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Masaryk University Faculty of Sciences Department of Geological Sciences

and Remote Sensing Analysis of Brittle from the Eastern Margin of the Dead Sea Transform, Jordan”

―Literature Thesis in Requirement for Doctor of Philosophy in Degree Program‖

Prepared by:

M.Sc. Omar Mohammad Radaideh

Supervisors:

Assoc. Prof. RNDr. Rostislav Melichar

Brno, Czech Republic 2013 OUTLINES

CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………...……………………… II

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………. III

LIST OF TABLE…………………………………………………………….…………………… III

CONTENTS PAGE

1. INTODUCTION 1

2. GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC SETTING 2 2.1 General Geological Overview

5 2.2 Major Tectonic Elements

3. SIGNIFICANCE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 7

4. METHODOLOGY 8 4.1 Paleostress 8

4.2 Remote Sensing 13

4.2.1. Linear stretching 16

4.2.2. Principal Components Analysis 16

4.2.3. Band ratios 17

4.2.4. Edge Enhancement 17

4.2.5. Intensity/Hue/Saturation (HIS) transformations 18

5. PREVIOUS STUDIES 19

5.1. Paleostress Analysis in Jordan 20

5.2. Paleostress in the Sinai-Israel Sub-Plate 22

5.3. Paleostress in the East Mediterranean 25

5.4. Summary of Paleostress Results 28

REFERENCES 28

II LIST OF FIGUERS

Figure Page

Figure 1: Location map of the study area…………………………………………………………… 1

Figure 2: Simplified geological map of the southwestern Jordan……………………………...…… 3

Figure 3: The Main tectonic features of the Dead Sea Transform………………………………….. 6

Figure 4: Generalized structure map of Jordan……………………………………………………... 7

Figure 5: Schematic flowchart illustrating the methods and steps that will be used in this study….. 8

Figure 6: ratio and stress ellipsoid…………………………………………………………… 9

Figure 7: The relationship between stress and ideal faults………………………………………….. 10

Figure 8: Types of stress regimes…………………………………………………………………… 11

Figure 9: Worksheet for entering the data to the Mark 2010 Program…………………….. 12

Figure 10: Criteria for determining the sense of motion on a surface…………………………. 13

Figure 11: The studied area, covered by four SRTM-DEM images ……………………………….. 15

Figure 12: The studied area, covered by four ETM+ images. ……………………………………… 15

Figure 13: Example of linear stretching, where pixel values 58-158 are stretched to 0-255……….. 16

Figure 14: First and second principal components………………………………………………….. 17

Figure 15: Principles of edge filter operation……………………………………………………….. 18

Figure 16: Coordinate system for the intensity, hue, and saturation (IHS) transformation………… 19

Figure 17: Synthesis of the major tectonic events in Israel and surrounding regions………………. 25

Figure 18: Shortening phases in southern Turkey…………………………………………………... 27

LIST OF TABELS

Table 1: A geological column of the study area……………………………………………………. 4

Table 2: Paleostress direction (SHmax) in Jordan, Syria, Sinai-Israel, and south Turkey………….. 28

III 1. INTRODUCTION Jordan is situated in the north-western corner of the Arabian plate between the stable part of the Arabian Plate and the unstable area of the Dead Sea Transform (DST). It has lateral variation in layer thickness and facies. The Arabian Shield basement is exposed in southwest of Jordan near of Aqaba Gulf (Edgell, 1992; Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Abed, 2000). The structural pattern of Jordan is affected by Miocene to recent opening of the Red Sea and the Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system. The DST is a sinistral wrench fault and part of the 6000 km long Afro- Arabian system, forming a transform boundary connecting the Red Sea with the Taurus- Zagros collision zone. It is considered to be a plate boundary between the Arabian plate in the east and the Israel-Sinai sub-plate (part of the African plate) in the west (Garfunkel, 1981; Edgell, 1992; Atallah et al., 2005). The study area is located in the east margin of the Dead Sea transform (Figure 1). It covers an area about 10644 km2 and includes sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, ranging in age from Precambrian to Quaternary age. The study area is characterized by numerous fault trends and different orientation of fractures.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area.

1 The regional of the Arabian plate (including Jordan) has been studied throughout macrostructures by many authors, but few analyses of the regional tectonics based on mesostructures were conducted. This study will integrate paleostress analysis based on the fault slip data in combination with Geographic Information system (GIS) and remote sensing to enhance our understanding of the structural and tectonic evolution of the east margin of the Dead Sea Rift. Moreover, recent satellite images will be used to characterize the spatial trends of lineament. It is hoped that the integration of satellite–based lineaments analyses from enhanced satellite imageries with fault slip data will provide more insight into the regional structure and tectonics of the study area.

2. GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC SETTING

2.1. General Geologic Overview

The study area incorporates exposures of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, ranging in age from Precambrian to Quaternary (Figure 2). The Precambrian and Palaeozoic units are only exposed in south area and in small parts along the Wadi Araba-Dead Sea-Rift. The Precambrian basement is part of the Arabian-Nubian shield (Rashdan, 1988; Petters, 1991; Al- Hwaiti et al., 2010) and divides into the Aqaba and Araba complexes. These complexes include various , diorites, pegmatites, aplites, rhyolithes and metamorphic rocks (Bender, 1968; 1974; 1975). The plutonic rocks are intruded by a vast number of intermediate to basic dykes. The orientation and concentration of dykes depend on availability of weakness zone such as fractures and joints in the rocks (Rashdan, 1988). Palaeozoic clastic sediments overlie the Precambrian Basement with Pre-Saq unconformity, and comprise of the Salib, Burj, Umm Ishrin, Disi, and Umm Sahm formations (Table 1). The Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian ages are not exposed in Jordan (Sharland et al., 2001; Bender, 1968; Bender et al., 1968; Bender, 1974; Barjous, 1992; Rabba, 1994). Triassic and Jurassic deposits are not present in the study area. The Cretaceous overlay the Palaeozoic sediments after a slight angular unconformity created by uplift and erosion during the Jurassic (Bender, 1968; 1974; Amireh, 1997; 2000). The Cretaceous deposits of the area comprise of the Kurnub Group, the Ajlun Group, and most of the Belqa Group (Table 1). The groups are separated from each other by regional unconformities (Powell, 1989; Powell et al., 1996). The Kurnub Group (Early Cretaceous) exposes along many

2 scarps and valleys, and consists mainly of white, pale yellow and pink to multicolored, medium to coarse grained quartzose sandstone, with rounded quartz granules and pebbles (Powell, 1989). The Ajlun Group (Early Cenomanian to Turonian-Coniacian) comprised of (in ascending order) Na‘ur, Fuhies, Hummer, Shuayb and Wadi As Sir formations. Generally, the Group consists of fine grained sandstone, calcareous siltstone, green-red mudstone, micritic limestone, yellow-tan marl and interbedded with harder beds of shelly micritic and dolomitic limestone (Powell, 1989). The Ajlun Group is overlain by the Belqa Group. The Belqa Group (Upper Cretaceous to Middle Eocene age) consists of Wadi Umm Ghudran, Amman Silicified Limestone, Al Hisa Phosphate, Muwaqqar Chalk Marl and Umm Rijam Chert Limestone (Powell, 1989). The Balqa Group consists mainly of massive bedded chalk, chert, limestone (micrete, microcrystalline, oyster-shell grainstone types), chalky limestone, phosphate and dolomitic marl. Cenozoic sedimentary deposits are covered many parts of the study area, spatially in the Dead Sea Rift. It consists of clay, marl, gypsum crystals, pleistocene fluviatile deposits, alluvial sediments, alluvial fans, and Wadi sediments (Powell, 1989).

Figure 2: Simplified geological map of the southwestern Jordan, modified from Strijker (2013).

3 Table 1: A geological column of the study area (compiled from Bender (1974; 1975), Rashdan (1988), Powell

(1989), Powell et al. (1994) and NRA (1995)).

Period Age Formation Description

Era Group

Holocene Alluvial fans , Wadi Unconsolidated sand, silt, clay and Quaternary (Recent) and lake sediments gravels

Pleistocene Lisan

Pliocene Neogene Gypsum, conglomerates, marl, clay,

Miocene n

Undifferentiated gravels, fine silt and clay.

Cenozoic Oligocene Jorda Paleogene Tertiary Eocene Umm Rijam chert

Paleocene Muwaqqar chalk marl Massive bedded chalk, chert, limestone Maastrichtian (micrete, microcrystalline, oyster-shell grainstone types), chalky limestone, Al Hisa phosphorite Campanian Belqa phosphate and dolomitic marl. Amman Silicified Santonian Wadi Umm Ghudran Torronian Wadi As Sir Shuayb Fine grained sandstone, calcareous

siltstone, green-red mudstone, micritic Cretaceous Hummer limestone, yellow-tan marl and

Cenomanian Ajlun

Mesozoic interbedded with harder beds of shelly Fuhies micritic and dolomitic limestone. Na‘ur Albian White, pale yellow and pink to multicolored, medium to coarse Aptian Kurnub grained quartzose sandstone, with Neocomian rounded quartz granules and pebbles Middle Silurian Khushsha Early Alternating cycles of fine- to medium- Late Mudawwara grained quartz arenite, mudstone and

shale

Middle Khrayim Dubaydib Ordovician Hiswa Early

Umm Sahm Paleozoic

Late Cambrian Disi Coarse arkosic sandstone, mature Late Middle Umm Ishrin quartz-arenite, dolomite, shale,

Cambrian Ram siltstone and pebbly conglomerate Early-Middle Burj Early Salib Araba complex Various granites, diorites, pegmatites, Pre-Cambrian aplites, rhyolithes, metamorphic rocks Aqaba complex conglomerate, mudstone and siltstone.

