Linear B, 356 Thomas G

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF THE BRONZE AGE AEGEAN ( ca. 3000-1000 BC)

Edited by ERIC H. CLINE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2010 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam I-long Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With officesin Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Oxfordhandbook of the Bronze age Aegean/ edited by Eric 1-1. Cline. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 1. Civilization, Aegean. 2. Bronze age-Aegean Sea Region. 3. Aegean Sea Region-Antiquities. 4. Excavations (Archaeology)-Aegean Sea Region. I. Cline, Eric 1-1. II. Title: Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. DF220.O946 2010 939.'101-dc22 2009014131

Undertaken with the assi�tance of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory

13579 8642 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper CONTENTS IX

22. Trade, 291 Bryan E. Burns

23. Weapons and Warfare, 305 Ioannis Georganas

Seals and Writing/Administrative Systems

24. Minoan Seals and Sealings, 317 Judith Weingarten

25. Mycenaean Seals and Seatings, 329 John G. Younger

26. Cretan Hieroglyphic ~nd Linear A, 340 Helena Tomas

27. Linear B, 356 Thomas G. Palaima

28. Cypro-Minoan, 373 Nicolle Hirschfeld

Material Crafts

29. Materials and Industrie s, 387 Doniert Evely

30. Minoan Pottery, 405 Birgitta Ha/lager

31. Mycenaean Pottery, 415 Jeremy B. Rutter

32. Textiles, 430 Brendan Burke

33. Jewelry, 443 Robert Laffineur

Events

34. Eruption of Thera/Santorini, 457 Sturt W Manning

35. The Trojan War, 475 Trevor Bryce CHAPTER 27

LINEAR B

THOMAS G. PALAIMA

LINEAR B is a Lat e Bronze Age (ca . 1500-1200 BCE) writing system within the distin ctiv e tradition of Cretan and Cretan-inspired scripts (Cretan Hieroglyphic and Lin ear A, Cypro-M ino an, and Cypriot e Syllabic) that spann ed nea rly two mill enni a (ca. 2100 to ca. 225 BCE) (Barton ek 2003, 16-49; Chadwick 1987; Duhou x 1989; Palaima 1989, figure s 4 and 9; O livier 2008). It is an adaptation of th e ea rlier (ca. 1900-1450 BCE) Lin ear A, with wh ich it share s peculiarities in th e use of both th e signs that repre sent so und s (phono grams) and the signs that represent objects (id eograms) or the wo rds for tho se objects (lo gog rams ) (D uh oux 1985; 1989, 63, 72-76). Unlik e the oth er Bronze Age scripts in thi s tradition ( Cretan Hieroglyphic, Lin ear A, and Cypro-Minoan), Linear B has been deciphered-b y British architect Micha el Ventris . Ventris announced his achievement for th e first tim e in per sonal hand writt en letter s of June 18, 1952, to two close collaborators, Emmett L. Bennett Jr. and Sir John L. Myres (Robinson 2002, 102-106; Palaima, Pope, and Reilly 2000). Th e primary language in th e pre served Lin ear B text s is Greek (Ventris and Chadwick 1953), as it was devel oping in the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. Like th e histori cal Greek lexicon, the lexicon of the Linea r B text s (Ventri s and Chadwick 1973, 527-9 4; Aura Jorro 1985, 1993) contains loan words th at come from the lan guag es of the many cu ltur es with whi ch first th e Minoans during th eir two palatial period s (M M II-LM IB) and then th e Mycenaeans during th eir palatia l period (LH II-LH IIIB ) were in co nta ct. Thi s includ es the lan guag es of th e so-ca lled substrat e cultur es with which the Greek speake rs intera cted when they entered the Balkan penin sula and as they then sp read ou t ove r the Aegean area (Brown 1985, 1-19; Hester 1968; Renfrew 1998). Th e Linear B texts, therefore, give us information about an imp ortant forma tive stage of th e Greek lang uag e and how it was affected by language contact with LINEAR B 357 surrounding cultures . They also provide our earliest primary written evidence about all facets of Mycenaean palatial civilization. Finally, because what we call the Mycenaean Linear B script is an adaptation of Minoan Linear A, Linear B texts give us insights into how speakers of the still undeciphered Minoan language(s) and of early Greek analyzed spoken languag e and how they represented it in writing as 'v is ible speech' (Sharypk.in 2008; Woodard 1997; Palaim a and Sikkenga 1999).

