SUSTAINABLE TOURISM: UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT GOALS FOR ROCK CLIMBING BUSINESSES IN KRABI PROVINCE, THAILAND By CRAIGH MURRAY HYSLOP
Applied Bachelors of Ecotourism and Outdoor Leadership, Mount Royal College, 2003
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS in ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION
Dr. Richard Rollins, Thesis Supervisor Tourism and Recreation Management Malaspina University-College
Dr. Richard Kool, EEC Program Head School of Environment and Sustainability
Dr. Anthony Boydell, Director School of Environment and Sustainability
ROYAL ROADS UNIVERSITY
February, 2008
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Abstract
The growth of tourism in Thailand has resulted in an increased use of Thailand's National
Marine Parks. In conjunction with National Marine Park Policy that promotes environmental conservation, sustainable management and education, which are all components of ecotourism, this study investigates rock climbing within the Hat Nopparat
Thara-Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine Park found on the Phra Nang Peninsula in Krabi
Province, Thailand. This research focuses on two user groups (1) rock climbing operators and (2) visiting climbers. Climbing guides perform well in their instrumental and social roles to provide a safe experience for visitors. They do not perform well in their interactionary, communicative, motivator, or environmental interpreter roles necessary to promote messages of ecotourism to visitors, who would like an ecotourism experience that is not being provided. The purpose of this research is to investigate the climbing experience and to put it in perspective of an ecotourism viewpoint. iii
Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor Rick Rollins for being patient and for being available. You are a wealth of knowledge and energy for which I am truly grateful. Without your wisdom and personal dedication this thesis would not have come together. I would also like to thank Rick Kool, the academic lead for the
School of Environment and Sustainability at Royal Roads University. Without your dedication to the program and its students I would not have been able to follow my dream and write this thesis. I would like to thank Kathie Sammons, School Manager for the
School of Environment and Sustainability. Kathie you have contributed more than you know to my education. You have always answered my questions, given me direction, and encouraged me. For that I am forever grateful.
I would like to acknowledge Elin Kelsey who spent the time with me in the early thesis stage helping me form my topic and really understanding my intention. Elin you have been a constant source of joy in my life, hopefully I can give the same for you.
I would like to acknowledge several friends who have encouraged me and who have taken me away from it all to help me think. First of all I would like to thank Tobias and Julie Heinrichs for constantly discussing my project and allowing me the time to work, even when we were on trips together. Justin Leblanc and Jason Fedwick, you two always supported my goal and made what seemed to be a daunting process that much more enjoyable. I thank you all.
Finally I would like to thank my family. Mom and Dad I know this seems like it is a long time coming but I made it. Thank you for your emotional and financial support. I am not sure I could have achieved this without your help and encouragement. Ric and iv
Ling Sebastian I do not think a better father and mother in law exist. Ling, your cultural heritage started this whole project. I am forever indebted to you for your kindness and your wonderful Thai cooking. Ric you edited my thesis and encouraged my traveling habits. Your endless knowledge of Thailand was a constant source of inspiration. You both have given me more than I know. What more can I say but thank you.
The biggest thank you goes to my wife Leila Hyslop. You literally had to live through this, enduring hundreds of hours of writing, procrastinating, and being away.
You have kept me organized, and on task, not to mention you married me in the middle. I could not imagine anyone else who has lent more support. You have made this intense process easier to bear. Let's go skiing! V
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iii
Table of Contents v
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Research Questions 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review 6
Introduction 6
Mass Tourism 6
Alternative Tourism and Related Concepts 8
Sustainable tourism development 11
Sustainable tourism 13
Nature tourism 17
Adventure tourism 17
Ecotourism 18
Role of the tour guide 23
Overview of Rock Climbing 29
Overview of Tourism Policy 35
Development of tourism policy 36
Implementation of tourism policy 38
Summary of Literature Review 39 vi
Chapter 3: Methodology 43
Introduction 43
Study Site 44
Survey Methods 47
Questionnaire Design 49
Section 1: Location Used for Rock Climbing (Ql) 50
Section 2: Evaluation of Rock Climbing Experience (Q2, Q3) 50
Section 3: Background in Climbing (Q4, Q5, Q6) 50
Section 4: Activities Participated in Besides Climbing (Q7) 51
Section 5: Perceptions (Satisfaction) with Climbing Guides (Q8) 51
Section 6: Traveling Style: Ecotourism scale (Q10) 51
Section 7: Views on Tourism Development (Ql 1) 53
Section 8: Other Comments about Post Tsunami Rebuilding (Q12) 53
Section 9: Visitor Characteristics (Q13, Q14, Q15, Q16, Q17) 53
Section 10: Description of Visit (Q18, Q19) 54
Sampling Strategy 54
Data Entry and Analysis 57
Challenges and Limitations 57
Validity and Reliability 58
Chapter 4: Results 61
Introduction 61
Climber Characteristics 61
Assessment of Climbing Experience 67
Assessment of Climbing Guide 73 vii
Perceptions of Ecotourism 83
Semi-structured Interviews with other Stakeholders 95
Summary of Chapter 99
Chapter 5: Conclusion 102
Introduction 102
Summary of Major Findings 102
Recommendations 108
Possibilities for future studies 112
References 114
Appendix 120
Appendix 1 Questionnaire 120
Appendix 2 Questions for semi-structured interviews 125 Chapter 1: Introduction
Tourism, one of the world's fastest growing industries (Baddeley, 2004;
Campbell, 1999; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005; Rattanasuwongchai, 1998; Robinson &
Twynam, 1996) is an important economic resource for many developing countries
(World Tourism Organization, 2004). Unfortunately the impacts of mass tourism, such as compromising "the ecological sustainability of key tourism destinations"
(Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999, p. 316), loss of cultural integrity in host communities
(Manyara & Jones, 2007), and economic ruin from dependence on an unsustainable industry (Claver-Cortes, Molina-Azorin, & Pereira-Moliner, 2007) threaten the development of the nations it purports to help. As a result of some of the negative impacts of mass tourism, especially in developing countries, the concept of sustainable tourism has been developed. Sustainable tourism in its simplest definition is "tourism which is economically viable but does not destroy the resources on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric of the host community" (Swarbrooke, 2005, p. 13).
Presently, tourism accounts for 6% of Thailand's Gross Domestic Product
(Rattanasuwongchai, 1998). Tourism in Thailand has soared, according to Pleumarom
(2002), from one million in the early 1980's to 10 405 502 million visitors over a nine month period from January to September 2007 (ASEAN National Tourism Organization,
2008). With the rapid growth of tourism Thailand has had economic benefit however, researchers have found significant erosion of the natural environment in some areas has resulted (Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999; Pleumarom, 2002; Rice & Haynes, 2005), along with a lack of infrastructure to meet tourists' needs. In Phuket for example, tourism 2 growth has increased at a rate of 18% per year reaching a total of 2.7 million visitors by the year 2001 (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005). This increase has led to jobs, a healthy economy and an increase in infrastructure for Phuket, all benefits of the tourism industry.
However several unfavorable impacts were also noted as a result of the unchecked growth such as crowding, pollution and water shortages (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
Furthermore, at a social level, due to increased tourism in Thailand, many rural communities are seeing direct negative impacts, especially when agriculture, the basis of traditional life, has become secondary to tourism, resulting in a decrease of traditional cultural practices by rural communities (Rattanasuwongchai, 1998). In some areas deterioration of traditional culture has become a by-product of tourism growth. For example, Dearden (1991) reports that increased tourist traffic on jungle trekking trips to somewhat more accessible hill tribe villages has resulted in severe changes in the social structure of the villages. He observes that these once quiet and shy villagers are becoming more aggressive as the lure of monetary satisfaction becomes more prevalent with the rise in tourism. With large infusions of tourism-related money into local communities there has been a slow erosion of culture and tradition (Dearden, 1991; Pipithvanichtham,
1997; Pleumarom, 2002) as locals compete to make more money from the tourist trade at the expense of authentic traditions and culture.
Currently, the Royal Forest Department (RFD) of Thailand is in charge of policies and guidelines for the use of Thai national parks (Pipithvanichtham, 1997). Pleumarom
(2002) points out that large scale developments are encroaching on national park lands and destroying the same natural areas that are used for other forms of tourism. If sustainable tourism is to be a worthy goal for Thailand (Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999; 3
Pleumarom, 2002) then Henderson (2001) suggests resource protection and environmental conservation are key to balancing the astounding economic benefits of tourism with the cultural and environmental factors that much of Thai tourism depends upon but continues to threaten.
Despite the Pacific Asia Travel Association's (PATA) announcement that re- invigorating and recovering the travel industries of the destinations affected by the tsunami would require "aggressively marketing and selling them" (Rice & Haynes, 2005, p. 8), visitor arrivals were down 40% and spending 30% in Phuket, Thailand's most desirable resort island (Rice & Haynes, 2005). Although Thailand's attempt to rapidly infuse money back into large tourist resorts and other mass tourism infrastructure (Bell et al, 2005; Paz, 2005; Rice & Haynes, 2005; United Nations Development Programme,
2005) is designed to rebuild their tourism economy, they do so at the expense of ruining their natural environment and marginalizing the rich traditions that visitors find desirable
(Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
Krabi Province, one of six provinces that account for 25% of the total tourism revenue for Thailand (Bell et al., 2005) has many tourism destinations specializing in many forms of tourism. Krabi was severely affected by the tsunami as one of its most popular tourist destinations, Kho Phi Phi (Phi Phi Island), was completely devastated. In the wake of the destruction, other areas of Krabi Province, in this case the PhraNang
Peninsula, have suffered from increased costs to tourism businesses that suffer declining tourism numbers. In this post-tsunami environment, the Thai government is beginning to implement a sustainable tourism policy, "Building Back Better" designed to mitigate pre- tsunami tourism impacts such as environmental degradation, erosion of community, and 4 economic disparity by proposing environmental rehabilitation and community-based livelihood recovery (Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006; United Nations Development
Programme, 2005).
An area that has received very little research is the Phra Nang Peninsula.
Although affected by the tsunami, communities on the peninsula suffer mostly from decreased visitor numbers and rising business costs rather than massive loss of life or rebuilding costs as was the case on Kho Phi Phi. The Phra Nang Peninsula thrives on mass tourism that has resulted in several resorts accommodating large groups (40+). As well as the mass tourism industry, other forms of tourism exist. An alternative form of tourism, rock climbing, was probably the original form of tourism on the Phra Nang
Peninsula (Schmitz & Changrua, 2007; Suebhait, 2002). Other forms of adventure tourism abound on the peninsula including scuba diving and sea kayaking. Several adventure tourism operators realize their businesses rely on the natural resources such as the cliffs used for rock climbing on the peninsula. They are experimenting with more sustainable tourism, such as ecotourism. A few climbing operators overtly advocate for the conservation and protection of the very cliffs they need to teach their courses and run their businesses (Schmitz & Changrua, 2007; Suebhait, 2002).
To understand the potential for ecotourism development on the Phra Nang
Peninsula this study uses rock climbing, a segment of Krabi's tourism industry. Rock climbing is adventure tourism, as it has elements of practical engagement for the tourist, it has an element of risk, and in this case it occurs in an exotic location, and therefore it meets the basic criteria for adventure tourism (Kent, 2005). However rock climbing also has the potential to meet the criteria for ecotourism. These criteria describe an economically, socially, and environmentally responsible form of tourism designed to promote positive impacts and lessen negative ones in host communities and local environments through the education of the actors involved (Bjork, 2000; Blarney, 1997;
Fennell, 2001; Fennell & Weaver, 2005; Foucat, 2002; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2004,, 2005;
Nepal, 2002; Pipithvanichtham, 1997). I feel that rock climbing tourism on the PhraNang
Peninsula has the potential to help rebuild Krabi's tourism industry devastated by the
Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004.
The purpose of this research is to relate the climbing experience to components of ecotourism by investigating the experience itself. It will assess how different interest groups such as local community leaders, rock climbing companies, other tourism operators and rock climbers perceive the role of the rock climbing industry as ecotourism.
Research Questions
1. Can rock climbing in Krabi Province be recognized as ecotourism to
support Thailand's sustainable tourism development in a post-tsunami
environment?
2. How do various interest groups in Krabi perceive the role of the rock
climbing industry as ecotourism?
3. What factors limit rock climbing businesses in the growth of ecotourism
on the Phra Nang Peninsula? 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to examine the climbing experience and to put that experience in an ecotourism point of view.
This section reviews the concepts of mass tourism and alternative tourism and related concepts including sustainable tourism development, sustainable tourism, nature tourism, adventure tourism, ecotourism, and the role of the tour guide. Rock climbing is discussed in relation to the various forms of tourism and especially to ecotourism. This study will provide a critical assessment of the literature by exposing gaps in existing knowledge and highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. I will conclude by discussing how this study fits into and builds upon the existing body of knowledge and how it will contribute practical and theoretical advances.
Mass Tourism
Tourism, arguably the largest industry in the world (Baddeley, 2004; Campbell,
1999; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005; MacDonald, 2004; Rattanasuwongchai, 1998; Robinson
& Twynam, 1996; World Tourism Organization, 2004) is internationally one of the most important sources of employment (World Tourism Organization, 2004). It is easy to implement (Claver-Cortes, Molina-Azorin, & Pereira-Moliner, 2007), can attract foreign investment and includes benefits that have been shown to infuse and equalize economic opportunity in developing countries (Claver-Cortes, Molina-Azorin, & Pereira-Moliner,
2007; Manyara & Jones, 2007; Parrilla, Riera Font, & Nadal, 2007; Reinius & Fredman,
2007; Sirakaya-Turk, 2007; Winter, 2007) such as Thailand (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
Swarbrooke (2005) argues that tourism as a whole can be sustainable and notes that 7
"tourism creates recreational facilities which can be used by local communities as well as domestic and international visitors. It encourages and helps pay for preservation of archaeological sites, and historic buildings and districts" (p. 10). Although mass tourism does present obvious benefits, it can also have a negative effect on the destinations and their residents (Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006; Herremans, 2006;
Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999; MacDonald, 2004; McKercher & Cros, 2002; Olsen, 2005;
Paz, 2005; Pleumarom, 2002; Rattanasuwongchai, 1998; Reisinger & Turner, 2003; Rice
& Haynes, 2005; Sethapun, 2000; Smillie, 2006; United Nations Development
Programme, 2006; World Tourism Organization, 2004) which if uncorrected can lead to a decline of the tourism industry (Claver-Cortes, Molina-Azorin, & Pereira-Moliner, 2007).
Aldo Leopold found (in Herremans (2006)) a need for sustainable development of tourism when he said:
A system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly
lopsided. It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate many elements in the
land community that lack commercial value, but that are (as far as we know)
essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely, I think, that the economic
parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts, (p. 2)
Rollins, Dearden, & Eagles (forthcoming) describe an alternative to the mass tourism model:
Mass tourism generally involves large numbers of people visiting staged settings
such as resorts that may have little relationship to the actual environment within
which they are set. The attraction base is often related to the 4 "Ss" of tourism,
sea, sun, sand, and shopping. In contrast, alternative tourism usually involves 8
smaller numbers of tourists visiting more authentic settings with an emphasis on
attractions that are consistent with local natural, social and community values, (p.
30)
Figure 1, from Rollins, Dearden, & Eagle (forthcoming, p. 30) illustrates the
contrast between mass tourism and alternative tourism:
Tourism 1 Involves short term travel to and from a destination I
Mass Tourism Alternative Tourism Traditional or Specific interest conventional tourism or responsible tourism
Large numbers of tourists Small numbers of tourists in authentic usually in staged settings natural or cultural settings I Natural Cultural Event Other —i— 1 tourism in heritage sports farm natural areas religions festivals educational
adventure — emphasis on activity nature based — primarily viewing of natural landscape wildlife primarily viewing of wildlife ecotourism includes educative and conservation supporting elements
Figure 1. Different types of tourism.
Figure 1 illustrates the limited scope of mass tourism and the staged settings it commonly takes place in, compared to the more inclusive forms of alternative tourism that operate with smaller numbers of tourists in authentic natural and cultural settings.
Alternative Tourism and Related Concepts
Robinson & Twynam (1996) report that alternative tourism comprises a significant segment of the international tourism industry, and has become popular among 9 developing countries including those in South East Asia (Robinson & Twynam, 1996) such as Thailand. Certain attributes of alternative tourism appeal to developing countries that provide for greater local involvement and control.
A description of the attributes of mass tourism compared to alternative tourism is described in table 1 by Swarbrooke (2005, p. 19): 10
Table 1 Attibutes of Mass and Alternative Tourism. Mass tourism Alternative tourism
General features Rapid develpement Slow development Maximizes Optimizes Uncontrolled Controlled Short term Long term Sectoral Holistic
Tourist behaviour Large groups Singles, families Fixed programme Spontaneous decisions Tourists directed Tourists decide Comfortable and passive Demanding and active No foreign language Language learning Nosy Tacful Loud Quiet
Basic requirements Holiday peaks Staggered holidays Untrained labour Trained labour force Publicity cliches Tourist education Hard selling Heart selling
Development strategies Unplanned Planned Project-led Concept-led New buildings Re-use of existing buildings Outside development Local developers
Table 1 illustrates some of the more significant differences in attributes between mass and alternative tourism. It shows that alternative tourism attempts to create a more sustainable form of tourism through slow, controlled development that promotes a spontaneous environment for the tourist while fostering a learning environment without 11 over-imposing upon the host community. Table 1 further illustrates that alternative tourism attempts to use local developers in planned, concept-led development strategies that take into account the existing infrastructure when planning tourism development.
Sustainable tourism development
Brundtland (1987) summarizes the need for sustainable development by stating:
The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective of
development. The essential needs of vast numbers of people in developing
countries - for food, clothing, shelter, jobs - are not being met, and beyond their
basic needs these people have legitimate aspirations for an improved quality of
life. A world in which poverty and inequity are endemic will always be prone to
ecological and other crises. Sustainable development requires meeting the basic
needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a
better life. (pp. 43-44)
Sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"
(Brundtland, 1987, p. 8). This concept is important to Thailand, as Baddeley (2004) found, because the viability of the tourism industry will be economically inhibited as deteriorating environmental quality occurs in tourist areas, thus compromising sustainable development. According to the World Tourism Organization (2004) sustainable tourism development should "make optimal use of environmental resources", it should "respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities", and it should provide "socio-economic benefits to all stakeholders" (p. 1). 12
Coate, Handmer, & Choong (2006) state that sustainable development can be used to develop recovery strategies that "engage with and directly involve the community to ensure long-term economic recovery that is able to both build local resilience and provide the basis of livelihood support for the future sustainability of the local population" (p. 135). They argue that this process is of significance to southern Thailand because much of their labour force is engaged in the informal economy, suggesting that in order to provide livelihood support for people living in the affected regions there must be support for the local economy to ensure that it continues to function.
