safe sex, or recycling. Price is the financial, material or emotional sacrifice, which the audiences need to make in order to

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achieve the desired change (such as the pleasure of smoking or eating meat, time and convenience of driving a car in favor of cycling or using other environmental-friendly transportation, or actual financial contribution in form of donations. As described by Lee and

Kotler: “Place is where and when the target audience will perform the desired behavior, acquire any related goods, and receive any associated services.” In social marketing, those can be physical places (such as recycling stations, blood donation units, HIV test booths, or wildlife conservation centers), as well as online/mobile services, such as suicide prevention helplines, mobile app taxi cervices to prevent drunk driving, websites with helpful information, etc. The third “P”, similar to commercial marketing, stands for all the efforts made to promote the product. This could be advertising (outdoor, TV, print, online), social media posts and YouTube videos, endorsements, or events such as marathons, rallies, fundraisers, charitable concerts and flashmobs (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

Similar to commercial marketing, social marketing employs a customer oriented approach, based on exchange theory. The communication needs to appeal to the audience’s needs and desires, and promise a reward in exchange for completing the desired behavior.

Most social marketing campaigns give the promise of good health, longevity, and improved quality of life in exchange for the beneficial behavior (Lee, Kotler, 2016). Some causes, such as organ donation or animal welfare, are more difficult to advertise, because people do not necessarily see the rewards for themselves. In these cases, strong appeals to emotion, morale and consciousness are used. People may feel proud of themselves after engaging in altruistic activities; this moral satisfaction is the perceived reward.

Just like commercial marketing, the success of social campaigns is largely determined by prior market research. The current market situation, or the scope of problem, is considered.

Target audiences are defined and researched in terms of their demographics, levels of education, social status, lifestyle, interests, beliefs and desires, and the attitude to the issue

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social marketers wish to promote. Audiences are further segmented in order to determine the best approaches to appeal to each segment. Furthermore, nonprofits must consider competition when defining the optimal market strategy. Competitors may be divided into two categories: “friendly” competition is represented by other organizations with similar values.

For example, a pancreatic cancer research organization may need to persuade people to donate money to their cause, instead of other similar ones (See image 37). Unfriendly competitors are those whom nonprofits need to directly oppose in their communication: for an anti-smoking campaign, those will be represented by tobacco companies. For an animal rights organization, those may be brands using fur and leather, or animal testing in their products (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

Many commercial marketing companies use integrated marketing communications (IMC) to ensure the maximum impact of their campaigns. Kotler and Armstrong (2001) define this approach as one, “where a company carefully integrates and coordinates its many communication channels to deliver a clear, consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its products.” When promoting a product, it is important to create a memorable, consistent profile, which distinguishes it from other products on the market. For example, if consumers see an ad with red-colored background, white font and the slogan “I’m lovin’ it” beneath the iconic yellow letter “M”, they immediately recognize it as promotion for McDonalds food chain. Consistency of logos, fonts, color schemes, and slogans has been proven to improve brand and product awareness and recognition, as well as increase sales

(Lee, Kotler, 2016).

IMC is a tool being widely adopted by social marketers as well. Instead of overloading audiences with information about an issue, studies find, it is more effective to select one aspect of the issue, or one desired behavior, and develop a persistent and continuous, segment-specific approach. Not only does it ensure the highest impact, but also allows for

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more efficient planning and execution, saving time and budgets on creating new slogans, concepts, and designs (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

4.3.1. Persuasive approaches in social marketing

Nonprofit marketing may apply the same persuasive approaches as those used by commercial companies. These audience appeals were described in detail in the previous chapter; some of these appeals are more suited for social marketing, and others may not fit as well.

Rational appeal is rarely used in social marketing singularly, in most cases rational facts are combined with emotion-based statements and images, for stronger effect. This ad comparing tobacco and cocaine, implies that tobacco is often perceived as a more harmless activity, although it, in fact, is just as deadly as hard drugs. It is rooted in statistical evidence and statement of fact, therefore can be considered as an example of rational appeal (See image 38). The animal rights group PETA (People for Ethical Treatment of Animals) frequently uses rational appeal in their ads. These ads refer to studies of the health risks associated with meat and dairy consumption, and the benefits of vegetarian or vegan lifestyle

(See image 39).

Of all the forms of emotional appeal, appeal to fear is most popular in social marketing and advertising. Such ads evoke the strongest emotions in the audience, and often play on people’s self-preservation instinct. For instance, campaigns aimed at informing people about the dangers of smoking, drinking, texting while driving, or taking drugs, often demonstrate the direct link between those activities and death or painful disease with powerful images, such as this anti-smoking ad. The image of a dead body, with clever placement of a pack of cigarettes instead of a morgue tag, is supposed to make people fear for their lives and encourage them to quit smoking (See Image 40). Studies have shown that fear appeal is the

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most effective approach in public health-oriented campaigns (Lee, Kotler, 2016). Appeal to fear is the favorite tactic of environmental and animal right activist groups. Showing the suffering of animals and decay of nature is effective in making people change their lifestyle towards a more eco- and animal-friendly one. This clever ad by WWF demonstrates, how human appearance can be transformed by environmental changes, once again aiming at the audience’s self-preservation instinct (See Image 41).