THE DISCOVERY AND PUBLICATION OF TEXTS

The first scientificall y excava ted Linear B tablets were unco vered by Sir Art hur Evans at th e site of Knos sos on Crete on March 30, 1900 (Evans 1900, 18, 55-58; MacGillivray 2000, 177-78, 181-85). Many more texts were uncov ered in th e succeeding years of excavation. There are no w about forty-two hundred texts from Knossos, man y of which are small fragments (Shelm erdine 2008b, 181133;Bartonek 2003, 30). Evans was th e first great schol ar of Aegean writing systems (Pa laima 2000a). The adjective 'great' is no exaggeration. In fact, Evans's inter ests in early writing systems are what led him to become an excavator (Myres 1941). Evans devised the first typolo gy of Bronze Age Aegean scripts in Scripta Minoa I (Evans 1903- 1904, 1909) and then turn ed his attention to other m atters ( e.g., reconst ruction of the Knossos site and full, synthetic publication of its excavation [Evans 1921-1935] and even Balkan diploma cy in the aftermath of World War I). Conse quentl y, Evans's plann ed companion volume on Linear B, Scripta Minoa II, was published only in 1952. It was a major reworking of the manu script he left at his death in 1941 to the care of Sir John L. Myres. Myres, who was not a specialist in script s, first enlisted in 1947 major help from Alice E. Kober, arguably the foremost scholar working on Aegean writing in the 1940s. After Kober's death in 1950, Myres received help from Emmett L. Bennett Jr., whose work on the Pylos tablet s had been interrupt ed by his service analyzing Japane se encoded texts during World War IL The only other scholar who did sustain ed and consistently sober analytical work on the linear scripts before 1941was Johann es Sundwall of Finland (Sundwall 1920, 1932, 1936). Scripta Minoa II (Evans 1952), however, was prevented from becoming th e fully scientific publication that Alice Kober wanted it to be for two reasons . First, dir e postwa r eco nomi c condition s made it necessary for the Clarendon Press to use plates and fonts (for charts of signs and drawing s and trans criptions of texts ) that had been produced for Evans when Scripta Minoa I and Palace of Minos were pub lished. Second, Myres viewed it as his obligation to publish a faithful edited version of the book that Evans had partiall y written, not the up-to-date scientific study that Kober and Bennett were capable of producing. Scripta Minoa II, when it appeared, was already a fossil. In the decades after Evans's initial finds at Knossos, there were two major imped iments to further progress on Linear B: Few of the nearly eighteen hundred tablet s 358 THEMATIC TOPICS that Evans had un cove red from Kno ssos were carefully publish ed and availab le to scholars , and th ere we re no further discove ries to add to the vari ety and quantity of th e Linear B dat a. The probl em with nonpublication of the Kno ssos mat erial was partly remedied whe n Palace of Minos, volume IV, ap peared in 1935 (Evans 1921- 1935). It presented a selection of tabl ets with learned comm entar y. Significant help with th e seco nd prob lem came when Professor A. D. Keramo poull os at Th ebes in 1921 began his discove ry of a large depo sit of tr anspor t st irrup jars, twenty-eight of which bore paint ed Linear B inscriptions (Wace 1921, 272-73). The oth er im po rt ant predecipherment discovery of tab lets was made by Carl W. Blegen in 1939, whe n excava tin g at th e site of Pylos in Messen ia in th e south west Greek mainl and (Blegen and Kourouniotis 1939). The advent of Wo rld War II dela yed the publication of th ese 636 tablets, but in 1951 they were given to the scho l arly wo rld in a carefu l, regular ized transcription by Emmett L. Benn ett Jr. (Benne tt 1951), based up on his eq ually painstaking wo rk on the forms of signs of the sylla bary in his earlier dissertatiqn (Ben nett 1947).

NUMBERS AND GENERAL TIME PERIOD OF TEXTS

In the fifty- six years since th e decipherment of Linear B, the corpus of Linear B inscripti ons has great ly expanded. We now have m ore th an five tho usand inscrib ed clay records from Khan ia and Knossos on Crete and from Pylos, Mycenae, Tiryns, M idea, and Thebes on the mainland (Barto nek 2003, 30; De l Freo 2008, 213-22). The limited numbers of clay records are explained by the fact that th ey are pre served on ly when accident ally fired in the destru ction of th e buildings in which th ey were located. The rul e is: no fire, no tablet s. Thi s also severely limit s the coverage that the se economic docume nt s provide of human eco nom ic, political, reli gious, and socia l activities. Th e Linear B texts were never intended to be long lasting. They were writt en, sto red, and consulted in conn ect io n with th e administrative year in progress. They look back at th e year past and ahead at th e year comin g. There is no syste m in th e tablets eq uivalen t to th e hi stor ical Greek practi ce of datin g decrees or other in scription s by reference to eponymo us magi strate s (arc hon s), pries ts, or prieste sses . We have evidence for on ly one or at most two or three rand om ly selected and und ated years at any given Mycenaea n site. Thus, we have littl e way o f reco nstru ctin g tr end s, beyond a single year, over tim e. Th ere has been, ho wever, some at ten tio n paid to th e chron ology of texts within a given ad mini strative ph ase (Palaima 1995). In additi on, painted inscription s on ca. 160 tran spor t stirrup jars are known from five sites o n Cret e (Malia, Knossos, Armenoi, Khania, and Monastiraki) and seve n sites on th e Greek m ainland (Tiryn s, Midea, Mycenae, Eleusis, Kreus is, Thebes, and Orchomenos) (Van Alfen 2008). Th ere is also a single stone 'para llel epiped' from th e import ant north ern site of Iolko s, which was identified lon g ago LINEAR B 359 by Nilsson (1932) as a potential major palatial site. It has three sign s inscribed into it (Del Freo 2008, 215-16 and note 82). All of the inscribed mat erial com es from the 14th and 13th centuri es BCE (at Pylos the transition into the 12th), and all of it com es from the environ s of significant settle ments (Dri essen 2008). We have no good evidence yet that Linear B was used at the smaller settlements within the stru ctur e of regional organization in Mycenaean palatial territ ories that are called second - or third -order centers (Benn et 1990, 1998).