Agenda 21 is a global action plan for sustainable development in tourism that was endorsed at the Rio Summit in 1992. Mowforth & Munt (2003) state that among its many priorities, Agenda 21 urges governments to:
• Improve and reorient pricing and subsidy policies in issues related to
tourism;
• Diversify economies by creating and strengthening tourism;
• Provide mechanisms to preserve threatened areas that could protect
wildlife, conserve biological diversity or serve as national parks;
• Promote environmentally sound leisure and tourism activities, building
on... the current programme of the World Tourism Organisation (p. 105)
Several sources indicate that poor areas relying heavily on tourism and informal economies will benefit from the practice of sustainable tourism development, especially those provinces in southern Thailand such as Krabi, affected by the Indian Ocean
Tsunami (Bell et al., 2005; Brundtland, 1987; Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006; 13
Greenhough, Jazeel, & Massey, 2005; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005; Olsen, 2005; Paz,
2005; Rice & Haynes, 2005; Smillie, 2006). Krabi is important in three ways:
1. The islands of Phi Phi Don and Phi Phi Ley contain one of the most
heavily devastated tourist destinations in Thailand from the tsunami (Bell
et al., 2005);
2. Krabi contains several local communities that rely upon the tourism
industry; and
3. Krabi has received limited research and remains an isolated area because
of geography and a lack of mass tourism accommodations.
Mass tourism, Gossling (2003) acknowledges, may not be the answer for places such as Krabi Province, Thailand. He notes that tourism is often achieved through top- down development "in which the international tourism industry cooperates with governmental bodies basically excluding local stakeholders from participation" (p. 384).
However sustainable tourism exists and will likely provide a benefit to the communities of the PhraNang Peninsula in Krabi Province, Thailand.
Sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism "concentrates on environmental issues" (Mowforth & Munt,
2003, p. 95) that embody characteristics similar to ecotourism and other forms of alternative tourism. In fact sustainable tourism embodies characteristics of several kinds of tourism as can be seen in figure 2. from Swarbrooke (2005, p. 14). 14
Figure 2. The relationship between sustainable tourism and other terms.
A working definition developed from the "Charter for Sustainable Tourism
Outline of Principles and Objectives" (France, 1997, p. 13) says that sustainable tourism should be ecologically bearable, economically viable, and ethically and socially equitable giving special priority for environmentally and culturally vulnerable areas already degraded. It should include the participation of all actors to make joint decisions that support the local economy while improving the quality of life (France, 1997). 15
Pollution: -air - wster Conservation Policies - noise awl Practices: - visual Resource Use: - water - towoscapes -land - Wildlife
PuMk Sector Policy: -funding - legislation Wildlife: -plaaoiBg Sustainable - safaris -tatting Tourism • tafcitats
The Industry; - self-iegBtation - codes of practice Operational Practices of - relations with tbe feost Taurisra Orfarazations: cftHtasnoiSy - recycling - sustainable tawisat related - punctasaflg mitiathM - waste 4is|K>s3l - employment policies - energy conservatioa
The Host CommttBity: The Tourist; - distribution; of fee - concerns benefits of towism - belMvissa' - degree of coatrol over local tourism
Figure 3. The scope of sustainable tourism (Swarbrooke, 2005, p. 16).
The concept of sustainable tourism is especially useful for isolated areas such as the Phra Nang Peninsula and the islands of Phi Phi Don and Phi Phi Ley in Krabi
Province. It emphasizes use of the natural assets of the area rather than trying to exploit other forms of trade (Hitchcock, 1997) such as agriculture that could not compete at the same economic level as tourism.
Unfortunately Thailand has used this concept to satisfy immediate economic goals, as was the case with the Amazing Thailand Campaign (Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999), a promotional campaign designed "to attract 17 million tourists over 1998 and 1999"
(Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999, p. 316) in response to the Asian financial crisis of 1997. With 16
Thailand's economy in difficulty the government needed to boost the economy quickly.
Tourism, as indicated, was a promising solution. Unfortunately with increased tourism numbers there came increased pressure on host communities and the natural environment resulting in a disintegration of culture and degradation of the natural environment (Coate,
Handmer, & Choong, 2006; United Nations Development Programme, 2006) in the affected areas.
With the tourism industry suffering as much as a 40% decrease post-2004 tsunami
(Rice & Haynes, 2005), and the Tourism Authority of Thailand planning expensive tourist attractions to lure high spending visitors, there has been little to no communication between the government and the local communities that have been affected by the increased tourism push (Rice & Haynes, 2005). The Thai Government may see extravagant tourist attractions as a promising route to rebuild its tourism industry, however with over 70% of Thailand's population employed in the informal sector of the economy (Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006), it remains to be seen if the tourism industry is sustainable if the local communities are not taken into account sooner rather than later. If sustainable tourism is the goal for the Thai government then this kind of development needs to have direct involvement with the community so that the community feels empowered to make decisions that will affect them. Sustainable development could create an incentive for the communities that rely on tourism to create sustainable long term development so they may continue to benefit culturally, economically and environmentally. 17
Nature tourism
Nature tourism is another form of alternative tourism that "takes place in natural settings where the settings are an integral part of the attraction" (Rollins, Dearden, &
Eagles, forthcoming, p. 31). These settings can include national parks and protected areas. Unlike adventure tourism, nature tourism is about the environment rather than simply taking place in the environment (Rollins, Dearden, & Eagles, forthcoming). These authors further emphasize that nature tourism is primarily concerned with viewing natural landscapes, whereas adventure tourism seeks to emphasize activity in nature. They feel that ecotourism in general should include "educative and conservation supporting elements (p. 30). Although nature-based tourism is a major component of the tourism experience on the Phra Nang Peninsula, nature tourism specifically plays a very small formal role in the area. More focus has been put on other forms of alternative tourism such as adventure tourism.
Adventure tourism
According to Kent (2005)
Adventure tourism is the sum of the phenomena of adventure and its related
supporting components (i.e. transportation, location, and activities). It is
characterized by the practical engagement of the tourist, the element of risk
(physical or otherwise) and uncertainty, and its tendency to occur in remote or
exotic environments, (p. 18)
Buckley (2000) would agree with this definition, however Rollins, Eagle &
Dearden (forthcoming) have taken the definition a step further and stated that "adventure tourism has a sharp focus on personal accomplishment through an activity, such as rock 18 climbing,... rather than fostering a better understanding of the natural setting or local cultures" (p. 31). Rock climbing on the PhraNang Peninsula is a form of adventure tourism, following the definition exactly. However if a climbing operator were to add a component that advocated for the conservation of the natural environment, if they were able to create change in visitor behaviour towards the environment and culture, if they were to foster this behavioural change through the process of learning (Rollins, Dearden,
& Eagles, forthcoming), then there would be a strong case to consider those climbing businesses as ecotourism operators.
Ecotourism
Zwirn, Pinsky & Rahr (2005), van der Meer (2007), and Rollins, Dearden &
Eagle (forthcoming) report on three primary dimensions of ecotourism that are supported by various researchers: a focus on nature (Schelhas, Sherman, Fahey, & Lassoie, 2002), sustainable management (Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari, & Oviedo, 2004; Carrier &
Macleod, 2005; Foucat, 2002; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005; West & Carrier, 2004), and environmental education (Stem, Lassoie, Lee, Deshler, & Schelhas, 2003).
However ecotourism has numerous definitions depending on the organization and their overall agenda. The Ecotourism Society's definition is "responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of the local people"
(Blarney, 1997, p. 110). The Ecotourism Association of Australia defines ecotourism as
"ecologically sustainable tourism that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation" (Blarney, 1997, p. 110). There seems to be agreement among researchers that an accepted industry-wide definition is lacking (Bjork, 2000;
Blarney, 1997; Fennell, 2001) however Ceballos-Lascurain's definition of ecotourism 19 developed in 1983, found in Blarney (1997, p. 110), and Fennell (2001, p. 404) is one of the most widely accepted:
Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the
specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild
plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and
present) found in these areas.
Fennell (2001) argues that this definition is more specific to travelers than to the communities and the environments that ecotourism will affect. Although this definition is considered limited it is has also been built into several more recent encompassing definitions.
Blarney (1997) argues that an increasing overall concern for environmental sensitivity among ecotourists does not necessarily mean that ecotourism should comprise a specialty market all on its own because often these people are found among the ranks of mainstream travelers whom are more conscientious than before. These so-called ecotourists, through the very nature of tourism, seek an organized framework for their trip at least as much as other mainstream tourists.
Ecotourism involves a number of different social and ecological aspects, therefore
Fennell (2001) suggests that "it is important to distinguish between these in clarifying the concept" (p. 404). He reports that one researcher defined ecotourism based on four dimensions: nature based; conservation supporting; sustainably managed; and environmentally educating. Although Bjork (2000) would disagree that ecotourism is nature-based tourism, he does accept that nature-based tourism plays a role in the definition of ecotourism. Again, in the spirit of multiple definitions, Fennell (2001) 20
acknowledges a study by Wallace & Pierce (1996) that provides a comprehensive
structure for ecotourism:
• minimizes impacts
• increases awareness
• contributed to conservation
• allows local people to make their own decisions
• directs economic benefits to local people
• provides opportunities for local people to enjoy natural areas
(pp. 404-405).
Fennell (2001) looks at what criteria individuals, governments and NGO's use to define ecotourism. His seven most frequently cited criteria have been organized in table 2 according to the three components of ecotourism discussed in van der Meer (2007).
Table 2 Fennels Seven Criteria for Ecotourism listed in van der Meer's Three Components of Ecotourism van der Meer's (2007) Three Components Fennell's (2001) Seven Criteria
1. Based in nature Reference to where ecotourism occurs
2. Learning component Education
3. It is sustainable Conservation Reference to culture Benefits to locals Sustainability Impacts 21
In the absence of a current definition for ecotourism, there are a number of operating examples of holistic approaches to ecotourism that falls into the category of alternative tourism. One successful example being employed in Thailand is community- based ecotourism.
Community-Based Ecotourism, as Kontogeorgopoulos (2005) states, encourages
"ecological sustainability and grassroots development" (p. 4) and "offers hope that the environmental sensitivity and responsibility promoted by ecotourism can also serve the political, economic, and social interests of the host communities" (p. 4). He further cites a successful community-based ecotourism company, Sea Canoe, that operates out of
Phuket, exemplifying the fact that community based ecotourism is possible in southern
Thailand's tourist market (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005). He notes that in order for community-based ecotourism to be successful there are four tradeoffs:
1. Practical success at the expense of spatial isolation and structural
independence (p. 7) - suggests that in order for this kind of tourism to be
sustainable it must feed from the main-stream tourism market thus
residing within the same geographic area as main stream tourist
attractions.
2. Local employment and benefits at the expense of local initiation and
control (p. 10) - a local operator solely in control of their business may
not be able to afford to pay their employees competitive wages or offer
health and education benefits. Foreign partners are important to gain the
capital necessary to provide reasonable pay and benefits including health
and education. 22
3. Social status and mobility at the expense of social cohesion and harmony
(p. 13) - Sea Canoe guides are paid high wages and given opportunities to
attain a better education. In turn this lifts their social status disturbing the
status quo of traditional Thailand as these guides are generally viewed as
poor, low-educated people that would remain at a lower social status than
someone born into a family with greater social status. Unfortunately this
results in rivalry between other ecotourism companies who feel Sea Canoe
operates unfairly because they are foreign owned, even though two of
three owners are Thai, and employees are paid enough to remove them
from the strict Thai social ladder (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
4. Fun, freedom, and incipient environmentalism at the expense of
ecological sustainability (p. 15). Kontogeorgopoulos (2005) found that
although Sea Canoe has provided a work atmosphere that most guides
relate to as fun, enjoyable, and holiday-like, the company has also sparked
intense competition. These competing companies often operate outside
the principles of community-based ecotourism, instead trying to get as
many people on to a tour as they can thus promoting poor environmental
standards. Kontogeorgopoulos (2005) noted that Sea Canoe guides see the
environment as directly related to their job security; without the healthy
marine environment, they feel their jobs will disappear.
Because the industry has evolved into so many different forms it has become increasingly difficult to attach a precise meaning to the word ecotourism (Bjork, 2000;
Blarney, 1997; Fennell, 2001). Fennell (2001) suggests that "the principle implication of 23 this uncertainty is the inability to instill meaning and control in the ecotourism industry, both between and within sectors, as well as across different world regions" (p. 404).
Regardless, the need for sustainable development is paramount in creating a lasting future for communities relying on tourism for their livelihood. The Phra Nang Peninsula in
Thailand is currently in the stages of re-developing its tourism industry. Without research to help identify what is and is not sustainable tourism, the local communities may fall victim to "unsustainable tourism developments that move quickly from brief boom periods into a vicious circle of environmental degradation and economic decline"
(Baddeley, 2004, p. 24).
For the purpose of my study and in accordane with research performed by Rollins,
Dearden and Eagle (forthcoming) and van der Meer (2007), I will consider that ecotourism has these three components:
1. Educational component
2. Nature based
3. Conservation supporting
Role of the tour guide
There is a connection between ecotourism and the role of the tour guide in that the tour guide has the ability to share what ecotourism is with the visitor. Randall & Rollins
(2004) discuss the need of the tour guide to convey important messages surrounding ecotourism to the visitor. They identify six components of the tour guide necessary for advocating principles of ecotourism developed by two separate researchers. Cohen
(1985) suggests that four components of the tour guide are: 24
1. The Instrumental Component: This relates to his responsibility for the the
kernel of this component consists of "leading the way", the modern
guide's instrumental leadership task is more complex and consists of
several interrelated elements: direction, access, and control (p. 11). a. Direction: The guide is responsible for the physical act of directing the trip
according to the needs and goals of the group. The guide is also
responsible for giving direction in terms of skill development to the group
(E. Cohen, 1985). For example the guide should provide a safe experience. b. Access: The guide has access to restricted areas the tourist would not
otherwise have access to, or could not go due to lack of skills. The guide is
responsible for the behaviour of the tourist while accessing these areas (E.
Cohen, 1985). For example the guide should discuss all hazards. c. Control: The guide is responsible for exercising control over the party in
order to lead them safely and comfortably through whatever terrain they
might be accessing. Control is the guides tool in safely accessing areas
with groups and in directing them through whatever challenges the group
faces (E. Cohen, 1985). For example the guide should ensure all
equipment is safe.
2. The Social Component: This component of the guide's leadership role
relates to his responsibility for the cohesion and morale of the touring
party, and stands in some contrast to his role as an instrumental leader.
This component also embraces several concrete elements: tension
management, integration, morale, and animation (pp. 12-13). 25 a. Tension-Management: The guide is expected to take steps to prevent the
emergence of tensions between members of his party and intervene to
smooth out relations once a conflict breaks out (E. Cohen, 1985, p. 12).
For example the guide should effectively reduce any tension. b. Integration: Several authors see the guide as responsible for the social
integration of his group. Thus, Holloway (198 1:388) pointed out that he is
the... "Catalyst who encourages social cohesion in [his] group," and
Schmidt (1979:457) claims that he is an "instigator of sociability" and
"provides integration" (p. 454) to the group. It is questionable, however,
how successful his integrative efforts will be in view of the demands
which the performance of his instrumental functions puts upon his party
(E. Cohen, 1985, p. 12). The guide should help the group get to know one
and other. c. Morale: The guide's role is to keep the group in good humour and high
morale by being happy, supportive, and funny. This is especially useful for
less qualified guides (E. Cohen, 1985). For example, the guide should
promote a happy group environment. d. Animation: Finally, in some circumstances, the guide may try to
"animate" members of his party, i.e., to induce them to undertake various
activities offered by the touristic facilities encountered on the itinerary.
This rather marginal element of the tourist guide's role when conducting a
sightseeing tour, tends to become the kernel of a new role, that of the animator under the more stationery (sic) conditions of vacationing tourism
(E.Cohen, 1985, p. 13).
3. Interactional Component: This component of the guide's role relates to his
function as a middleman between his party and the local population, sites
and institutions, as well as touristic facilities. It consists of two principal
elements (p. 13): representation and organization. a. Representation: This role of the guide requires that they act as a
representative for the group to the setting (i.e. the host culture) and for the
setting to the group. In other words, the guide acts as a go between from
group to setting and setting to group (E. Cohen, 1985). For example, the
guide should motivate responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai
people. b. Organization: The guide is responsible for all aspects of organization for
the group including food, accommodation, activities, and if needed
emergency services. The guide must deliver the tour in a timely fashion
organized around the needs of the group (E. Cohen, 1985). For example,
the guide should keep the group organized.
4. Communicative: This is frequently considered to be the principal
component of the guide's role. It is certainly the component given primacy
in the formal training of guides, even though some guides receive only
superficial training and possess scanty knowledge of the area; even where
guides receive thorough education, some aspects of their communicative
role are, according to some authors, insufficiently emphasized. This component consists of four principle elements, which can be ranged by the
extent to which the guide interposes himself between the tourist and the
sight as a "culture broker" (p. 14): selection, information, and
interpretation. a. Selection:, Along the tour, the guide selects objects of interest that they
want the group to see or interact with. What the guide wants the group to
see is informed by personal preference, professional training, directions
received from their employer, or from tourist authorities and government
(E. Cohen, 1985). For example the guide should make the group aware of
appropriate behaviours with Thai people. b. Information: The guide's main role is that of information-giver. Through
any activity a guide performs with a group they are constantly
disseminating information among group members. Often times the
information given can be non-neutral as it is coming from a tourist
organization, government, or employer interested in influencing certain
aspects of the visitor impression (E. Cohen, 1985). For example, the guide
should provide information about local customs and cultures. c. Interpretation: This role of the guide is to, as Cohen (1985) suggests,
translate "the strangeness of a foreign culture into a cultural idiom familiar
to the visitor" (p. 15). Essentially the guide acts as a cultural broker (E.