4 2.2. Major Tectonic Elements

The tectonics of Jordan is controlled by the N-S/NNE-SSW trending Wadi Araba-Dead Sea-Rift (Bender, 1968; 1974). It is a left-lateral (sinistral) wrench fault as well as a sequence of en echelon faults whose movements have opened a number of rift troughs (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). It is part of the 6000 km long Afro-Arabian rift system, extending from Mozambique to Turkey, forming a transform boundary connecting the Red Sea with the Taurus-Zagros mountains and forming the plate boundary between the Sinai microplate in the West and the Arabian Plate in the East (Bender, 1968; 1974). The Dead Sea Transform (DST) represents active zone (Haberland et al., 2006), and exhibits a total displacement of about 100 km within the last 20 Myr (Garfunkel, 1981). The regional plate motion and local geologic and seismic studies were conducted to estimate 1-10 mm/yr of relative slip rate across the DST (e.g., Freund et al., 1968; Mckenzie et al., 1970; Ben-Avraham et al., 1979; Garfunkel, 1981; Joffe and Garfunkel, 1987; Chu and Gordon, 1998; Klinger et al., 2000). The Dead Sea Rift displays a series of large pullapart basins that are Gulf of Aqaba, Dead Sea, Tabaria and Hula Lakes, and El Ghab basin. The Dead Sea basin is among the largest pull-apart basins worldwide and the lowest area in the world (Garfunkel, 1981; Ben-Avraham et al., 2008). The Jordan Dead Sea transform consists of three morphotectonic segments (Figure 3), the Wadi Araba Fault (WAF) in the south, the Dead Sea basin in the middle and the Jordan Valley Fault (JVF) in the north (Atallah et al., 2005). The study area is situated in the eastern part of the Wadi Araba Fault (Figure 4). The WAF extends over 160km between the Dead Sea basin and the Gulf of Aqaba with approximately N20°E trend and makes sharp morphological discontinuities that can be terraced across the alluvium (Atallah, 1990; Al-Hwaiti et., 2010). Other main faults in the southwest Jordan (Figure 4), including Al Quweira fault zone; Ras En- Naqb fault; Qa Disi Mudawara fault; and Salawan fault system.  The Ras En-Naqb fault is a distinctive NW-SE vertical normal fault and extends more than 65 km. It forms obsequent fault line escarpment and separates two distinctive geomorphic and environmental domains; the Paleozoic sandstone area to the southwest and the central desert limestone plateau to the northeast (Al Shumaimri, 2008).  The Salawan fault system (Feinan Zakimat Al Hisa fault zone) is one of the most distinctive E-W faults in Jordan. It is a dextral wrench fault and locally covered by

5 Quaternary sediments with downthrown more than 100 m in the some places (Barjous, 1987; Momani, 2006).  Qa Disi Mudawara fault (NW-SE) is bordering the Mudawara from the eastern side and it has two branches; one of them is normal fault (NNW-SSE trend) and the second branch has a NW-SE trend and has strike slip character. The downthrown of the Mudawara fault exceeds 100m to the northeast (Masri, 1988).  Al Quweira fault (~ N-S) is extending for several hundreds of kilometers from Saudi Arabia in the south to the Finan area in the southwest Jordan. The majority of displacement along the Al Quweira fault is related to the opening of the Red Sea and development of the Dead Sea (Barjous and Mikbel, 1990; Castaing et al., 1996). Estimations for sinistral strike-slip at the Quweira fault ranging from 8 to 40 km (e.g., Abu Taimeh, 1988; Barjus, 1987).

Figure 3: The Main tectonic features of the Dead Sea Transform.

6

Figure 4: Generalized structure map of Jordan, modified from Moumani (2006). The study area is indicated by the red rectangle.

3. SIGNIFICANCE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the major tectonic phases and contribute to the understanding of the kinematic history of the region, based on conjunctive analysis of the field collected and remotely sensed datasets. The main objectives of this study can be summarized as follow: (i) delineate, characterize, and collect information about the fractures and faults based on interpretations of various satellite images and field collected datasets. (ii) Define any correlation between the patterns and the major structural elements of the area, such as Dead Sea fault. (iii) Reconstruct the paleostress regime by determined the principal stress axes σ1, σ2, σ3, and the ratio of the principal stress differences R and suggest the main reason for this stress.

7

4. METHODOLOGY

An integrated approach based on the application of remote sensing and structural field data (fault slip data) will be used to analysis of the spatial distribution, orientation, and kinematics significance of the fault and fracture systems, and elucidate the tectonic history of the Area. The flowchart illustrates the methodology will be used in this study is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Schematic flowchart illustrating the methods and steps that will be used in this study. .

These following sections will discuss the methods that will be applied in this study and its application in the selected area.

4.1. Paleostress

The paleostress investigations are essential in studies of the tectonic evolution of the crust. It is a useful structural analysis to recreate the stress environments and tectonic mechanisms operating in the past. Furthermore, the paleostress field is important to understand the migration of fluids, and to explain fault reactivation (Du Rouchet, 1981; Gartrell and Lisk, 2005; Yamaji, 2007).

8 According to Zoback (1992) the paleostress direction can be determined based on the analysis of axes, faults, volcanic lineaments, focal mechanisms, , borehole breakouts and other brittle structures (joints, gashes and veins, , etc.). In this study the paleostress will be determined based on fault slip data which includes the measurements of both the fault plane and slicken-line orientations, besides of the relative sense of movement must be taken from the faults on various scales at outcrops. Generally, the mesoscale faults are characterized by highly number density; simple tectonic history with small deformation and displacements comparison with the large scale faults. For these reasons, the mesoscale faults are more used than large-scale faults to determine the with a higher spatial resolution (Yamaji, 2007). Analysis of the fault slip-data will be done to determine the reduced stress tensor (Angelier et al., 1982). The reduced stress tensor is represented by four parameters: the principal stress axes σ1 (maximum compression), σ2 (intermediate compression),