Sexual appeal is not typically used to target social issues, as marketers aim for their content to be thought provoking and taken more seriously. One of the few exceptions in this field is the animal welfare organization PETA. Known for their controversial tactics, the organization has released several campaigns endorsing popular female celebrities, who

“undressed for a good cause” (See image 42, 43). Moreover, during their public events,

PETA frequently uses women in revealing costumes to promote vegan lifestyle (See Image

44). The effectiveness of such bold tactics, however, is questionable, to say the least. In the recent years, PETA have been widely criticized for being offensive and sexist. Their marketing is often described as “attracting attention to the cause for all the wrong reasons”, to the point where it promotes violence towards women in the name of animal welfare

(Ballard, 2016). Carol J. Adams, and American writer and known animal rights advocate, has stated in her criticism of PETA: “People say ‘sex sells’. I say sex sells sex. Peta conflates sexualization and animal exploitation, and this harms animals.” (Bindel, 2010)

Another example of attempt to use sex in social advertising is this ad from Organ Donor

Foundation (See Image 45). The poster features a young, thin woman, wearing nothing but lingerie in an inviting position; slogan states: “Becoming a donor is probably your only chance to get inside her.” The ad has been widely criticized for using sex to encourage altruism, as well as suggesting that only attractive people deserve to be helped (Wade, 2008).

Evidently, using sex appeal in social marketing, although undoubtfully eye-catching, is not

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likely to be effective; in fact, a lot of people are likely to find it offensive, and develop negative associations with the organization.

In social marketing campaigns, humor appeal is rare, since the cause they attempt to promote usually requires more serious consideration. For many situations it is simply not suitable: joking about poverty, diseases, and starving children is not likely to bring any success. On some occasions, however, creative and humorous ads can work well for gaining people’s attention, such as this ad dedicated to hand hygiene (See Image 46). Another successful example is this ad promoting the practice of safe sex: the word FUNERAL is partially covered by a condom, leaving out the word “FUN” (See image 47).

In some other cases, however, attempts to use humor to promote a good cause did not just fail, but even caused public outrage. This happened when the already-controversial organization PETA put up this billboard in Jacksonville, Florida (See Image 48). The ad, aiming to promote vegetarianism, depicts an image of an overweight woman and slogan, which reads “Save the Whales: go vegetarian”. Many residents of Jacksonville, along with several feminist groups, accused PETA of fat-shaming, deeming the ad highly offensive

(Goldstein, 2017). Another case of misplaced humor occurred when PETA released posters aimed to inspire people to adopt cats from local shelters. The poster featured the U.S. president Donald J Trump, and the slogan “grab a pussy”. Although supposedly referring to cats, the ad had a clear connection with the politician’s infamous phrase regarding women

(See Image 49). Once again, a large percentage of the general public, as well as women’s rights organizations, found the ad inappropriate, and criticized it for trivializing sexual assault

(Fortster, 2017). Evidentially, such attempts at making a joke did not sit well with the audience, and harmed the organization’s reputation altogether.

Shock marketing is one of the most popular tactics used by nonprofits. While most people actively engage in consumption and seek out new products, they usually prefer to ignore

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upsetting topics, such as world hunger, diseases, environmental problems, or animal cruelty.

Therefore, to draw attention to these important, yet uncomfortable issues, NGOs need to come up with less conventional approaches. A successfully executed shock campaign is impossible to ignore; whether people like it or not, it will catch their attention and trigger an emotional response. According to a study published in the Journal of Consumer Behavior, audiences tend to respond better to shock adverts by nonprofits than commercial companies, and deem them more appropriate (Parry et. al., 2013).

In order to create “shock value”, images and copy must be realistic, rather than symbolic.

Images used in successful shock ads tend to be highly detailed and disturbingly graphic. The

U.K. - based children’s charity Barnardo’s is known to use such provocative methods in their ads. In 2003, they released a campaign aimed to raise awareness about the less fortunate children. The ads had a slogan “There are no silver spoons for children born into poverty”, and featured highly graphic images on infants who were forced to drink toxic waste, had a syringe with (presumably) drugs shoved in their mouth, or cockroaches climbing over their face. The aim of the campaign was to demonstrate the harsh reality behind children raised in poor conditions (Noel, 2010). Although the ads did succeed at drawing people’s attention and creating a sense of shock, a large part of the audiences perceived the ad as too distressing, and the campaign was eventually banned by the British Advertising Standards Authority

(Hickman, 2003).

A lot of shock adverts, however, are well-received by both critics and mass audiences, and frequently get featured in online “most powerful social ads” listings (Digital Synopsis,

2017). But are they really effective? The success of social marketing campaigns is more difficult to evaluate, compared to commercial ones, as was explained in the previous chapter.

However, some studies suggest that campaigns, which are deemed powerful by general

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public, do not always succeed at reaching their key audiences, and making a significant change. This thesis will be further explained with examples in the section “Case studies”.

Appeal to Authority is common in social marketing and advertising. A lot of non-profit organizations use celebrities as ambassadors to spread the message and make it more appealing to the general public. Leonardo Di Caprio is the UN ambassador for peace, and can be frequently heard talking about the reality of climate change and advocating for eco- friendly lifestyle (Perry, 2017). Emma Watson, a known feminist and author of He for She campaign, associates with many women’s rights organizations and regularly draws attention to the issue of gender equality during her public appearances (Barber, 2017).