Cohen, 1985). For example the guide should help the group develop a
keener awareness of the area. 28
Weiler (1993) extends Cohen's (1985) four components for the tour guide with two more:
1. Motivator: "encouraging visitors to behave in an environmentally
responsible manner" (p. 95). For example the guide should
motivate responsible behaviour to the environment.
2. Environmental Interpreter: "helping visitors to understand and
appreciate their environment" (p. 95). For example the guide
should provide information about natural features of the area.
The last four roles of the tour guide, including the interactionary and communicative (E. Cohen, 1985), and the motivator and environmental interpreter
(Weiler & Davis, 1993) are paramount as they are directly connected to components of ecotourism as can be seen in table 3:
Table 3 Ecotourism Component Role of the Tour Guide
Education Communicative Environmental Interpreter
Sustainable Interactionary Motivator
Identifying segments of the tourism industry as ecotourism will help the tourism industry decide where sustainable development should begin. This study is focused on rock climbing in Krabi Province; an activity that has been little-researched, but which continues to be a source of tourism in southern Thailand. To understand development goals of rock climbing in Krabi, and to make further recommendations for sustainable development, there needs to be an understanding of where climbing fits into Thailand's tourism industry; is it mass tourism or could it be ecotourism?
Overview of Rock Climbing
Rock climbing is the act of scaling nearly vertical, vertical, and overhanging rock walls or boulders (Scott, 2000). Various forms of rock climbing exist such as:
1. Bouldering - climbing rocks that usually do not require the use of a rope
because a fall would not be fatal (Sherman, 1994).
2. Sport climbing - the climber is attached to a rope and as they ascend the
wall they attach the rope to bolts that are pre-drilled into the rock and act
as protection against a fall (Martin & Jones, 2006).
3. Traditional climbing - similar to sport climbing, however the protection is
carried by the climber and placed as they climb rather than having
permanent bolts in the rock. Protection is removed upon completion of the
route (Scott, 2000).
4. Deep Water soloing - a synthesis of bouldering and sport climbing. The
climber is not attached to anything, similar to bouldering, however they
are climbing walls up 25 meters tall and if they fall they will fall into the
water below that acts as a natural form of protection (Schmitz &
Changrua, 2007).
The benefits of rock climbing happen on several levels. Rock climbing, from an environmental standpoint, literally puts the individual in touch with their surrounding environment (Lewis, 2000). This kinesthetic engagement with the natural environment could be the starting point for becoming active in the natural environment and developing a greater appreciation for the natural environment. In some cases, education programs and service projects intended to conserve protected areas where climbing occurs have started as a way to enhance environmental stewardship on behalf of rock climbers
(Siderelis & Attarian, 2004). Other benefits include increased physical fitness for the climber and enhanced mental capacity for problem solving, dealing with stress, and confidence in other aspects of life (Ilgner, 2003). Another important benefit is the economic benefit of rock climbing. In parks and protected areas climbers sometimes pay fees for the use of the cliffs (Siderelis & Attarian, 2004). From a social-economic standpoint, rock climbing has resulted in several businesses operating as climbing outfitters and hiring out guides o teach the non-climbing public how to climb (Schmitz &
Changrua, 2007; Suebhait, 2002). These climbing businesses benefit the local economy of the communities where they occur, and the local people who own them as well as the people they employ.
Impacts from rock climbing have increased over time with more people participating in the sport. Siderelis & Attarian (2004) report impacts to be
The adverse effects of human impacts to soil, damage to vegetation, harassment to
wildlife, the growing presence of litter, noise, bolting practices, damage to
historic and cultural sites, and such practical concerns as legal liability, climbers
lacking the appropriate technical skills, and the compositions of groups, (p. 73)
The Phra Nang Peninsula in Krabi Province, Thailand, is a world-class rock climbing destination catering mostly to sport climbers with some bouldering and an increasing interest in deep water soloing. Schmitz & Changrua (2007) and Suebhait
(2002), both local climbing operators on the Phra Nang Peninsula, report in their 31 respective climbing route guidebooks on several of the impacts noted above by Siderelis
& Attarian (2004). Because climbing on the peninsula takes place in a concentrated area and is part of the Hat Nopparat Thara-Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine Park there is an urgent need to manage the climbing operators to better integrate the growth of climbing with requirements of conserving the public lands (Siderelis & Attarian, 2004) and the national park surrounding them.
Suebhait (2002) and Schmitz & Changrua (2007) provide solutions, and ask for assistance from foreigners to mitigate any further issues due to climbing. Suebhait (2002) recognizes that "all the climbing in Southern Thailand falls with (sic) the Krabi national marine park (Hat Nopparat Thara-Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine Park)" (p. 37) which may lead to criticism of the sport and the climbers involved because the routes are becoming "noticeably damaged" (p. 33) due to the use of delicate stalactites in developing climbing routes. Schmitz & Changrua (2007) identify other factors contributing to further criticism, resulting in access problems enforced by the National
Park Service. The first problem to consider is climbing accidents. As climbing accidents happen the limited rescue services are stretched thin. The result could be enforced closures of route areas to try and reduce the number of climbers who need rescue. This would relieve stress on the rescue services but would limit route availability for climbers.
The second and most important is environmental degradation "if crags continue to deteriorate into garbage dumps" (Schmitz & Changrua, 2007, p. 21). Schmitz &
Changrua (2007) pinpoint specific behaviors of climbers and offer solutions by stating:
Unfortunately, most climbers are here for a few weeks vacation and set in
consumption mode, to (sic) busy to have the time of their life to think about 32
nature conservation. Please carry out you garbage. Nobody is perfect, so if you
find some left behind trash at the crag, join the boy & girl scouts for the few
minutes it takes to pick up and carry it out. With ever more climbers present,
refrain from using the rock holes as ashtrays. Cigarette butts take forever to
decompose, so carry them out with all your litter!!! We supply climbers' ashtrays
for free at Wee's Rock Climbing School (just empty film canisters, they work
great). If you receive a very sudden nature call, please be considerate enough to
do your business far away from the crag!!... Everybody knows about leaving
nothing but footprints, but too many forget just because a few chilies are in a rush
to get out! A more general note: please avoid plastic garbage wherever you can.
Get involved: the bungalow owners run these places for you and just because of
you! It is not acceptable to burn plastic rubbish, but it happens many times
because the boy who gets send (sic) to clean up does not understand how harmful
this it (sic). As long as nobody explains and complains, he (or better his boss) will
never learn. Avoid plastic bottles: you will be drinking 3 to 4 litres of water every
day, so please buy your water in bulk. Bring a sturdy water bottle with you or buy
one in Krabi. (p. 22)
Both books note aspects of cultural degradation when climbers are seen in
religiously significant areas disrespecting local customs. Schmitz & Changrua (2007) and
Suebhait (2002) understand that climbing provides an essential local benefit in terms of
economy and jobs. They have taken it upon themselves to educate the climbing visitors
of the potential pitfalls of poor environmental and social behaviour via their respective route guides. These guide books also serve as a way to inform park and government 33 officials that the climbing industry recognizes current issues and is willing to be proactive in providing solutions. In light of these contributions, Schmitz & Changrua (2007) and
Suebhait (2002) realize the delicate environmental and social problems that will be exacerbated if climbing tourism continues to grow; it could reopen old issues and eventually shut down a segment of the tourism industry that many local Thais rely on. In turn they use their business to advocate for more sustainable practices both for visitors and businesses in Krabi.
Relating the issues noted by Suebhait (2002) in the following text to FennelPs
(2001) seven criteria for ecotourism helps to illustrate that rock climbing "can be legitimately considered a form of ecotourism that contributes positively to conservation, science, and local or regional economic development" (Zwirn, Pinsky, & Rahr, 2005, p.
16) and that supports sustainable tourism in Thailand:
1. Reference to where ecotourism occurs - climbing in Krabi occurs among
the limestone cliffs and karst formations in Hat Nopparat Thara-Mu Kho
Phi Phi National Marine Park (Suebhait, 2002).
2. Conservation - as all climbing in Krabi Province is within the national
marine park boundaries, any damage done to the rock could lead to
criticism of the sport and the actors involved (Suebhait, 2002). Therefore
it makes sense for communities relying on climbing tourism to actively
engage climbing tourists to promote conservation of the natural
environment so that it is not lost.
3. Reference to culture - the introduction to Suebhait's (2002) guide gives a
summary of how Krabi was formed according to Thai culture. He further 34
acknowledges cultural needs when discussing an area called Princess Cave
that is now closed to climbing because of a shrine that exists within the
cave. Climbers are asked to stop climbing in the cave as it is a
disrespectful act and it upsets locals.
4. Benefits to locals - Suebhait (2002) has owned a climbing business in
Krabi called King Climbers since 1995. His business is a testament to the
benefit to locals, as it is locally owned and operated. King Climbers and
approximately 10 other climbing operators exist in Krabi Province.
5. Education - Suebhait's (2002) guide is an educational component of the
climbing industry in Krabi. The guide is a way to inform climbing tourists
of the potential pitfalls of poor environmental and social behaviour. It
also informs park and government officials that the climbing industry
recognizes current issues and is willing to be proactive in providing
solutions.
6. Sustainability - by recognizing delicate cultural and environmental issues
that have developed due to tourism and the various activities tourist
become involved with, Suebhait (2002) has become a progressive leader
in sustaining the sport and the business that he relies on and the
environment that he works within. His discussion of important issues such
as trash removal from the cliffs, where one can and cannot climb, as well
as being transparent about access issues and what can be done to mitigate
further problems has seen his business last a little over a decade, and it
continues on. "I am... writing about rock climbing in my native language 35
(Thai) to help get the Thai authorities to understand what rock climbing is
all about. It seems to be working" (Suebhait, 2002, p. 11).
7. Impacts - Suebhait (2002) acknowledges delicate environmental and
social problems; if climbing tourism continues to grow the industry could
be in danger of committing further environmental and cultural
degradation. He also notes that climbing has been a source of enjoyment
and allows him to own his own successful business and live in an area he
loves.
Findings from this study will help to promote future research into sustainable tourism development for other segments of Krabi's tourism market.
Overview of Tourism Policy
The rationalization for tourism policy being considered in this study is a reflection of the fact that any kind of tourism will be unplanned unless government policy helps to define how development occurs (Swarbrooke, 2005).
With the pressures of increasing globalization (sic), the ability of developing
countries easily to moderate commercial and economic pressures for
environmentally insensitive tourism developments is likely to be compromised
without effective regional, national and international policy co-ordination. If,
however, the development of tourism will, in itself, encourage the careful
management and preservation of resources, particularly environmental resources,
then the benefits of tourism developments may well outweigh the costs
(Baddeley, 2004, p. 4) Development of tourism policy.
Each society is faced with the decision of how best to provide for the well being
and quality of life of its citizens. The choices involved span complex economic,
sociocultural, political, and environmental considerations. In particular, the
economic base that a society chooses for itself has wide ranging ramifications.
Increasingly, cities, states, and nations are turning to tourism as an important
element in their economic portfolio as they recognize the potentially significant
economic rewards at stake. (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999, p. 137)
Crouch & Ritchie (1999) report that tourism is a significant force in creating prosperity globally. They purport that tourism has surpassed the "nonsustainable... extractive industries" (p. 137) that countries have traditionally relied upon for economic growth. These statements have resounding support from several other researchers that have reported similar findings, especially where developing countries are concerned
(Baddeley, 2004; Black & King, 2002; Claver-Cortes, Molina-Azorin, & Pereira-
Moliner, 2007; Gossling, 2003; MacDonald, 2004; Manyara & Jones, 2007; Moscardo,
Morrison, & Pearce, 1996; Parrilla, Riera Font, & Nadal, 2007; Reinius & Fredman,
2007; Seenprachawong, 2001; Sirakaya-Turk, 2007; Winter, 2007; World Tourism
Organization, 2004). As tourism grows internationally there is further interest in creating overall well-being for the host and visitor through "economic prosperity, environmental stewardship, and quality of life" (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999, p. 137).
After the Thailand National Ecotourism Policy, designed to promote positive development (Pipithvanichtham, 1997) was implemented, the Asian Financial Crisis occurred in 1997 causing Thailand to develop the Amazing Thailand Campaign to 37 promote greater tourism to offset foreign exchange losses by setting a target of 17 million tourists over a two year period (Kontogeorgopoulos, 1999). Now, after the tsunami there is an increased need for sustainable tourism development. It seems an appropriate time to look at options to meet this goal. Unfortunately, confusion surrounding the implementation of specific tourism policies is making it difficult to adhere to concepts of sustainable tourism development (Bell et al., 2005; Paz, 2005; Rice & Haynes, 2005).
A very real consideration for this study is the fact that it took place in Hat
Nopparat Thara - Mu Koh Phi Phi National Marine Park. As tourism grows (including ecotourism) national parks will continue to be the focal point for many visitors.
Marine national parks system provides both direct and indirect benefits to the
Thai's society. These protected areas contain diverse and important ecosystems
and biological resources. Such habitat as mangrove forests, coral reefs, sea grass
beds, soft sediment communities and beaches not only provide home for many
important marine species but also form the basis for several subsistence benefits
to the local people and contribute to the valuable tourism industry, research and
education. (Sethapun, 2000, p. 7)
Environmental conservation is a significant reason for the creation of parks
(Rollins, Dearden, & Eagles, forthcoming). Ecotourism can play a major role in the development and use of parks. As Sethapun (2000) and Rollins, Dearden, & Eagles
(forthcoming) have pointed out, national parks are designed to conserve the environment, educate the user, and sustain a natural resource. Ecotourism is designed to conserve, educate, and sustain, making the two, national parks and ecotourism, go hand in hand when looking at policy for sustainable tourism development. 38
To start developing sustainable tourism it is helpful to begin where tourism policy already exists, in Thailand's national parks. Considering in Thailand "the management objectives of the national parks are to protect and conserve all resources within the parks' boundaries, including natural, cultural and historical resources, for public recreation and education" (Pipithvanichtham, 1997, p. 3) national parks are prime candidates for increased sustainable development. The Phra Nang Peninsula in Krabi Province, an area affected by the tsunami, falls within Hat Nopparat Thara-Mu Kho Phi Phi National
Marine Park. All of the rock climbing on the peninsula falls within the national park boundaries (Suebhait, 2002). Given the lack of research done on rock climbing in
Thailand this is an opportunity to see if organized climbing supports the management objectives of Thai national parks.
Implementation of tourism policy.
The implementation of tourism policy in southern Thailand has been structured in terms of Building Back Better (Bell et al., 2005; Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006;
United Nations Development Programme, 2005,, 2006). The UN in Thailand, the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Royal Thai Government, and various
NGO's and LNGO's have identified four key areas that Building Back Better will recognize in response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami:
1. Community-based Livelihood Recovery
2. Environmental Rehabilitation
3. Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation
4. Coordination of International Assistance (Coate, Handmer, & Choong,
2006; United Nations Development Programme, 2005). In 2005, Building Back Better had been noted on the Phi Phi Islands and on
Patong Beach in Thailand. These two cases have been fraught with uncertainty because the delicate balance of local reaction to the disaster and increased government involvement has led to uncertainty about how to continue the rebuilding process as desperation among residents in those areas mounted (Bell et al., 2005).
Building Back Better is the overarching policy that is being implemented in southern Thailand as a form of disaster recovery, but also as a way to build a future for communities that rely on the tourism industry to support them (Coate, Handmer, &
Choong, 2006). It may be useful to use the ongoing Thailand National Ecotourism Policy in conjunction with Building Back Better in recognizing that these communities are linked together and that the success of one community is directly related to another
(Coate, Handmer, & Choong, 2006; United Nations Development Programme, 2005).
There is no data to indicate that research has been performed to evaluate rock climbing business owners in Krabi Province and their ability to "build back better".
Summary of Literature Review
Tourism development followed a path beginning with mass tourism as it has been shown to create several benefits including boosting the economy, creating employment, attracting foreign investment and creating infrastructure that can benefit both visitor and host. However a number of negative impacts as a result of mass tourism have evolved as mass tourism generally has little relationship with the natural environment in which it is set and therefore leads to an unbalanced system where elements of the community
(environment and human) that do not seemingly hold direct economic value for tourism are ignored. An acknowledgment of the impacts of the mass tourism market has lead to 40 new ways of understanding that tourism can be sustainable. Alternative forms of tourism can help alleviate some of the impacts mass tourism causes by using authentic natural and cultural settings to support small numbers of tourists.
Several forms of alternative tourism exist and have been explored in this study including:
• Adventure tourism
• Nature based tourism
• Ecotourism
This study is most interested in ecotourism. Ecotourism through an examination of the literature can be defined as having an educational component, being conservation supporting, and it should be sustainable. Ecotourism by definition has the ability to mitigate several of the impacts caused by mass tourism.
The tour guide is an extremely effective way to convey messages of ecotourism.
The literature shows that the communicative, interactionary, motivator and environmental interpreter roles of the tour guide support the educational and sustainable components of ecotourism. If the tour guide does not perform these four roles, it is difficult to define the eco-experience for the visitor.
Significant tourism growth has occurred in developing countries because of the benefits mentioned, however many tourism destinations within developing countries began to rely on tourism above and beyond other economic resources. As a result these destinations must find sustainable tourism alternatives or they risk economic decline and social despair if disaster strikes and the natural environment is no longer able to support the tourist capacity. 41
Thailand is a good example of a country that has a heavy reliance on tourism. In
2004 the South Asian Tsunami threatened to cripple a world-class tourism destination. As communities struggled to pick up the pieces it was noted that returning to previous tourism practices had the potential to leave communities in desperation once again. The chosen study area for this research is the Hat Nopparat Thara - Mu Koh Phi Phi National
Park on the Phra Nang Peninsula in Krabi Province, Thailand. Krabi Province contributes a significant amount to Thailand's economy and was one of the areas in Thailand that was directly affected by the tsunami. This study is needed to determine if in fact rock climbing on the Phra Nang Peninsula can be considered ecotourism.