σ3 (minimum compression) and the shape parameter. According to Pêcher et al. (2008) the tenor shape parameter can be either Bishop's ratio R = (σ2-σ3)/(σ1-σ3), Lode‘s ratio μL = (2σ2-σ1-

σ3)/(σ1- σ3), or the similar parameter R0 = (σ1-σ2)/(σ1-σ3). The stress ratio describes the shape of the ellipsoid (Figure 6). The R-value close to 1 (σ1 = σ2 > σ3) indicates axial tensional stress, whereas R value close to 0 (σ1 > σ2 = σ3) indicates an axial compressional stress. Between the extremes, 0

Figure 6: Stress ratio and stress ellipsoid. (a) An axial compressional stress (σ1 > σ2 = σ3). (b) A triaxial stress. (c) An axial tensional stress (σ1 = σ2 > σ3). The rotations indicated by white arrows in (a) and (c) have no effect on the attitudes of ellipsoids or stress tensors (Sato and Yamaji, 2006).

9 Anderson (1905) recognized that principal stress orientations could vary among geological provinces within the upper crust of the earth. Anderson concluded that the connection between three common fault types: normal, strike-slip, and thrust and the three principal stress systems, arising as a consequence of the assumption that one principal stress must be normal to the earth's surface. The intermediate principal stress (σ2) is either vertical (strike slip fault) or horizontal (normal or reverse faults). The dynamic classification of faults is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: The relationship between stress and ideal faults (Burg, 2012).

Using the stress ratio (R) and assuming Andersonian (one of the principal stress axes is vertical), three major types of the stress regime are recognized (Figure 7): extensional (when σ1 is vertical), strike-slip or wrench (when σ2 is vertical), and compressive (when σ3 is vertical).

According to Guiraud et al. (1989) and Delvaux et al. (1995; 1997) the tectonic regime may vary continuously from radial to axial(Figure 8) as follows: radial extension (0 < R < 0.25), pure extension (0.25 < R < 0.75), transtension (0.75 < R < 1), pure strike-slip (0.25 < R< 0.75),

10 transpression (0 < R < 0.25), pure compression (0.25 < R < 0.75) and radial compression (0.75 <

R < 1).

Figure 8: Types of stress regimes (Delvaux et al., 1997).

Paleostress Computer Program

Several techniques have been developed for measuring or estimating palaeostress tensor (McKenzie 1969; Etchecopar et al., 1981; Gephart and Forsyth 1984; Michael 1984; Angelier 1990; Marrett and Allmendinger 1990). All the methods rely on the Bott‘s (1959) assumption that slip on a plane occurs in the direction of the maximum resolved shear stress. These methods allow the determination of the orientations of three principal stress axes σ1, σ2, σ3, and the ratio of the principal stress differences R, but do not yield information about the absolute values of stress. In this study, a new computer program MARK 2010 (Kernstockova, 2011) based on multiple in 9D-space will be used to calculate paleostress tensor. The program has new tools to find an appropriate stress tensor solution such as the stability criterion to control error- prone solutions, and density distribution tool to separate correct solutions and spurious ones (Melichar and Kernstockova, 2009). To determine the orientation of the principal stress axes and the R ratios by using the Mark 2010 program (Figure 9), the following basic data must be obtained directly from the field:

- Dip direction (αs) and Dip amount (φS) of fault planes.

- Direction (αs) and Plunge amount (φL) of slickenlines.

11 - Sense of movement.

With the above field data, the faults can be inverted to obtain the orientation of the principal stress axes that produced the observed movement along it.

Figure 9: Worksheet window for entering the data to the Mark 2010 Program.

Slip orientation is usually provided by lineations developed in the fault zone. According to Angelier (1979) the are smooth or shiny fault surfaces commonly striated in the slip direction. Slickenside features have been widely utilized to determine the direction and the sense of slip on fault surfaces. Petit (1987) claimed that the most useful way of determining direction and sense of movement is the direct observation on the fault surfaces (sense criteria), which may show not only striation but also minor structures, indicating the sense of relative movement. Petit (1987) determined the main factors that controlling in the formation of secondary structures, which are: (i) the presence and geometry of pre-existing joints; (ii) the physical properties of the involved (composition, , mechanical properties); or (iii) conditions of stress (relative or absolute values) and strain (amount of slip, strain rate, possible seismic movements). In outcrops, the surface features of the slickensides are commonly sense indicators; i.e. the incongruous accretion steps, the carrot shaped grooves of Scholz and Engelder (1976), debris trails and gouging/plucking marks of (Doblas, 1998), and the tensional and crescentic features of ‗T‘ criteria of Petit (1987). Different types of the criteria marks on fault planes adapted from Angelier (1994) are shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10: Criteria for determining the sense of motion on a fault surface: a) accretionary Mineral steps, b) tectonic tool marks, c) Riedel planes, d) stylolithes peaks, e) stepped surfaces, f) tension gashes, g) conjugate shear fractures, h) slickensides, i) other criteria (Angelier, 1994).