There are, however, certain factors which NGOs must consider, before deciding to incorporate celebrity endorsement into their marketing communications. Correctly choosing the celebrity to represent the organization is the most crucial step in the process: when a persona is closely associated with an NGO, the public perception of this celebrity may directly affect the perception of the NGO itself. The level of the person’s knowledge on the issue, as well as sincere commitment to the cause, are also crucial in the success or failure of a campaign, according to a PLOS (public library of science) journal study (Duthie et.al.,

2017). Among other findings, the study also discusses the level of recall of ads featuring celebrities. According to it’s findings, while the presence of celebrities might draw attention to the ad and make it more recognizable, audiences do not always recall the exact issue or organization being advertised (Duthie et.al., 2017). In fact, according to the research, association with charitable organizations often benefits the celebrity more than the cause he or she is promoting. Connection with an NGO provides good publicity to the celebrity and makes them appear good-willed and altruistic, while not necessarily increasing public engagement with the organization (Duthie et.al., 2017).

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Compared to commercial marketing, appeal to majority in social campaigns is usually used in a less straightforward fashion. Occasionally, ads imply that a lot of people are already supporting the issue to make the cause appear more popular and desirable, as well as demonstrate the positive results of such support (See Image 50). In most cases, however, campaigns focus on other forms of appeal and attempt to create a sense of urgency.

In a less obvious way, appeal to majority helps NGOs facilitate their communication online, mainly through social media platforms. Social media allows audiences to directly interact with organizations by liking, commenting, and sharing their posts. Such word of mouth is free of charge, and messages spread this way are more likely to reach the appropriate audiences, since people usually share posts with like-minded individuals. The number of engagements may also make the cause appear more popular and attractive to the public (Lacetera et. al., 2016). A study on viral altruism, published in the Sociological

Studies journal, suggests that people are more likely to support charities, when their altruism is visible to the public. By promoting a good cause on social media, people make themselves appear more likable in the eyes of friends and followers. While this trend certainly gives

NGOs more media presence and exposure, the problem with viral altruism is that words are rarely followed by actions. The study finds that out of all the people who share NGO social media posts, only few actually make donations (Lacetera et. al., 2016).

Campaign analysis and evaluation is another aspect, which social marketing shares with commercial. As mentioned earlier, immediate evaluation is more difficult to obtain, because results may take several years to become evident. However, upon campaign execution, social marketers may be able to collect audience feedback. By monitoring the public feedback to the campaign (such as media features or social media feedback in the form of comments and shares), they are able to understand, whether the campaign achieves the desired audience outreach and reaction. The ongoing monitoring of audience preference, changes of

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environment and current events in society also helps to make any necessary alterations and expansion of the campaign (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

4.4. Ethical questions

Although most pro-social campaigns aim to benefit society, they, too, are not immune to ethical controversies. The American Marketing Association has outlined a code of ethics for its members, which, among other postulates, includes the following: “Value individual differences and avoid stereotyping customers or depicting demographic groups (e.g., gender, race, sexual orientation) in a negative or dehumanizing way.” It is, therefore, the norm for all marketers to be respectful and considerate towards the audience, and influence them through encouragement, not shame and offense.

Of all nonprofit organizations, the animal welfare group PETA is the most notorious for breaching the line of ethics in their communication. As described in the previous chapter,

PETA is responsible for multiple campaigns which sexualized and objectified women, often combined with graphic images of violence and gore, such as this ad depicting the body of a woman cut in half, hanging on chains among pig corpses (See Image 51). Some of these ads are downright pornographic, such as this ad about “bodily fluids”, which used an image of a woman covered in sperm-like substance, and copy: “Some bodily fluids are bad for you.

Don’t swallow. Ditch dairy.” The ad sparked outrage in the community and was shortly removed (Payne, 2014). Besides the offensive adverts, PETA has also executed numerous controversial public stunts, such as this act featuring naked pregnant women in cages, and comparing them to pigs (See Image 52). Another similar installation was in front of KFC restaurants across America, and featured two women in nude-colored bikinis in a bloodbath; the sign underneath read: “KFC scalds chicks to death”. As a response to accusations about using women in derogatory fashion in their campaigns, PETA issued the following statement:

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“…Alas, young chickens (the chickens killed for KFC are only about 45 days old when they are slaughtered) are called chicks. As are women. Global conspiracy or convenient protest idea? I can’t say—but it is one thing we have to work with in the battle against KFC.”

(PETA, 2008)

But it’s not just the women who fall victim’s to PETA’s marketing stunts. In 2003, the animal rights group started the campaign “Holocaust on your plate” which compared the genocide of Jews during World War II to animal farming. The campaign consisted of travelling billboards, which featured disturbing photos of struggling, emaciated Jews in concentration camps next to photos of farm animals (See images 53, 54). The Jewish communities in U.S., where the campaign aired originally, were outraged by it, and claimed that it trivialized the horror that was Holocaust, undermining the experience of millions of people who suffered from it (Teather, 2003). PETA later tried running the campaign in

Germany, but it was shortly banned after the German court ruled it as offensive and derogatory. PETA then proceeded to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights, claiming the German ruling was breaching the right to freedom of expression; the court, however, upheld the German court decision (European Convention of Human Rights, 2012)

In another similar ad, the group compared the black men in America, who were massively executed by the KKK members, to pigs in slaughterhouses (See image 55).