To determine if the possibility exists for rock climbing to support sustainable tourism development on the Phra Nang Peninsula it is important to understand how tourism policy is implemented and what usefulness it has for Phra Nang Peninsula.
In 1997 Thailand faced the Asian Financial Crisis and several Asian countries watched their economies plummet, Thailand included. In response, the "Amazing
Thailand" campaign was developed to promote greater tourism to offset foreign exchange losses by setting a target of 17 million tourists over a two year period. At the same time
Thailand had developed another new policy, the Thailand National Ecotourism Policy, designed to promote positive development and was implemented to support Thailand's
National Parks. The management objectives of the national parks are to conserve and protect, in the interests of education and recreation, all natural, cultural, and historical resources within the parks' boundaries. With the advent of the "Amazing Thailand" campaign, the management objectives of the national parks were threatened. 42
When 2004 brought the tsunami, any issues already faced by the communities on the Phra Nang Peninsula from increased tourism were compounded. Krabi Province struggled with loss of life and infrastructure and the Phra Nang Peninsula, although not devastated, felt the decline in tourist numbers as businesses rents increased. With
Thailand struggling to rebuild its tourism industry, and quickly, a new tourism policy has cropped up, "Building Back Better ". "Building Back Better " in response to the tsunami addresses the issues of community based livelihood, environmental rehabilitation, disaster preparedness and coordination of international assistance. If rock climbing can be considered ecotourism then this policy in conjunction with the national park policies may be the key to helping further develop sustainable tourism on the Phra Nang Peninsula. 43
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate the climbing experience in order to gain perspective on how it relates to ecotourism. In order to determine this, three questions have been asked:
1. Can rock climbing in Krabi Province be recognized as ecotourism to
support Thailand's sustainable tourism development in a post-tsunami
environment?
2. How do various interest groups in Krabi perceive the role of the rock
climbing industry as ecotourism?
3. What factors limit rock climbing businesses in the growth of ecotourism
on the Phra Nang Peninsula?
This chapter gives an in depth description of the study site, and the survey methods including the questionnaire design. The sampling strategy is discussed and describes the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen sampling strategy over other alternatives. Data entry and analysis is briefly outlined and challenges and limitations of the research are clearly discussed. I have chosen to write this section in first person because I was a part of the research process. I performed all of the research face to face with every respondent. I have personal experience with all of the data collected and with the collection methods outlined later in the chapter. The research site of the Phra Nang
Peninsula is described including reasons for the exclusion of Kho Phi Phi. Secondly I will introduce the two methods used to collect data and present advantages and disadvantages of the two methods including my decision for choosing the use of a questionnaire and 44 semi structured interviews above other available methods. Theoretical support for each section of the questionnaire is provided. Finally, the sampling strategy including challenges and limitations are discussed.
Study Site
The study site is on the Phra Nang Peninsula in Krabi Province, Thailand.
JLJ j^y~~A
-' PhroMong Beach
t N
Figure 4 (Suebhait, 2002, p. 22).
It is located within the boundaries of the Hat Nopparat - Mu Kho Phi Phi National
Marine Park. Although the peninsula is in the park it is only the cliffs and the marine environment that fall within park jurisdiction, not the flat land in between. The peninsula proper is divided into four major areas, three of them containing tourist lodging. The four areas that are the focus of this research area (see Figure 5): 45
Figure 5. Map of the Phra Nang Peninsula (Schmitz & Changrua, 2007, pp. 2-
3)
1. Railay East
2. Railay West
3. Phra Nang Beach
4. Tonsai Bay (Ton Sai)
The areas on the Phra Nang Peninsula are accessible by walking within approximately five to ten minutes of each other. Railay East and West form the handle of the peninsula and have private houses; Railay Beach Club, and the Rayavadee Premier
Resort running down the middle between the two sides. Phra Nang Beach is at the south end of the peninsula and Tonsai Bay is located on the northwest end of the peninsula.
Three of the four areas are comprised of resort accommodation, shops, bars, restaurants, and tourism outfits. Phra Nang Beach is the only undeveloped beach. Although the 46
Rayavadee Premier Resort backs onto the beach there are no other buildings or permanent services offered, however the Princess Cave (Phranang Cave), a culturally significant site, does exist on the beach where many Thai go to worship. The cave is a sacred place that in turn keeps development to a minimum on the beach surrounding it.
Tonsai Bay predominantly caters to foreigners who are looking for inexpensive accommodation. This beach is the prime climbers' destination because it has easy access to some of the most aesthetic and difficult climbs on the peninsula. Tonsai Bay is cut off from the rest of the peninsula by the jungle. In order for people to travel from any other part of the peninsula to Tonsai they have three choices: wait for low tide and walk around the jungle, take one of two routes through the jungle, both being steep, muddy and very humid, or hire a boat.
West Railay acts as the hub of the peninsula. It has most of the more expensive and well kept resorts, shops, bars, and tourist activities. Most of the activity surrounds the long walk of shops growing from the jungle all the way down to the beach. West Railay also has the Railay Beach Club with permanent homes owned mostly by part time ex-pats of various origins. West Railay beach also holds the distinction of being one of two beaches that are swimmer friendly, the other being Phra Nang Beach. East Railay and
Tonsai Bay both have beaches, however under the water they are rocky, have coral and are somewhat unpleasant for swimming.
For the purposes of the research, I spent time at all climbing areas and some time on West Railay (there is no climbing there) performing interviews with climbing business owners and other tourism operators and service providers. Phra Nang Beach had fewer climbers due to a small concentration of routes. Other parts of the Peninsula such as Tonsai Bay and Railay East host more climbers on a regular basis. Tonsai Bay is home to many of the climbers staying for long periods, where Railay East had more of a tourism atmosphere and tended to attract people who were looking for various adventure activities including climbing. Railay East is where a majority of the questionnaires were administered.
Survey Methods
Two methods were used to collect data, and for both methods, I performed data collection face to face. This approach was used to increase response rate, and was useful in that I was present to gain a better understanding of views and opinions brought up during participation. I have more personal experience gained from performing the research and a deeper understanding of the data collected. On the other hand a face to face approach could promote respondents respond to questions in a biased manner, as they might have told me what they think I wanted to hear. Also there may have been extra pressure to finish within a timeline if they felt I was waiting for them to finish.
1. The first method involved one on one semi-structured interviews. I
conducted seven interviews with rock climbing operators, retail operators,
guesthouse, resort, restaurant, and bar owners on Phra Nang Peninsula. I
used an iPod with a voice recorder and took notes during the interviews.
These interviews focused on three areas (1) characteristics of the climbing
visitor; (2) roles of the climbing guide and; (3) features of the peninsula
that attract climbing visitors (see appendix 2).
2. The second method involved the use of a. questionnaire that was given to
111 rock climbers on the Phra Nang Peninsula. The data collected 48
through the survey reflects how these people view ecotourism, where or if
rock climbing fits into their perceptions, and the role of the climbing
guide (see appendix 1).
The decision to use a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to collect data stemmed from the nature of the two different groups of people to be interviewed. To get information from climbers it seemed important to get it as quickly as possible. Not only are many of these people on vacation but they are also moving around from one site to another regularly. The questionnaire is a confidential survey tool that allows for open and closed questions eliciting the maximum amount of information in the shortest amount of time. Because the climbing areas usually hosted several climbers at one time it was easy to walk around people asking them to participate and allowed me to get several questionnaires out at one time and then collect them at the same time.
When deciding to use semi-structured interviews to collect data from climbing operators I was aware of two things: first I knew these people had likely been approached to speak to researchers regarding the Indian Ocean Tsunami and the fallout for Thailand especially along the Andaman coast. I presumed (and correctly in some cases) that some of these operators were becoming frustrated by short interactions with researchers seemingly providing no benefit to them in the end. Secondly, I felt developing a relationship with potential informants would be beneficial for them and for me. If I spent the time to get to know these individuals and to understand their views I would more than likely have a richer discussion thus providing me with a deeper understanding of the issues facing the Phra Nang Peninsula. Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire was designed to examine visitors using climbing schools and their experiences. The questionnaire is found in Appendix 1. It was written and formatted according to Salant and Dillman's (1994) "How to Conduct Your Own Survey". This method supports a booklet style design with specific guidelines regarding format that are proven to improve response rates and quality.
This questionnaire sought to learn more about climbing tourist experiences on the
Phra Nang Peninsula. The survey is composed of 19 questions divided into 10 sections, and was designed to collect data on activity participation, satisfaction of their climbing experience including guide satisfaction, views on future development of the Phra Nang
Peninsula, trip characteristics, ecotourism values, and demographics. I used open and closed format questions to elicit responses., including using a 5-point Likert Scale that could be administered quickly and simply with reliable results (Swarbrooke, 2005) for questions 2, 3, 8,10, and 11; five questions particularly interested in measuring participant satisfaction. Open format questions allowed a variety of responses without limiting participants. All respondents were encouraged to add any additional comments at the completion of the questionnaire.
A pre-test of twenty-five questionnaires issued at the study site was used to determine ease of use, relevance of content, and to ensure that overall length did not intimidate potential respondents. Findings from the pre-test resulted in limited restructuring and added content to make the questionnaire more user friendly. 50
Section 1: Location Used for Rock Climbing (Ql)
This first section is designed to determine where people are climbing and which areas see the most traffic. This section helps to identify the highest traffic areas for climbers on the Phra Nang Peninsula. This is a good introduction to the questionnaire and engages the participant immediately.
Section 2: Evaluation of Rock Climbing Experience (Q2, Q3)
This second section is a set of attitude statements using the five point Likert Scale in which participants are asked about their overall experience regarding their climbing group and other aspects affecting their climbing experience. These two questions acted as an introduction to question eight. Question three has sections directly related to question eight such as rating the climbing group, the climbing guide (if used), behavior of other climbing groups, safety of the route, and information about climbing in Krabi. Section two was designed to determine participants' satisfaction of their tourist experience on the peninsula as it relates to their time climbing and identifies a relationship between answers given in this section and those in section five (question eight).
Section 3: Background in Climbing (Q4, Q5, Q6)
The third section, although fairly simple, was designed using van der Meer's
(2007) Koh Lak research in which the researcher uses a list of activities relevant to the area. In this case the list contains climbing related activities that can be found on the Phra
Nang Peninsula. The purpose was to compare the experience level of the participants to what level they felt they were participating. The question serves as a way to engage participants by adding some of their own experience to the survey. This section helped to determine the kinds of climbing tourists that are attracted to the area. Ultimately this 51 information will help to identify climbing tourist trends and where tourism strategies can be targeted for increased sustainability.
Section 4: Activities Participated in Besides Climbing (Q7)
This fourth section of the survey investigates the other ecotourism activities respondents want to, or have, participated in while on the peninsula. This list is a compilation of prominent activities found along coastal Thailand that have been identified by van der Meer (2007). The purpose of this question is to determine participation by climbing tourists in other key activities such as snorkeling or hiking. This question was designed to be easy to understand and fill out.
Section 5: Perceptions (Satisfaction) with Climbing Guides (Q8)
This section was designed around notions of how the guide, in this case the climbing guide, is defined in their role by four major components outlined by Cohen
(1985): the instrumental, social, interactionary, and communicative. It is further elucidated by Weiler (1993) who adds two new components that she emphasizes are equally as important: the motivator and the environmental interpreter. This section, through participant response, identifies what role the climbing guides' play in advocating ecotourism principles during lessons. The importance of understanding the role of the guide to determine satisfaction levels of clients is discussed by Randall & Rollins (2004), where they identify the importance of the six components as noted by Cohen (1985) and
Weiler (1993) and consequently the source for building question eight.
Section 6: Traveling Style: Ecotourism scale (Q10)
Section six represents the importance respondents put on ecotourism values when traveling. Question 10 and 11 were more complex and abstract so were placed later in the 52 questionnaire. Question ten was divided into three dimensions of ecotourism: nature, education, and sustainability. An example is shown in table 4.
Table 4 Items from the questionnaire (see Appendix 1) listed in van der Meer's Three Components of Ecotourism Items from the Questionnaire used to van der Meer's (2007) Three components Measure Ecotourism Components
1. Based in nature Visit the natural scenery (Q10)
2. Learning component To learn local customs and cultures (Q10) Promote learning about the natural environment (Ql 1)
3. It is sustainable To interact with the local people (Q10) Maximize local involvement in tourism planning (Ql 1)
Questions that relate to a corresponding principle were used to build the question.
For example Schelhas et al. (2002) suggests that ecotourism minded travelers intend to see plants/and animals in their natural environment, a reflection of the nature-based component of ecotourism. Stem et al. (2003), in reference to education, reinforces that part of the travelers itinerary is to raise environmental awareness of others. In reflecting components of sustainable management, Carrier & Macleod (2005) indicate that travelers should use site-sensitive accommodation while Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2004) and
West & Carrier (2004) suggest that travelers should interact with locals in a culturally sensitive manner. Supporting shops and services owned by local people is an act echoed by Foucat (2002) while, in relation, Kontogeorgopoulos (2005) expresses the need to support businesses that employ local people. This section is a good indicator of how 53 ecotourism minded respondents are and if they are aware of principles of ecotourism when they travel. This section, unlike section five, asks participants to scrutinize their own practices and values.
Section 7: Views on Tourism Development (Qll)
Question 11 asks respondents how they feel tourism development should continue on the Phra Nang Peninsula and identifies if their views reflect the three components of ecotourism: nature based, sustainability, and education (van der Meer, 2007). Each of the segments of question 11 falls within two of the components: education, and sustainability. An example is shown in table 4. Question 11 was built from a compilation of studies focused on sustainable tourism development by Bell et al. (2005), Brundtland
(1987), Coate, Handmer, & Choong (2006), Gossling (2003), Greenhough, Jazeel, &
Massey (2005), Kontogeorgopoulos (2005), Mowforth & Munt (2003), Olsen (2005), Paz
(2005), Rice & Haynes (2005), and Smillie (2006).
Section 8: Other Comments about Post Tsunami Rebuilding (Qll)
Section eight was designed as an open ended question that was primarily a way for respondents to make specific views known about the future of tourism development.
Section eight served as a way for participants to articulate specific views about the future of tourism development on the Phra Nang Peninsula that they may not have otherwise had the opportunity to do in section seven.
Section 9: Visitor Characteristics (Ql3, Q14, Q15, Q16, Q17)
This section is a good cool down from the previously intense questions and is easy to fill out asking only specific information from the participant that requires little thought. Though simple in nature, section nine asks such specifics as gender, age, level of 54 education, number of previous visits to Thailand, and country of origin. This information will help to identify what demographic of people are coming to the Phra Nang Peninsula to climb, and if they are return visitors. This information can be used in the future to develop specific marketing to target potential visitors.
Section 10: Description of Visit (Q18, Q19)
Section ten indicates how long people are staying and how much money they intend to spend on average per visit. Further research in this area can help to identify trends in visitor spending that can be used by tourism businesses on the peninsula to create economic plans that target sustainability ensuring survival of the community at large.
Sampling Strategy
Random sampling was chosen for this research as it would be representative of the wider population under study (L. Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000), where each selection would be independent of the next (p. 100). In conducting a random sample I would, over a 45 day period, rotate between the five climbing sites based on tides (as most climbing sites were within the tidal zone). This process began at 10:30am every morning when most respondents had already climbed and mould most likely be resting therefore increasing the number of potential respondents at a given time. Once at the site
I would approach every climber as a potential respondent. This approximates a random selection in that sites were randomly selected each day, and at each site most every climber was selected. Very few climbers refused to participate (less than 10% estimated refusals). 55
To find participants for the qualitative interviews I traveled to the four areas of the study indicated at the beginning of this section. Because the population of climbing operators was limited, I performed interviews with seven operators who would agree to speak to me. During that time I had two refusals and at least two were unavailable during the research period. Generally I would approach a climbing school and begin to develop a relationship with the staff and owners. Often these people would pass this information on to other operators so that when I approached another climbing school they already knew who I was and what I was doing. More often than not they would be more than happy to speak to me. I was regularly invited on trips with these schools and they readily informed their clients about my research with the hopes of increasing my respondent numbers for the questionnaire.
To find rock climbers for the questionnaire I approached climbing operators and found out when and where they would be holding their climbing courses for the day.
Most operators use the same locations as one and other. By doing this I ensured that I received as many respondents as would agree to fill out a questionnaire. I did however have four individual refusals and one tour group that never returned their questionnaires.
Often times, the same people would be using the same climbing operator multiple times thus reducing respondent numbers. At Tonsai Bay there seemed to be a limited number of new climbers, as most of the respondents were staying for long periods of time.
Questionnaires and interviews were done in person so that the research context could be explained to each potential participant. Questionnaires were immediately collected at their completion to increase response rate. Climbers were defined as anyone climbing whether they were taking a course or climbing independently. Climbing operators were defined as an employee or owner of a climbing school that was able answer on behalf of the company.
Questionnaires and interviews were performed over an eight week period during
April, May, and June 2007. The questionnaire was administered at Tonsai Bay, the 1, 2, 3
Wall, the Diamond Cave area, and various restaurants all on Railay East, and on Phra
Nang Beach. The interviews were performed at various climbing schools and restaurants at Tonsai Bay, West Railay, East Railay, Phra Nang Beach, and a sail boat. All areas of the peninsula were visited on a daily basis with the exception of Tonsai Bay. Due to the limited amount of respondents at Tonsai Bay I would visit four times per week as opposed to the three other locations that I visited every day. I would begin my circuit at
10 a.m. at either 1, 2, 3 Wall or Diamond Cave, both on East Railay, depending on the tide. The circuit then continued on to Phra Nang Beach and then over to West Railay. If
Tonsai was to be visited it would be last to allow those climbers to come back to the main beach area where it was much more efficient to approach potential participants. Each participant in a climbing group was approached regardless of gender, age or ethnicity.
The questionnaire was in English and the respondents were given 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire before it was retrieved. The total number of responses was 111 with three people refusing to fill it out and approximately 20 people never returning the questionnaire.
The interviews were conducted in person and recorded using an iPod with a voice recorder. All of the climbing school operators that were available were contacted for an interview. The participant was given a free and informed consent in Thai: although they all spoke English they did not necessarily read it. Interviews were approximately 30 57 minutes, some lasting slightly longer if the participant had more to say, and some were shorter. One climbing operator opted out of the interview.