AN UNLIKELY INSCRIBED PEBBLE

It has been propo sed th at our earliest Linear B text is an inscrib ed pebbl e from an insignificant M iddl e Helladi c settl em ent in the district of Elis, found supp osedly in a mid -M H III (i.e., ca. 1650 BCE) cont ext (Del Freo 2008, 216-17) . Here follow th e many reaso ns to reject thi s prop osal ( as argued fully by Palaima 2006 b ). Th e very status of the site where it was found m akes it highly dubi ous, as does th e fact that the galet, as it is kn own in Mycenological circles, was discovered on April Fool's Day (April 1, 1994). Also humorou sly suspicious is the inscribed image of a doubl e ax surr ound ed by cartoo nlike rays ( compl etely unp ara lleled in Minoan or Iviycenaean art ). As regards writin g style, the Linear B signs are not early prototyp ical form s that we would expect in 1650 BCE, but they are in the style of the ma in scribe at Pylos ca. 1200 BCE (450 years after the date of the pebbl e). Wh en the sign group s are read, they give the names and nicknames of the son of the excavator and possibly his father. It is surpri sing that this object has been publi shed as a genuin e inscription and almo st un conscionable that it is now being cited, wheth er un critically or with reservations, in handb ooks and discussions of the history of Linear B ( e.g., Barton ek 2003, 73- 74; Driessen 2008, 76).

TYPOLOGY OF CLAY DOCUMENT INSCRIPTIONS

Even be fore th e deciph erm ent , Kober and Benn ett exp loited th e typol ogy of th e clay inscriptions in Linear B as a means of stud ying th eir texts. All Linear B tablets are devised so th at they can be held in one hand, while writin g with th e oth er. We even find th e finger impre ssion s of scrib es along the edges of the texts where the y gripp ed the tablets (Palaima 1988). Th e two main shapes are (1) lon g, narro w tablets that Evans called leaf shaped becau se th ey remind ed him of palm-l eaf docum ents from south Asia; and (2) rect angular , page-shaped texts (Palmer, 2008a , 61, figur e 2.1). Th e leaf-shaped tabl ets are used m ainly for document s focu sed on discrete record s within larger bookkeepin g assignm ent s. Go od exampl es are th e inspecti on invent ories of individu al sets of 360 THEMATIC TOPICS armor (and helmets) in the Pylos Sh series (Palaima 1996a); ration allotments to dependent women work groups in the Pylos Aa, Ab, and Ad series (Chadwick 1988; Palmer 1989); the receipts of six taxed commodities in the Pylos Ma series, which the principal districts making up the territory of the palatial state of Pylos each have to give (Ventris and Chadwick 1973, 289-95, 464-66); honey being shipped to the sanctuary of Zeus specifically for Zeus and Dionysos in Khania Gq 5 (Palaima 2004a, 448); and the assignment of armor, a chariot, and a pair of horses to indi vidual warriors in the Room of the Chariot Ta blets at Knossos (Driessen 1996). Page-shaped tablets are used to q)mpile and summarize the information that might originally have gone on a number of leaf-shaped documents or to record the responsible parties involved in transactions and activities involving large numbers of individuals, localities; or institutions. These tablets generally are records of distri bution, delivery, collection, mobilization, inventory, or census. Good examples are a simple record of rowers of a single ship coming from fivecommunities in Messenia (Pylos An 1: Killen 1983)i bronze allocation to groups of smiths (Pylos Jn series: Smith 1993); the mundane daily allotment of grain to individuals and workers who perform different services within the palatial system (Thebes Fq series: Palaima 2006a); and the list of human beings connected with organizations involving the lawagetas and the basileus (KN As 1516: Driessen 1985). Clay is used in Mycenaean administration also for nodules. These are small lumps of clay molded around knotted string and impressed with a seal (Hallager 1996, 31-38; [Palmer, 2008a, 61, figure2.1] ). Linear B-inscribed nodules usually serve as records of single transactions (Palaima 1996b, 2000b). The best example here is the set of sixty-one such devices (fifty-sixinscribed) discovered at Thebes and deal ing with animals being provided for a sacrificial feast (Piteros, Olivier, and Melena 1990 ). The inscriptions and seal impressions in the Theban nodules identify respon sible parties, place names (including Thebes itself and Amarunthos and Karustos in Euboea), the kinds of animals, and the conditions under which these contribu tions are made (whether 'paid' as a kind of religious obligation or 'finished off,'i. e., brought into a state fit forsacrifice) (translation and discussion in Palaima 2004b, 220-21, 225-28, 237-39 ). Finally, clay was pressed flat against the outer surface of transport baskets made of woven, pliant plant fiber (generically 'wicker'). These 'labels' were then inscribed with brief descriptions of the tablets that were placed inside the baskets. The baskets were carried from one location to another. The labels from Pylos all come from the centrally located Archives Complex.