Finally, PETA is frequently criticized for targeting children in their propaganda-style campaigns. A report by Center for Consumer Freedom has complied multiple instances of

“traumatizing and dangerous” PETA ads. Among them is the iconic comic-style leaflet, stating: “Your mommy kills animals”, featuring a woman with psychotic face, slaughtering a fluffy rabbit with a kitchen knife (See image 56). In another instance, PETA activists distributed “unhappy meals” to children in front of McDonalds; the boxed contained a blood- covered toy pig and Ronald McDonald with a butcher’s knife. Furthermore, PETA

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frequently encourage kids to participate in eco-terrorism acts, such as skipping school classes, or putting tampons in the egg cartons in their fridge, thus encouraging their families

“not to eat chicken menstruation”. Many of PETA’s critics argue that targeting vulnerable children to turn them into propaganda weapons is unethical and damaging to the child’s psyche (Center for Consumer Freedom, 2008).

As social marketing expands and becomes more impactful, exponential, and visible, commercial companies are beginning to recognize it as opportunity to gain profits through promoting socially desirable values. The term “greenwashing” is used to describe tactics of promoting products by claiming them to be “sustainable”, “eco-friendly”, or “cruelty free”. In many cases, however, these claims are deceiving to consumers, from mild forms, such as advertising “vegan peanut butter” (which a priori does not involve animal products), to outward deception, such as selling regular textile as eco-friendly bamboo (Dahl, 2010).

Certain companies, such as LUSH and The Body Shop cosmetic companies, have built the entire brand story around being organic, ethical, and cruelty free. Furthermore, they regularly issue advertising campaigns targeting their competitors who use less ethical practices, such as animal testing. The images in these ads use saddening photos of animals suffering in testing laboratories, thus portraying competitors and people who use animal- tested products as cruel (See image 57, 58). However, some critics believe that this “green” approach is used predominantly to undermine competition and bring profits to the company, rather than help the cause (Purkayastha, Fernando, 2007). Moreover, some studies suggest that adoption of such eco marketing by commercial companies trivializes the issue and hinders nonprofits, weakening their potential to achieve social change (Aronczyk, 2013).

Similarly, the American cosmetics brand Dove has rebranded itself with the iconic “Real

Beauty” campaign. The campaign featured “real” women of all ages, heights, shapes and skin tones, instead of airbrushed models, and aimed to spread the message that all women are

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beautiful the way they are (See image 59). Although the campaign has received widespread public approval and was named “N.1 advertising campaign of the 21st century” by multiple publication, the brand’s critics point to it’s universal flaw. Through the idea of empowerment and promotion of self-esteem, the brand loyal followership for itself, while successfully covering the fact that Dove itself is a cosmetic brand, selling beauty products. Further, the multinational corporation Unilever, which owns Dove, is also responsible for selling products such as skin whitening creams, SlimFast teas, and Axe men’s products, famous for objectifying women in its promotion (Dye, 2009).

Some brands are going further and engaging in pro-social behavior by creating entire movements, such as the Avon Breast Cancer Crusade. Founded in 1992, the Avon foundation for women is aiming to help women worldwide by spreading information about the disease and the importance of early diagnosis; the brand has also raised millions in donations towards cancer research, and is striving to improve quality of life for patients struggling with the disease, and empower them. While the company’s efforts are, without doubt, beneficial and worthy of praise, the question of sincerity vs profits still remains, as with all corporate brands advertising social issues. Among the critics is Karuna Jaggar, the executive director of Breast

Cancer Actoon organization, who argues that, while Avon raises significant sums for the sake of cancer research, large percentage of this money goes into funding the company’s promotional stunts (Jaggar, 2016).

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V. Case studies

In this section four social marketing campaigns, which illustrate the successful (as well as failed) efforts to influence behaviors will be described. Each case involves some of the marketing tactics described in the previous chapters, and serves as an example of how appropriate use of these tactics can influence campaign results.

5.1. Montana Meth Project

The Montana Meth Project campaign is an example of shock tactics, which shows that strong emotional campaigns do not always achieve desired effect. The Montana Meth Project was put together 2005 in order to tackle the prevailing problem with meth use among youth in Montana, U.S.A.. A social marketing campaign was spread in the form of TV commercials, posters, and billboards, and part of educational materials in schools. The ads consisted of graphic images of rotten teeth, scabs, and other alleged results of meth use, accompanied with the slogan “Meth: not even once” (See image 60, 61). The shock value consisted of appeals to unpleasant emotions, primarily fear and disgust.

In 4 years since the campaign implementation, the rate of meth use among teens has declined from 8% to 3%, where it stays to the present day. Initially, the Montana Meth

Project was deemed accountable for the change, and the strategy was adopted by several other states across the U.S.A (Tompkins, 2016).

However, more recent data challenges the initial perceived success of the campaign. A study by D. Anderson, published in the Journal of Health Economics, attempted to evaluate the direct influence of the Montana Meth Project intervention; among the methods used were surveys and interviews of students who fall into the risk category.