Data Entry and Analysis
Data and analysis for questionnaire results was entered using SPSS software.
Challenges and Limitations
There were challenges and limitations of the survey design and sampling strategy.
The most significant was the time of year the research was conducted. Approximately four weeks into the process the monsoon season began thus bringing about the low tourist season and a decline in the number of people visiting the Phra Nang Peninsula. Although climbing lessons continued at most of the schools the number of people taking lessons was drastically reduced as was the number of new clients, many people were repeat clients and had already participated in the questionnaire. Increasingly during this time the amount of output and energy spent trying to find new respondents was far greater than the payoff.
Although the low season had arrived, climbing school owners and some of their employees remained on the peninsula and kept their schools open as climbing lessons continued. Owners and employees were regularly making trips to the bigger towns such as Ao Nang making it very difficult to track them down for interviews. Unless a mobile phone number could be secured the only way to contact some of the operators was to go looking for them, often depending on second hand information as to their whereabouts.
The entire eight week period was used to find these different business owners and record their interviews making this an extremely time-consuming endeavor. 58
Time was a limited resource for this project with approximately eight weeks to perform the interviews and administer the questionnaires. Because the number of respondents for the questionnaires was unknown it seemed wasteful to print the questionnaires ahead of time and transport them to Thailand, it made more sense to print them in Thailand based on observations of potential participants. This line of thinking proved to be somewhat unproductive, resulting in the loss of two days of research while printing and photocopying shops were tracked down in two different towns. Due to the irregular format of the questionnaire it was difficult to find a business with printers that could print on the size of paper needed, especially one willing to do it for a reasonable price.
Validity and Reliability
Regarding the questionnaire, validity is measured in two ways:
1. Face Validity measures "that superficially, the test appears - at face value
- to test what it is designed to test" (L. Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000,
p. 132). Face validity was estimated by having the researcher and advisor
review the questionnaire. Secondly, it was determined through the pilot
study in which 25 respondents were interviewed to determine if they
understood the questionnaire.
2. Convergent validity "implies that different methods for researching the
same construct should give a relatively high intercorrelation" (L. Cohen,
Manion, & Morrison, 2000, p. 110). In the questionnaire this was possible
in three places as follows: 59
a) Q2 measures overall satisfaction with climbing. Also, Q3 (sum of
responses) also measures satisfaction with the climbing experience.
Correlation of these two measures produced an R value of 0.57(p=.000),
thus demonstrating convergent validity for this concept.
b) Q3E measures satisfaction with the guide, as does the sum of Q8
responses. These two measures are correlated such that the R value is
0.65 (p=.000), demonstrating convergent validity for this measure.
c) Q10 and Ql 1 both measure attitudes to ecotourism. Correlation for these
measure produced an R value of 0.47 (p=.000), again demonstrating
convergent validity (but somewhat weaker than the above).
Convergent validity was not perfect in each of these examples as this would be indicated with an R value of 1. In the psychometric literature, average values for convergent validity are reported to be 0.57 (Peter & Churchill, 1986), so all three measures of convergent validity outlined above fall close to this norm.
Validity regarding the qualitative interviews was increased by allowing the respondents to clarify to the researcher any comments they felt were incorrectly interpreted during the interview. Furthermore the respondents were given the opportunity to read, discuss, and change any written interpretations of their information by the researcher.
Reliability, a measure of precision or accuracy (McGrew & Munroe, 1993), can be measured with multi item scales, as used in places in the questionnaire. SPSS uses a reliability measure referred to as "Cronbach's Alpha". This statistic assigns a reliability value between 0 and 1 for a scale. Psychometric studies summarized by Peter &
Churchill (1986) report average reliability scores of .7.
In this study the following reliability values approximate this norm:
• Scale from Q3 (satisfaction with climbing experience): reliability = 0.71
• Scale from Q8 (satisfaction with climbing guide): reliability = 0.96
• Scale from Q10 (ecotourism travel scale): reliability = 0.89
• Scale from Ql 1 (ecotourism development scale): reliability = 0.92 61
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to consider climbing experience and to put that experience in perspective of an ecotourism viewpoint. Two methods have been used to collect data:
1. A questionnaire designed learn more about climbing tourist experiences
on the Phra Nang Peninsula and;
2. One on one semi structured interviews designed to understand how
various interest groups on the Phra Nang Peninsula perceive the role of the
rock climbing industry in relation to ecotourism.
The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings from the questionnaires and interviews. This chapter has been broken down into seven sections including climber characteristics, assessment of climbing experience, assessment of climbing guide, perceptions of ecotourism, and semi-structured interviews with other stakeholders.
Finally a summary of the chapter is presented.
Climber Characteristics
In this section five tables representing climber characteristics are discussed. Table
5 represents question one from the questionnaire and reports on locations used for rock climbing based on responses from questionnaire participants. Table 6 represents question four: years climbing, question five: style of climbing and question six of the questionnaire: skill level. Table 7 interprets the most popular activities participated in by respondents other than climbing followed by a discussion. Table 8 measures and discusses visitor characteristics of the study population including gender, age, education, 62 previous visits to Thailand, and country of origin. Finally table 9 is a description of participant visits and is broken down into two parts: days spent in Krabi, and money spent in Krabi (measured in USD), followed by a discussion. A summary of the findings from this section is presented.
Table 5 Location Used for Rock Climbing (Ql) Location Response (%)
Rai Lay East 96 Rai Lay West 19 Phra Nang Beach 22 Tonsai Bay 22 Phi Phi Don 4 Phi Phi Ley 3 Other 5 Respondents (n = 111)
Analysis of table 5 indicates that a majority of respondents have visited Railay
East as a venue for climbing. This number reflects the high use of Railay East as a teaching site for all of the climbing operators on the Phra Nang Peninsula. Almost all of the respondents interviewed were contacted at either 1,2,3 Wall or at the Diamond Cave wall on Railay East. A limited number of climbers had visited Railay West. This can be attributed to the lack of climbing found in that area. Phra Nang Beach and Tonsai Bay had received an equal amount of climbers. Phi Phi Don and Phi Phi Ley have been reflected in this table as the least visited sites. The climbing on these islands tends to be harder to access and has seen little in the way of re-bolting to enhance climbers' safety over the past years. Other places that climbers may have gone could be outlying islands 63 such as Koh Poda or Ao Nang Tower which are not in any of the above mentioned locations.
Table 6 Background in Climbing (Q4, Q5, Q6) Characteristic Response (%)
Years Climbing (Q4) 1 or less years 66 2-5 years 25 More than 5 years 9
Style of Climbing (Q5) Bouldering 46 Traditional Climbing 48 Mountaineering 9 Ice Climbing 12 Sport Climbing 97 Deep Water Soloing 6 Other 5
Skill Level (Q6) Novice 55 Intermediate 39 Advanced 5 Expert 2 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 6 establishes the climbing background of the respondents. A majority of the respondents have climbed for one or less years and were probably doing it for their first time in Thailand as part of a guided trip. Significantly fewer respondents had climbed for over five years. 64
The preferred style of climbing was sport climbing (97%). Of interest was the low percentage of participants who had participated in deep water soloing, an increasingly popular segment of the sport that is taking off in Thailand. One school in particular offers deep water soloing trips. These results could be a result of the research being conducted during low tourist season.
A majority of respondents (55%) consider themselves novice climbers, followed closely by 39% considering themselves intermediate climbers.
Table 7 Activities Participated in Besides Climbing (Q7) Activity Response (%) Beach Suntanning 75 Swimming 83 Snorkelling 74 Scuba 37 Boating 35 Hiking/ Walking 63 Birdwatching 4 Other Nature Study 5 Elephant Trekking 33 Camping 9 River Rafting 24 Shopping 53 Exploring Town 57 Other 11 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 7 finds that the top three activities respondents participate in other than climbing while visiting the Phra Nang Peninsula are swimming (82.7%), beach sun tanning (74.8%), and snorkeling (73.9%). 65
Table 8 Visitor Characteristics (Q13, Q14, Q15, Q16, Q17) Visitor Characteristics Response (%)
Gender (Q13) Male 50 Female 50 Missing 1
Age(Q14) 21 years and under 28 22-25 years 40 26 - 30 years 18 31-35 years 6 Over 35 years 8 Missing 2
Education (Q15) Primary school 0 High school 18 Trade school 8 College or university 74 Missing 1
Previous visits to Thailand (Q16) 1 - 5 visits 90 6- 10 visits 7 More than 10 3 Missing 3
Country of origin (Q17) Canada and United States 41 United Kingdom 15 Other Europe 24 New Zealand and Australia 9 Singapore 6 Thailand 1 Other Asia 8 Other 2 Missing 1 Respondents (n = 111) 66
Table 8 represents the analysis of visitor characteristics. Of significance is the finding that there is an even 50/50 split between female and male participants. 57.9% of respondents were between the ages of 22 and 30. Almost three quarters (73.6%) of respondents have attended college or university. Nearly 90% of participants are on one of their first five trips to Thailand and a majority of participants (88.9%) are predominantly from North America and Europe.
Table 9 Description of Visit (Q18, Q19) Characteristic Response (%)
DaysinKrabi(Q18) 4 day or less 31 5-7 days 34 8 -14 days 11 15-21 days 7 22 - 28 days 5 More than 28 days 13 Missing 3
Money spent in Krabi area (USD) (Q19) $100 or less 18 $101 - $200 28 $201 - $300 18 $301 - $400 8 $401 - $500 8 More than 500 19 Missing 2 Respondents (n = 111) 67
Table 9 shows that a majority of respondents (34.2%) stay between five and seven days while marginally less (30.5%) stayed four days or less.
During their stay on the peninsula the majority of respondents (28.3%) of are spending approximately $101-$200 USD. However 19.1% of respondents estimate they spent more than $500 USD during their stay. This may be a reflection of length of stay in some cases, however it more likely represents choice of accommodation and activities participated in.
A summarization of this section shows that Railay East has the highest number of rock climbing users. Most participants have climbed for one year or less which is reflective of the novice skill level of the majority of participants. Almost 100% of respondents participated in sport climbing with many preferring swimming as an alternate activity to climbing.
A majority of participants are young (22-30 years old) and well educated, and are most likely on a post-college/university trip. Almost 90% of participants are from North
America or Europe with a very small Asian sample. This reflects the popularity of climbing in their home countries.
Assessment of Climbing Experience
This section evaluates the climbing experience of respondents who participated in this study on the Phra Nang Peninsula. Table 10 represents analysis of question two and three from the questionnaire followed by a brief discussion of findings. Table 11 compares rock climbing satisfaction (Q2, Q3) by years of climbing experience (Q4) followed by a discussion of findings. Table 12 compares rock climbing satisfaction (Q2, 68
Q3) by climbers' skill level (Q6) and is discussed briefly. This section ends with a summary of the findings.
Table 10 Evaluation of Rock Climbing Experience (Q2, Q3) Response (%) Somewhat Not Somewhat Very Standard Missing Very Bad Bad Sure Good Good Mean Deviation (%) Aspect of Experience 12 3 4 5
Your climbing group 0 0 7 19 75 5 I 5 Challenging routes 0 0 6 26 68 5 0 Behaviour of other climbing groups 0 0 10 30 60 5 0 Your climbing guide, if used 2 1 11 19 67 4 16 Quality of rock 0 2 10 28 60 4 2 Safety of route 2 1 8 36 53 4 2 Weather conditions 1 13 6 37 43 4 0 Information about climbing in Krabi 1 9 27 33 30 4 1 Overall experience (Q2) 0 2 5 15 78 4 0 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 10 looks at aspects of respondents climbing experience. The majority of respondents overall rock climbing experience was "very good". In fact a majority of participants' responses in all categories of table 6 fell into the category of "very good" except in one case, "information about climbing", in which slightly more respondents marked "somewhat good". Although plenty of climbing operators exist on the Phra Nang
Peninsula, not all of them provide up to date guide books if any at all, or perhaps their
English, or the respondents English, was not good enough to convey certain details of climbing information that respondents were looking for. 69
Table 11 Comparing Rock Climbing Satisfaction (Q2, Q3) & Years of Experience (Q4) Mean Response More Than 1 Year 1 Year t Value Significance Source of Satisfaction n = 73 n = 38 (probability)
Overall (Q2) 4.38 4.18 1.63 0.025 Quality of rock 4.34 4.61 1.49 0.035 Challenging routes 4.52 4.79 2.61 0.025 Weather conditions 4.05 4.16 0.49 0.312 Your climbing group 4.64 4.76 1.02 0.156 Your climbing guide, if used 4.42 4.63 0.97 0.183 Behaviour of other climbing groups 4.55 4.42 0.94 0.174 Safety of route 4.41 4.31 0.63 0.267 Information about climbing in Krabi 3.63 4.19 2.87 0.002 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 11 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year.
When comparing the sample in this way it is important to conduct a statistical test to determine if any apparent differences are statistically significant (McGrew & Munroe,
1993; Ramsey & Shafer, 1997). Any apparent difference can be attributed to two possible explanations:
1. These samples correctly estimate the population of all climbers to the
area, and therefore there is a real difference between the two groups in the
population. 2. The samples, because of a possible "random sampling error", suggest
there is a difference within the population when in fact there is not. For
example this could be an atypical sample.
Students t-test allows for a probability estimate of the second interpretation . By convention if this probability is 0.05 or smaller then the sampling error interpretation can be ruled out, and the apparent difference can be said to be statistically significant
Alternatively if the t-test is greater than 0.05, then the chance of random sampling effects is thought to be too high to be ruled out. Under this scenario we would report no significant difference between sample means (McGrew & Munroe, 1993; Ramsey &
Shafer, 1997).
In table 11 mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that four comparisons are statistically significant:
• Overall satisfaction - climbers with one year experience or less were
more satisfied with their overall experience than climbers with more
than one year of climbing experience.
• Quality of rock - climbers with greater than one year of climbing
experience were more satisfied with the quality of rock than the group
with one year or less experience.
• Challenging routes - climbers with more than one year experience were
more satisfied with the challenging routes than those with one year or
less of experience. 71
• Information about climbing in Krabi - climbers with greater than one
year climbing experience were more satisfied with information about
climbing in Krabi than those with one year or less experience.
Table 12 Comparing Rock Climbing Satisfaction (Q2, Q3) by Skill Level (Q6) Mean Response Novice Experienced t Value Significance Source of Satisfaction n = 61 n = 50 (probability)
Overall (Q2) 4.49 4.10 3.496 0.000 Quality of rock 4.30 4.67 2.732 0.002 Challenging routes 4.51 4.74 2.100 0.010 Weather conditions 4.16 4.00 0.825 0.206 Your climbing group 4.67 4.69 0.143 0.444 Your climbing guide, if used 4.47 4.47 0.005 0.498 Behaviour of other climbing groups 4.51 4.50 0.064 0.475 Safety of route 4.36 4.40 0.220 0.413 Information about climbing in Krabi 3.64 4.04 2.172 0.008 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 12 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: novice climbers and experienced climbers.
In table 12, mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that four comparisons are statistically significant:
• Overall satisfaction - similar to table 10, novice climbers were more
satisfied with their overall experience than experienced climbers. 72
• Quality of rock - reflecting similar results to table 10, experienced
climbers satisfaction with the quality of rock is higher than novice
climbers.
• Challenging routes - experienced climbers were more satisfied with the
challenging routes than novice climbers.
• Information about climbing in Krabi - experienced climbers were more
satisfied with information about climbing in Krabi than novice climbers.
I compared the climbing experience of four sub-samples, categorized into two groups: (1) climbers with one year or less of experience and novice climbers and (2) climbers with more than one year of experience and experienced climbers.
Less experienced climbers (group 1) compared climbing with other life experiences and found that it was one of the more exhilarating things they have done. i.e. they found the Krabi experience highly satisfying (Table XX). More experienced climbers (group 2) compared the actual climbing, and how it compared to other climbing areas they have visited, i.e. a more discerning comparison process.
The results show that climbers with one year or less of experience (table 11) and novice climbers (table 12) shared the same levels of satisfaction for all four comparisons of statistical significance in table 11 and table 12: overall satisfaction, quality of rock, challenging routes, and information about climbing in Krabi. The results also show that climbers with more than one year of experience (table 11) and experienced climbers
(table 12) shared the same levels of satisfaction for the same four comparisons of statistical significance in table 11 and table 12. 73
Assessment of Climbing Guide
This is an assessment of the climbing guide via three tables relating to question eight of the questionnaire, and question nine, designed as an open ended question to follow up question eight. Table 13 assesses satisfaction with the tour (climbing) guide by evaluating the six roles of the tour guide informed by Cohen (1985) and Weiler & Davis
(1993). Table 14 assesses satisfaction with the guide via the six roles (E. Cohen, 1985;
Weiler & Davis, 1993) by years of experience. The years of experience are represented by two sub groups: climbers with one year or less of experience, and climbers with more than one year of experience. Table 15 is similar to table 14 in that it evaluates satisfaction with the guide by climbers' skill level. The two sub groups that represent skill level are: novice and experienced. Each table is discussed and a summary of the findings is presented. 74
Table 13 Satisfaction by Tour Guide "Dimensions" (Cohen, 1985; Weiler, 1993)(Q8) Response % Strongly Somewhat Not Somewhat Strongly Standard Missing Disagree Disagree Sure Agree Agree Mean Deviation % Activity 1 2 3 4 5
Instrumental (Cohen, 1985) A. Provided a very safe experience 2 12 5 25 56 4 1 14 B. Discussed all hazards 12 21 16 25 26 3 1 14 C. Ensured equipment was safe 2 3 16 27 52 4 1 14
Social (Cohen, 1985) D. Promoted a happy group environment 0 5 6 19 69 5 1 15 E. Effectively reduced any tension 1 3 15 37 44 4 1 15 F. Helped group get to know each other 9 15 27 29 20 3 1 16
Interactionary (Cohen, 1985) G. Helped reduce conflicts with other groups 2 2 39 23 34 4 1 21 H. Kept the group organized 3 2 19 34 41 4 1 16 I. Made the group comfortable with the climbing location 2 9 11 30 49 4 1 15 O. Motivated responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai people 18 18 30 16 17 3 1 16
Communicative (Cohen, 1985) L.Made the group aware of appropriate behavours with Thai people 21 30 21 14 14 3 18 N. Provided information about local customs and culture 28 29 18 16 9 3 16 P. Helped the group develop a keener awareness of the area 19 15 29 21 16 3 17
Motivator (Weiler, 1993) J. Practiced minimum impact climbing 4 5 30 23 37 4 15 K. Created awareness of environmental impacts of climbing 14 24 29 20 13 3 18 R. Motivated responsible behaviour to the environment 16 13 25 29 17 3 16
Environmental Interpreter (Weiler, 1993) M. Provided inormation about natural features of area 25 30 21 14 10 3 1 17 Q. Increased your knowledge of the natural environment 17 22 24 26 12 3 1 16 Respondents (n = 111)
Using the six roles of the tour guide reported by Randall & Rollins (2004), table
13 assesses how the climbing guides on the Phra Nang Peninsula are performing in each role according to participant response. These six roles relate directly with how well 75 messages of ecotourism are conveyed from tour guide to visitor (Randall & Rollins,
2004). The first two roles: instrumental and social (E. Cohen, 1985), are necessary for a safe and enjoyable trip where the group gets along well and there is cohesion among the members. It is in these first two roles that, according to table 13, participants strongly agreed that their guides performed well, as can be seen in column six. It is in the interactionary component (E. Cohen, 1985), where the guide acts as a middleman between the visiting party and the local population (E. Cohen, 1985), that components of ecotourism begin to appear. For example "motivating responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai people" found in table 13, column one, represents motivating behavioural change in the visitor (Rollins, Dearden, & Eagles, forthcoming), an important aspect of ecotourism. Respondents did not score the climbing guides as highly in the interactionary component (E. Cohen, 1985); in fact respondents felt "unsure" if their guides motivated responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai people.