GENERAL TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS

A key resource in interpreting the Linear B documents is palaeography (Palaima forthcoming), literally the study of 'old writing.' Many of the common signs of LINEAR B 361 the Linear B script are complex in form, with lines cro ssing or running into one another. Moist clay generally preserv es a clear record of the habitual ord er in which individual tablet writers made particular signs and the peculiar ways the y dre w component elements. This and other idiosyn cratic featur es, such as tablet layout, vocabulary, subj ect m atter, and spe lling variants, have made it possible to identify 'scribal hand s.' By studying their work, we can reco nstruct, at least partiall y, th e admini strati ve systems (includin g central archives) in which the tablet writ ers fun c tioned (Palaima 2003a). Three speciali zed studie s (O livier 1967, Palaima 1988, Dr iessen 2000) of scr ibes and th eir wor k have been cru cial in deter minin g how to int erp ret sets and othe r group s of tabl ets from Knosso s and Pylos and even how to establi sh th e relative chronology of th e tablets from a ·parti cular site. The stud y of tr aces of palm prints on tablet surfa ces, mad e, it seems, by youn g apprentic es and older retirees who assisted the tablet writers in th eir work (Sjoq uist an d Astr bm 1985, 1991) has also added to our und erstan din g of how tablet'writer s int eracted with each other. A major recent advan ce is th e app lication of phylogenetic system atics to th e palaeogra phic al data (Skelton 2008). Skelton has used thi s biolo gical research m ethod to determ ine th e most probable lin e of chronol ogical developm ent of th e styles of th e id entifi able scribal hands an d to tra ce po ssible affinities among tab let writ ers. Signifi cantl y, Skelto n's study independently isolated th e same groups of texts th at scho lars of palaeography had considered so mehow problemat ical or anom alou s. The phylogenetically deter min ed chron ology is right in lin e, too, with th e relative chronolo gy devised by palaeographers. It also puts the forgery (see ear lier) kno wn as the Kafkania galet where it would belon g stylistically, 1200 BCE, if it were genu ine.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE TABLETS

Th e Linear B tablets have a chronol ogical range. Most problematical, as might be expec ted because scientific m ethod s for th e control an d recor din g of data were not very advanced at th e tim e, are the earliest excava ted tablets from th e site of Knossos, spec ifically those th at come from the Room of the Chariot Tablets (RCT). Driessen (2000, 2008, 70-72) has argu ed convin cingly on th e basis of text typology, sm all lin guistic pecu liariti es, th e discovery amo n g the se tab lets of 'tr ansition al' types of clay sealin gs, palaeogra phi cal singularit y, and the decided lack of any pro sopographic al conn ectio n between th e RCT texts and th e rest of th e Knossos tablet s, th at th e RCT tablet s are earlier th an oth er Knossos tablets. The RCT tablet s may be d ated to LH IIIA1 (ca. 1390- 1340 BCE). In spring 1990, three tablet s were discovered at the Khania site in a secur e end of LH IIIB1 context (early to mid-1 3th century BCE). The handwriting and formatting style of th ese tablets was very similar but not identical to that found on th e tablet s 362 THEMATIC TOPICS of Scribe n5 at Knossos (O livier 1993, 1996; Palaima 1993). This suggests that at least some of the remaining Knossos tablets shou ld be dated to this phase. On the mainland, tablets from the so-ca lled houses at Mycenae and various locations on the citade l of Thebes, as well as from Midea, Tiryns, and the major de struction phase at Pylos, date from mid - to very late LH IIIB, even transitional into LH IIIC (ca . 1250-1190 BCE). Exceptions are a few contextually isolated tablet s from Pylos that also show palaeographic al and lexical pecu liariti es. Th ese may come from LH IIIA (Dr iessen 2008, 73). A tabl et from Petsas House at Mycenae (She lton 2003) comes from an LH IIIA2 context.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LINEAR B SCRIPT