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Although the campaign received widespread public acknowledgement, and was deemed valuable by heath and addiction experts, Anderson concluded that it had no effect on the meth use rates in Montana. Furthermore, some of the interviewed students thought that the images exaggerated the negative results of meth use, and did not report a significant change in their attitudes towards the drug. The study concludes that the initial decline in meth use was more likely the result of the new legislation passed in 2005, which banned the over-the- counter medications, commonly used to produce methamphetamine (Anderson, 2010).

The ethical aspect of the campaign is also worth considering. The target audience was the potential risk group: youth who are likely to experiment with the drug. The Montana Meth

Project portrayed drug users in an undesirable light, however it failed to consider how the campaign might affect the social group it portrays. Research by Jeysen Ferestad based around labeling theory, indicates that many addicts have suffered from such portrayal, as it increased social stigma around drug users and may have prevented them from reaching out to people around them and seeking help (Ferestad, 2013).

5.2. Celebrity endorsement by PETA

In order to illustrate the positive and negative effects on celebrity endorsement on social issue marketing, we shall look at two cases of such endorsement with PETA. This organization is particularly known for it’s association with multiple celebrities, who are featured in most of their campaigns. One of the more successful examples is PETA’s connection with the well-known British musician Paul McCartney. Famous for his musical career with the legendary band The Beatles, Sir McCartney is also known to the public for his humbleness and kind spirit. Unlike many modern celebrities, he has not been involved in any public scandals and controversies, and has an overall clean reputation in the eyes of the public. Paul McCartney is a proud vegetarian and openly promotes the cause of animal rights.

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He is featured in many PETA adverts, and can frequently be seen wearing PETA signature t- shirts, promoting vegetarianism (see Image 62). He also narrated the PETA documentary

“Glass Walls”; the film was named after the famous quote by sir McCartney: “If slaughterhouses had glass walls, everyone would be vegetarian.” The musician regularly gives speeches and performs at events organized by PETA; furthermore, he supports two other animal welfare organizations and appears to be sincerely dedicated to the cause.

Other celebrity associations, however, did not go as successfully for the animal rights group. In 1994, PETA started its well-known “I’d rather go naked than wear fur” campaign, which had since featured multiple female celebrities who were willing to undress for the cause. Among the stars who participated in the campaign was the supermodel Naomi

Campbell. Later on, however, the diva made multiple appearances in photo shoots and fashion shows, wearing fur clothing (See image 63, 64). This caused uproar in the media and disapproval of the public; many accused Campbell of hypocrisy. The reputation and credibility of PETA has also suffered directly from Campbell’s actions; the organization was criticized for its use of celebrities to create buzz, without ensuring their devotion to the cause

(Jeffreys, Allatson, 2015). PETA had since publicly denounced it’s association with Naomi

Campbell, and issued multiple public statements against the supermodel, ranging from criticism to outward mockery (PETA, 2008).

5.3. Friends don’t let friends drive drunk

A successful example of appropriate use of Integrated Marketing Communications is the iconic friends don’t let friends drive drunk campaign. In the early 1990’s, the American

Transport Association along with Ad council issued a campaign aimed to prevent drunk driving. The campaign targeted younger audiences between 16 to 24 years old, since this demographic group is more prone to reckless behavior, such as driving home after a night of

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drinking with friends. Instead of appealing directly to drunk drivers, the campaign communicates to their immediate influencers: friends. The campaign consisted of a series of public service announcements with a simple slogan: “Friends don’t let friends drive drunk”.

The ads were aired on TV, radio, published in magazines or outdoor mediums; all were executed in a similar signature style and used the same tagline (See image 65, 66). As a result, the campaign showed incredibly high recognition rates, with 84% of Americans recalling having seen the PSAs. Moreover, close to 80% had reported taking action to prevent a friend or family member from driving drunk, and 25% admitted to stopping driving drunk after seeing the campaign. As a result, a 10% drop in alcohol-related car accidents was reported, becoming the largest single one-year drop in recorded history. The campaign indulged a sense of responsibility for someone else’s life, rather than just one’s own, which has proven effective in achieving its purpose (Lee, Kotler, 2016).

5.4. #EndangeredEmoji

Social media is becoming an increasingly popular tool in marketing, and social issue marketing is no exception. Many nonprofit organizations actively use platforms such as

Facebook, Instagram and Twitter to connect with their audiences; social media allows for interactivity and instant feedback for prompt communication evaluation.

In 2015, World Wildlife fund launched the campaign #EndangeredEmoji. According to the members of the organization, the idea for the campaign came when they noticed that many of the popular smartphone emojis represent animal species, which are currently facing extinction (Mortimer, 2015). Emoji is a keyboard on popular smartphone platforms, which consists of various images, faces, animals, and miscellaneous items, and allows users to enhance their messages, or even communicate without using any written text. This new

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method of communication is most popular amongst young people, who actively use social media; WWF saw an opportunity in combining these two trends (See image 67).

The campaign was executed through Twitter; upon completing a simple registration and retweeting the WWF tweet, users could donate a small sum of $0.11 each time they used one of the endangered emojis. Due to the small size of the donation, users were more willing to engage with the campaign, and create multiple tweets using the emojis, therefore donating more money (digitalagencynetwork.com).

