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A PROFILE OF FILIPINO WOMEN

Their Status and Role

PREPARED FOR THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

by

ISABEL ROJAS-ALETA TERESITA L. SILVA CHRISTINE P. ELEAZAR

PHILIPPINE BUSINESS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 270 DASMARIINAS STREET MANILA, PHILIPPINES OCTOBER, 1977

Best Available Docum. TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...... Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS " ...... EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . XIX 1. INTRODUCTION: Summary...... 1 Introduction ...... 3 A. Purpose of the Study ...... 3 B. Major Sources of Data ...... 4 C. General Impressions on the Status of Filipino Women ...... D. General Framework for Analysis ...... 8 II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: Summary ...... Historicpl Perspective 11 of Women's Status and Role...... 13 A. Early Pre-Spanish Period ...... 13 B. Spanish Period ...... C. American Occupation ...... 14 D. Some Outstanding 16 Filipinos in History ...... 16 I1. SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION: Summary ...... 19 Sex Role Socialization ...... A. Group Average Differences ...... 21 B. Behavioral Expectations From Boys and Girls ...... 21 1. Responsibility Training at Home ...... 2. Responsibility Training in School ...... 23 3. The Peer 23 Group ...... 24 C. Behavioral Expectations From Adults ...... D. "Machismo-Feminismo" 24 E. General Attitudes 25 on Men and Women's Sex Role .... 26 IV. EMPIRICAL DATA ON THE STATUS AND ROLE OF FILIPINO WOMEN: Summary ...... A. Physical Well-Being 29 of the Filipino Women ...... 47 1. Health Status ...... 4 a. Mortality rates ...... 7 b. Life expectancy ...... 47 c. Nutrition ...... 47 1. Nutritional 51 poverty ...... 51 2. Infant and child malnutrition ...... 51 3. Dietary imbalance...... 51 4. Malnutrition among Filipino Women ..... 53 5. Malnutrition among Preschoolers ...... 2. Attendance at 56 birth and fetal deaths ...... 56

v 3. Health expenditures ...... 59 3. Choice of courses ...... 97 4. Level of satisfaction with Health and a. Academic training ...... 97 Physical Cond~tion ...... 59 b. Vocational training ...... 100 c. Vocational aspirations ...... 102 B. Domestic Status and Role.61 4. Scholastic achievement ...... 104 B.Doe...... 6a. General Scholastic Aptitude ...... 104 1. Marriage ...... 61 b. Achievement scores ...... 106 a. Civil status ...... 61 5. Educational Aspirations ...... 107 b.. Recent nuptiality trends ...... 62 6. Educational Attainment ...... 1 8 1. Increasing delay in age at marriage for 7. Education and Labor Force Participation females...... 62 Rate (LFPR) ...... 108 2. Ivale-female ages at marriage ...... 63 3. Social mobility ...... 65 D. Econnmic Status and Role ...... 112 4. Intermarriages ...... 66 1. Factors in women's labor force participation .... 112 2. Family size ...... 66 a. Modernization ...... 112 a. Fertility patterns ...... 66 b. Residence ...... 113 b. Family size preferences ...... 70 c. Labor market conditions ...... 114 c. Family planning ...... 72 d. Income ...... 114 1. Exposure to family planning clinics ...... 74 e. Educational attainment ...... 115 2. Source of information on family planning . 75 f. Marriage and family responsibilities ...... 115 3. Attitudes toward family planning ...... 75 2. Statistics in relation to women's economic d. Abortion ...... 77 participation ...... 117 3. Male-female domestic roles ...... 79 a. Definitions ...... 118 a. Social attitude towards domestic roles ...... 79 b. Labor Force Participation Rates (LFPR) ..... 119 b. Role satisfaction ...... 80 1. Urban-Rural LFPRs ...... 120 c. Family headship ...... 3 2. Regional LFPRs ...... 121 d. Household duties ...... 83 3. LFPR of various age groups ...... 122 1. Child-rearing ...... 83 4. LFPR and education ...... 123 2. Housekeeping ...... 85 5. LFPR and marital status ...... 124 e. Husband-wife relationship ...... 89 6. LFPR and duration of work ...... 125 f. Authority-pattern ...... 89 7. Classification of types of workers ...... 126 g. Decision-making ...... 90 8. Employment status ...... 127 1. Joint areas of decision-making ...... 90 9. Employed persons by occupational groups 129 2. Specific areas of decision-making ...... 91 10. Females in managerial positions ...... 132 3. Social factors affecting decision- 3. Problems of working women ...... 137 making patterns ...... 92 a. Attitudes toward working women ...... 137 4. Migration ...... 92 b. Limited opportunities for training ...... 139 a. Directions of migration ...... 93 c. Cultural distinctions between men's work b Reasons for migration ...... 95 and women's work ...... 140 c. International migration ...... 95 1. Prescribed occupational sex role ...... 140 2. "Feminization" of traditional male fields . 141 C. Educational Status and Role...... 96 3. Sex differences in aptitude ...... 145 1. Literacy ...... 96 4. Attitudes toward segregation in work 2. Enrolment ...... 96 roles ...... 146

vi vii d. Overburdening of women due to multiple roles Constitutional Rights and Responsibilities of the at home and at work ...... 146 Filipino Woman ...... 185 1. Conflicts due to wife's job ...... 147 Discriminatory Articles in Civil Code with 2. Alternative ways of coping up with Reference to Women ...... 188 wives' dual roles ...... 148 1. Mixed Marriages ...... 188 e. Inequality in employment opportunities ..... 148 2. Residence...... 188 189 f. Inequality in wages ...... 151 3. Parental authority ...... 190 1. Average weekly cash earnings ...... 151 4. Property 2. Male-female ratios in wages ...... 154 a. Conjugal property ...... 190 3. Earnings of College graduates ...... 154 b. Acceptance of gifts ...... 190 4. Government and private organization c. Purchase of Precious gifts ...... 191 employees ...... 155 d. Separation of property ...... , 191 5. Salaried vs. self-employed workers ...... 155 5. Right of the wife to work ...... 192 6. Reasons for wage inequalities ...... 155 6. Court suits ...... 192 g. Inequalities in promotion ...... 158 7. Legal separation ...... 192 4. Disadvantaged women's groupb ...... 159 S. Widows ...... 193 a. Teachers ...... 159 b. Domestic helpers ...... 159 OMEN IN RURAL AREAS c. Prostitutes, women in "leisure and enter- immary ...... 195 tainment" establishment ...... 160 . The Rural Female Population ...... 200 5. Reasons for working ...... 161 Roles of Rural Women ...... 201 6. Female income ...... 164 Educational Status ...... 202 7. Labor Union activities ...... 167 1. Literacy rate ...... 202 E. Public Participation...... 170 2. Educational attainment ...... 202 i. Political Participation ...... 70 3. Vocational training ...... 203 a. Attitudes toward women's political 4. Media ...... 203 participation ...... 170 5. Educational programs ...... 204 b. Vcting ...... 170 . Labor Force Participation ...... 206 c. Political leadership ...... 171 1. Labor force statistics ...... 206 d. Government service ...... 175 2. Types of employment ...... 207 2. Social participation ...... 176 3. Income ...... 208 a. Extent of women's social participation . 176 Decision-Making Participation at Work and Home .... 208 b. Participation in community nutrition Involvement in Training Programs ...... 209 projeczts ...... 178 Social and Poliical Participation ...... 209 c. Awarenesa and utilization of social Problems and Needs as Perceived. by Rural Women ... 210 sources ...... 180 Aspirations ...... 211 3. Participation in economic projects ...... 180 Opportunities for Self-Sufficiency ...... 212 a. Cooperatives ...... 180 Problems of Rural Women as Perceived by b. Other economic projects ...... 181 External Agencies ...... 212 4. Participation in ch'rch activities ...... 182 :IE FILIPINO WOMEN IN CULTURAL MINORITY V. LEGAL STATUS ROUPS Summary ...... 183 mmary ...... 215 Philippine Cultural Minority Groups ...... 218 viii ix 1. Muslims ...... 218 5. Public Participation ...... 248 2. Non-christian groups ...... 219 a. In politics ...... 248 3. Negritos ...... 220 b. In rejigious ceremonies ...... 249 B. Muslim Women ...... 220 V, JRRENT ACTIVITIES AND PROGRAdS 1. In the family ...... 220 mmary...... 251 a. As daughters ...... 220 Domestic ...... 257 b. As wives ...... 221 1. Divorce ...... 257 1. The marriage form ...... 221 2. Unmarried mothers ...... 258 2. Divorce ...... 223 Education 3. Separation of property ...... 226 E...... 258 4. Education ...... 226 Economic ...... 259 5. Employment ...... 227 1. Employment policies for women ...... 259 6. Status of muslim women in general ...... 228 2. Equal pay for equal work ...... 260 7. Participation in development ...... 229 3. Maternity leave ...... 260 C. The women in Non-christian Groups ...... 230 4. Disadvantaged working women/s groups ...... 260 1. Prostitutes ...... 260 1. In the family...... 230 b. Domestic help ...... 261 a. As daughters ...... 233 5. Female labor union participation ...... 261 b. As wives...... 232 6. The Bureau of women and minors ...... 262 c. As mother ...... 235 7. NMYC Industrial Training Programs ...... 262 D. The Negrito Women ...... 238 1. Physical Well-Being ...... 238 Public Participation ...... 263 a. Physical characteristics ...... 238 Organizational Programs.265 b. Clothing and ornamentation ...... 238 1.gnationalC o m s ...... 265 c. Puberty and menstruation ...... 239 1. National Commission on the Role of Women .... 265 2. Socialization Process ...... 240 2. Civic Assemble of Women of the Phil ...... 267 3. Domestic Role ...... 240 3. Katipunan ng Bagong Pilipina ...... 267 a. Marriage Form ...... 240 4. National Federation of Women/s Clubs ...... 268 1. Courtship and engagement ...... 240 5. YoungWomens Christians'Association ...... 270 2. Acquisition of a bride ...... 241 6. Conception Felix Memorial Foundation ...... 271 3. Wedding ceremony ...... 242 7. Philippin, National Red Cross ...... 271 4. Married life ...... 242 8. Philippine Business for Social Progress ...... 271 b. As mothers ...... 244 9. The Intenational Institute of Rural 1. Conception and pregnancy ...... 244 Reconstruction ...... 282 2. Contraception and abortion ...... 244 10. Population Center Foundation ...... 284 3. Birth and delivery ...... 245 11. Additional Agencies Working with Rural c. As housewives ...... 245 Women ...... 285 4. Economic Role ...... 246 Legal ...... 286 a. As farmers ...... 246 1. Proposal for legal reforms ...... 286 b. As food gatherers ...... 247 2. Miscellaneous reforms ...... 281 c. As fishermen ...... 247 d. As hunters ...... 248 Proposed Study on "Role of Women in Rural e. As wage earners ...... 248 Development" ...... 288