Even befor e the decipherment of Linear B, schol ars like Bennett, Evans, Kober, Sundwall, and Ventris cou ld distingui sh within th e Linear B text s signs that repr e sented words through th eir phonetic parts (phono gram s) and signs that stood for objects (ideograms) or th e whole words (logograms) for those objects. For the se components and how th ey work separately and together, see Duhou x (1985, 11-19) and Palmer (2008a, 31-35) . As m entioned earlier, Linear B has a set of phonogr am s (see figure 27.1) that represent discrete elements of so und (pure vowels (V] or open-sy llabic combi nation s of consonant plus vowel f CV]). There are about eighty-seven such signs now identified. About sevent y-five of these have been given secur e or very prob able values. The 'spe llin g rul es,' we have lately come to think, reflect the natural ways in which native speake rs of Minoan and Greek, or bilingual Minoan/Greek speakers, conceived of words. For example, writers of Linear B spell the later Greek word for 'human being' anthropos a-to-ro-kwo, where both then that precedes the later Greek th eta Ith/ and the final s are not written; th e aspiration of the It! is not written; th e length of th e first/a/ vowel is not repr esented; and the sequenc e thr is wr itten to-ro with what is called a 'du mmy vowe l' taken from the syllable that this seq uence of consonants begin s. Finally, the last syllable in thi s exam ple begins with a consonant called a labiov elar (a combination of a palatal stop and the glide /w/ tr eated as a basic so und, or phon eme, in th e languag e). Labiovelar s in specific environments develop into various simple consonants in histori cal Greek (i.e., they disappear from Greek speec h). In order to repre sent the peculiar features of th e Minoan languag e, Linear A script used a set of syllabic signs that stand for combinations of stop conso nant s (e.g., /ti and !di) and palatal and labial glides (lyl and lwl) plus, of course, vowels. Linear B preserves some of th ese signs as holdover s (Duhoux 1985, 41-48). So, for example, the word in the sphere of chariot whee l construction that means 'prov ided with a termis' (referring to a kind of insertion technique used at the points on whee ls where the spokes met the rims) is spelled alternatively te-mi-de-we-te and te-mi-dwe-te. In LI NE A R B 363

08 38 28 61 10 a ~ e A i 't' 0 [J u F 01 45 07 14 51 rn da ~ de 1x di I do ? du «( 57 46 36 65 j a j e ~ j o T j u Vrt 77 • 44 67 70 81 ka EB ke m ki ~ ko CV' ku • 1 80 13 ,,. 73 15 23 ma ~ me mi V mo =1/ mu r 06 24 30 52 55

na 111 ll!Js y ne f y no A nu ~ 03 72 39 II 50 p~ :j: pe ~ pi Iii po t, pu 11' 16 78 21 32 qa '?' qe §- qi i qo -y- 60 27 53 02 26 ra , ~ re r ri ; ro t ru ~ 31 09 41 12 58 sa y se r si It\ so t=/ SU E 59 04 37 05 69 la C te - - ti IT\ to f tu w 54 75 + 40 42 wa FA we 2 wi ti WO E 17 74 20 za f ze [ zo 1'

25 43 85 29 a, t a3 T\ au ~ pu2 • mhu? \ti 76 33 68 66 ra, ii rai

both of these spellin gs, the Ir/ that precedes Im/ is not rep resented. However, in one spelling th e consonant sequence ar ising in word forma tion fro m suffixation (termid went-) is treate d as a sequ ence of two consonant sound s (de-we), wh ile in the ot her spellin g, thi s con sonant cluster is heard and rep resent ed in a Minoa n way-a lmost as a single ph onem e ( dwe). 'Extr a' signs, like dwe, which are usefu l but not neces sary, and th e 'parti al spellings' we ju st looke d at give th e Linear B syllabary a look of inefficiency, especially in contr ast with th e late r Cypriot e syllabary (Olivier 2008). However, th ey are rightl y explaine d as good evidence for th e conti nuin g influ ence 364 THEMATIC TOPICS