4.2. Remote sensing

Visible, near infrared (NIR), and mid infrared (MIR) bands of the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Bands Plus (ETM+) imageries and the hill shade maps derived from the DEM of shuttle radar topographic mission (SRTM-DEM) will be collected and used to extract significant surface features. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Images are defined in geographic coordinates of WGS-84 reference system. The SRTM images are composed of raster elevation data. The data source of these images is available via the NASA website address: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm. The Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), launched on Landsat satellite 7 in April 1999, contains the same data parameters as TM, but has upgraded radiometric calibrations (Pedelty et al, 1999). The ETM+ imageries is composed of 8 spectral bands with

13 three different resolutions; 30 meters for bands 1-5, and 7, 60 meters for band 6, and 15 meters for band 8. However, these bands can be resample ad stacked based on finer resolution of some bands. This procedure can enhance the resolution up to 15 meters. A spectral band is the discrete range of the electromagnetic spectrum that a sensor records (Vanclay and Preston, 1990). The Landsat database is available via the website address: http://www.landsat.org. ArcGIS v10, ERDAS Imagine 8.7, Arc view v3.2, ENVI 4.7, and PC Geomatic v12 software will be used to geo-reference and rectify the digital image data; enhance the visualization of the linear feasters on the landsat images; and determine and identify the orientation, length, and location of the lineaments. This study will utilize the following methodology to carry out the remote sensing analysis steps: Selection of proper ETM+ and SRTM-DEM imageries for the study area. Building an image mosaic for the study area (i.e. image suturing). The study area coverage of can be extended by combining adjacent image into a single mosaic, using Arc View GIS3.2 software. Stacking the different spectral bands will produce a composite imagery of the region. Each spectral band contains certain part of the reflected electromagnetic spectra. Stacking can allow for different combinations of red (R), green (G) and blue (B) to be investigated. Stacking will be conducted using ERDAS Imagine 8.7 software. Extracting surface lineament features by using manual and automated lineament extraction techniques and the comparison between them. The evaluation of lineament

maps will include density and orientation analysis. In this study four individual ETM+ and SRTM-DEM imageries were acquired for the mapping process. The path and row numbers of the imageries are given in Figure 11 and Figure 12, respectively.

14

Figure 11: The studied area, covered by four SRTM-DEM images which have path numbers (29 and 30) and row numbers (35 and 36), respectively.

Figure 12: The studied area, covered by four ETM+ images which have path numbers (173 and 174) and row numbers (39 and 40).

15 Five different enhancement techniques will be applied to Landsat ETM+ images. These are Contrast Stretching, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Band Rationing, Intensity/Hue/Saturation (HIS) transformations and Edge filter. This approach has been successfully used in different studies (Al Rawashdeh et al., 2007; Sarp, 2005; Pokharel, 2007; Gad et al., 2006). These methods are described in the following subsections.

4.2.1. Linear stretching: The goal of linear stretching is to expand the narrow range of brightness values present in an input image into wider range of gray of brightness. The result is an output image has a higher contrast between adjacent features (Pokharel, 2007). Figure 13 shows an example of a linearly stretched image.

Figure 13: Example of linear stretching, where pixel values 58-158 are stretched to 0-255 (Pokharel, 2007).

4.2.2. Principal Components Analysis: Principal components Analysis (PCA) is a statistical technique that transforms a multivariate data set of inter-correlated variables into a data set of new uncorrelated linear combinations of the original variables (Pohl and Van Genderen, 1998). While focusing the variation of the many bands into a smaller dimensioned image data set (Lillesand et al., 2004). PCA rotates the axis of spectral space by changing the spectral coordinate of the pixel. Prasad et al. (2001) claims that,

16 generally, spectral differences between materials may be more apparent in PCA images than in individual bands. Similarly (Nama, 2004) argues that the lineaments can be easily identified using PCA of the Landsat ETM+ image, which removes redundant. The new axes are parallel to the axes of the ellipse as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14: First and second principal components (Pokharel, 2007).

4.2.3. Band ratios:

Spectral band ratios are calculated as the division of dynamic number (DN) values in one spectral band by the corresponding pixel value in another band to create a new output image

(Sabins, 1997). This will give the DN values of specific geologic material compared to the surroundings (Gad and Kusky, 2006). RGB band ratio images (3/1, 5/7, 5/4, 3 /5) and a combination of ratios (3/5, 3/1, 5/7) will be used in the current study (e.g. Berger, 1994; Sarp,

2005; Al Rawashdeh et al., 2007; Qari et al., 2008).

4.2.4. Edge Enhancement:

The Edge enhancement filter is the process of emphasizing the signatures of edges on images

(Sabins, 1997). It will be used specifically to enhance edges and the sharpness of a satellite image for better visual interpretation and to reduce noise in an image. Edge filter operation

(Figure 15) involves moving a window with a certain kernel size a three-by-three array of

17 original pixel for each pixel in the resultant image. The result number value (R) is assigned to the center pixel in the output image (Sarp, 2005).

Figure 15: Principles of edge filter operation (Sarp, 2005).

4.2.5. Intensity/Hue/Saturation (HIS) transformations:

This technique will alter the image colors based on brightness, dominant wavelength, and spectral purity of a pixel across the different bands (Prasad et al. 2001). The IHS system is based on the color-sphere (Figure 3.16) in which the vertical axis represents intensity (I) (brightness variations and ranges from black (0) to white (255); no color is associated with this axis), the radius is saturation (S) (represents the purity of color and ranges from 0 at the center of the color sphere, which is completely impure to 255 at the circumference). The circumference of the sphere is hue (H) (represents the dominant wavelength of color). Hue values ranges from 0 at the midpoint and increase around the circumference of the sphere to conclude with 255 adjacent to 0 (Sabins, 1997). This method draws on a two approach: produce image presents colors more

18 nearly as the human observer perceives them; and produce the intensity, hue, and saturation images from any three bands of the RGB image system (Cohen et al., 2003).

