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The Dialogue About “Racial Democracy” Among African-American and Afro-Brazilian Literatures

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The Dialogue About “Racial Democracy” Among African-American and Afro-Brazilian Literatures THE DIALOGUE ABOUT “RACIAL DEMOCRACY” AMONG AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND AFRO-BRAZILIAN LITERATURES Isabel Cristina Rodrigues Ferreira A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures (Portuguese). Chapel Hill 2008 Approved by: Advisor: Professor Fred Clark Reader: Professor Monica Rector Reader: Professor Frank Dominguez Reader: Professor James Noblitt Reader: Professor Maria A. Salgado © 2008 Isabel Cristina Rodrigues Ferreira ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT ISABEL CRISTINA RODRIGUES FERREIRA: The Dialogue about “Racial Democracy” among African-American and Afro-Brazilian Literatures (Under the direction of Fred Clark) This dissertation focuses on the “myth of racial democracy” in the works of African-American and Afro-Brazilian writers in the early and late twentieth and early twentieth- first centuries. Their novels, short stories, and a play dialogue among each other. The African-American novels Passing (1929) of Nella Larsen and Caucasia (1998) of Danzy Senna reflect on their perception of Brazilian reality of “racial democracy,” which was related to their own racial realities. Both authors use Brazilian racial harmony as an option to their characters to experience a different racial relation that did not involve segregation in the 1920s or violent acts in the 1960s and 1970s. The Afro-Brazilian selection of stories reflects on the Brazilian reality for Afro- descendants, which presents no sign of racial harmony. The novels Vida e morte de M. J. Gonzaga de Sá (1919) and Clara dos Anjos (1923-24) of Lima Barreto, Malungos e milongas (1988) of Esmeralda Ribeiro and Ponciá Vicêncio (2003) of iii Conceição Evaristo; the unpublished play Uma boneca no lixo of Cristiane Sobral; and short stories of Cuti, Márcio Barbosa, Éle Semog, Esmeralda Ribeiro, Oubi Inaê Kibuko, Conceição Evaristo, Lia Vieira and Cristiane Sobral show that Afro- Brazilian reality in the 1920s and in the late twentieth and early twentieth-first centuries is of discrimination, and prejudice, but they reflect on non-violent solutions to fight against their fate. In Chapter One, I introduce the subject of racial democracy, which will be discussed in two African-American novels and some Afro-Brazilian literary works. Chapters Two and Three are overviews of Brazilian history, examining the role and perception of Afro-descendants by society, and Afro- Brazilian literature throughout the centuries, respectively. The former helps readers understand how important the “myth of racial democracy” was to maintain the order and power to those controlling the country’s economy and politics. Chapter Four examines African-American novels, relating them not only to their perception of Brazil, but also to their own history and racial relations. Chapter Five shows different racial issues discussed in some of the works. These interpretations of Brazilian racial reality can dismantle the discourse of the “myth of racial democracy.” The last Chapter is the conclusion iv of what I presented and discussed in the previous chapters and some thoughts about future research topics. v To God, my mother, Benícia Rodrigues da Costa, and in memory of my father, Geraldo Magela Ferreira, for their guidance, support, love, encouragement and patience. Without these things this dissertation could not have been possible. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ....................................... 1 II. AFRO-BRAZILIAN SOCIO-HISTORICAL CONTEXT ........... 18 Colonial Period (1500-1822) ....................... 18 Imperial Period (1822-1889) ....................... 33 Republican Period (1889-present) .................. 49 III. AFRO-BRAZILIAN LITERATURE: AN OVERVIEW ............ 77 IV. AFRICAN-AMERICAN LITERARY WORKS: VIEWS OF BRAZILIAN RACIAL DEMOCRACY ....................... 127 The American Perception of Brazilian Racial Democracy ........................................ 128 African-American Literary Reading of Brazilian Racial Democracy ................................. 161 Racial Democracy in Passing : To Escape Segregation ...................................... 161 Racial Democracy in Caucasia : Self-Consciousness . 172 V. AFRO-BRAZILIAN LITERARY WORKS: DECONSTRUCTION OF FREYRE’S RACIAL DEMOCRACY ........................ 186 Racism and Discrimination Challenged by Lima Barreto .......................................... 187 Social Separation or Segregation ................. 189 Opportunities for Progress ....................... 195 Racism and Discrimination Questioned in Cadernos negros and Other Works ........................... 200 vii Social Mobility .................................. 