Regarding the last three categories: communicative (E. Cohen, 1985), motivator, and environmental interpreter (Weiler & Davis, 1993), respondents were "unsure" or
"somewhat disagreed" to "strongly disagreed" that their guides performed strongly. It is in these three tour guide components that messages of ecotourism are conveyed.
Furthermore these three components are where rock climbing can be distinguished as supporting ecotourism on the Phra Nang Peninsula if the climbing guides begin to perform strongly in these roles. 76
Table 14 Comparing Guide Satisfaction (Q8) by Years of Experience (Q4) Mean Response More Than 1 Year 1 Year t Value Significance Source of Satisfaction n = 73 n = 38 (probability)
Instrumental (Cohen, 1985) A. Provided a very safe experience 4.20 4.25 0.201 0.421 B. Discussed all hazards 3.32 3.38 0.157 0.438 C. Ensured all equipment was safe 4.24 4.21 0.135 0.447
Social (Cohen, 1985) D. Promoted a happy group environment 4.47 4.67 0.984 0.164 E. Effectively reduced any tension 4.11 4.42 1.456 0.075 F. Helped group get to know each other 3.30 3.61 1.058 0.147
Interactionary (Cohen, 1985) G. Helped reduce conflicts with other groups 3.75 4.09 1.374 0.087 H. Kept the group organized 4.09 4.04 0.176 0.430 I. Made the group comfortable with the climbing location 4.11 4.25 0.541 0.295 O. Motivated responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai people 2.83 3.35 1.634 0.053
Communicative (Cohen, 1985) L. Made the group aware of appropriate behavours with Thai people 2.57 3.13 1.748 0.042 N. Provided information about local customs and culture 2.33 2.96 2.060 0.021 P. Helped the group develop a keener awareness of the area 2.83 3.57 2.366 0.010
Motivator (Weiler, 1993) J. Practiced minimum impact climbing 3.87 3.75 0.456 0.325 K. Created awaeness of environmental impacts of climbing 2.84 3.22 1.266 0.105 R. Motivated responsible behaviour to the environment 3.00 3.74 2.392 0.010
Environmental Interpreter (Weiler, 1993) M. Provided inormation about natural features of area 2.41 2.91 1.663 0.050 Q. ncreasedyour knowledge of the natural environment 2.71 3.61 3.025 0.002 Respondents (n = 111) 77
Table 14 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year.
In table 14 mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that six comparisons are statistically significant:
Communicative (E. Cohen, 1985)
• Made the group aware of appropriate behaviours with Thai people -
climbers with more than one year of experience were more satisfied that
their climbing guides achieved this than climbers with one year or less of
experience. Climbers with less than one year of experience are likely so
concerned with the technical aspect of climbing they are not able to pay
attention to messages concerning behaviours with Thai People being
presented to them by their guide, a hypothesis supported by Falk (1983)
and Falk& Balling (1982).
• Provided information about local customs and cultures - in conjunction
with the previous finding, climbers with more than one year of experience,
having already achieved a technical level of knowledge, have more time to
learn from their guide about Thai customs and cultures in the study area.
Therefore climbers with more than one year of experience were more
satisfied with their guide providing information about local customs and
cultures than climbers with one year of experience or less.
• Helped the group develop a keener awareness of the area - as climbers
with more than one year of experience have previous technical climbing 78
knowledge their guides may be able to take them to different climbing
locations around the peninsula than climbers with one year of experience
or less. The result is climbers with more than one year of experience were
more satisfied that their guide helped them develop a keener awareness of
the area than climbers with one year of experience or less.
Motivator (Weiler & Davis, 1993)
• Motivated responsible behaviour to the environment - climbers with
more than one year of experience were more satisfied that their guide
motivated responsible behaviour towards the environment than climbers
with one year of experience or less.
Environmental interpreter (Weiler & Davis, 1993)
• Provided information about natural features of area - climbers with more
than one year of experience were more satisfied than climbers with one
year or less of experience, that their guides provided information about
natural features of the area. Climbers with more than one year of
experience would be interested in pursuing more challenging routes; in
turn, the climbing guide has an opportunity to focus their attention on
other areas to climb, naturally leading them to varying natural features of
the peninsula.
• Increased one's knowledge of the natural environment - climbers with
more than one year of experience were more satisfied than climbers with
one year or less of experience, that their guides increased their
knowledge of the natural environment. This result is supported by the previous finding in that if climbers with more than one year of experience felt their guides were providing them with information about natural features of the area, the result would be increased knowledge of the natural environment. 80
Table 15 Comparing Guide Satisfaction (Q8) by Skill Level (Q6) Mean Response Novice Experienced t Value Significance Source of Satisfaction n = 61 n = 50 (probability)
Instrumental (Cohen, 1985) A. Provided a very safe experience 4.10 4.39 1.227 0.111 B. Discussed all hazards 3.24 3.50 0.904 0.184 C. Ensured all equipment was safe 4.20 4.28 0.360 0.360
Social (Cohen, 1985) D. Promoted a happy group environment 4.44 4.66 1.212 0.114 E. Effectively reduced any tension 4.10 4.34 1.284 0.101 F.Helped group get to know each other 3.41 3.32 0.317 0.376
Interactionary (Cohen, 1985) G. Helped reduce conflicts with other groups 3.71 4.06 1.578 0.059 H. Kept the group organized 4.07 4.09 0.095 0.462 I. Made the group comfrotable with the climbing location 4.05 4.31 1.170 0.123 O. Motivated responsible behaviour when interacting with Thai people 2.91 3.03 0.405 0.344
Communicative (Cohen, 1985) L. Made the group aware of appropriate behavours with Thai people 2.56 2.97 1.422 0.080 N. Provided information about local customs and culture 2.37 2.67 1.087 0.140 P. Helped the group develop a keener awareness of the area 2.82 3.31 1.733 0.043
Motivator (Weiler, 1993) J. Practiced minimum impact climbing 3.75 4.00 1.136 0.065 K. Created awaeness of environmental impacts of climbing 2.81 3.15 1.370 0.044 R. Motivated responsible behaviour to the environment 3.02 3.44 1.532 0.065
Environmental Interpreter (Weiler, 1993) M. Provided inormation about natural features of area 2.39 2.77 1.411 0.081 Q. Increased your knowledge of the natural environment 2.84 3.08 0.882 0.190 Respondents (n = 111) 81
Table 15 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: novice climbers and experienced climbers.
In table 15 mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that two comparisons are statistically significant:
Communicative (E. Cohen, 1985)
• Helped the group develop a keener awareness of the area - the
experienced climbers were more satisfied that their guides helped them
develop a keener awareness of the area than the novice climbers. The
experienced climbers place a higher value on exploring climbing options
outside of the regular venues. Because the experienced climbers have
greater technical ability and potentially feel more comfortable with their
climbing skills, the guides were able to transfer a greater breadth of
knowledge to this group.
Motivator (Weiler & Davis, 1993)
• Created awareness of environmental impacts of climbing - as with the
previous finding experienced climbers were more satisfied that their
guides created awareness of environmental impacts of climbing than
novice climbers. As guides make the experienced climbers more aware of
the area the opportunity exists to help facilitate understanding of the
environmental impacts of climbing.
Qualitative Responses 82
Although the opinions of the thirty-two people who responded to this question varied, there seemed to be consensus that most respondents found their guide to be very friendly. One respondent summed up the general feeling of a majority of respondents by writing "Our guide was very encouraging and supportive. Throughout the whole climb he talked me through it."
Although there seems to be a general feeling among respondents that their guides were enjoyable and did a fair job in terms of providing a safe experience, such as written by one respondent that "my guide was very strong on issuing good, clear instructions, which as a novice, I found very helpful", there was also a small contingent who felt otherwise. Some participants observed, from their experience, that the guides, in some cases, did not practice the same safety techniques that they taught to their clients.
Six of the thirty-two respondents felt not enough information was given with at least two expressing a need for a pre-instruction session before heading out to the rock to climb.
In my own observations of the climbing guides, I noticed that the majority of them were extremely friendly towards clients and other tourists wandering around the climbing area. They seemed ready to offer information if they could. Many of the instructors told me they had been doing this job for at least five years, however there seems to be a growing contingent of younger Thai's living in or around the Phra Nang
Peninsula who are coming to the peninsula to find work and end up teaching climbing to foreigners while having very little climbing experience themselves. Although personal observation does not support an unsafe climbing environment, there does seem to be a 83 difference between safety techniques being taught and safety techniques being displayed which may cause confusion among climbers with less experience.
In summary, climbing guides on the Phra Nang Peninsula are performing well in the instrumental and social roles (E. Cohen, 1985) of the tour guide, although some respondents felt that while they gave good information they did not always act as a responsible role model. It is in the interactionary, communicative, motivator, and environmental interpreter roles where climbing guides' current performance limits growth of ecotourism for the rock climbing industry. It is also where improvements can be made to support components of ecotourism and provide positive impacts for the visitor and the climbing industry on the Phra Nang Peninsula.
Perceptions of Ecotourism
Perceptions of ecotourism is an analysis of three parts of the survey broken down into seven tables. Table 16 looks at the traveling style, based on the ecotourism scale developed by van der Meer (2007), of the participants in the study. Table 17 compares participants traveling styles by their years of climbing experience followed by table 18 which compares participants traveling style by their skill level. The next section looks at participants' views on tourism development based on the ecotourism scale developed by van der Meer (2007) as seen in Table 19. Two tables, 20 and 21, look at participant views on tourism development by years of climbing experience (Table 20) and then by skill level (Table 21). The final table, Table 22, reviews comments about post tsunami development based on participant views, followed by a summary of the section. 84
Table 16 Travelling Style: Ecotourism Scale (QIO) Travel Characteristics Response (%) Not at all Slightly Moderatly Very Extremely Standard Missing Important Important Important Important Important Mean Deviation (%) 1 2 3 4 5
Nature C. Visit the natural scenery 1 0 6 26 66 5 1 1 A. Participate in outdoor recreation 1 1 8 32 58 4 1 2 B. See plants and animals 4 10 25 39 23 4 D. Visit national parks 8 13 18 36 26 4
Education I. To learn local customs and cultures 1 2 16 39 42 4 O. To learn about nature 4 13 35 36 13 3 N. To learn about local environmental issues 9 16 36 32 7 3
Sustainable Management H. To interact with the local people 1 2 17 39 41 4 E. To minimize my impact on the environment 1 7 15 36 42 4 F. To not be wasteful of natural resources 1 5 26 38 31 4 1 2 J. To support locally owned shops 3 6 22 34 36 4 K. To support businesses that support locals 2 7 24 36 32 4 L. To chose tourism companies with sustainable practices 5 10 19 39 27 4
P. To raise environmental awareness of others 10 17 30 28 15 3 G. To donate money or volunteer time to conservation 18 28 39 10 6 3 1 2 M. To donate money or volunteer time to local charities 26 27 28 15 5 2 1 1 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 16 presents the traveling style of participants based on the ecotourism scale developed by van der Meer (2007). Overall the participants responded that they found aspects of nature, education, and sustainable management of moderate to extremely high importance when they traveled. However a notable finding occurs under the heading of sustainable management. Participants ranked donating money or volunteering time to conservation and donating money or volunteering time to local charities as moderately important to not at all important. It appears participants place a high degree of importance on their time and money when traveling. 85
Table 17 Comparing Travelling Style (Q10) by Years of Experience (Q4) Mean Response More Than 1 Year 1 Year t Value Significance Traveling Style n 73 n = 38
Nature C. Visit the natural scenery 4.56 4.61 0.354 0.362 A. Participate in outdoor recreation 4.32 4.70 2.680 0.003 B. See plants and animals 3.68 3.66 0.107 0.458 D. Visit national parks 3.68 3.37 1.269 0.104
Education I. To learn local customs and cultures 4.14 4.29 0.893 0.187 O. To learn about nature 3.39 3.47 0.426 0.334 N. To learn about local environmental issues 3.01 3.34 1.617 0.028
Sustainable Management H. To interact with the local people 4.14 4.24 0.577 0.283 E. To minimize my impact on the environment 4.03 4.24 1.079 0.142 F. To not be wasteful of natural resources 3.89 4.03 0.754 0.227 J. To support locally owned shops 3.86 4.05 0.920 0.180 K. To support businesses that support locals 3.79 4.05 1.303 0.098 L. To chose tourism companies with sustainable practices 3.76 3.71 0.240 0.406
P. To raise environmental awareness of others 3.07 3.45 1.599 0.057 G. To donate money or volunteer time to conservation 2.60 2.51 0.384 0.351 M. To donate money or volunteer time to local charities 2.44 2.47 0.126 0.450 Respondents (n = 111) 86
Table 17 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year.
Mean scores are reported in columns two and three, and column five presents the t-test probability. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that two comparisons are statistically significant:
• Participate in outdoor recreation - climbers with more than one year of
experience are more likely to travel with the specific purpose of climbing
at a destination. The results show that this group is more likely to
participate in outdoor recreation when traveling than climbers with one
year of experience or less.
• To learn about local environmental issues - climbers with more than one
year of experience place a higher degree of importance on learning about
local environmental issues than climbers with one year of experience or
less. 87
Table 18 Comparing Travelling Style (Q10) by Skill Level (Q6) Mean Response Novice Experienced t Value Significance Travelling Style n = 61 n = 50
Nature C. Visit the natural scenery 4.58 4.56 0.174 0.431 A. Participate in outdoor recreation 4.32 4.61 2.040 0.022 B. See plants and animals 3.67 3.68 0.066 0.474 D. Visit national parks 3.70 3.42 1.191 0.118
Education I. To learn local customs and cultures 4.17 4.22 0.330 0.371 0. To learn about nature 3.38 3.46 0.403 0.344 N. To learn about local environmental issues 3.10 3.16 0.295 0.385
Sustainable Management H. To interact with the local people 4.22 4.12 0.596 0.276 E. To minimize my impact on the environment 4.17 4.02 0.791 0.213 F. To not be wasteful of natural resources 3.98 3.88 0.598 0.276 J. To support locally owned shops 3.92 3.94 0.117 0.454 K. To support businesses that support locals 3.85 3.92 0.363 0.359 L. To chose tourism companies with sustainable practices 3.73 3.76 0.126 0.450 P. To raise environmental awareness of others 3.12 3.30 0.805 0.211 G. To donate money or volunteer time to conservation 2.67 2.45 1.053 0.148 M. To donate money or volunteer time to local charities 2.47 2.44 0.120 0.453 Respondents (n = 111) 88
Table 18 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year. Mean scores are reported in columns two and three, and column five presents the t-test probability. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that one comparison is statistically significant:
• Participate in outdoor recreation - similar to table 17, table 18 shows that
experienced climbers place a higher degree of importance on participating
in outdoor recreation than novice climbers. Again experienced climbers
are more likely to take a vacation for the specific purpose of rock
climbing.
Table 19 Views on Tourism Development (QU) Response (%) Not at all Slightly Moderatly Very Extremely Standard Missing Important Important Important Important Important Mean Deviation (%) Views 1 2 3 4 5
Education J. Promote learning about natural environment 0 4 14 36 47 4 1 0 I. Promote learning about local culture 0 4 12 43 41 4 1 0
Sustainable Management C. Minimize environmental impacts 0 0 8 32 60 5 1 0 K. Support conservation of natural areas 0 2 11 25 62 4 1 0 E. Direct economic benefits to locals 0 1 15 32 51 4 1 0 D. Promote environmental awareness 1 1 16 36 46 4 1 1 F. Promote hiring locals 1 3 18 32 46 4 1 0 G. Maximize local involvement in tourism planning 2 4 16 34 44 4 1 0 B. Promote cultural sensitivity 0 3 17 45 35 4 1 0 H. Help diversify local economy 2 5 12 44 38 4 1 1 A. Promote interaction with locals 0 3 16 54 27 4 1 0 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 19, a description of participant responses to views on tourism development using the ecotourism scale developed by van der Meer (2007) echo the findings from
Table 16. Under the headings of education and sustainable management a majority of 89 participants found ecotourism supporting practices to be at least very important to extremely important. These findings indicate that the participants in this study are aware of ecotourism principles, and from their responses would like to see them in practice.