Figure 16: Coordinate system for the intensity, hue, and saturation (IHS) transformation. The color at point A has the following values: I=205, H=75, S=130 (Sabins, 1997).

5. PREVIOUS STUDIES

The Dead Sea Rift has been the subject of many geological and structural studies (e.g., Eyal et al, 1981; Garfunkel, 1981; Livnat et al., 1987; Atallah, 1990; Hatzor et al., 1990; Zain eldeen et al., 2000; Brew, 2001; Atallah et al., 2005). Some of them investigated areas adjacent to the Dead Sea Rift based on macro and mesostructures (e.g., Mikbel and Zacher, 1981; Eyal, 1996; Eyal and Reches, 1997; Bahat, 1997; Zain eldeen et al., 2000; Diabat et al., 2003) and focal plane solutions of magnitude (e.g., Garfunkel, 1981; Kashai and Croker, 1987; Van Eck and Hofstetter, 1990; Mart, 1994; Sneh, 1996; Shapira, 1997; Sagy and Reches, 2000; Lunina et al., 2005). These studies provided varied information in accordance of their main objectives and approaches. The following sections show the structural studies based on macro and mesostructures that were conducted in different areas (Jordan, Israel, south Turkey, and Syria).

19 5.1. Paleostress Analysis in Jordan

Burdon (1959) recognized a paleostress rotation based on macrostructures data (mostly folds). He divided the tectonism of Jordan into tensional and compressional structures. He reports three SHmax directions phases. The first phase (Maestrichtian) was minor, approximately in the 285° direction. The second phase (Late Oligocene– Early Miocene) was major, approximately in the 322° direction. The third phase (Plio-Quaternary) was major, approximately in the 349° direction and took place in two sub-stages. He claimed that the two sub-stages were associated respectively with the displacement along the Dead Sea rift. Mikbel and Zacher (1981) in their publication titled: The Wadi Shueib struture in Jordan, used an aerial photo technique, and analyzed the directions of 70 ruptures that cut Cretaceous rocks. They note that the investigated structure is surrounded eastwards as well as westwards by undeformed horizontal beds of the same age. They identified a distinct SHmax at 295°. A study was conducted by Salameh and Zacher (1982) to investigate the relationship between and Paleostress. They measured the horizontal stylolites in limestones of the Upper Cretaceous in Jordan. They obtained SHmax at 315° and 350° for Late Oligocene–Early Miocene and Plio- Quaternary, respectively. Their results seem to be an agreement in orientation to the second and third phases which described by Burdon (1959). Paleostress analysis of the Cretaceous rocks in the Eastern margin of the Dead Sea Transform was performed by Diabat (1999) and Diabat et al. (2004). They determined the directions of the

σ1, σ2, σ3, and the ratio of the principal stress differences (R) using an improved version of the Right Dihedron Method (RDM), followed by rotational optimization (TENSOR program). Their results summarized the stress field east of the DST in two-stress systems; the Dead Sea system (DSS), trending NNW-SSE and the Syrian Arc system (SAS), trending ESE-WNW. The tectonic evolution of the eastern Wadi Araba segment of the Dead Sea transform in the southwestern Jordan was conducted by Zain Eldeen et al. (2000). Their work present the first palaeostress analysis obtained from fault-slip data along the eastern margins of the Wadi Araba fault. They performed stress inversion of the fault-slip data using an improved Right-Dieder method, followed by rotational optimization. Their fault-slip data obtained from outcrops ranging in age from Neoproterozoic crystalline basement to Holocene sediments. Zain Eldeen et al. (2000) showed evidence of a general clockwise rotation with time of the main axis of horizontal compression (SHmax) from an E-W trend in the Cretaceous to a N-S trend in the

20 Pleistocene. They found that the directions of the maximum horizontal compressive stress (SHmax) changed from E–W, NW–SE, NW–SE to NNW–SSE, and N–S, which approximated coincide with the Late Cretaceous, Eocene, Miocene, and Pleistocene, respectively. Moreover, the authors proposed that the Dead Sea Rift System formed due to a combination of strike-slip and dip-slip movements and it is still active till now. The orientations of stresses were measured in the central part of Jordan by Diabat (2003; 2007). His results show that two main stress states have been distinguished in the area. The older stress field is characterized by ESE- WNW compression, and corresponding NNE- SSW extension, which could be associated with the Syrian Arc Stress. The younger stress field is characterized by NNW-SSE compression with corresponding ENE- WSW extension, which is related to the Dead Sea Stress and the opening of the Red Sea. In the other hand, Diabat (2005) performed paleostress analysis to support the tectonic factor as a major role in initiation and triggering the sinkholes in Ghor Al Haditha region (Dead Sea Area). He measured the strike of 30 cracks and presented stress inversion of 150 fault-slip data. His results show that two main trends in the area; the first is directed in N-S and the other is nearly directed in E-W, in addition to minor trends oriented in NNW-SSE and ESE-WNW. Janssen et al. (2007) in their publication titled: Different styles of faulting deformation along the Dead Sea Transform and possible consequences for the recurrence of major earthquakes, presented results of stress tensor inversion and kinematic analysis. They showed stress tensor inversion of fault-slip data using the kinematic approach of Allmendinger (2001, program FaultKin 4.0). Their fault-slip data was mainly obtained from the outcrops of Upper Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous carbonates along the fault segments of the Dead Sea Transform. Their fault-slip data indicated a similar paleostress configuration for the fault segments selected (Arava/Araba, Serghaya, and Ghab fault segments). They observed no major changes between the principal orientations of the regional stress field along the selected fault segments during the time period covered by their data. Their inversion results are compatible with previous regional stress data (Eyal, 1996; Diabat, 2003; Diabat et al., 2004). Similarly, Diabat (2009) presented structural and stress analysis of the Amman area in Jordan. His Fault-slip data was obtained from the Turonian Wadi As Sir Formation, distributed mainly along the southern side of the Amman – Hallabat structure. His results showed the most of paleostress tensors are belonging to a major strike-slip regime of all types (pure strike-slip,