x xi IX. REGIONAL PROFILES BASED ON EMPERICAL DATA APPENDICES ON THE STATUS AND ROLE OF FILIPINO WOMEN Summary ...... 291 I. Socio-Economic Profile ...... 356 Region I - Metro Manila ...... 293 Region II - Ilocos and Mt. Province ...... 295 A. Geography ...... 356 III - Cagayan Valley and Batanes ...... 297 Region B. Cultural Influences and Historical Background...... 356 Region IV - Central Luzon ...... 298 Classification ...... 357 Region V - Southern Luzon ...... 299 C. Regional ...... 366 Region VI - Bicol ...... 301 D. System of Local Government Region VII - Western Visayas ...... 303 E. Population ...... 369 Region VIII - Eastern Visayas ...... 304 ...... 370 Region IX - Northern Mindanao ...... 306 F. Education Region X - Southern Mindanao ...... 308 G. Economy ...... 371 TH.The Urban Sector ...... 376 X. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 377 A. Specific Projects Proposed to ESCAP ...... 311 I. The Rural Sector B. General Recommendations by Other Agencies...... 314 II. 1972 Regional Classification: List of Regions, Provinces and ...... 379 XL IMPLICATIONS FOR ACJT!ON PROGRAMS 323 Chartered Cities A. Conceptual Framework ...... 324 Organizations ...... 382 B. Roles of Agencies ...... 325 II. List of Women's ... V. Tables Used in the Regional-Profile Based on the Status and C. Program Areas Recommended for Implementation 326 ...... 388 ...... 326 Role of Filipino Women (Chapter IX) 1. Appropriate Technology ...... 2. Functional Education and Training ...... 327 3. Agricultural Skills Training ...... 328 4. Integrated Rural Development Project ...... 329

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 331

xiii xii FOREWORD

This PROFILE OF THE STATUS AND ROLE OF FILIPINO WOMEN was based on information gathered as a result naire suggested of a question. by the USAID Asia Bureau's working group on Women in Development (WID). This suggestion was in response to da('.s one of the man. of the so-called "Percy Amendment" in the U.S. foreign aid legis­ lation which called for the collection of information used which would be to shed lignt on the role, status, and contribution of women in less developed the countries. This report, the first of its kind, analyzes avail. able data on Filipino women in order to visualize the majority conditions of the 'f women. It traces the social factors and practices that contri­ bute to sex role identification. To give a complete picture of the Filipino woman, the health, education, legal, economic, and labor covered. sectors are Women's public as well as domestic roles and status are also covered. The authors discuss under separate chapters two groups of women that have become the focus of, and actually need more priority in, development programs-.rural women and women in cultural groups. minority These chapters are developed so descriptively that one can picture the three cultural minority groups.

The report also analyzes activities and programs of agencies involved in women's development and provides a list of other professional women's and civic organizations; the extent of participation of women in these programs. The report develops region profiles of women by using selected social and ecouomic indicators to assist planners and funding agencies in identifying priority areas of invu~vement. It also includes alist of specific project proposals and general recommendations of agencies involved with and interested in women's development. Finally, implications for action programs are recommended.

The first two authors are members of the staff of the Business Philippine for Social Progress (PBSP), a private, non-stock, non-profit social development foundation. Ms. Isabel Rojas-Aleta Direntor is Project for the "Development of a Profile on the Role and Status of Filipino Women." She isconcurrently in-charge of the planning, program­ ming, and evaluation of the PBSP Applied Nutrition and based Community­ Health Programs; and regional manager for the PBSP Luzon projects. She participated as a UNICEF Fellow in UNDP's Comprehen­ sive Health Planning and Development Program and has been participant an active in numerous international and local conferences on social development issues. Dr. Aleta earned her Doctorate in Education Irom Cornell University, New York.

Xv Ms. Teresita L. Silva is a professional social worker, presently the associate director of PBSP. Her experience in the field of social work dates back 23 years and has included being director of the Bureau of Family Welfare, Department of Social Welfare and UNESCAP Regional Consultant of the Asian Project for the Integration of Women in Development. She served as President of the International Federation of Social Workers from 1972-76.

Ms. Christine Eleazar is presently personnel manager of a local apparel factory. She earned a Master's Degree from the University of Connecticut's Department of Child Development and Family Relations and was a volunteer field worker with the Family Planning Organization of the Philippines. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful for the recommendations of Dr. Gelia Diwata Aldaba-Bahiyut Castillo; the cooperation of organizations whose representatives were Education and WID Consultant interviewed, the contributions of Daisy No;)al on the Negrito women HRD/USAID/Manila and to Chuki Feria-Mirandaforpackagingthe report. The list of organizations wh'ch are cited for their programs in promoting the development of women is by no meons complete. How­ ever, in view ofthe unvailabilityand/orlimitationsofpublishedmaterials, otherorganizationscould not be included.

The Authors

xvii EXECUTIVE SUIMARy

This is a profile of Filipino women based on existing in relation to their physical well.being, literature and legal, domestic, educational, economic, social and political status and areas role. Discussions on women in and in cultural minority groups, rural current activities and programs for the development of women are included. Regional profiles priority ranking of regions based and a on an analysis of empirical data developed. were The objective of the profile is to ernable identify strategies, provide program planners to direction and areas of involvement of zations that would meet organi­ the problems and needs of their development to become women and enhance effective partners of men in nation-building. nation-building.

A socio-economic profile of the Philippines serves as of investigation. A brief historical a framework perspective of women in Philippine society serves as In pre-Spanish background material. times, women occupied an During Spanish equal position with men. colonization, women were position. The relegated to a subordinate brief period of American occupation and brought about social political emancipation for women.

The following highlight the status and role of Filipino women:

1. Sex role socialization:

a. Sex role socialization starts early in life at home and is extended in school, reinforced by peer group pressures and pervasive cultural values.

2. Physical well.being: a. Malnutrition, due mostly to poverty, especially seriously affects women, pregrant and nursing mothers nomic from low socio-eco­ classes. This leads to poor Fifty.two capability for live births. percent of women from low-income experienced families have miscarriage, abortion, stillbirths, deaths. infant and toddler Malnutrition among female preschoolers come communities from low in­ is more prevalent among femiales(73,)than amonmg males (64%).

Xix b. One-third of child midwives. deliveries are attended to by unlicensed scores,in the enrolment rates and with Manila very muchin the NCEE scholastic achievement ahead in both cases, while Eastern Visayas and 3. Domestic status and role: Cagayan Valley are very murh behind.