Table 20 Views on Tourism Development (Qll) by Years ofExpereince (Q4) Mean Response More Than 1 Year 1 Year t Value Significance Views n = 73 n = 38
Education J. Promote learning about natural environment 4.14 4.50 2.231 0.014 I. Promote learning about local culture 4.11 4.45 2.411 0.005
Sustainable Management C. Minimize environmental impacts 4.47 4.63 1.290 0.100 K. Support conservation of natural areas 4.42 4.58 1.014 0.157 E. Direct economic benefits to locals 4.29 4.45 1.039 0.151 D. Promote environmental awareness 4.18 4.42 1.470 0.073 F. Promote hiring locals 4.14 4.32 1.001 0.160 G. Maximize local involvement in tourism planning 4.11 4.24 0.671 0.252 B. Promote cultural sensitivity 4.00 4.37 0.246 0.004 H. Help diversify local economy 4.01 4.32 1.657 0.050 A. Promote interaction with locals 3.96 4.24 1.976 0.013 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 20 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year. Mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is 90 reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that five comparisons are statistically significant:
• Promote learning about the natural environment
• Promote learning about local culture
• Promote cultural sensitivity
• Help diversify local economy
• Promote interaction with locals
In all five comparisons climbers with more than one year of experience placed a higher degree of importance on each one than did climbers with one year of experience or less. In some instances climbers from the group with more than one year of experience are potentially returning to the Phra Nang Peninsula or have spent more time in the area than climbers with one year of experience or less. 91
Table 21 Views on Tourism Development (Qll) by Skill Level (Q6) Mean Response Novice Experienced t Value Significance Views n = 61 n = 50
Education /. Promote learning about natural environment 4.13 4.42 1.849 0.034 I. Promote learning about local culture 4.13 4.34 1.384 0.085
Sustainable Management C. Minimize environmental impacts 4.49 4.56 0.553 0.291 K. Support conservation of natural areas 4.36 4.62 1.805 0.037 E. Direct economic benefits to locals 4.28 4.42 0.963 0.169 D. Promote environmental awareness 4.15 4.40 1.603 0.056 F. Promote hiring locals 4.13 4.28 0.873 0.192 G. Maximize local involvement in tourism planning 4.18 4.12 0.333 0.370 B. Promote cultural sensitivity 4.05 4.22 1.138 0.129 H. Help diversify local economy 4.08 4.16 0.461 0.323 A. Promote interaction with locals 3.93 4.20 1.913 0.029
Respondents (n =111)
Table 21 compares the mean experience scores of two sub-samples: those who have climbed for one year or less and those who have climbed for more than one year.
Mean scores are reported in columns two and three. In column five the t-test probability is reported. Inspection of the significance levels reported in column five reveals that three comparisons are statistically significant:
• Promote learning about the natural environment
• Support conservation of natural areas
• Promote interaction with locals 92
Experienced climbers placed a higher degree of importance on these three comparisons than novice climbers. These findings, although significant, are not surprising. Many of the participants who considered themselves to be experienced climbers had also been to the Phra Nang Peninsula on previous trips to Thailand. It makes sense that they would want to promote learning about the natural environment in order to gain support for the conservation of the natural areas on the Phra Nang Peninsula upon which rock climbing is dependent. Also, many of these climbers have developed relationships with local climbing operators and other local Thais who live on the peninsula therefore promoting interaction with locals would be a natural extension of their own experience. 93
Table 22 Other Comments About Post Tsunami Rebuilding (Q12) Comments N
Reduce overdevelopment by minimizing large resort development 6 Retain culture and reduce foreign ownership 3 Keep it local and unique 5 Increase local input 1 Increase environmental conservation 5 Reduce environmental and economic impact 1 Reduce garbage through proper management 7 Increase environmental education 2 Limit westernization 2 Limit tourism 1 Make it affordable 3 Make tourist destinations more accessible 1 Missing 63 Respondents (n = 111)
Table 22 is a list of comments from participants in response to question 12 of the questionnaire: other comments about post-tsunami rebuilding. Four comment categories garner the most importance for respondents:
• Reduce garbage through proper management
• Reduce overdevelopment by minimizing large resort development
• Keep it local and unique
• Increase environmental conservation In discussion with participants, many of them noted these four areas as being of high importance to them. East Railay is the less aesthetic side of the peninsula in comparison to West Railay and consists of mangroves and mud flats, not a particularly nice beach as far as tourism is concerned. As a result of visitor and local littering it is strewn with garbage and has been for several years. The majority of garbage is found from the Sunrise Bay Bungalows and north towards the Viewpoint Bungalows, but does not appear further south around the Rayavadee Premier Resort (see figure 5). East Railay is also the hub of climbing (see table 1), and many climbers are exposed to its garbage- strewn beach. Table 21 is a direct reflection of the participants desire to see the garbage cleaned up and managed properly by the local community. In doing so they would like to see an increase in environmental conservation.
Many of the climbers, especially those living at Tonsai Bay, expressed their disapproval of the potential resort proposed to be built where local businesses currently exist. As a result they would like to see a reduction in resort development in an attempt to preserve local businesses, adding to the unique atmosphere of the Phra Nang Peninsula.
A summary of Discussions of Ecotourism shows that in general participants in this study travel in accordance with the principles of ecotourism and would like to see ecotourism developed, however very few participants have the time or money to dedicate support to the growth of ecotourism on the Phra Nang Peninsula. In general participants with more than one year of climbing experience and experienced climbers are the ones who feel they are traveling in accordance with the principles of ecotourism. These two groups also feel more strongly about the development of ecotourism on the Phra Nang
Peninsula in a post tsunami environment. 95
Semi-structured Interviews with other Stakeholders
This section is the summary of interviews performed with local climbing operators and other stakeholders on the Phra Nang Peninsula. In order to better understand the pressures these business owners are under and what they feel is the future of climbing on the Phra Nang Peninsula, seven interviews were conducted with different climbing business owners spanning Tonsai Bay, Railay East, and Railay West. The semi- structured interviews were conducted using a nine question guide to direct the conversation. The interview guide (see Appendix 2) is used to structure the summary.
1. What are the main areas people like to climb?
Climbing operators agree that the most popular area for beginning climbers taking a climbing course is East Railay. This group of climbers makes up the majority of the climbing business on the peninsula. The area that is extremely popular for experienced climbers coming to the Phra Nang Peninsula as a climbing destination is Tonsai Bay.
Tonsai has more overhanging rock and hosts the areas most challenging routes. Tonsai, in many cases, is regarded as a separate area compared to the rest of the peninsula due to the nature of the routes and the visitors who come to climb them.
2. What are the unique features ofKrabi that bring people to climb?
According to the operators, visitors come to the Phra Nang Peninsula because of the beautiful natural scenery provided by the vast blue Andaman Sea, and the unique
Karst formations that the climbers use to climb on. They also feel that the challenging, aesthetic nature of the routes, the ease of access to the cliffs, availability of delicious Thai food and the abundance of climbing operators available to teach beginners is an attraction 96 for visitors. One operator summed it up by stating "people come bcause it is quiet, private, and natural beauty. Climbers come for many routes that are challenging".
3. What types of climbing do people participate in?
All of the climbing operators agree that sport climbing is the predominant style of climbing on the peninsula. They also note that bouldering is gaining popularity as well as a fairly new style of climbing, deep water soloing. Sport climbing is what is taught by the climbing operators, however at least one school is starting to offer deep water soloing trips. The climbing operators mention that sport climbing is more popular because that is what has been developed in conjunction with climbing tourism. Bouldering and deep water soloing are gaining popularity but will never rival sport climbing because they require a greater degree of skill and are only open to a small percentage of the climbing population on the peninsula.
4. What kinds of guidelines do you provide your guides in terms of dealing with clients?
Development of the climbing industry on the Phra Nang Peninsula stems from a dedicated group of climbers that have been around for several years. Many of the current operators have, in the past, worked for one of the older more established climbing operators. As their experience grew, and the demand for climbing lessons increased, many of these operators branched out and created their own business. As a result there are many highly trained climbing guides on the peninsula who are in the process of apprenticing new, younger guides. All of the guides, according to operators, are trained in standard international climbing safety techniques that allow a guide to design, and execute a trip safely for the group of climbers they are responsible for. Usually each 97
guide has gone through seven months to a year of training and shadowing before taking
groups out on their own. In many cases the guides have several years of climbing and
teaching experience under their belts. As well guides are trained in etiquette to engage their clientele in a pleasant and welcoming manner. Essentially the climbing operators want their guides to provide a safe and fun experience for their clientele that promotes them coming back to advance their climbing skills and creates repeat business for the
operators and increased work for the guides.
5. What brings people to Krabi?
Again operators expressed that the beautiful natural scenery including the beaches and the cliffs that border the peninsula. Also visitors are attracted to the low prices for comfortable accommodation and the array of outdoor activities that are available to them
such as snorkeling, scuba diving, and rock climbing. Visitors are also attracted to the ease of access to several of the activities they choose to participate in. A strong theme that emerged from the data suggests that visitors are attracted to Krabi because of the relaxed, easy going atmosphere on the Phra Nang Peninsula. One comment was "people come for holiday to relax and snorkel and dive. Most people happy and relaxed", something many operators say has kept them there for many years.
6. What are the characteristics of people who come here?
Happy and relaxed are the main characteristics of visitors. Some come looking for adventure and many come to relax and try something new such as climbing.
7. What kinds of tourism experiences are people looking for?
It depends on the tourist. If they are staying in East Railay and West Railay they come for a holiday and a place where they can relax and enjoy the atmosphere of the 98 peninsula. Generally people stay for shorter periods of time if they are staying on East or
West Railay, whereas if they are staying on Tonsai, then visitors are often looking for adventure; they are there to climb and enjoy the routes and the people who make the community. These visitors predominantly stay for longer periods of time, from a few weeks to several months.
8. What kinds of facilities are people looking for?
Visitors want good weather and for hosts to speak English. Visitors staying on
East and West Railay are looking for inexpensive but comfortable and clean accommodations that have access to the activities they are interested in. They like to be in close proximity to restaurants and bars so they can relax after a day of activity. Visitors staying on Tonsai prefer cheap accommodation including more traditional styles such as bamboo huts. Because they stay for longer periods of time they are looking to make their money last for as long as they can. Cheap food and cheap drinks are also important to unwind at the end of a day of climbing.
9. What kinds of concerns do people have?
Safety was the main concern mentioned by all of the climbing operators. In many cases the inexperienced climbers taking lessons were unsure of how safe climbing was as stated by one operator "people are worried about the safety of routes". Operators mentioned that these fears quickly disappeared once the new climbers got off their first climb and realized it was safe.
A summary of the interviews shows that according to climbing and other tourism operators on the Phra Nang Peninsula, happy and relaxed visitors are interested in coming to Krabi to enjoy the beautiful natural setting offered by the Andaman Sea and the unique 99
Karst formations. Regardless of where they are staying visitors enjoy the relaxed easy going atmosphere of the peninsula and the communities that inhabit it. Visitors staying on
East or West Railay are looking for inexpensive, clean, and cheap accommodation whereas climbers residing on Tonsai are looking to increase their stay by decreasing the amount of money they spend on all amenities. Climbing visitors are also attracted by the ease of access to a bountiful array of routes whether they are first time climbers or seasoned veterans there on a climbing vacation. Climbing visitors participate mainly in sport climbing, however more experienced climbers may also try bouldering or deep water soloing. The climbing businesses try to accommodate visitor needs by supplying well trained guides that deliver safe and enjoyable courses to all ability levels. Guides are trained with at least a standard level of safety techniques and are capable of diminishing safety fears of their clientele.
Relating interview findings to the role of the guide, it is apparent that climbing guides on the Phra Nang Peninsula are well versed in the instrumental and social components (E. Cohen, 1985) of their role. Very little mention was made of behaviours that relate to the interactionary, communicative, motivator, and environmental interpreter roles (E. Cohen, 1985; Weiler & Davis, 1993) necessary to promote messages of ecotourism.
Summary of Chapter
Climber characteristics show that a majority of participants sport climb on Railay
East. They are an even split of well educated 22-30 year olds and are most likely on a post-college/university trip. Almost 90% of participants are from North America or
Europe and are on their first trip to Thailand. 100
The groups of climbing participants can be organized into two kinds of travelers
(1) opportunistic travelers - climbers with one year of experience or less and novice climbers were likely here on a SE Asia tour, found the climbing opportunity and decided to try it and (2) destination travelers - the experienced climbers had this destination in mind from the day they started planning their trips.
Overall, participants reported that their climbing experience was favourable, however novice climbers with less experience seemed to enjoy their overall experience more than experienced climbers with more time climbing. More experienced climbers found greater satisfaction however with specific aspects of their climbing experience than novice climbers with less experience.
An assessment of the climbing guide shows that participants are generally pleased with their guides' performance in administering a climbing course, however guide performance does not appear to encompass, at this time, aspects related to ecotourism. In fact it appears that what limits the growth of ecotourism within the rock climbing industry on the Phra Nang Peninsula is the rock climbing guides and, by extension, the owners who employ them. At this point rock climbing guides satisfy the first two roles of the tour guide, the instrumental and the social, however they do not perform strongly in the four that denote aspects of ecotourism, namely the interactionary, the communicative, the motivator, and the environmental interpreter.
Perceptions of ecotourism show that generally participants are aware of ecotourism practices however the majority are not willing to donate their money or time to growing ecotourism on the Phra Nang Peninsula. Moreover it is the experienced climbers with more time climbing that view their traveling style as more in line with 101
ecotourism, and who would like to see development on the Phra Nang Peninsula
encompass aspects of ecotourism. Certain solutions put forth by participants included a
management plan for waste, and reducing resort development allowing local businesses
to remain.
Although local climbing operators and other business owners acknowledge that they would like to see the Phra Nang Peninsula remain as a relaxed and unique
destination, it has become increasingly difficult to pay the bills and sustain their businesses. With fluctuations from high tourist season to low tourist season, and an
overall drop in tourist numbers, several operators are forced to find new ways to market their services to visitors that do not represent the backpacking climbers that made the area
famous in the first place. They feel that the community they worked so hard to build may be threatened in the face of competition created by the new resorts being planned and built where local businesses currently stand. 102
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Introduction
The purpose of this research was to investigate the climbing experience and to put the climbing experience in perspective of an ecotourism viewpoint. The three dimensions of ecotourism: nature based, managed in a sustainable manner, and having a learning component as discussed by Zwirn, Pinsky & Rahr (2005), van der Meer (2007), and
Rollins, Dearden & Eagle (forthcoming), informed the direction and design of this research.
Several stakeholders were involved in the research including the local tourism community consisting of the climbing operators on the Phra Nang Peninsula and the other tourism service providers such as accommodation owners as well as bar and restaurant owners. The other participant group consisted of tourists that either participated in climbing as one of several activities during their trip or climbing tourists specifically there to climb. These various groups and an assessment of the research site informed the decision to use a mixed methods approach to achieve the purpose of this study.
Summary of Major Findings
This study considered two groups of people (1) operators (2) climbers. Seven interviews were conducted. The interviews were conducted in person with rock climbing operators, tourism operators and service providers on Phra Nang Peninsula.
The quantitative method involved the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire, in booklet style, was divided into ten sections designed to collect data that reflects how 103
these people view ecotourism and where or if rock climbing fits into their perceptions. It
was administered to 111 rock climbers on the Phra Nang Peninsula.
Analysis of the questionnaires resulted in significant findings supported by the
literature used to inform this study. Although climbing occurs in three major areas on the
peninsula the majority of concentration is centered at East Railay, where a majority of the
easier climbing exists and is accessible for beginners and for guided groups. When
separated into categories of climbers with less than one year experience (65.8%) and
climbers with more than one year experience (34.2%), the findings suggest that those
with less than one year of experience are more satisfied with their overall climbing
experience than their counterparts. This same finding is reflected in those climbers who
categorize themselves as novice (55%) and intermediate (38.7%) compared to those who
would categorize themselves as advanced (4.5%) and expert (1.8%). Subsequently,
climbers with less than one year experience and those considering themselves to be
novice also spend US $40 - $44 per day during an average seven to eight day stay,
whereas their counterparts, climbers with more than one year experience and those
considering themselves experts, are spending on average close to US $20 less per day and
stay for approximately 21 to 24 days. It seems as though climbers in the novice category
and those with less than one year experience are staying and recreating close to the same
areas, Railay East and Railay West. This is a concrete example of tourists spending more
for better service and especially greater convenience, that is supported by Baddeley
(2004).
A significant section of the questionnaire deals with respondents' satisfaction with their climbing guide. The question is based on research done by Randall & Rollins 104
(2004). During analysis performed well within the first two components of the guide as
outlined by Cohen (1985): the instrumental component, the social component. The guides did not perform well in the last four components including the interactional, the communicative, the motivator, and the environmental interpreter. The fourth component, the communicative component, evidently breaks down according to analysis of the findings; although respondents indicated the guides were practicing minimum impact climbing, they were never made aware by their guide of what environmental impacts exist when climbing. In relation to Cohen's (1985) communicative component respondents also noted they were given very little cultural information by their guide.
Weiler & Davis (1993) further extend the role of the tour guide by stating that the guide also acts as a motivator for visitors to behave in an environmentally responsible manner and as an environmental interpreter. Although respondents felt the guides motivated them to behave in an environmentally responsible manner, few of the respondents could pinpoint what these motivations were. These findings, informed in part by Cohen's
(1985) and Weiler & Davis's (1993) components of a tour guide, support Randall &
Rollins (2004) findings. Furthermore they serve to identify where improvements can be made at the communication level in the climbing guide profession on the Phra Nang
Peninsula to better reflect components of ecotourism including environmental education
(Carrier & Macleod, 2005; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005; Zwirn, Pinsky, & Rahr, 2005).
Through the use, application, and analysis of van der Meer's (2007) ecotourism scale, this research helps to better understand the visitors to the Phra Nang Peninsula to better manage conservation of the area. During analysis of participant response to van der
Meer's (2007) ecotourism scale, six significant points lead to the conclusion that the 105
contingent of visitors to the Phra Nang Peninsula that were interviewed do not practice an
ecotourism traveling style. In general, respondents were interested in places of beautiful
natural scenery as supported by Ceballos-Lascurain (1987) found in van der Meer (2007).