21 compressive strike-slip and extensive strike-slip) with σ1 swinging around N to NW direction.

The other stress tensors show σ2 (SHmax), σ1 vertical and σ3 are NE oriented. He claimed that the changes from predominantly strike-slip to predominantly normal faulting modes frequently occur during a single tectonic stage and a distinct stress field. On this base, the author suggested that there is NW compressional stresses affected the area and produced the major Amman – Hallabat strike-slip fault and its related structures, e.g., NW trending normal faults and NE trending folds in his study area.

Al Khatib et al. (2010) in their publication titled: Paleostress Analysis of the Cretaceous Rocks in Northern Jordan, presented stress inversion of 747 fault- slip data using an improved Right- Dihedral method, followed by rotational optimization, using WINTENSOR Program. Their fault-slip data was obtained from the Turonian Wadi As Sir Formation, and distributed mainly in the northern Jordan. Their results showed that the most of paleostress tensors are belonging to a major strike-slip regime with σ1 swinging around NNW direction. The other stress tensors show

σ2 (SHmax), σ1 vertical and σ3 are NE oriented. The authors concluded from the permutation of stress axes σ1 and σ2 that there are three paleostress regimes that belong to two main stress fields. The first is characterized by E-W to WNW-ESE compression and N-S to NNE –SSW extension, which is compatible with the formation of the Syrian Arc fold belt. The second paleostress field is characterized by NW-SE to NNW-SSE compression and NE-SW to ENE-WSW extension, and associated to Middle Miocene – Recent sinistral movement along the Dead Sea transform and the opening of the Red Sea.

5.2. Paleostress in the Sinai-Israel Sub-Plate

There are two different models regarding mesostructures and paleostresses in the Israeli Negev. One model is represented by Eyal (1996). He presented paleostress analysis based on an investigation of both mesostructures (including small fault and folds, veins, and stylolites) and macrostructures (including dikes and focal mechanism) data from the Sinai-Israel sub-plate. He finds that almost all middle Miocene to Recent SHmax and SHmin data compiled from the Sinai- Israel sub-plate cluster in two ―distinct‖ orientations. One SHmax trend striking 344 ±3°, is associated with SHmin striking 75° ±3°, and is identical with the Dead Sea stress field (DSS). The second SHmax trend striking 282 ±5°, is associated with SHmin striking 005° ±5°, and is consistent with the Syrian Arc stress field (SAS). The previous trends correspond to the stress

22 fields by Eyal and Reches (1983). These authors demonstrated that two separate stress regimes, relatively uniform in time and space, have acted in the Sinai plate since the Senonian: the ―Syrian Arc stress‖ (Senonian to Miocene-Pliocene age), and the ―Dead Sea stress‖ (Neogene to Recent age). The other model maintains that the sum of systematic sets in the Israeli Negev reflects a system of multi paleostresses (more than two major ones) that generally shows a clockwise rotation with time (Bahat, 1999). Flexer et al. (1984) investigated jointing in the Upper Eocene (Matred Formation) chalks and found a maximum at 334° in the Avedat , south Israel. Bahat and Grossmann (1988) investigated the fracture in the two , north and south of Be‘er Sheva. He identified two maxima: 328° (Eocene) and 344° (Miocene). Reches (1976) measured joint directions in limestones and dolomites that span in time from Early Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous, in the Hathira and Hazera . He found five joint sets and two direction maxima that coincided in the two folds: 270° and 295°. He concluded that these joints were formed during the beginning of the folding, after the Turonian age. Becker and Gross (1996) identified a maximum of joint direction at 293°, in carbonates of the Turonian Gerofit Formation in the Neqarot syncline, south of the Ramon fault. In addition, Bahat (1991) relates to an intensely jointed outcrop of Santonian chalk on the rift shoulder east of Arad (neighbors the Dead Sea) and identified a maximum at 318°. Thus, the combined observations made by Eyal (1996); Flexer et al. (1984); and Bahat (1991) show more than two major paleostress directions since the Upper Cretaceous in the area. Combining the above observations with additional results by various authors, Bahat (1999) suggested an alternative model to the one pertaining to two distinct SAS and DSS stress fields, as follows. Moreover, Bahat et al. (2007) presented a set of results that have been assembled from various investigations in the region (Israel, south Turkey, and Jordan), which support the paleostress rotation model. Their results show a clockwise rotation from 293° in the Late Cretaceous to 355° in the Plio-Quaternary with a mean clockwise rotation velocity of ~0.74° per Ma for this period. Azimuth readings across this rotation range in Israel as follows: 270°–306° (Late Cretaceous), 326°–334° (Eocene), 343°–344° (Late Miocene), and 350°–360° (Plio- Quaternary). Their observations support the theory by Letouzey and Trémolières (1980) about a connection of the paleostress rotation around the Mediterranean Sea to the closure of the Tethys Ocean. In addition, Hardy et al. (2010) conducted a field and mechanical analysis of meso-scale