a. The mean age of women c. at marriage is 23.7 years; rural women More females (22%) than males (17%) have marry two years attainment at all. no educational earlier than their urban counterparts. Women One half of girls drop-out from school even generally before completing their marry upward, in socio-economic status. elementary education, due to socio­ economic factors. b. The fertility rate of 6.4 is higher than the family size preference d. The of 4.2. Fertility rate educational expectations of parents are is higher among rural women who live in twice as high for agricultural areas, a son than a daughter. unemployed, women in nuclear households, among those those who marry at a younger age and women e. The labor force partici-tion rate (LFPR) with elementary schooling. of women with c. Three-fourths of urban college degrees women and one-half of rural women almost double and they tend to are aware of working despite continue family planning clinics. However, only a fourth of marriage and family. It is not surprising that more women aspire for college and graduate school those who are in favor of family planning than men. available services and are aware of have actually used a method. The pill is the 5. Economic status and role: most popu!ar family planning method. d. The average Filipino wife spends more than 29 days a month, a. Women's LFPR at least area of residence,is influenced by these factors: modernization, 8 hours a day on her main activity of housekeeping. labor market condition, family income, A educational working mother attainment, marriage and family responsibilities. keeping and still has to fulfill her domestic roles of child-rearing roles. Males take on the economichouse­ b. Although females role and family headship. have attained equality with men in the field of education, their participation in the labor force is a mere e. Authority patterns and decision-making processes are generally one-third. shared between husband and wife. f. c. Those with no schooling at all have the Migration is generally greater for women than due to greatest biggest LFPR possibly men, mostly for economic need. Among those in the labor force, rural women have the lowest median of schooling marriage and family reasons. (4.6 yeatrs). 4. Educational status and role: d. marriedIn spite of economic pressures entailed by married life, more women than men drop-out a. devote from the labor force There is a clear indication of equal opportunities more time to their to between in education domestic role. Only the sexes as reflected of women continue working after marriage. about two-thirds (82%), school by almost equal literacy enrolment, academic performance and educa-rates tional attainment. The e. Close to only evidence of sex differences is in a majority of working women are salaried, the proportion of which highest the sex-typing of academic and vocational options. are service/sports workers (35%) followed by professional/technical workers (20%). Almost half of b. The difference between the urban (93%) and rural (29%) literacy self-employed females rates are significant. tion (26%) and farming are in sales work followed by produc­ Regional disparities are also very obvious (20%) while the bulk of unpaid female family workers are in farming (81%). xx xxi f. In spite of equality in educational attainment, females occupy an insignificant proportion of administrative-managerial service positions (0.6%). employment. However, female leadership in thce areas is very minimal. g. It c. Membership in social organizations is concentrated has been estimated that among the employed workers, on women females from the middle and upper classes. earn about 44% less than males; among the self­ employed, they earn 31% less. Perhaps this is in view occupational of the d. The majority groups they are concentrated in and the problems of lower class women are viewed more as objects of organizational programs rather than of working women. The latter include: prejudiced traditional initiators and active attitudes participants. against women's labor force participation; limited opportunities for training: segregation between men's women's work; inequality in employment opportunities,and wages and promotion. Only a fourth of married women (mostly urbanized ing) make and work. use of sociai service institutions like hospitals, health h. Special legal and family planning centers. been provisions (e.g. maternity leave with pay) have provided for women workers, although their actual benefits to women are being questioned. e. Awareness of community programs is low; participation even is much lower. Areas of involvement of women in commu­ i. The disadvantaged women's working groups nity projects do not are the teachers development really piovide skills and opportunities for (lowest paid with minimal. chances of promotion), or more lasting improvement of their conditions. domestic The most frequently workers (low pay and long working hours) and prostitutes stated reason for absenteeism or dropping. out from programs (social prejudice and unfair working conditions). is the work of the r-ther at home, in the farm or in other income generating activities. Most women work for financial reasons. Self-satisfaction professional and Attendance at religious growth are secondary motivations and are limited services is practiced by only one-third of married women, although a large majority are Catholics. to women in the middle and upper classes. k. households.The working Four-fifthswife contributes to family income in 43% of the of the housewives earn less than 7. Legal Status: households.a Fyrfifts ofome P1,000 a year in cash income andhndaouwive about 50 earn less than a. earn less than crimination.It is in the legal area where women explicitly suffer from dis­ 500 in non-cash income, The general statutes in tie Constitution seem to foster equality between men and women. However, specific' 1. The participation of women in labor unions organized labor unions is very low - 13% in provisions and 22% in independent labor unions, in the Civil Code restrict women's rights in the areas of:property mixed rigits, marriages, rigut tochoice of residence, work, court suits, legalparental separation autihority, 6. Public Participation and widow's rigaits. a. There is a general lack of enthusiasm over women's involve- 8. Rural ment in Women: home. politics because of the attitude that women are for the a. The majority of the Philippine female population are rural women (2/3). Most of them regard their b. Women slightly outnumber the men in voting participation, role as housekeepers. attendance in barangay political meetings in and government b. Although three-quarters of them have attended school and their literacy rate is 77%, xxii education of rural women is usually xxiii limited to the elementary grades. The extent to which their basic culture and tradition. literacy is functional is therefore highly questionable. Even vocational training has reached only 1% of married rural b. Muslim women hold a clearly more subordinate position: par­ women. The role of media (particularly comi'- and radio) is ents prefer sons to daughters. Their education and labor force worth considering as a means of providing education for rural participation are very limit.d. Marriage is their foremost gol women, because this is their most effective means of attaining status ­ power. However, unlike the Christian wives, they enjoy separate c. The LFPR of rural women coincides with the national average property rights from their husbands. of one-third for women. More married rural women, than single ones, are working, unlike their urban counterparts. Majority c. Women in the pagan minority groups generally hold an egalita­ are employed in the agricultural sector, usually as unpaid rian position with men, for example, in the areas of parental family workers. Nevertheless, about two-fifths of rural wives acceptance, inheritance and property rights, contribution to contribute significantly to the family income. the support of the family, divorce rights, and participation in religio?,- ceremonies. Her subservient position lies mainly in d. The wife decides with or is consulted by the husband in matters her relationship with her husband and her role in public affairs. related to the home and farm. There is however, a need to know the content and quality of her decision-making participation. d. Young Negrito girls are socialized for their domestic respon­ sibilities. Marriage occurs soon after puberty usually through e. The teaching of modern agricultural methods are directed to the mutual consent of the couple. Monogamy is the rule, men only. On the other hand, family planning and other although divorce and remarriage are allowed. Negrito wives domestic programs, are focused primarily on the wife. willingly take on their domestic role of housekeeping and child-rearing, as well as their supplementary duties of farm f. There is a scarcity of organizations directly involved with work, food gathering and earnirg a living. Negrito women are improving the conditions of rural women, generally not regarded as public leaders, their social status being dependent mainly on their husband's rank. g. Rural women seem to have a high degree of participation in social activities, an increasing rate of participation in civic 10. Current Activities and Programs: activities, but minimal involvement in political affairs. a. In the domestic area, reactions to a proposed divorce law are h. The problems and needs of rural women range from employ- presently being gauged. ment, low educatioral and training opportunities, poverty to lack of social services and basic utilities (water, electricity). b. Assistance is being extended by the Department of Social Their stated needs include: employment, food production, Services and Development to young unmarried mothers. capital, sanitation, family planning, etc. The recommended solutions of rural women to their problems and needs empha- c. In education, instructional modules on women's role have size economic aspects. The best solution to these needs and been developed for application to the three educational levels. problems seems to call for the provision of opportunities for self-sufficiency. d. In the economic sector, legal measures have been taken to improve the employment opportunities, compensation and 9. Women in Cultural Minority Groups: maternity benefits of working women. Legal and social assistance are being provided to disadvantaged working a. The cultural minority groups in the Philippines make up 15%of women's group. Female participation in labor unions is being the population. These. groups have generally retained their encouraged.

xxiv xxv e. Government agencies such as ti,. Bureau of Women and 12. Specific projects and general recommendations were proposed by Minors, and the Bureau of Agricutural Extension have various organizations and individuals concerned with the develop. projects for the improvement of women's conditions. Private ment of Filipino women. organizations like the Institute of Philippine Culture, with assistaice from UNICEF, the International Institute for Rural 13. As a result of an analysis of empirical data on women, four Reconstruction and the Philippine Business for Social Progress program areas were recommended for priority consideration in (PBSP) are implementing or assisting community development planning action projects. These are related to problems and needs projects involving women's groups. An analysis of several identified as obstacles to the effective participation of women in projects assisted by PBSP show the possibility of raising the their own development. These areas are appropriate technology, level of awareness of women, motivating, organizing and functional education and training, agri-skills training and integrated training them for active participation in community develop- raral development. A brief description and justification of each ment activities as well as for the improvement of their socio- of these areas are included. Some agencies tlat can promote the economic conditions. development of women are described, including their roles.

Identified problems which prevent their full participation are concerned with role conflict of women as mothers, house­ keepers and workers. The need to develop their income augmenting capabilities, their primary concern, is indicated.

The involvement of various women's organizationsand other organizations with their specific program geared to the develop­ ment of women is described.

f. Public apprcval of the other legal reforms being proposed by the UP Law Center and NCRW is very favorable.

11. The ranking of regions according to the existing conditions for women based on selected indicators per area of concern resulted in the following ranking, starting with the region which received the lowest rank (number 1), and considered the most depressed area:

Rank 1 Cagayan Valley/Batanes Rank 2 Southern Manila Rank 3 Eastern Visayas Rank 4 Northern Mindanao Rank 5 Ilocos/MN.. Province Rank 6 Bicol Rank 7 Western Visayas Rank 8 Central Luzon Rank 9 Southern Luzon Rank 10 Metro Manila

xxvi xxvii I. INTRODUCTION

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study is to'develop Profile of a the status and role women in the country's of Filipino study development. The is basically a literature survey of exist. ing materials on Filipino women in various aspects of their lives. The basic outline of study was partly based the Bureau on the USAID Missions' "Draft Asia Asian Questionnaire for Countrips to Reflect Women in Current Status of Development. " the profile The objective of is to enable program identify planners to strategies, provide direction tify areas of involvement and iden. of government and Private sectors concerning women the contribution in national development of dations Recommen. for possible project and implementation action resea-ch are included, There is a general impression parison with thatui com­ other women in women seem ' 1iiFilipino position, to have better opportu'nities For example, Filipino and posedly 'omensup. attain equal if not than more education men. Filipino women arF thought to be 1 2 A Profile of Filipino Women 3 activeiy participatingin the labor force and INTRODUCTION even occupy certain high positions in the government andprivateenterprises.In politics, they seem to be active as voters andcandidates. Women constitute half of the population of Lie Philippines. This In the home, the general husband-wife inter- itial manpower, if properly harnessed, can contribute significantly action appearsto be predominantlyegalitarian eveiopment. Considering that women's role has been generally and decisin-making areasare shared.It is not ded as that of homemaker and motr, their sphere of influence is uncommon to read in the newspaper about er enhanced since the effects of developmental efforts on women women who have successfully combined d naturally affect children and youth. domestic and economic roles. The need to bring women into focus in development planning is The extent to which these impressions nized in the International Development Strategy for the United approximate the true conditionof the maiority ins Development Decade. Among tue goals and objectives of the of Filipino women were determined by analy- de is the encouragement of the full integration of wom-. in the zing available data and current programs and development effort (Boserup and Liljencrantz 1975). The declara. activities related to specific areas of the wo- of 1975 as International Women's Year strengthened efforts to men's lives; the home, in education, in the the world's attention on women including their rights and roles. labor force, in the public and political field. lary to this is the realization of the need to change the traditional and attitudes of women that mold their daily activities. As background, a historical perspective of women's role andstatus, her sex rolesocializa- The recent upsurge of interest in advancing the development of tion, and her generalphysical well-being were m and increasing their participation in community affairs has also presented. Specifi: legal provisions which ed in a realization that they can and should become effective part­ affect women were or,amerated. Certain wo- of men in development endeavors. Women are therefore urged to men's group such as ruralwomen, and women n from confining themselves to the home and household work ­ in cultural minority groups were described, social, economic, political and religious endeavors could be based on available materials. ded to.