To further support the campaign, WWF created a separate campaign website, where they provided additional information about each animal represented by the symbols, thus adding educational value to it (See image 68). Moreover, during the course of the campaign, WWF changed their iconic panda logo to an emoji panda. They also engaged with celebrities and popular social media influencers to help promote the campaign.

Although the campaign had minor issues (such as influencers retweeting the initial tweet without encouraging users to register, thus resulting in “empty” tweets not bringing donations), the campaign was overall a success. The campaign received over 35000 retweets and engagements. Not only did it help to raise funds, but also increased the organization’s online presence and created a buzz around it; the campaign was highlighted in multiple media outlets.

Instead of using traditional persuasive techniques, WWF communicated with the young audiences by using the language familiar to them, and engaging them in a fun and simple way. The #EndangeredEmoji campaign demonstrates, how choosing the audience- appropriate communication and utilizing new technologies can be effective in promoting a good cause.

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Conclusion

It is evident that nonprofit organizations play a vital role in today’s society. With the expansion and development of NGOs, they now are capable of influencing a broad spectrum of issues, which are no longer limited to public health and safety. Domestic relationships, child welfare, animal rights, conservation and many other issues are now becoming more visible to the public, with nonprofits raising awareness and starting a dialogue about these complex subjects through their communication.

Social marketing can be considered one of the most vital developments in communication of social issues. The adoption of traditional marketing approach to nonprofit communication implied treating the desired social behavior as a product, and selling it in a similar way, which commercial companies use to sell goods and services to consumers. Instead of simply warning about the dangers of risky behaviors and proposal to adopt beneficial ones, social marketers now advertise the benefits, which audiences would receive upon the proposed behavioral change.

Social marketing is similar to its commercial predecessor in many ways. It follows similar steps in campaign planning, market research, execution and evaluation. Moreover, it frequently adopts some of the traditional marketing persuasive approaches, such as strong emotional appeals and appeals to authority, through endorsement by celebrities and other social influencers. These approaches, however, need to be carefully adapted to fit the seriousness and complexity of social issues being communicated; the inappropriate uses of hard sell tactics, sexual or humorous appeals have proven not only ineffective, but also capable of jeopardizing the company’s reputation as a result.

When promoting social issues, marketers are able to make a bigger impact on people’s lives; with greater power, however, comes greater responsibility. It is absolutely vital for social marketers to be transparent, sincere, and genuine in their communication, and have the

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highest consideration for their audiences, without exclusion or negative portrayal of any social group. Failure to do so is likely to cause offense and negatively affect the organization’s credibility.

The biggest limitation to the study was the lack of precise, statistical data to illustrate the effectiveness of certain nonprofit campaigns. Unlike commercial campaigns, where outcome is easy to judge by looking at sales and profits, number of likes and shares, or mentions of the brand; the efforts of non-profit marketing, however, involve many more variables.

Through the analysis of available publications and examples of social marketing communications, however, it was possible to gain a better understanding or the subject, and make assessment about the advancements, as well as challenges to pro-social communication.

With the development of media and technology, social marketing evolves as well, and successfully adopts new influence tools, such as social media. Further research can be conducted in order to make predictions regarding the future of the field.

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Appendix

Image 1.

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Image 2.

Coca Cola. (1923). Vintage coca cola advertisement [A poster exhibiting the signature Coca Cola font and red color]. Retrieved from http://www.coca-colacompany.com/chronology

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Image 3.

Jell-O. (1902). Delicate, delightful, dainty. Retrieved from http://www.digitaldeliftp.com/LookAround/advertspot_jello.htm

Image 4.

Campbell, [Vintage Campbell soup advertisement Advertisement]. (1911). Delineator.

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Image 5. Billboard advertisements on Times Square, New York. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.timessquarenyc.org/do-business/promote-partner/advertising- sponsorships/digital-screens-billboards

Image 6.

[Perception of outdoor advertisement affected by environment]. Retrieved from http://themindcircle.com/advertising-placement-fails/

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Image 7.

Nokia, [Rational appeal in Nokia advertisement]. Retrieved from http://www.wallpaper- mobile.com/1280_720_wallpapers/2013/12/09/1690.html

Image 8.

Burger King. (2013). [Statistics used in fast food advertisement]. Retrieved from https://propagandafoodcomms9.weebly.com/card-stacking.html

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Image 9.

Colgate. [Fear appeal in toothpaste advertisement]. Retrieved from http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=8804

Image 10.

[Milos Zeman campaign advertisement]. (2018). Retrieved from https://ua- reporter.com/news/v-chehii-zakanchivaetsya-vtoroy-tur-prezidentskih-vyborov

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Image 11.

[Vintage soap advertisement]. Retrieved from https://envisioningtheamericandream.com/2014/01/23/winter-war-time-romance-ptii-2/

Image 12.

Enchanteur. [Romantic appeal in shower gel advertisement]. Retrieved from https://adnbrand.blogspot.cz/2015/01/ads.html

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Image 13. Ferrero Rocher. [1990's Ferrero Rocher advertisement using romance appeal]. Retrieved from http://www.advertisingarchives.co.uk/detail/12933/1/Magazine-Advert/Ferrero-Rocher/1990s

Image 14.

Emporio Armani. Because it’s you.[Perfume advertisement using romance appeal]. Retrieved from http://www.celebrityscentsation.com/celebrity-perfumes/actors/matilda-lutz/armani- because-its-you/

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Image 15, 16.