23 faults data to reconstruct a high resolution tectonic evolution, and to characterize the stress fields associated with the major tectonic deformation events of the southern Levant area (Israel) since Mesozoic times. Their results indicate that the tectonism in Israel and surrounding regions are mainly divided into the following five tectonic events since Mesozoic times (Figure 17): 1. a rifting that led to the development of the Levant basin occurred during the Permian to Early Mesozoic. 2. a NNE–SSW to NE–SW extension produced normal faulting during Campanian times. 3. a WNW–ESE to NW–SE compression during Maastrichtian–Paleocene times leading to the development of the Syrian Arc folds in Israel. 4. a NNW–SSE to NNE– SSW extension active, at Eocene times. 5. a complex stress field corresponds to the development of the Dead Sea fault system, and including two major compressions, respectively trending NNW–SSE and WNW–ESE, a minor compression trending NE–SW, as well as two extensions striking NE–SW and E–W. Moreover, Levi (2003) investigated jointing within and vicinity two quasi-synclinal areas, north and south of the Paran fault, south Israel. He identified three maxima in Eocene chalks: 326° (Eocene), 343° (Late Miocene), and 350° 360° (Pliocene-Quaternary). Lunina (2005) and Lunina et al., (2005) presented integrated investigations including the structural analysis of shear fractures and fault zones, the reconstruction of stress fields and the fractal analysis of the epicentral field of recent earthquakes in the Dead Sea Rift. Their results of the stress field reconstructions show that two main types of local stress tensors are associated with the structural development of the Dead Sea rift: (1) tension with E–W (mainly) and ENE–WSW trending σ3 and (2) transcurrent with NE–SW (sometimes nearly E–W) trending σ3 and NW–SE (sometimes nearly N–S compression) trending σ1.

24

Figure 17: Synthesis of the major tectonic events in Israel and surrounding regions (Hardy et al., 2010).

5.3. Paleostress in the East Mediterranean

Letouzey and Tremolieres (1980) examined a large number of tectonic stylolites, joints, shear planes and faults in sedimentary rocks around the Mediterranean Sea, in order to investigate paleostress directions. They categorized the paleostress directions in south turkey into the following four phases (Figure 18):

25 a. The first phase (late Cretaceous shortening) includes that the SHmax direction changed from 075° to 280° west of the belt of Levantin faults in north Syria. The 315° shortening, taken to be the north Arabian average direction, was prominent east of this belt. b. The second phase (Late Eocene-pre-Middle Oligocene) includes that the SHmax direction changed from 330° in the western side to 355° in the eastern side of the northern Arabian plate. c. The third phase (Late Miocene) showed changes in the SHmax between E-W in the western side and 355° in the eastern side of the northern part of the Arabian plate. d. The fourth phase (Plio-Quaternary) is the continuation of the Late Miocene stage in the north of the Arabian platform. It showed compression directions 025° in the Alpine zone, N-S in the western boundary of the northern Arabian platform, and 025°, east of the boundary of the northern Arabian platform (Fig. 18d).

26

Figure 18: Shortening phases in southern Turkey, where circle diagrams give the paleostress directions. A) Late Cretaceous phase. B) Late Eocene-Early Oligocene phase. C) Late Miocene phase. D) Plio-Quaternary phase (modified from Letouzey and Tremolieres 1980).

27 Paleostress analysis in the Northwestern Syria was performed by Zanchi et el. (2002). Their results show two main directions of the SHmax connected to the tectonic evolution of the northwestern wedge of the Arabian plate. N–S compression recorded in the Aleppo Plateau and in the Euphrates region during late Miocene. It is induced by the opening of the Red Sea, consistently with northward motion and underthrusting of the Arabian plate below the Eurasian margin. NW–SE compression (Plio-Quaternary) is related to the activation of the Syrian segment of the Dead Sea Transform (DST). In addition, they recorded the NE–SW stress regime along the Syrian segment of the DST and only locally along the western margin of the Aleppo Plateau.

5.4. Summary of Paleostress Results

The results obtained by many studies that were conducted in different areas (Jordan, Sinai-Israel, south Turkey and Syria), show a general clockwise rotation of the paleostress direction (SHmax axis) with time from the Upper Cretaceous to Pleistocene. Table 2 compares results of the paleostress direction from four different areas (Jordan, Syria, Sinai-Israel, and south Turkey).

Table 2: Paleostress direction (SHmax) in Jordan, Syria, Sinai-Israel, and south Turkey.

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