Regional profiles of v',men based on empi- If programs to improve the capabilities of Filipino women are :., rical data were devel',ped to assist program about the desired change, program planners and implementors planners in identifr ing regions for develop know the existing conditions of women within the context of mental programs for women. Specific projects society and culture so as to perceive their behavioral patterns in and general recommendations that have been in to the community they live in. Such knowledge will result in proposed by various agencies were included. lanning of programs that meet the needs of women and maximize Implications for action programs were form- levelopmenL. ulated based on the analysis of problems and needs of the majority oiFilipinowomen. ?urpose of this study The purpose of this study is to develop a profile of the status md role of Filipino women in development through a survey of mxisting literature on Filipino women in various aspects of their ives. A detailed outline was prepared based on the literature urvey and the USAID Asia Bureau Missions' "Draft Question­ iaire for Asian Countries to Reflect Current Status of Women in 4 A Profile of Filipino Women Introduction Development." This outline served as a guide in the collection of describe the most common patterns of findings among data which were analyzed and synthesized for the purpose of 33 published and unpublished studies surveyed. preparing a profile on the subject. This profile was prepared with the objective of enabling program planners to identify strategies, 3. Illo, Jeanne Frances, Involvement by Choice. The role of provide direction and identify areas of involvement of goveinment Women in Development, 1977. and private sectors in programs for the improvement of the status and role of Filipino women. Recommendations for possible project The study reviewed extensive data on income, labor implementation/action research were formulated as part of this force participation and life concerns gathered from women, study. men and unmarried daughters from a total of 288 Bicol households scattered in lowland rice-farming, coastal fish­ B. Major Sources of Data ing, and urban communities. Data collection was done in three stages: depth interview of a panel of purposively The establishment of the International Women's Year in 1975, selected informants, resident observation in a limited with its goals of achieving equality between the sexes and the number of Bicol River Basin households (representing fuller development of women, in particular, has expanded the three ecosystems in the area) to generate time-allocation existing literature and data on the subject. Several publications pattern data, and a social survey of 288 married women: have analyzed and synthesized reports and studies on women. The 241 of them interviewed with their husbands, and 65 major works utilized in this literature review are: with their daughters. The results were then woven into a proposal for involving women in development efforts. 1. Castillo, G.T., "The Filipino Woman as Manpower: Bicol women were categorized into the two dominant role­ The Image and Empirical Reality," 1976. types, namely, the traditional pure housewife and the part­ time working mother. The third relatively infrequent type Castillo analyzed the mass of existing information is the career woman. The author presented a profile of from Census Reports and Labor Force Surveys, National each and suggested viable approaches for improving these Demographic Surveys, graduate student theses and both role situations. published and unpublished research reports. A comprehen­ sive profile of the Filipino women was evolved based on 4. Montiel C. and M.R. Hollnsteiner. "The Filipino Woman: ten different aspects of her life: as a demographic statistic, Her Role and Status in Philippine Society," 1976. matrimonial risk-taker, child-bearer, adolescent, recipient of education, migrant, member of the labor force, working This report presents a general thcoretical framework wife, decision-maker and participant in politics, informal for analyzing existing data on the Filipino women's situa­ organizations and in church activities. tion particularly those from the low-income group. Sugges­ tions on how developmental innovations may affect these 2. Gonzales, A.M. and M.R. Hollesteiner, "Filipino Women Filipinas were made. Three aspects to describe her level of as Partners of Men in Progress and Development," 1976. development were selected: physical well-being, participa­ tion in the economy and her status within Philippine Gonzales and Holinsteiiner surveyed empirical data on society. The authors identified the following measures of the Filipino woman's current role in the Philippine society tiese three factors: They formulated statements of basic goals to foster male­ female partnership and the desired attitudes which the a. Physical well-being - nutrition, family planning, health school can inculcate in boys and girls. Presentation of and ardousness of labor. empirical data pertaining to the Filipino woman is divided into three major areas: domestic, public and education b. Participation in the economy - functions in domestic orientation. The gener.lizations made by the author activity and national economy; degree of educational 6 A Profile of Filipino Women Introduction 7 skills required for economic activities. A total of 1,997 adults were interviewed - 1,598 c. Status- participation in domestic and public decision- women and 399 men from designated urban and rural sample areas. The rural sample making and equality of income/education benefits, came from provinces, representatives of the country's 10 regions. TheA 40 A system for analyzing the effect on lower income Filipinos Fromsample each barrios barrio, were aallocated sample among the sample provinces. and inter-relationships among various develop, of 20 households are drawn and one woman aged 18 to 59 in each household was mental factors was formulated as part of this study. randomly interviewed. 5. "Role of Women in the Philippines" For the urban sample area, 50 barangays This is a comprehensive and clearly written summary were randomly chosen. In each barangay, i0 of the role of Filipino women. The major topics are: women from separate house­ ho.ds and four men were interviewed. a. Women in Philippine society, education, the professions, Highlights of the findings of this study are included in public positions and the household, this profile. b. The status of women General Impressions n che Status of Filipino Women c. Recommendations in the fields of education, legisla- In comparison with tion and labor. othei Asian countries, Filipino women are said to enjoy privileges that other women have to fight for or more 6. Licuanan, P. and A.M. conveniently Gonzales, "Filipino Women in pino resign themselves to. In the field of education, Fili­ Development," 1976. women supposedly attain equal if not more education than men. Women's participation in generally labelled male disciplines This is an exploratory study such as law, aimed at understanding common event.medicine and the physical sciences is considered a the lower class Filipino woman Newspaper articles that feature such lines as as a "social actor" and "more working defining her current women in RP," "women invading more and more role in national developrment. The fields," cultural, sociological ind psychological "more women join engineering field," as well as periodic aspects of women's awards given to outstanding role in the development process are emphasized. women, serve to build the perception Lower that Filipinas have continually class respondents were 300 nen and women increased and improved their parti­ from semi- cipation in the labor force. urban, urban and rural communities. Findings In the political area, women are thought relevant to to participate actively in elections the role and status of women pertain to: self-concept; not only as voters but also as candidates for election in local and national posts. social role perception, performance and satisfaction; social norms and expectations; spheres of influence; socialization In the domestic scene, husband-wife interaction of sex roles; public orientation; participation in occupa- appears to be shared. Women who are able to successfully tional activities, community organizations and mass media combine domestic roles with work outside the home do not seem to exposure; aspirations, needs and problems of lower class be a rarity. That the wife is the traditional holder of the family women and the Woman in purse has never Society. been questioned. 7. Dr. Rodolfo A. Bulatao of the Department of Sociology, The above University of the Philippines conditions that seem to describe the status of is currently analyzing data Filipino women obtained from a nationwide study in society create the impression that they are on the Status of Women equal to men in the Philipines. and that their roles, though slightly different, are nevertheless egalitarian in nature. There is therefore a general feel­ 8 A Profile of Filipino Women Introduction 9

ing that there is no need to improve women's social position. But society's norms show the extent of and tolerance to this deviation what are the bases for such observations'? Do they really portray by women themselves and by society. (Ibid). the typical Filipina? To what extent these impressions approxi­ mate the true condition of the majority of Filipino women will be The following questions have been suggested to serve as guide­ determined by citing available studies and survey, lines in the evaluation of women's role enactment and compromises in society: D. General Framework for Analysis 1. Which behavioral areas show the most discrepancy between Before attempting to discuss empirical data on Filipino women, actions and expectations or between actions and social definition of principal terms that determine the framework of norms? analysis for the profile development seems appropriate. Which role enactments are undergoing greatest change? Buvinic (1976) regards status and role as complementary concepts. Together they portray the inter-relationship between 2. Who are the women whose actions deviate the most from the social structure and the individual. Each of these, however, expectations or norms? demonstrate this relationship from different perspectives. 3. What is the source of a given role conflict y Is it value judg­ Status is defined by Buvinic as the individual's place in the ment felt by the women themselves (actions vs. expecta­ social structure. It is the ranking, in terms of prestige, power, or tions) or is it imposad by society (actions vs. norms)? esteem, accorded to the position of women in comparison with, or relative to, that of men. The most frequently used indicators of 4. How do these women avoid or solve conflict? What enables social position of women are the proportions of women in the contradictory actions and expectations (or norms) to co­ labor force and in the total enrollment at different educational exist? (Ibid) levels. To arrive at meaningful indicators of women's status, how­ ever, requires an understanding of both the structural and dynamic Taking on from these broad sociological guidelines, this aspects of the society in question - its specific social structure and study attempts to define tiue present status of women in tile sources of power, prestige and esteem of its members. (Ibid). Philippine society and the different ro!es accompanying this position. From the point of view of Montiel and ilollnsteiner (1976), status refers to two factors: 1) the amount of participation of Data related to the status and role of Filipino women were lower-income Filipinas in decision-making in both domestic affairs categorized into the following major areas which would reflect and public events and 2) the degree to which women benefit by their level of development and serve as a general framework for their participation in the economy as regards to income and analysis: education. 1. ilistorical perspective of Filipino women's status and role Role refers to the manner i i which the individual deals with in society. the inherent demands of a par.icular social position. Role enact­ ment involves the set of actions carried out by an occupant of a 2. Sex role socialization in the Philippines social position. On the other hand, role expectations include the concepts which help people define limits or ranges of actions 3. Physical well-being sanctioned by society. (Buvinic, 1976). 4. Domestic status and role The variances between women's actions and their sex-role related attitudes and expectations and between their actions and 5. Educational status and role 10 AProfile rf FilipinoWomen

6. Economic status and role 7. Public participation PERSPECTIVE S. Legal status

Discussion on the physical well-being, domestic, educational and economic status and role of women; their public participation and legal status is divided into two parts. The first empirical part focuses on data on these various aspects. The second part looks into current activitie. and programs directed towards the improvement of women's status and roles.