Tiffany & Co. (2015). Will you? [Romantic appeal in jewelry brand "love story" campaign]. Retrieved from https://jaystrut.com/2015/modern-love-tiffany-co/

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Image 17.

Griffin Microsheen. (1957). [Sex appeal in vintage shoe polish advertisement]. Retrieved from http://www.flickriver.com/photos/rchappo2002/2361940257/

Image 18.

Lux. (n.d.). Skindulgence [Indian advertising using sexual appeal]. Retrieved from https://www.cuttingthechai.com/2007/10/221/seduced-by-chocolate

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Image 19. Calvin Klein. (2008). [Sex appeal in famous clothes brand advertisement]. Retrieved from https://nothingcomesbetweenmeandmycalvins.wordpress.com/advertising/

Image 20.

Diesel. (n.d.). Brave, not boring [Clothing advertisement using sex appeal]. Retrieved from http://cargocollective.com/blairhoward/filter/university/Ad-Series

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Image 21.

Burger King. (2009). "7 Incher" [Advertisement using sex appeal to an inappropriate extent]. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11018413/Burger-King- raped-my-face-claims-model-on-angry-YouTube-video.html

Image 22.

Lego. (2009, January). [Sex appeal in children's toy company advertisement]. Retrieved from https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/print/lego_sex

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Image 23.

Old Spice. (2010). The Old Spice Guy. Retrieved from http://www.adweek.com/creativity/old-spice-guy-personally-thanks-online-fans-12482/

Image 24.

United Colors of Benetton. (2011). UNhate. [Use of shock advertising by commercial brand] Retrieved from https://www.popphoto.com/news/2011/11/benetton-s-unhate-ad-campaign- photoshops-world-leaders-kissing-0

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Image 25.

Camel. (1949). Doctors smoke camels [Appeal to authority in classic cigarette advertising]. Retrieved from http://adage.com/article/news/rewind-1949-cigarette-spot-declares-doctors- smoke-camels/236635/

Image 26.

Lancome. [Appeal to authority (celebrity endorsement) in makeup advertisement]. Retrieved from http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/02/06/tough-standards-8-misleading-ads-banned-by-u- k-standards-board/slide/julia-roberts-christy-turlington-for-loreal/

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Image 27.

Tefal. (n.d.). "World's number 1 brand" [Example of appeal to majority]. Retrieved from https://www.advertgallery.com/product-tag/18-11-2017/

Image 28.

Vans. (n.d.). Living off the wall [Advertisements targeting youth and promoting freedom and rebellion]. Retrieved from http://www.marketing-interactive.com/living-off-the-wall-vans/

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Image 29.

Sedal. [Humor appeal used to exaggerate claims in shampoo advertisement]. Retrieved from http://thevisualcommunicationguy.com/2017/09/15/the-humor-appeal-advertising/

Image 30.

Gucci. (n.d.). Gucci Guilty [Perfume advertisement featuring a man dominating over a woman]. Retrieved from http://criticalmediaproject.org/gucci-guilty-for-him/

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Image 31.

[One of the early women's suffrage advertisements ]. Retrieved from https://cahillwomensuffrage.weebly.com/woman-suffrage-in-europe.html

Image 32.

The Philadelphia female anti-slavery society. [1830's poster for abolishment of slavery]. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/09/22/how- ordinary-petitions-helped-end-slavery-and-make-women-into-political- activists/?utm_term=.9464ffd0af3e

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Image 33.

Humane Society International/Canada, & Be Cruelty-Free. (2015). [Advertisement urging the government to ban animal testing]. Retrieved from http://www.hsi.org/world/canada/news/releases/2015/01/bcf-canada-toronto-ads-011615.html

Image 34.

Endangered Wildlife Trust. (n.d.). If you don't pick it up, they will [Advertisements against plastic pollution]. Retrieved from http://persuasion-and-influence.blogspot.cz/2015/02/if-you- dont-pick-it-up-they-will.html

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Image 35.

American Disability Association. (2007, February). For some, it's Mt. Everest [Guerrilla marketing used to raise awareness about people with disabilities]. Retrieved from https://guerrillaforngo.wordpress.com/portfolio/american-disability-association-for-some-its- mt-everest/

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Image 36.

World Wildlife Fund. (2007, October). [Public bathroom dispenser raising awareness about deforestation ]. Retrieved from https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/ambient/paper_dispenser

Image 37.

Pancreatic Cancer Action. (2014, February). "I wish I had" [Advertising campaign to raise awareness about pancreatic cancer]. Retrieved from https://pancreaticcanceraction.org/about/what-we-do/symptoms-awareness/advertising- campaigns/campaign/

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Image 38. [Anti-smoking advertisement comparing dangers of tobacco and hard drugs]. Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/318911217336252762/

Image 39.

PETA (People for Ethical Treatment of Animals. (2015, January 27). Got prostate cancer?[Advertisement referring to studies on the dangers of dairy]. Retrieved from https://www.peta.org/blog/real-milktruth-peta-dairy-industry-reality/

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Image 40.

THETRUTH. [Anti-smoking advertisement]. Retrieved from http://tobacco.stanford.edu/tobacco_main/images_anti.php?token2=fm_anti_st386.php&toke n1=fm_anti_img12500.php&theme_file=fm_anti_mt019.php&theme_name=Kills%20You& subtheme_name=Lethal

Image 41.