However the majority of respondents were not interested in viewing plants and animals in
their natural environment as Schelhas et al. (2002) would suggest. Respondents also felt
it was important to support local businesses as suggested by Foucat (2002) and
Kontogeorgopoulos (2005). However a majority of respondents did not want to donate
money or time to local charities or conservation. The fifth point supported by Winter
(2007), identifies that people with more than one year of climbing experience want to
travel places where they could find outdoor recreation. This is a population where travel
behaviours could be influenced to reflect more strongly habits from the ecotourism scale
as designated by van der Meer (2007). The more experienced population of climbers also
tends to travel to learn about local environmental issues as discussed by Stem (2003),
however they are not particularly interested in donating money or time to alleviate these
issues.
Although similar in scope, question 11 of the questionnaire dealt with tourism
development in the wake of the tsunami and its after effects. Several studies, including
Bell et al. (2005), Brundtland (1987), Coate, Handmer, & Choong (2006), Gossling
(2003), Greenhough, Jazeel, & Massey (2005), Kontogeorgopoulos (2005), Mowforth &
Munt (2003), Olsen (2005), Paz (2005), Rice & Haynes (2005), and Smillie (2006),
informed the development and application of this question. I found that of all 11 choices provided to respondents for tourism development of the Phra Nang Peninsula, four were
important to climbers with more than one year of climbing experience: promote authentic two-way interaction with local people, promote cultural sensitivity to the local
community, promote learning about culture, and promote learning about the natural
environment. Perhaps the next step would be to find out what informs this group of
climbers about their choices of tourism development and why they feel these four options
are more important than the other seven choices available to them.
An interesting finding supported by Siderelis & Attarian (2004) is that climbers
with greater than one year experience and climbers who consider themselves advanced
and experts tend to spend more than three weeks on the Phra Nang Peninsula. Almost
always these climbers choose to live at Tonsai Bay for, as Baddeley (2004) discusses,
issues of greater convenience to climbing locales. Several of these climbers with more
experience or who consider themselves to be advanced and expert climbers remarked
about their disdain for new resorts being developed in place of already established local business. However the information obtained from the questionnaires does not reflect their verbal complaints, as is outlined in the previous paragraph.
In conclusion, analysis of the seven interviews performed with climbing
operators, tourism operators and service providers show several similarities with the
findings from the questionnaire. According to interview respondents they notice that visitors come for the natural beauty of the area, a point brought forth by van der Meer's
(2007) ecotourism scale. Not only do climbers come to enjoy the beautiful setting but, as interview respondents reported, they also come to enjoy easily accessible climbs, a rinding also noted from analysis of the questionnaires and supported by Baddeley (2004).
Furthermore it was noted that visitors come to enjoy themselves in the relaxed location and partake in other activities such a snorkeling, an observation consistent with findings from the questionnaires. Also consistent with findings from the questionnaire is that,
according to interview participants, climbers look for cheap accommodation so they can
stay and climb longer, a trend noted by Siderelis & Attarian (2004).
Although increased spending on the climbing tourists part might seem positive as
money continues to reach many local businesses, costs continue to increase for local
business owners and more money does not always equal enough money. Local climbing
business owners noted that the costs for them to lease land from the land owners to run
their businesses has increased due to the Tsunami and a decline in tourism, a point
supported by Paz (2005). Part of this problem is also due to seasonality as reported by
Parrilla et al. (2007) where in the high season the climbing and other tourism operators on
the Phra Nang Peninsula are making most of their money so that during the low season,
when substantially less money is coming in, they are able to support themselves and their
businesses.
A continuing stress for the climbing businesses is the constant struggle to have
access to the cliffs they depend on that are found in Hat Nopparat - Mu Kho Phi Phi
National Marine Park. There is a constant struggle with the parks service and other
resorts to "put the land to more economic use" (Paz, 2005, p. 29). Unfortunately as far as
the resorts are concerned it may be more likely as Gossling (2003) reports that increased
income from tourism has lead to "a focus on individual benefit" (p. 383). An example of
this struggle, according to interview participants, is the tenuous use of the cliffs at Phra
Nang Beach which in the past have been off limits to climbers because the resort backing
on to the beach felt having climbers in sight of the resort bungalows would detract from their business. Climbing had been present at that location long before the resort. 108
There is a strong sense of community on the Phra Nang Peninsula; however that community exists to fulfill visitor needs. As the peninsula becomes increasingly more expensive compared to previous costs, and as more resorts are being planned and smaller local businesses are actively being taken down, backpacking climbers, the lifeblood of the climbing community in Thailand as noted from the interviews, are beginning to disappear. Climbing businesses, other tourism operators and service providers expressed that they enjoyed the easy laidback attitudes that come with these kinds of visitors. This relaxed lifestyle is why many of these local business owners are in business. The replacement of the backpacking visitor with more dependent, higher needs visitors, threatens the lifestyle many local business operators have come to enjoy. Although some climbing operators feel optimistic that new resorts bringing in a new class of visitor will ultimately lead to new clientele (some climbing operators have already put greater focus on family climbing packages), resorts are still being developed at the expense of losing local businesses and selection for visitors, a dangerous and destructive trend (Gossling,
2003; Paz, 2005; United Nations Development Programme, 2005).
Recommendations
Is it possible for the rock climbing industry to create sustainable ecotourism for the Phra Nang Peninsula? Yes; however measures need to be taken in order for this to happen. As the climbing operators currently operate they do not fully encapsulate all the pillars of ecotourism as identified by Fennell (2001). Although climbing is a nature based activity, and it does occur within the boundaries of Hat Nopparat Thara - Mu Kho Phi Phi
National Marine Park, meaning it should be supporting conservation according to national park policies outlined by the Royal Forest Department of Thailand and further reported in Pipithvanichtham (1997), the industry lacks certain aspects of sustainable management and definitely falls short when it comes to environmental education.
In light of the criticisms discussed during this research, five recommendations have been identified at a national park, community, tourism industry, and government level that can help the climbing industry lead the way in enacting principles of ecotourism and supporting its growth on the Phra Nang Peninsula.
1. The first recommendation concerns the labeling of the Hat Nopparat Thara
- Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine Park. Reinius & Fredman (2007) have
shown that having a national park designation and being clearly signed as
such for visitors coming to the area has a significant influence on their
views and behaviours. Currently on the Phra Nang Peninsula there is very
little to no signage telling visitors that they are in a national park. In fact
during the primary research for this study none of the questionnaire
participants realized they were in a national park when climbing. The
proper labeling of the park would immediately act as a reminder that the
climbing environment the visitors come to enjoy is also a protected area
and serve as a further reminder to act accordingly. It is the responsibility
of the Royal Forest Department's Marine National Park Division
(Sethapun, 2000) to create proper signage for the Hat Nopparat Thara -
Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine Park. Therefore I recommend proper
labeling of the park by the National Marine Park division.
2. Secondly, enacting the Thailand National Ecotourism Policy as outlined
by Pipithvanichtham (1997) of the Parks Division of the Royal Forest 110
Department. The policy was designed to promote positive development
within a sustainable framework as informed by the principles of
ecotourism. The policy may need to be revisited to reflect the current
situation on the peninsula however enforcing the policy serves to better
support the purpose of the national parks within Thailand as noted by
Pipithvanichtham (1997) and Sethapun (2000), and creates continuity for
those communities and businesses operating or using national park
resources. The recommendation is to enact this policy.
3. Thirdly, one of the major issues is lack of communication from the Marine
National Park Division to the local climbing operators and then to the
visitor. Although some local operators may understand conservation
policies regarding the national park, this information is not being passed
on to all of the guides and in turn the guides are falling short in their role
as communicators. One way to mitigate this issue "is through the
provision of appropriate professional training for tourism sector
employees, including local tour guides" (Black & King, 2002, p. 103).
Professional training as discussed by Black & King (2002) has been
shown to improve the quality of the product, in this case a guided climbing
trip. Therefore better training of the climbing guides is recommended.
From an ecotourism standpoint this kind of training can include
conservation information passed on to the guide that is in line with Marine
National Park policies of: Ill
Prevention, protection and recommendations regarding natural
resources to gain the greatest possible benefits and achieve
sustainability according to principles of marine national park
management and government policy; and research of natural
resources in marine national parks and information dissemination to
the public, especially children to promote understanding and
awareness of the need for protection of natural resources. (Sethapun,
2000, p. 2)
4. Fourthly, and in conjunction with the third recommendation, is for
climbers using the Hat Nopparat Thara - Mu Kho Phi Phi National Marine
Park to attend a mandatory education programme and service project. The
education program would simply be a way for non-guided climbers to
become informed of the Marine National Park policies (Sethapun, 2000)
and for these climbers to become active in conservation of the natural
resources they intend to use. For example, several participants noted that
garbage is a problem on East Railay. An ongoing service project that
visiting climbers can become involved in is the cleanup of garbage.
Receptacles and proper disposal of the garbage would have to follow.
Siderelis & Attarian (2004) have shown that this kind of regulatory
initiative did not deter climbers from their intended destination.
5. The final recommendation lies within the tourism industry on the Phra
Nang Peninsula. Problems between local independent business owners,
land owners, and resorts will not be alleviated easily or immediately. 112
However a possible solution lies within partnering climbing business with
the higher end resorts. This kind of partnering already happens with many
of the budget accommodations on the peninsula. If the Marine National
Park will work with climbing operators to professionally train guides and
the quality of the guiding increases as a result, there is the possibility those
climbing operators could market their product to a higher end customer
through partnerships with the higher end resorts. It has been shown that
currently the majority of clientele are well educated. If current clientele
are provided a good climbing experience they may return again or
recommend others to come to the Phra Nang Peninsula. This clientele is
more likely to increase their spending as they procure employment and
maturity. If components of ecotourism can be passed on to all levels of
visitor on the Phra Nang Peninsula through climbing operators it stands to
reason that action will follow leading to positive impacts for the climbing
visitors and the climbing operators.
Possibilities for future studies
In order to properly asses if ecotourism can be effective on the Phra Nang
Peninsula, future studies should build on some of the limitations of this study. For example further research should consider a time of year that corresponds with peak tourist season and the not the hot season or the monsoon season, preferably from October to February.
The majority of this study focused on visitors, with a limited section on community stakeholders (the climbing operators). Further research should focus on 113 interviews with other stakeholders such as other tourism operators and service providers including guest houses/hotels, resorts, restaurants, and bars. It only seems prudent that a greater level of community involvement should be considered. Other areas of climbing development within Karbi Province should also be researched. Understanding what issues different communities face and making comparisons with the Phra Nang Peninsula will help the National Marine Parks develop new strategies for sustainable climbing development in conjunction with climbing operators. In turn, developing a greater understanding of the role of the Marine National Parks in developing climbing tourism within the parks would be beneficial for all stakeholders involved. Finally more emphasis should be put on Thai Government tourism policy and how it is implemented on the Phra
Nang Peninsula. 114
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Appendix
Appendix 1 Questionnaire
ABOUT YOUR CLIMBING EXPERIENCE IN KRABI
The purpose of this survey is to gather the opinions about the rock climbing industry in Krabi, in order to better serve rock climbers, and to ensure the sustainability of the rock climbing industry.
Q.l First, please indicate which of the following locations in the Krabi area where you have been rock climbing on this trip. Please circle number. 1 RAI LAY EAST (sunrise side) 2 RAI LAY WEST (sunset side) 3 PHRA NANG BEACH 4 TON SAI BAY 5 PHI PHI DON 6 PHI PHI LEY 7 OTHER (please state: )
Q.2 Overall, how would you rate the quality of rock climbing you have experienced so far in this trip? 1 VERY GOOD 2 SOMEWHAT GOOD 3 NOT SURE 4 SOMEWHAT BAD 5 VERY BAD
Q.3 Next, please rate how good or bad you feel about each of the following aspects of your rock climbing experience. VERY SOMEWHAT NOT SOMEWHAT VERY BAD BAD SURE GOOD GOOD A. Quality of rock 2 3 4 5 B. Challenging routes 2 3 4 5 C. Weather conditions 2 3 4 5 D. Your climbing group 2 3 4 5 E. Your climbing guide, if used 2 3 4 5 F. Behavior of other climbing groups 2 3 4 5 G. Safety of route 2 3 4 5 H. Information about climbing in Krabi 2 3 4 5 121
ABOUT YOUR BACKGROUND IN ROCK CLIMBING
Q.4 About how many years have you been rock climbing?
YEARS
Q.5 Which of the following styles of climbing you have used?
1 BOULDERING 2 TRADITIONAL CLIMBING 3 MOUNTAINEERING 4 ICE CLIMBING 5 SPORT CLIMBING 6 DEEP WATER SOLOING 7 OTHER (please state )
Q.6 How would you rate your overall skill level in rock climbing
1 NOVICE 2 INTERMEDIATE 3 ADVANCED 4 EXPERT
Q.7 What other activities do you plan to participate in besides climbing? Please circle all that apply.
1. BEACH SUNTANNING 8. OTHER NATURE STUDY 2. SWIMMING 9. ELEPHANT TREKKING 3. SNORKELLING 10. CAMPING 4. SCUBA 11. RIVER RAFTING 5. BOATING 12. SHOPPING 6. HIKING/WALKING 13. EXPLOING TOWN 7. BIRDWATCHING 14. OTHER (state below)
ABOUT YOUR ROCK CLIMBING GUIDE
Q.8 Rock climbing guides provide an important service to people who travel to Thailand to enjoy rock climbing. Please reflect on the experience your guide provided, and indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements.
STRONGLY SOMEWHAT NOT SOMEWHAT STRONGLY My rock climbing guide... DISAGREE DISAGREE SURE AGREE AGREE
A. Provided a very safe experience 1 2 3 4 5 122
B. Discussed all hazards and how to deal 1 2 3 4 5 with them
C. Ensured all equipment was safe and in 1 2 3 4 5 good working order
D. Promoted a social and happy group 1 2 3 4 5 environment
E. Effectively reduced any tension 1 2 3 4 5
F. Helped group members get to know one 1 2 3 4 5 another
G. Effectively reduced conflicts with other 1 2 3 4 5 climbing groups
H. Kept the group organized and on 1 2 3 4 5 schedule
I. Made the group comfortable with the 1 2 3 4 5 climbing location
J. Practiced minimum impact climbing 1 2 3 4 5
K. Created awareness of environmental 1 2 3 4 5 impacts of climbing
L. Made the group aware of appropriate 1 2 3 4 5 behaviours with Thai people
M. Provided information about natural 1 2 3 4 5 features of area
My rock climbing guide... STRONGLY SOMEWHAT NOT SOMEWHAT STRONGLY DISAGREE DISAGREE SURE AGREE AGREE N. Provided information about local customs 1 2 3 4 5 and culture
0. Motivated responsible behaviour when 1 2 3 4 5 interacting with Thai people
P. Helped the group develop a keener 1 2 3 4 5 awareness of the area
Q. Increased your knowledge of the natural 1 2 3 4 5 environment
R. Motivated responsible behaviour to the 1 2 3 4 5 environment 123
Q.9 Is there anything else you would like to say about your rock climbing guide?
YOUR STYLE OF TRAVELLING
Q.10 When planning this trip to Thailand, how important were each of the following?
NOT AT ALL SLIGHTLY MODERATLY VERY EXTREMELY IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT A. To participate in outdoor recreation such as 2 3 4 5 climbing or snorkeling
B. To see plants and animals in their natural 2 3 4 5 environment
C. To visit places of beautiful natural scenery 2 3 4 5
D. To visit nature areas such as National Parks 2 3 4 5
E. To minimize my own impact on the 2 3 4 5 environment
F. To use accommodation that is not wasteful 2 3 4 5 of natural resources
G. To donate money or volunteer time to 2 3 4 5 support conservation
H. To interact with local people in a culturally 2 3 4 5 sensitive manner
I. To learn about local customs, traditions, and 2 3 4 5 culture
J. To support shops and services owned by 2 3 4 5 local people
K. To support businesses that support local 2 3 4 5 people
L. To choose tourism companies that have the 2 3 4 5 best environmental and social practices
M. To donate money or volunteer time to local 2 3 4 5 charities
N. To learn about local environmental issues 2 3 4 5 and problems
0. To learn about animals, plants, and natural 2 3 4 5 features
P. To raise environmental awareness of others 2 3 4 5 124
Q. 11 As tourism is developed in Krabi following the Tsunami, a number of approaches are possible. Please indicate your thoughts on tourism development by indicating the importance of each of the following
NOT AT ALL SLIGHTLY MODERATLY VERY EXTREMELY I think tourism development should... IMPORATANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
A. Promote authentic 2-way 1 2 3 4 5 interaction with local people
B. Promote cultural sensitivity to the 1 2 3 4 5 local community
C. Minimize environmental impacts 1 2 3 4 5
D. Promote environmental awareness 1 2 3 4 5
E. Direct economic benefits to local 1 2 3 4 5 people
F. Promote hiring local people 1 2 3 4 5
G. Maximize involvement of local 1 2 3 4 5 people in tourism planning
H. Help diversify the local economy 1 2 3 4 5
I. Promote learning about local 1 2 3 4 5 culture
J. Promote learning about the natural 1 2 3 4 5 environment
K. Support conservation of natural 1 2 3 4 5 areas
Q. 12 Do you have any other views about how the people of Krabi should
approach rebuilding since the Tsunami?
ABOUT YOU
Q.13 What is your gender? 1 MALE 2 FEMALE Q.14 How old are you? YEARS
Q.15 What is the highest level of education that you have completed? 1 PRIMARY SCHOOL 2 HIGH SCHOOL 3 A TRADE SCHOOL 4 COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY
Q.16 About how many times have you visited Thailand 1 1 TO 5 VISITS 2 6 TO 10 VISITS 3 MORE THAN 10 VISITS
Q.17 What is your country of residence? COUNTRY
Q. 18 About how many days are you staying in Krabi? DAYS
Q.19 How much money do you estimate you have spent in the Krabi area? US DOLLARS
Thank you very much for completing this questionnaire. If you have any other remarks you would like to make, please use the space provided below.
Appendix 2 Questions for semi-structured interviews
Interview Guide
1. What are the main areas people like to climb?
2. What are the unique features of Krabi that bring people to climb?
3. What types of climbing do people participate in?
4. What kinds of guidelines do you provide your guides in terms of dealing with
clients?
5. What brings people to Krabi?
6. What are the characteristics of the people who come here?
7. What kinds of tourism experiences are people looking or?
8. What kinds of facilities are people looking for?
9. What kinds of concerns do people have?