In addition to the above, data was also obtained for specific two groups of women in view of the growing interest in focus­ ing developmental efforts towards these groups: 1. Rural women 2. Women in cultural minority groups:

- Muslim women - Negrito women - Women in other cultural minor.ty groups Regional profiles of women based on empirical data were developed to assist planners of programs for women's development in identifying priority regions. A chapter on specific projects and general SUMMARY" recommendations that have been proposed by various agencies follows. The report ends with a chapter on implications for action he endwoen programs formulated by the author as a result of the in analysis of problems and needs of the majority of Filipino The equality etween IIenadcienlMalay women. the Philippines tradition. Historiansonbacktopre-Spanish.Philippines A socio-economic profile of the Philippines (Appendix I) serves as a framework of investigation. note that our Filipino woman-ancestor held a privileged position in society. She had eqspL inheritanceand property righis, a respectable position of authority in the family, in the social andpoliticallife.

The effect of Spanish colonization was to demote the Filipino woman to a minor social status. She was mainly sheltered from every­ day affairs and prevented from participating. in business, political, rfairs. educational and social

-U 12 A Profile of Filipino Women 13 During the Spanish times, however, several HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF WOMEN'S STATUS AND ROLES women who worked for the revolution are accounted for. In the Filipino version of the creation, the first man and woman The American regime in the Philippines sprang full-blown from the same cylinder of bamboo at the samp time. broughtabout several reforms which gradually Man was called "Malakas" or strong and woman was called "Maganda" led to the social and politicalemancipationof or beautiful (Role of Women in the Philippines). the Filipinowomen. Educationalopportunities were opened up equally t- men and women. This legendary account provides a contrast from the biblical version This led to women's greater awareness of where woman was created from the rib of man, a description clearly social events and eventually to the establish- denoting woman's subordinate position. ment of theirright to vote.

During this period, several outstanding A. Early Pre-Spanish Period women are cited for contributionsto politics, educationand social work. The ancient Malay tradition of equality between men and women (Guthrie and Jacobs, 1966, p. 42) may be very succinctly reflected in the foregoing legend.

In comparison with other women in Asia and Europe the Filipina's uniqup position is said to be one of the most historically tenable positioais, backed up by chronicles of the 16th century. (The Asian, 1971).

Pilar Hidalgo-Lim, an educator, notes that among the early pre-Spanish Filipinos, the acceptability of babies did not depend on sex. Parents brought up boys and girls with equal care. (Valla­ dolid, 1975).

Tribal custom allowed young women the same freedom as males to choose their mates. The man's family paid a bride dowry, but this was usually compensated for by a return gift from the girl's family. (Ibid.).

Women were entitled to inheritance, as much as their brothers were. Before and after marriage, the Filipina retained her rights to property. (Ibid.).

Women had an important position in the family. She was not merely a partner in the marriage contract. In many cases, she was practically the head of the house. She could make contracts and business arrangements without necessarily consulting her husband. Her dowry and property owned before mar-;-.ae was hers, and she administered them with absolute independence. (The Asian, 1971) 14 A P'ofile of Filipino Women Historical Pergpective These observations were reinforced by Alzona (1934) who In fact under the Spanish Civil Code, women enjoyed no stated that upon marriage, greater the Filipino woman was treated by the rights in family and property law than minors, lunatics husband as an equal. She retained and idiots her maiden name, shared his (Seminar on Working Women, 1976). Even education was primarily honors, and disposed freely of the property she had brought into a male prerogative. (Aldaba-Lim, 1974). the marriage. She was consulted by her husband about his affairs and he did not ordinarily enter into contracts or agreements with­ out her knowledge and approval. During the three centuries of Spanish colonialism, several revolu­ tionary movements broke out. listory The Spanish chronicler, cites a number of women parti­ Loarca, wrote that in the 17th century, cipants and leaders in the Philippine resistance against Spain. Filipino women could have babies only when they wanted and Gabriela Silang (1723-1763) was the first Filipino woman general, without having to get married. They could be granted a divorce at a time when women usually stayed at home. The wife of Diego when necessary. (Castillo, Marie C., n.d.). Silang, a Filipino hero, she led her husband's men against the Spaniards after his death. Starting out Filipinas were the equal of with 200 men, the membership increased men not only in the home, but also in number to 2,000 as against 6,000 Spaniards (Rolf of Women). in social and political affairs. History notes that the ancient Malay male rulers, like Panay Chief, Marikudo, consulted their wives Melchora Aquino (1812-1919), better known as Tandang before making important decisions Sora, on matters of state. (Aldaba- was a great help in the Katipunan revolutionary movement by providing Lim, 1974). Women could also succeed their husbands or fathers the men with food and shelter (Role of Women). in the leadership of the tribe, in the absence of a mlale heir. (Valla­ dolid, 1975). Outstanding women leaders in pre-Spaiiish Philippines Gregoria de Jesus (1875-1943), the wife of Katipunan founder, were Queen Sima and Princess Urduja (Aldaba-Lim, 1974). Andres Bonifacio, was one of the first members to be initiated into the movement. She was the custodian Other positions of of the revolutionary documents and .leadership were in religious functions, property. Aside from this, she also led her fellow women Women were into joining preferred as mediums in the animistic religion and the Katipunan movement (Role of Women). they were often designated as official priestesses. They presided over religious ceremonies, communicated with the spirits and Trinidad Perez Teeson (1848-1928) fought in twelve battles during cured the sick. (Kroeber, n.d.). the revojution. She started Red Cross work in the Philippines and organ. B. Spanish Period ized groups of women to do nursing work for the soldiers.

Other active women revolutionares included: Teresa Magbanua, Spanish colonization started in the 16th century and lasted the Visayan Joan of Arc, the first woman from Panay Island around three hundred years. The introduction to fight for and imposition of Philippine freedom; Marina Dizon Santiago, an active member of the Catholicism and Spanish culture brought about a slow, but signifi- Katipunan; Agueda Kahaban, one of the first women generals in the cant change in the Philippine social structures. revolution. (Role of Women; "The Gutsy Dozen. .. "). The Code of Roman Law, from which Spanish law was derived, The women's revolution during the Spanish regime was not limited underlined man's superiority and woman's limited capacity to act. to political insurrections. Women also participated in peaceful Myths of helpless womanhood dependent move­ on male gallantry were ments for educational reforms. The women of Malolos, Bulacan were propagated. Dominant female traits included passivity and piety, celebrated by the famous letter addressed to them by Dr. Jose The Spanish Code of Laws, according Rizal, to researcher N. V. Bley, the Philippine national hero. At a period when educational priorities had the effect of confining the woman inside the home. She was were reserved for men, these women organized themselves to petition forbidden the right to transact business without the legal sanction for the granting of equal educational opportunities to women. (Role of of her husband, or even to dispose of her ov,:..paraphernal property. Women; Castillo, 1976). 16 A Profile of Filipino Women C. American Occupation Historical Perspective 17 National Federation of Women's Clubs. They lobbied in Congress for the right to vote, to get themselves elected to office, The end of the 19th century brought about an end to Spanish .o hold property in their own name and to dispose of rule. The Americans took over for a period of it freely and to receive 48 years, briefly equal pay for equal work. (Ibid.). interrupted by the Japanese takeover during World War II. During the American occupation, social conditions supposedly underwent a change, As a result of these political efforts, Filipino women were finally given the right to vote in 1937. In the first elections, 325 women were The greatest achievement was in the field of education. elected to public office, mostly as heads of towns or Public provinces. The passage of the Paraphernal education was undertaken seriously for the first time. The Amer- Law in 1932, allowed the wife to dispose of her paraphernal property ican ideals of democracy included rights for without her women. The emigrant husband's consent. (Ibid.). teachers, the Thomasites, encouraged the spirit of activisn in their students. Women were advccated to strive for higher education, Outstanding Filipino women during abandon their timidity and become full contributors to society. this period were: Fausta Labrador, who opened a hospital for the poor and a school for Schools for women were established. Some women wera elected to poor children. ("The Gutsy Dozen. . board presidencies and other high positions, even before colleges and universities in the United States offered such posts to women. Jacinta Zaera de Cailles was one of the country's leading (Aldaba-Lim, 1974). feminists.but bright Astudents. philantropist, She ledshe the organized National scholarshipsLeague for the poor D. Some Outstanding Filipinas in History of Women in the National Federatior, of Women's Clubs when Filipino women Outstanding Filipino women were noted mainly for peaceful clamored for equal rights of suffrage with men. (Ibid.). educational and political reforms. In the field of education, the Maria Ylagan Orosa following women may be cited: pioneered in the fields of food, nutrition, and home economics. She gave lectures and demonstrations in rural Librada .Avelino (1873-1934), an educator, areas and by 1941 was not convinced over the country. (Ibid.).had organized 537 rural improvement clubs all that "reading, writing, and arithmetic" were enough education for girls. She introduced the concept of girls taking an active interest From this historical account of the evolution in the government. She founded the Centro Escolar de Sefioritas of the status and which emphasized the role of Filipino women, it is seen that various cultures had different teaching of practical lessons in citizenshin influences ("The Gutsy Dozen. . ." which greatly affected their conditions in society. Depending on the needs of the time, several women became out. Other leading female figures were mainly the founders of standing for championing the women's cause which proves that if properly harnessed, women can indeed make significant contribu­ educational institutions for girls. Sofia de Veyra was one of the tions to development. country's leading educators 9 0 in the early 1 0's; Margarita Roxas founded the La Concordia Girls' School; Francisca Benitez established the Philippine Women's University. (Aldaba-Lim, 1974).