Human s 100 102 MAN n WOMAN rr An imals 104 105 105 105m DEER l'.t> HORSE ~ HORSEr ~ HORSEm ~ 1061 106"' 1071 107m SHEEPr °fi SHEEP111 ~ GOATrA GOAT"' "t 108' 108m 109 109"' PIGf I?' PIGm p BOV!Dr '?if BOVIO"' 'ff Vege table 120 121 122 123 produ cts BARLEY' .zp- WHEAT? I OLIVE 7 SPICE st3 125 129 130 13 1 CYP ERUS ( f LOIIR ~ OIL 1' WINE ITT 144 174 176 JO SAffRON cD "1121 TREE y fl GS y Metal 140 141 167 BRONZE ~ GOLD ~ INGOT ~ Fiber and cloth 31 145 146 159 FLAX ,If WOOL ~c1~ CLOTH ~ CLOTH Q Animal 151 152 153 154 product s HORN ~ OX HIDE 1# SHEEPSKIN© 9 0 155 ,,JC "JC moo Vases 200 201 202 ·~ " o;::;,, ~ TRIPOD hf 0

203 'MO 204 %>< 205VA>to 206'M<0 u ~ \) ~ ,.,.·. 207 ,,,,,·, 208 ""' 209 2 10 ""' ~ v AMPHORA'fJ STIRRUPJAR O" 211 "J' 2 12 v.s>c 2 13 >JC 215 "JC

w &;} '-7 KYLIX Y 226VA'1·. 227 "'·'" 229 rtOC 250 .,,,c ~ RHYTON b 6 qt' Armor and 162 163 191 230 wea pons BREASTPLATE ~ ARMORSE T 010 HELMET q SPEAR"\, 232 SACRIFICIAL AX 23 J ARROW 233 SWORD~ 254 JA YELIN ~ - 7Y Chariots 240 24 1 242 CHARIOT 243 CHARIOT~~ CHA SSIS~ ~ BOX [1.,--'" WHEEL EB

Figure 27.2. Selected Linear B ideogra ms according to category (ba sed on ima ges from Duhoux and Morpurgo Davies 2008; courtesy of Ruth Palmer).

of Minoan cultur e within Mycenaean cu ltur e. Several hund red tabl et writers had no difficult y using th e script effectively and routinel y on a dail y basis. On e final way th at we can tra ce Minoan elem ents in th e Linear B script is among th e ideogram s (see figure 27.2) . Th e ideog ram for 'figs' in Linear Bi s also used as th e phonogram for th e phon etic value /nil. Greek used th e loa n wo rd sukon for 'figs,' with initial syllable /su/, so we assume that /nil in Linear A was th e initi al syllable of th e Minoan word for 'figs.' This is confirmed by a lexicographic al entr y th at tells us th at th e word nikuleon is the Cretan word for 'figs' (Duhoux 1989, 71). There are severa l other such exampl es. LINEAR B 365

In the rep ertory of Linear B signs for objects, many of the signs for military equip ment, vessels, and cloth are representational . We can immediately see that a sign repre sents a tripod, a chariot chassis, or fringed cloth . The sign for 'hor se' is clearly a horse. Other signs have been made mor e abstract by their long history in Cretan writing, which goes back to th e earliest period of Linear A economic record s. Thus , whether signs *120 and *121 repr esent 'wheat' and 'barley' or vice versa (Palmer 20086) is a contro versial issue that has to be decided on the basis of their occurren ce within specific Linear B texts and sets of texts and not on the basis of their appearan ce.

EDITIONS AND OTHER TooLs OF RESEARCH

An extensi ve, up-to-date list of research too ls is pro vided by Palmer (2008a, 51-55), so it need not be duplicat ed here. Non etheless, so me comment ary and slight sup plementing are in order. All but the most recently discovered Linear B tablets are now publi shed in official corp us edition s or carefully edited volum es of transcripti ons . How ever, th ese edition s are designed for the handful of specialists who have learn ed how the script works, mas tered the techni calities of language, and learn ed eno ugh about the archaeological and histor ical backgro und of the texts to be able to wor k firsthand with the tablet s and their tran scriptions and prop ose interpretation s of their te;,._'1sthat fit what we know about Greek in the late Bronze Age and the prot ohistorical contexts of the records. Spec ial collection s of tab lets, like the inscrib ed sealin gs from Thebes, perfum ed oil tablets, or th e tab lets from the RCT at Knossos, have had compr ehensive studi es publi shed. Arguably th e greates t aid to int erpr etation is the pub lication by a single scholar , Franc isco Aur a Jorro, of a bibli ograp hicall y compr ehensive, two -volum e lexicon of Mycenaean Greek (Aura Jorro 1985, 1993). There has been no new full grammar of Linear B since Vilborg (1960). The m ain gene ral handb ooks (Ventris and Chadwick 1973; Hill er and Panagl 1976; Ho oker 1980; Mo rpur go Davies and Duhoux 1985) th at offer tr anslation s and interpretati ons of selected docum ents are now suppl em ent ed (Ruip erez and Melena 1990; Bart onek 2003; Bern abe and Lujan 2006; Duhoux and Morpurgo Davies 2008). A multi auth ored upd ate of Ventri s and Chad wick (1973) is well und er way, as is anoth er syste m atic sur vey of textual evidence for th emes in Aegea n pr ehistory th at Italian scholar Mass im o Perna is editin g. Desc ripti ve analytical bib liog raphi es of specialized work connected with th e Linear B texts also ap pear regularly in Studies in Mycenaean Inscriptions and Dialect (SM ID ), no w pub lished by th e Program in Aegean Scr ipts and Prehi story at the Un iversity of Texas at Austin and available online at http :// paspserver.class.ute xas.e du /ind ex.html. Finall y, Mycenological spec ialists hold a major int ernational conf erence abo ut once every five years. The se provide a fairly compre hensive look at advanc es and trend s in the field over time . 366 THEMATIC TOPICS