201 Self-Image of the Black Body ..................... 207 Identity and Tradition ........................... 216 Justice and Revenge .............................. 224 VI. CONCLUSION ....................................... 231 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................... 237 viii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION [R]ace is a social and cultural construction and not a fact of nature or a primordial given. (Fredrickson 3) The present study aims to investigate the dialogue about “racial democracy” among selected literary texts of Afro- Brazilian and African-American literatures published since the 1920s. In the 1920s, African-Americans viewed Brazil as an alternative to escape segregation laws and violence based on scholars’ and travelers’ accounts about racial relations in Brazil. Only a few Afro-Brazilian writers would admit the condition of Afro-Brazilians being oppressed in this supposedly racial harmonious society. Then, in the 1960s and 1970s, African-American scholars and intellectuals viewed racial relations in Brazil more clearly. Their visits to the country led them to question its harmony and, at the same time, Brazilian Afro-descendants’ movements flourished, influenced by the ones in the United States. Two important goals of the Brazilian movements were to bring self-awareness and a sense of identity to the Afro-Brazilian community and to deconstruct the “myth of racial democracy.” Hence, I want to examine the way in which examples of twentieth-century African-American and Afro-Brazilian prose fiction perceive and critique the concept of “racial democracy” in Brazil. I hope to help my readers understand how blacks’ personal exploration of race and identity, as seen through African-Americans and Afro-Brazilians’ experiences, forge a new consciousness about themselves and Brazil. In order to achieve the objectives of my dissertation I want to examine Brazilian history focusing on racial relations, which led to Gilberto Freyre’s sociological theory of the “myth of racial democracy.” This myth was based on the harmonious relationship established by slaves and their masters and was associated with the ideology of “whitening” the Brazilian population established by the government’s immigration policy. This Brazilian project has been both defended and criticized by some scholars. The examination of some scholarly works is the theory on which I will base my analysis and my selection of African-Americans and Afro- Brazilians’ literary works. The fact that Brazil has never practiced legal segregation and discrimination does not guarantee that it is a racially harmonious country. Brazilian society does not offer the same opportunities to all its 2 citizens nor does it treat them equally everywhere in the country. Chapter Two focuses on the socio-historical background in which the “myth of racial democracy” was formulated in Brazil in 1933 by Gilberto Freyre in Casa-grande & senzala . This ideology is based on the slave holding structure that governed Brazil for centuries. Although their life was not easy, the slaves’ relationship with their master was perceived as cordial and friendly. They were allowed some freedom. Many offspring of sexual relationships between female slaves and their masters were manumitted after birth. Also, there were many opportunities for slaves to gain freedom, which created a large population of free blacks. These facts convinced many scholars including Freyre, that Brazil could not be a racist country. Miscegenation increased with the arrival of new European immigrants. The result was that Brazil was becoming “whiter” and that consolidated Freyre’s view of “racial democracy,” transforming it in a myth that lasted until the late twentieth century. To explain how this ideology crossed centuries, I decided to take the chronological approach and divide this chapter into the following historical periods: Colonial (1500-1822), Imperial (1822-1889), and Republican (1889-present). 3 These periods represent changes in the economic and political realms as well as in the social that shaped the formulation and maintenance of the myth. First, I will show how Brazil became a slaveholding society in the Colonial period and its consequences until the end of the Imperial period. After an unsuccessful attempt to use the indigenous population in the sugarcane production and its increasing demand for more workers, the colonizer imported slaves from Africa. Slave owners did not care for their slaves because it was cheap to replace them. The slaves were forced to work hard or they were punished. Punishments were severe and led to two forms of resistance: rebellions like the Revolta dos Escravos Malês in 1835 and passive resistance in the form of suicide, homicide of their newborns, or capoeira. Not all slaves worked in
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