The introduction of mass media gave access to the 20th century trends abroad, including the women's suffrage movement. Political awareness increased mainly as a result of more educational expos­ ures. Women started joining groups such as the Philippine Associa­ tion of University Women, the League of Women Voters, and the I11. SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION

SUMMARY

Sex differences may be attributedto: 1) in­ nate biological differences; and 2) variations in environmental influence. Notable differ. ences between the sexes result from the con. tinuous interaction between these two factors. It is,- however, more difficult nr Isolate the contributions of nature t5 sex differences than to define the--cffectA ofculture and Social. ization.

In the Philippines, anumbr of recent stud­ ies have shown that differences in behavior expectatians for boys and girls start early M life. This begins with different treatment and behaviAl expectations from, boys and girls

1V.* 20 A Profile of Filipino Women starting at birth. The selective responsibility 21 trainingat home which intensifies sex differ- SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION entiation is reinforcedin school. This extends into adolescence, and is further emphasized by norms of conformity behaviordictated by What differences, if any, are there between the characteristics and the peer group. Sex specific behavioralexpec- ilities of males and females? tations are carried on into adulthood with There are some consistent findings established roles for men and women. The of basic sex differences which iy be relatively free of cultural bias influence of cultural and which are significant statis­ values, specifically that allyb of "machismo-feminismo" sustains the defini­ tion of sexual roles. Group Average Differences 'The brief possibly incomplete, description Studies comparing men and won en have found some of Philippine sex-role socialization seems group average to ferences. Females are physioloically put women in a very restricted state. Surveys more viable as shown by their ver mortality rate at birth and throughout on men and women's attitudes towards life. They mature earlier their I in general, have better attributed role have given an impression perception of details, manual dexterity, of bal abilities and visual general contentment. However, if given the memory. On the other hand, men have greater Iscular strength, better speed and chance to change one's sex, more women coordination of gross bodily move­ nt, and special and mechanical expressed the choice of wanting to be male aptitudes. Animal behavior studies )port the view that males are generally because of social privi!eges accorded to the more aggressive than females, measured by fighting and resistance control. (Erickson, 1975). latter. "It is to be noted that generalized statements of differences are for average man and woman. Considerable overlapping of the distribution yes of characteristics of the sexes exists and considerably more iability among the scores within the same sex occurs. (Ibid.).

Physiological differences between the sexes, such as body build and scular strength, may relate to sex hormones. These natural differences d to increase from infancy to maturity. However, notable differences brought about by a socialization process which is an ongoing inter­ on between innate characteristics and environmental demands. It is 'icult to isolate innate differences between the sexes. In a general sense, contribution of culture to sex role socialization may be easier to ne. (Ibid.).

Behavioral Expectations from Boys and Girls In the Philippines, the subject of sex-role socialization has not been 'oughly investigated. Social scientists, backed up by sporadic studies, given varying theories as to when and how the sex role differentia. in socialization is brought about.

According to one source (Stoodley, 1957), there is little or no nction in the socialization of boys and girs until age 10 or 11. In 22 A Profile of Filipino Women Sex Role Socialization 23 another study (Guthrie and Jacobs, 1966), boys and girls are reportedly ie house. They are instructed to behave in such a way that treated alike until five or six years of age. More recent studies, boys will however, ict them. They usually go out only under the declare that a strong delineation of bthavioral expectations surveillance of for boys erones. Adolescent boys, on the other hand are given and girls start very early in life. (Flores, 1969; much more Licuanan and Gonzales, d freedom. (Mendez and Jocano, 1974). 1976). From birth, different treatments are accorded to boys and girs. Responsibility Training at Home The motivation of girls and the limitation of their choice to the tradi­ tional roles of mothers, homemakers and consumers are set by society. Sex differentiation becomes Girls are held closer to home even more clear-cut in the area of and socialize to assume these roles while responsibility training, boys are encouraged which takes place as soon as the child can to take initiative and act independently. (Bem and work. Bern, 1971). (Licuanan and Gonzales, 1976). The father usually tak, charge in training the son towards the responsibilities of a future In her book "Women and Madness," Phyllis head of the family, while, the mother prepares the daughter for Chesler (1972) explains the duties and responsibilities of a future that traditionally, housewife. (Mendez and women have a more limited "role sphere" than men elocano, 1974). and are allowed a smaller range of "acceptable behavior," while men can act out their varied drives more easily than women can. Recollections of childhood household activities by Licuanan Flores' study (1969) revealed that even at a very and Gonzales' (1976) subjects show young age, girls pated in feminine chores such as laundrythat females work, usually partici­ are expected to be restrained in their behavior. When in taking care of pain or grief, younger siblings, and assuming the mother's role when boys are expected to suffer in silence, but girls are privileged parents were to cry or absent. More men than women reported having performed complain. Each sex is reprimanded for assuming unappropriate such roles traditionally masculine tasks as chopping firewood, fetching and rewarded for adapting to cultural water, prescriptions about how boys and gardening, and caring of livestock. girls should act. However, there is an absence of sex differences in parents' character Privileges given to children are also preferential. Girls are usually expectations for the children. Both boys and girls are expected to be expected to stay at home and help out with household work. obedient, honest, respectful, and kind. (Licuanan and Gonzales, 1976). Unless there are no girls in the family, house chores are not assigned The good child is, above all, considerate of his parents, to boys. Boys have more time to play and are given more freedom which to roam around the neighborhood. (Licuanan and Gonzales, means, for the most part, being 1976; deferential to them. boyond this, he Mendez and Jocano, 1974). should be diligent in his studies and work. Sons should strive to avoid falling into "bad ways," while daughters should do both this and grow The mother's influence on the daughter has been observed to closer to God in faith and piety. However, the average daughters approach be very strong, especially in cases where the mother has had an this ideal more closely than sons, who fall short mainly because of vice active and rewarding work experience. Likewise, the father and disobedlience. (Lynch and Makil, 1968). plays an important role in the daughter's occupational decisions in terms In play activities, girls are expected to play with dolls and other of encouraging or discouraging theif aspirations, similar to that of typical female games and toys. As they grow older they are encouraged their son. to develop an interest in cooking, sewing, and similar domest; c tasks. Boys are encouraged to engage in more vigorous outdoor play. Responsibility (Licuanan and Gonzalex, 1976; Mendez and Jocano, 1974). Training in School Sex role socialization extends from the home to Adolescence is characterized by a marked intensification the school. ofsex role Boys are usually segregated from the girls. Proper prescriptions. In rural areas, especially, girls are increasingly behavior in the restricted presence of the opposite sex is required. (Ibid.). 24 A Profile of Filipino Women Sex Role Socialization 25 The school system reinforces sex differentiation in activities as is desirable that he be morally good. His fidelity is an important prescribed in its curricula, textbooks and through the teachers' manifestation of this. The average wives approach this ideal more behavior. Schools have definitive rules and practices such as segre- closely than husbands, who are said to fall short mainly by reason gating boys from girls in line formation and inside the classroom, of immorality and vice, failure to provide properly for family needs The boys are constantly zeminded to act as gentlement in relation and lack of love and understanding. As long as the husband adopts to girls, while girls are reminded to behave properly when in the some measure of self-control and fidelity in the face of temptation, company of boys. The girls in both intermediate grades and high his morality is secure and his role adequately discharged. The school are required 0o take up home economics courses, while the religious side of family life falls to his wife. She represents both of boys are required to take up vocational work like carpentry, them before God by avidly participating in church and religious electricity, etc. (IMid.). rituals. In effect, she prays for two, her piety making up for both her own and her husband's failings. 3. Peer Group In Illo's study (1977) of Bicol women, the general impression Girls' perfermance early in school is the same or better than is that the woman's proper place is the home. Family matters boys. Their performance however, worsens later in years or during should take precedence over community affairs, career, or other adolescence, when social pressure to become "feminine" becomes nondomestic involvement, although women should take an active stronger.(Freeman, J., 1971). A study by Matina Hormer (1971) interest in the community. To be able to keep the wife at home, explains this phenomenon by showing the negative consequence of the man should earn enough to support his family by himself. a girls' appearing too smart or surpassing boys in anything. While these negative self-conceptions stifle motivation, girls are under D. "Machismo-Feminismo" pressure to strive for the highest reward society offers. Consequently, success can be bitter for women because of the resulting social Aside from socialization training from childhood to adulthood, rejection and role conflict. specific cultural values concerning sex roles also shape behavior and attitudes. One such value is the concept of "machismo" or In school and outside, adolescents seek the company of their male virility, a carry-over of Spanish culture. Excessive privileges own peer group, usually restricted to members of their own sex. are given to the males, while females are restricted in their behavior The group contributes significantly to the individual's socialization, and rights. This automatically leads to the "double standard" con­ particularly in the area of conformity behavior. (Ibid). cept of morality where separate rules are given to each sex. Men are free to do as they please, while women have to conform to C. Behavioral Expectations From Adults moral rules prescribed by society. The practice of having a "querida," or a mistress, is socially accepted, but the wife herself takes severe Bulatao (1968) reports that women are highly valued for their social ostracism if she takes a lover. qualities as mothers and housekeepers. They are the ones primarily expected to keep the family close together. A marriage should be These social attitudes and practices, originating from the con­ kept intact no matter what the husband might do. The women cept of"machismo,"is further tolerated and supported by a roughly should forgive an unfafthful husband. Women are undemanding, equivalent value of "feminismo," which means feminity, (not they love only one man. Mothers are expected to sacrifice them- feminism, in Western female libbers' terms). Some of the com­ selves for the family. They are expected to suffer in patience ponents of this "feminismo" are the desire to get married, to have endure their husbands' bad habits, such as gambling and drinking, children, to be subordinate yet equal, to seduced, to be beautiful, to be seductive without being be educated, to be a companion to her Lynch and Makil (1968) write that the good wife and mother husband and a mother to her children. (Castillo, 1976). is expected to be a religious woman, without major vices of any ', ore than a man's, duty to uphold society's kind. This is not expected from the husband or father although it It is a womans, moe na mans soraly moral code. Hence, unmarried mothers areare viewedviewed as morally aa 26 A Profile of Filipino Women Sex Role Socialization - 27 greater failure than an unmarried father. In marriage, moreover, Philippines is not sexually egalitarian. They feel betray al of one thro u ghharmnywhih in fidaludelity pbymariedwomn. o ses ishigly a serio us threat(11o to co197).more njugal that men have Phi eipopportunitiesp n es i n ins societyocety thanth anitari women.n. eReasons f forthor these sea e harmony, are which is highly valued by married women. (I, 1977). perceptions that men have greater E. General Attitudes of _Men and Women's capabilities, as well as better Sex Role occupational opportunities than women and that leadership is a male role. From these few general examples, we can see how the home, school environment, per.r group, and general social values create A majority of the women (mothers and daughters and sustain sex role prescriptions in the areas of household duties, alike) and men, are satisfied wilh their roles as play activities, course options, and overall behavioral expectations. women and men, respectively. For many, it is the satisfaction in family and/or kin group relation­ ships that primarily accounts for this. (Ibid.). Thus, the Filipino woman is continually being socialized towards the precribed female role all throughout her childhood This is supported in Bulatao's very and adolescence. Slowly she assimilates these cultural recent national study (1977), expectations. on the status and role This process of assimilation is facilitated by the strong social control of Filipino women. According to 13% of the 1977 subjects, women are treated better that the Filipino fanily and community structures exercise than men in society; over one-third said men were treated better; the domestic and social behavior of women. The presence and majority (54%) claimed of equal treatment. There is no need extended family members and the personal relations within to improve the present position the of Filipino women because they community, especially in the rural areas, prove are "already equal" to men, was highly effective in the opinion of making women fulfill their role expectations. 60% of married and single women interviewed. As a consequence of However, 65% this conditioning process, much of the woman's activities of both male and female respondents think that and her the position of women in own self concept start to revolve around the home, society needs improvement. Hypo­ her husband thetically, if given the chance and children. In turn, these expectations are simultaneously to change one's sex, more women expressed the choice of wanting to be male supported by both members of the same sex and the opposite sex. because of social privileges accorded to the latter than vice-versa. (ibid.). The above description on women's socialization seems to Results of these studies seem to indicate emphasize its restrictive aspect. However, apart from the social that although females are generally satisfied with their present scientists' viewpoint, how do the Filipino men and women sex, there are more women actually than men who expressed preference regard their sexual status and roles? A few studies have investigated to become men than vice-versa. this general question. It is generally perceived that the male issuperior, that lack of equal­ ity exists between the sexes and there is the need to improve women's position in From the sample of 1,520 male and female middle class society. students in Manila and suburbs, age 9 to 22 years, majority of the Cultural prescriptions, males (92%) prefer to remain boys, if born and not the basic and innate character­ again. (Flores and istics of males and Gonzales, 1969). A large percentage of the girls (43%) females, appear to be the predominant stumbling desire to be blocks to women's improvement boys. Some of the reasons stated by the girls are for full participation in society. superiority of the It is very difficult and male sex in ternis of physique, strength, and freedom personally stressful for individual women to from respon- go against their established sibilities and the danger of losing one's reputation. roles and status. Hence, proposals for changes in the women's condition must necessarily considei The majority of the 150 men and 150 women subjects of corresponding changes in the social structure. These would entail attitudinal changes from both the male and female groups. Licuanan and Gonzales, (1976) from the lower class in urban, semi­ urban and rural communities, prefer to remain in their present sex. Of those who wanted a change in sex, more women preferred to be men than vice-versa. Most of these respondents believe that the IV.EMP IRICAL DATA ON THE STATUS AND ROLE OF FILIPINO WOMEN