There are two final points to make about scholarship surrounding the Linear B texts , one po sitive and on e a warning. First, the focus of the field has shifted away from the originally inevitable (in the twenty-five or so years after the decipherment) con centration on publi cation of the document s and interpreting th e language of the texts and th e specialized semantic s of their vocabular y. All of the general studi es of aspects of th e Mycenaean palatial period now include specialist articles and chapters that give stat e-of-th e art looks at what the tabl ets tell us and, even more important , what they do not tell us (i.e., the limit ations th <;1t we have to impo se on speculation ). Second, because int erpretation of th ese texts requir es such an arr ay of schol arly skills, th e interpr etation of newly discovere d tabl ets ha s until recently involved exten sive inform al collaborati on during a period of inten sive preliminar y stud y. It is necessary to say that ' the int erpret ation of the mo st recentl y discovered Theb es tabl ets did not follow thi s pr actice. Many rad ical and outright wrong ideas were put forward in the first official publi cation of th e texts. Unfortun ately, specialists in other areas, without any way of jud ging, may use th ese ideas as definitiv e explanations of the texts and what th ey mean. Reviews (Palaima 20036) and special semin ars have tri ed to corr ect thi s anom aly (Deger- Jalkot zy and Panagl 2006). Caveant lectores.

WHAT THE TEXTS TELL us

A sur vey of th e ideog ram s and th e numb ers assoc iated with them gives us a general sense of the main focuses of th e eco nomi es of Mycenaean palatial terr itories. Basic agricultural ideogra ms (grains, figs, olives, olive oil, wine) are standard in Linear A and Linear B. Linear B tablets from Kno ssos give us records of major har vests. One Knos sos tabl et record s about a million liters of grain as a harve st (amii.) at th e site of da-wo in th e Mesara. Other texts give us terminolo gy for agricultural specialists ( e.g., 'overseers of figs' opisiikoi; 'ove rseers of digging' opiskaphewes;'win nower s' *akhnewes). Food and land parcels on which food crops could be grown are the major ways palatial centers and village communities co mp ensat ed individu als for labor and other services. In each loca lity, th e apportioning and use of commun al land was overseen by a diimos, a collective gro up, presumably of elder s, which is ety molo gically co nn ected with the idea of 'apportioning .' Th e 'holding ' of land parcels brought with it ob ligat ions, and it was often a rewa rd for serv ices rend ered to local communities or th e palatial centers. There are extensive land tenur e series at Pylos (Ventri s and Chadwick 1973, 252-74, 443-56) involving individu als termed 'servants'-in wh at sense is hard to know-of th e deit y, specialist craft spersons of the wanax ('king'), and individual s (again including work specialist s) who are associated with th e liiwiigetiis (a milit ary leader and official in charge of overseeing the role of 'aliens' in a palatial territory; see Nikoloudis 2006, 2008). Nonfood product s like flax, terebinth, and wood are also carefully monitored because they were essential for vital palatial industries: LINEAR B 367 flax in the manufacture of articles made out of cloth (in thi s case, lin en), includin g sails; terebinth in perfumed oil production; and wood in the con struction of ships, buildings, furniture, chariots, and weaponry. Animals are also carefully monitored in texts that reveal how the palatial cen ters controll ed economic activities and or ganized economic operation s. Th e texts also give evidenc e of the degree to which the palatial system relied on (1) influential individuals ( elites known conven tionally as 'collector s' and also 'followers' of th e king; and local 'big m en' known as gwasilewes); (2) instituti ons ( especially coun cils of elders, geronsiai; collect ives und er the influ ence of gwasilewes; and sanctu ar ies); and (3) locales th at had statu s and power before the pal atial cent ers cam e int o exis tence and that continue to play a major rol e in controllin g eco nomic affairs. Sheep were th e focu s of admini stration in th e woo l produ ction indu stry (Nosch 2008). Th e Kno ssos tabl ets famo usly monitor a hundr ed thousand sheep in flocks controll ed by collector s, sheep owners, and the deit y known at potnia. Howe ver, sheep are also singled out as sacrificial offerin gs (sphakteria) and listed as such on records of th e reso urce s assemb led for commensa l ceremonies. Likewi se, bull s, goats, and pig s are listed as sacrificial