World Wildlife Fund. (2009). Stop climate change before it changes you [Advertisement using fear appeal]. Retrieved from http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2009/wwf-fishmen-in- belgium/

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Image 42, 43.

PETA. [Advertisements using erotic images of women to promote animal welfare]. Retrieved from http://www.thefrisky.com/2015-01-28/peta-made-me-do-it-the-7-types-of-sexist-peta- ads-that-turned-me-to-meat/

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Image 44.

Pearson, G. (2011, December 19). [PETA protester promoting veganism]. Retrieved from http://www.edmontonjournal.com/PETA+protester+Virginia+Fort+poses+bikini+downtown +Windsor+2011+Fort+wore+outfit+freezing+temperatures+promotional+stunt+vegan+lifest yle/5882877/story.html

Image 45.

Organ Donor Foundation. Becoming a donor is probably your only chance to get inside her.[Advertisement using sex appeal]. Retrieved from https://organsandethics.wordpress.com/2011/10/13/sex-appeal-and-organ-donors/

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Image 46.

Caution:92% of guys say they washed. 34% were lying. [Humor appeal in personal hygiene advertisement]. Retrieved from https://cz.pinterest.com/pin/135952482471540156/?lp=true

Image 47.

SIC Radical. (n.d.). FUNeral [Safe sex advertisement using humour appeal]. Retrieved from https://www.kulzy.com/work/83487/sic-radical/newspaper-magazine-book/funeral-wear-a- condom-and-just-have-fun-/

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Image 48.

PETA. (2009, August). Save the whales [Advertisement using (inappropriate) humor to promote vegetarianism]. Retrieved from https://jezebel.com/5345010/peta-founder- apologizes-for-save-the-whales-billboard

Image 49.

PETA. (2016, October 13). Grab a pussy [Advertisement to promote adoption]. Retrieved from https://www.peta.org/blog/grab-a-pussycat/

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Image 50.

France ADOT. (2011, April). Thousands of people owe their lives to organ donors [Organ donation advertisement using appeal to the people]. Retrieved from http://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/print/france_adot_old_woman

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Image 51.

PETA. (2009). Hooked on meat? [Controversial advertisement comparing female body to an animal corpse]. Retrieved from https://www.kulzy.com/work/84076/peta/print/hooked-on- meat/

Image 52.

[PETA's protest against meat industry using pregnant women]. Retrieved from http://www.sparkmovement.org/2011/09/21/womens-rights-are-human-rights-not-animal- rights/

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Image 53, 54

PETA. (2003). Holocaust on your plate [Shock tactics in advertisement campaign against the meat industry]. Retrieved from https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2008/05/05/petas- holocaust-on-your-plate-campaign/

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Image 55.

[PETA public stunt comparing purebred dog owners to Ku Klux Klan]. Retrieved from https://www.petakillsanimals.com/the-ten-most-offensive-and-misleading-ads-that-peta-has- produced/

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Image 56.

PETA. (2003). Your mommy kills animals [Advertisement for animal rights targeting children]. Retrieved from https://realfacesofanimalrights.com/peta/top-8-peta-campaigns- aimed-kids/attachment/mommykills/

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Image 57.

LUSH. [Advertising campaign against animal testing]. Retrieved from http://www.itsjustjia.com/lush/

Image 58.

The Body Shop. (n.d.). Some companies test on animals. We don't [Advertisement promoting the brand's equity]. Retrieved from http://www.flickriver.com/photos/24731374@N07/3339873508/

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Image 59.

Dove. (2006). Real beauty [Photograph, part of the campaign to promote more inclusive beauty standards]. Retrieved from https://coull.com/our-blog/emotive-advertising-dove-real- beauty-campaign/

Image 60.

Montana Meth Project. (2005). Meth: not even once [Shock and appeal to disgust in anti-drug advertisement]. Retrieved from http://www.peppertt.com/blog/marketing-strategy/montana- meth-project/

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Image 61.

Montana Meth Project. (2008, April). Meth: not even once [Shock and disgust appeal in anti- drug advertising]. Retrieved from https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/print/montana_meth_project_sex

Image 62.

PETA. [Paul McCartney in PETA vegetarianism campaign]. Retrieved from https://www.peta.org/features/paul-mccartney-vegan-recipes/

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Image 63.

PETA. (1994). We'd rather go naked than wear fur [Advertisement against fur featuring celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell]. Retrieved from https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/news/a32178/former-peta-campaigner- naomi-campbell-branded-shameful/

Image 64.

[15 years after PETA campaign, Naomi Campbell is seen wearing fur]. (2009). Retrieved from http:/http://www.adweek.com/creativity/naomi-campbell-falls-anti-fur-wagon-13722/

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Image 65.

AD council. (1988). Friends don't let friends drive drunk [Image from a video commercial]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8wZa8I0Vi0

Image 66.

Ad Council. (1988). Friends don't let friends drive drunk [PSA against drunk driving]. Retrieved from https://maldonadopics.weebly.com/inspiration.html

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Image 67, 68.

World Wildlife Fund. (2015, May 12). #EndangeredEmoji [Social media fundraiser campaign]. Retrieved from http://endangeredemoji.com/

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