SUMMARY

A. PHYSICAL WELL.BEING In 1973, recorded deaths for males was 56% while that of females was 44%. Infant mortality rate formales was higher by 2% than that of females. Maternal mortality rate has declined significantly over a decade from 3% to 1.3% in 1971 per 1,000 live births. Projected life expectancy rates, likewise, are higher for females (68.25 years) than for'males (58.95 years) in the period 1975-1980. Considering that less females die and that they live longer, can we conclude that females are physiologi­ cally healthier than males?

29 30 A Profile of Filipinc Women Empirical Data 31 It has been estimated that 40 to 45% of Filipino families are 2%. In general, Filipino women marry two years earlier than men. undernourishedas a consequence particularly of low income, but The mean age for marriagein 1973 was 23.7 years for females and also because of ignorance, large family size, lack of medical services 25.7 for males. Rural men and women marry earlie- by at least and sanitation, cultural preferences and tradition. Malnutrition has two years than their urban counterparts. In addition, thL propor. nost seriously affected the Filipino women, especially those who ,.,n of single women is much lower in rural areas. are pregnant or nursing. One effect of poor nutritional status of the pregnant rauthers is their reduced capability for live births. Following the traditional norm of male superiority, women The mortality rates among their children orfetus due to abortion, tend to many upward, that is, they either m= ry men of equal or miscarriage, stillbirth and infant and toddler deaths are alarmingly higher educational achievement and occupation. The majority high. As high as 52% of women from low income communities (two-thirds) of both males and females marry partners with equal have experienced such mortalities. The incidence is higher among social standing. the urban (55%) than the rural women (47%). Among children who survive, a serious implication is their high susceptibility to Although considered still a rarity, the trend towards intermar­ permanent mental and physical dainange. Mnalwtrition is more riage with foreigners is twice as much for Filipino women than widespread among the female preschoolers (73%) han among the men. males (64%). One-third of all registered births from 1970-72 were atiended Total fertility rates have declined from le58 to 1972 by .57, by unlicensed midwives. Regional disparities in the maimer of resulting in an average fertility rate of 6.4 in 1973. This is higher attendance at birth are great among rural women who live in agricultural due to maldistribution of health per- nuclear households, those who are unemployed,areas, who women marry at in sonnel and facilities, customs and traditions. In addition, the very nucler age hod w o e w h ar y schol ing. small allocation for health expenditures in the family budget as younger age and women with elementary chooling. well as by the national inbudgets ofheathv ew totalsf ts~ einto iceri aninand ginsignificant cosmed catin.W amountmenT he fam ily size preferences (FSP) of married in view of the rising costs w omen (4.2) is of health sesvices and medication. Women generally lower than the actual fertility rate of 5.89. The FSP of generally feel neutral about their health and physical condition urban women is lower than that of rural women. There are regional and the availability of health and social services. Moreover, they feel variations in FSP, with the Mindanao and Ilocos and Mt. Province this has only a moderate effect on the quality of life. These may be regions indicating higher FSP. The higher the level of education indicative of the need t, make them aware of their significance; and occupation, the lower is the FSP. motivate and train them on how to Improve the family health and nutritional status as well as provide the opportunities to enable them to apply these skills. All these point out to the need for Family planning efforts have reduced the population growth training and licensing and midwives (hilots) antA other community- rate from an average of 3.01%in 1960-71 to 2.6% in 1975. A 1973 based health workers and the development/propagation of medi- National Demographic Survey showed that three-quarters cinal herbs as part of urban of the primary healt care program of rural women and one-half of rural women were aware of family planning communities. services. Although there are twice as many rural women in the reproductive age group than urban women, twice as many of the DOMESTIC STATUS AND ROLE latter are aware of family planning clinics and have continuously In 1970, there used family planning methods learned from the clinic. On the was an equal proportion of marriedmales and whole, however, only a fourth of those who are aware of a family females. On the other hand, there were slightly more unmarried planning clinic have actually used a family planning method. The men than women, need for the development of motivational strategies and accessibility for family planning facilities for the but Although Filipinas initial, more importantly, are marrying at a later age now than in the sustained utilization of family planning methods is highly indicated. past, the proportion of emales who never marry increased only by Moreover, priority should be given to the intensification of the (2)