offerin gs, but they are also record ed as eco nom ic item s, used for th eir hid es and other body parts. Male bovids are allocated in teams as drau ght an im als, and we also have gro up s of cow herd s listed together with wall build ers on a major constru ction project. For all of these anima ls, wo rds for speci alized attend ant s (i.e., herdsmen, alth ough th e soc ial implic ations of th e modern equi valents are doubtle ss misl eadin g) are att ested. Here we ha ve already given the correct impr ession th at th e palatial cent ers con struct ed remarkabl y successful economic engines within th eir region s. Th e pal atial system maximi zed produ ctivity and mad e it po ssible for th e Mycena eans to com pete in the int ernational eco nom y of th e period (Palaima 2007). Th e pictur e the tablets give us of the successfu l mobili zation of reso ur ces within regions is reflected in the archaeo logically att ested development (Benn et 2007). Of primar y concern, as Thucydides stresses in his surv ey of Greek pr ehistory and histor y, is milit ary pr epare dne ss, which pro vided protection against attacks, whether from rival pal atial terri tories or for eign cultur es. These had th e pot enti al to disrupt and reduce the effectiveness of the exp loitation of natural resourc es (food stuffs and raw mat erial s like timb er) that were th e basis of the palatial eco nomi es. Th e Mycenaean milit ary industrial compl ex, th erefo re, had a dominant po si tion within th e eco nomy and soc iety of the palatial territ ories (Palaim a 1999). Near ly half of the definiti ve monog raph on archaeological ideogra ms (Vand enab eele and Olivier 1979) is devo ted to arm or, weapo nr y, horses, chariots, and wheels. A single tablet from Pylos (J n 829) reco rds a prospecti ve co llection of recycled bron ze (fro m sanctuari es and from of-fi.cials overseeing agricultura l labo r) sufficient for 33,000 arrowheads or 142 spear heads. All of the sites except Midea (with very few tablets) attest to the production, refurbi shing, and distributi on of military equipme nt. One tablet alone at Pylo s lists 151 chariot wh eels. Th e chariot for ce at Kno ssos in the period of the RCT text s numbers between 173 and 250 chariots with hors es and accompanying sets of armor. Other Knos sos record s deal with th e m anufactur e 368 THEMATI C TOPICS of swords. Of the four tablets from Khania, one fragmentary text reco rds 10 pairs of chariot wheels. At Pylos, one recently int erpreted record (An 1282) lists assignments of groups of men (broken down into groups of 18 and 36) assigned to work on char iots, chari ot wheels, flint (fo r spear- or arrowheads), horse feeding sacks, and spear and javelin shaft s. Pylos also has page-s haped tablet s that track th e assignm ent of large numb ers of men to 'coasta l watch er' contingents and to rowing groups. In the latter case ther e are expli cit refere'nces to their obligation to row, to gro up s of men designat ed by foreign ethnic s, and to the involvement of th e lawagetiis an d possibly even the wanaks in the mobilization of th ese men. Th ere are so me 5,000 per so ns listed in collective groups as dependent labor on th e Pylos texts (Hiller 1988) and roughly another 800 or so of mor e elevated sta tu s, listed by perso nal nam e '(Nakass is 2008, 560 ). Set aga inst th e estim ated popula tion of 50,000 (Wh itelaw 200 1, 64) for the entir e regi on and keepin g in mind the hap ha zard ly incompl ete natur e of the texts th at we have, th e Linear B tab lets from Pylos give us a good impr essi'on of successful state formati on and relative prosper ity in a regio n th at in late r historica l tim es never reached such a level of general well-being. Th e texts help us to see th at th e palatial center s in the various region s of the Mycenaean world relied on their sta tu s, power s of coe rcion, control of reli gious ceremo nies, manipulation of net wor ks of social instituti ons, an d continuall y renegot iated relati onship s with high-statu s individual s. All of th ese techniqu es are visible in th e Linear B tablet s. They give us good evidence of th e genera l human instin ct for what Thucydides and Aristotl e call autarkeia, th e self-sufficiency and self-d eterminati on th at comes to Mycenaean palatial cent ers or historical Greek poleis only when th ey acquir e, exp loit, and protec t th e reso ur ces of th eir region s.

I dedicate this chapter to my f riend and mentor Emmett L. Bennett, Jr., who turned ninety-one years of age on July 12, 2009, the birthday he is very pleased to share with Michael Ventris.

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