32 A Profile of Filipino Women program in regions that have all the factors that contribute to large Empirical Data family size such as early marriage, There is a large proportion of females 33 attitude towards family planning, high fertility rate, negative who are neither house­ etc. whokeeperskepr nor are noto students.intdns the labor Theyhycnsist forceco mostly of out-of-school youth and would therefore be considered Although a significant abortion is illegal in the Philippines, its occurence is as dependents. part of a large proportion of women's lives, possibly Perhaps in keeping because they are potential users, with her image as being patient and self. sacrificing, wives do not generally complain about their relation­ Roles traditionally ship with or how attributed to the husband are family head. they are treated by their ship and economic they feel that sharing in husbands. However, role. The main tasks attributed to women are decision.making at home and being treated well by their husbands have child-rearing and strong effects on the quality of life. housekeeping. Thus, a working mother is still expected to fulfill her domestic role. The theoretical goal of social modernization seems to be the Authority pattern in the home is husbandothers. Outwardly,or however, generally egalitarian with the equalization of male.female wife having slightlythe more husband say inconstitutes the symbol roles. However, surveys show that certain areas than in women are generally contented of authority, which is in keeping with tradition. men with their nome-making derive the most satisfaction in life with the role while their performance of Decision-making economic role. Thus, effcrts.at role sharing between is generally shared in child-care, husbands and schooling; discipline and wives may take some tim(. to become effective. in social and leisure activities and in matters to farm related business. Other studies specify respective areas Child-rearing, of decision­ the most traditional and clearly differentiated making such as economic matters, sex roles, of for the husband and livelihood and son's discipline has such a magnitude of responsibility that alternative, household chores, child-rearing and family will have to be provided budget for the wife. to married women to ease up this load if An exception is provided by Bulatao's study their (1977) where decision-making participation in the labor lorce and public activities is generally a male functinn, and e ncouraged . are to wives are hardly i e consulted. Over-allr amigration d y c n u (provincial,t d Amost half rural to urban and of the women who are at least 10 yearns old are to other classified as countries) involves housekeepers. Close to three-quarters of the married more Filipino women than men. Migration women regard streams to frontier regions like Mindanao themselves as housekeepers, with moie rural women and those covering long having this as their distances are male-dominated. not main activity than urban women. However, it is uncommon for rural women to eneag. in part-time ployed type of self.em- Men's main work which are non-paying. Consequently, they reasons for migrating are educational and occupa­ not regard themselves do tional. Women, however, as being in the labor force, although they meve primarily due to marriage and also become a source of family income. family. Some women, especially those who move and to urban areas foreign countries, migrate [or occupational opportunities. The average Filipina wife spends at least 29 days a month and C. EDUCATIONAL more than eight STATUS AND ROLE on her main activityhours a day (which is more than a full-time of housekeeping. Among the regions, job)the largest proportion Literacy rate for Filipino of women with housekeeping as their main w,-men is 829. This is almost equal activity are in Cagayan to that of men. The difference between Sulu. Valley, Batanes, Southern Mindanao and urban and rural literacy rates are significant at 93% and 797a. Inspite of the fact r tsaesgii ata 3 n 9 , that wives are extremely busy with house- keeping Close to two-thirds activities, less than one-half of the men help of the children age 6 to 14 are enrolled the women with girls slightly outnumbering the boys. In the 15 to24 agegroup, perform their domestip chores. there is a drastic decrease in enrolment with less than one-third of 34 A Profile of FilipinoWomen the children remaining ing the gils. in school and the boys slightly These changes may be attributed to socio-economicoutnumber- factors such as early marriage, More boys pressures to get a job or help in the than girls aspire ,or vocational andEmpirical special Datai3n farm or home and additional courses. More females training expenses involved in secondary educa- than males aspire for college and graduate tion. The regionaldisparityin enrolment school, even if they may is significant, with Manila not finish it, since they probably feel its having the highest proportion importance for advancement in life. re gions having the lo w est and Eastern Visayas and Mindanao Consequently, more females population in sc ho ol.T than males are enrolled h s it h s e e coin lacademic u courses. regins avininschol.Thus, tie loestpopuatin d t at e m es a e a h g er a i e ­ Sex differences occur in the choice it has been of both academic and voca- concluded that females have a higher tional courses. The ment motivation than males. achieve­ concentration of enrolment of males and Bulatao's study indicates that a little ales fall mainly on traditional fem- less than courses prescribed for either sex. half of Filipino women start out with career Femole-dominated academic However, from expectations. courses are nutrition, nursing, mid- the parents' point of view, educational expectations wifery, pharmacy and teacher-training. are twice as high for Male-dominated academic a son than for a daughter. It may be difficult fields are engineering and to arrive at a summary technology, nautical sciences, agricul- statement from these varying conclusions. ture, music and The educational aspirations fine arts. and motivations of girls and boys definitely need further study. The choice of courses may be partly determined ences in aptitude by sex differ- as well as by perceptions cf the kinds There are more females (22%) with no expect to of job they at educationalattainment seek or obtain after graduation. Sex differences all than males (17%). There are mere females considered to be may be early than males in the more pronounced in the choice of vocationa: elementary grades. However, females start courses than in prior to dropping out even the choice -f academic courses. its completion. Consequently, more boys plete elementary than girls com­ and high school and start college. Manila Female students in private has a vocationalcourses are concentrated tremendous advantage in the beauty opportunity as shown over all the other regions in educational and fashion courses. In public vocational by the extremely high proportion of males the proportion schools, and females of women who have gone as far as college level. fishery and agriculture enrolled in technical are high at 48%and 41%, respectively.courses suchThatas the enrolment in the vocational Women with very agriculture is almost double that little or no education and women with of the colleges of agriculture college degrees have (which offer bachelor's degree) is a greater labor force participationrate (LFPR) noteworthy. This may be due than those in between to less expense, less rigid require- in educational attainment. This is probably ments and accessibility of due to the larger demands vocational schools. for technically-tiained labor which thebring other about increased hand, economicparticipation by female collge graduates. In general, the NCEE need forces the females On scholastic achievement scores do not without educa­ vary between the sexes. tion to seek employment. Again, there are marked regional differ- When women have collge degrees, ences, with Manila very much LFPR almost doubles their ahead. The scores for both sexes are and they tend to continue working despite lowest in the Eastern marriage and family. Visayas, Northern Mindanao and Cagayan Thus, the level of education is a stronger determinant of LFPR for Valley regions. females than for males. Although there is an almost A comparison of the NCEE results ment rates and educational equal ratio of male-female enrol­ with the nationalsurvey on attainment, the female LFPR is only elementary education show that one-third. Most women at the younger age, females are may not consider it necessary tc work better achievers than males. because their domestic role As they grow older, the scholastic is either considered more important or achievement of females may too time-consuming. be affected by the process of social- Moreover, the collge courses they completed ization so that they no longer may not be in line with become as competitive as the males the needs of the labor market Thus, the need for vocationalguidanceand counseling in the generally male-labelled subjects. is indicated. 36 A Profile of Filipino Women D. ECONOMIC STATUSIND ROLE Empirical Data 37 have high educational attainment they 1. Factors in Women's labor force participation: tend to continue working despite marriage and family. a. Modernization: This may lead f. Marriage and to the expansion of social family responsibilities: Among family respon. rolesonly for the sibilities, child care is the most time-consuming. for women.middle However, and upperthis class is womenactually who have access However, advantageous i snttenme to new it is not the number fcidebtterae ideas and education. For lower class of children, but their ages (pre-schoolpesho initiation women, her into the labor force is primarily due to economic and younger) that exert a negative reasons regardless influence on women's of modernization. labor force participation. Among riral women, toren be at less it is thought theinconvenient same time. This for them ta work and care for b. Residence: is due to the proximity child­ The employment rate is higher in rural (98%) of work than in urban areas (93.5%) place to the home. among w,-nen for the following The availability of household help a!so relieves the mother of her child-rearing reasons: and enables her to put more time into outsideand household work. tasks 1) There is less of a commuting problem in rural areas. 2. Statistics in relation 2) Because men's to women's economic participation cash incomes are less in rural areas, rural wives need to One-half add to the family income, of the population 10 years old and over labor force, are in the 3) It is easier with the males numbering twice as many for other members of the rural family as the take to females. care of children and therefore easier for Although the number of women in the females have labor force increased (1968-1975), their rate of participation to work outside their homes. show a corresponding increase. did not 4) Work in the farm is less structured keep less and rural women regular and shorter working hours. Female labor force participation lower iL the rural rate (LFPR) is slightly than in the urban areas. Moreover, the differ­ ence in c. Labor market conditions: The male-female labor are influenced hours of work of a woman force participation by the nature of her employment and i h ua rates is greatest ability of employment avail- in the rural rawt ai fa es :1 opportunities. Wage earners keep area with a ratio of at least 2:1. l el oasy . eWnte ran teh e is n ighe m There are regional the lo n gest wo rking hou rs; the u npaid th re re essp variations in LFPRs, with the highest least. When the fam ily w orkers the rop prportioo rn s ioof malen al particar i ipaa tiotionn in tht i t e unemployment rate is high, there are less e "frontier" regioi nso sof t Mindanao and in the Ilocos opportunities and encouragements to join the labor and Mt. Province region. On the force. other hand, Western Visayas and Central Luzon nave the high­ d. Income: The choice of time allotment for market work, est proportions of females working home regions are female-dominated since migration to these work, and leisure time as against income working by the If the husbend'swomen is conditioned by the huband's income. Female LFPR is greatest income is high, the wife's would probably between the ages 10-24 years (37).Tlis declines for the 25-44 be more year age group (31.47) for optimally allocated to home chores would tend to arid her LFP where the decline. Among the low marital reasons. husband's income is low, the wifeincome by necessityfamilies assume's Females a dual role of housekeeper and worker to with no schooling at all have a greater LFPR augment those than the husband's income. who started the different l tary, high school and college) but did not graduate. e. Educational attainment: ably, economic Presum. Education is 'a stronger deter- pressures may be greatest within this social class. Those who completed minant of an educational level have better LFP for females than for males. When women 38 A P-ofile of FilipinoWomen EmpiialData 39 LFPR than those who started but did not complete the next d female family workers consist mostly of farmers (81%) level of education. I sales workers (12%).

Among those in the labor force, rural women have the low- Inspite of equality in educational attainment, est median years of schooling, which is 4.6 years. The LFPR females occu­ of an insignificant proportion of administrativeand women with the highest levels of education is almost managerial double itions (0.6%) for both salary and self-employed those with types of lower education. The advantage of education in rk. terms of economic participation is more apparent in the rural The weekly average cash earnings areas. of female workers 8.00) is lower than that of males (P55) which is not sur- iing The LFPR of married women is slightly higher in view of the occupational groups they are concentrat­ than those in. Agricultural workers earned an average of single women (47.4% and 48.3%, respectively). of P-27; those in The differ- sonal serviceP38; in domestic service'P13 ence in LFPR and in sales work between those married and unmarried is more 8. significant among males than the females. Inspite of greater economic pressures entailed by married life, mnore females stop 3 blems of Working Women working to devote more time to their domestic role. Traditionalattitudestoward working women - Society still Majority of workers are in the agricultural sector. There dictates that the women's place is the home. Husbands generally attribute the domestic role to females. If given are more full-lime male u'orkers (82%) than female workers a choice, the wife (66%). On the other hand, one-third of the females work part- should stay home. Favorable endorse­ ment of the working wife is based primarily on financial time, which is almost twice as much as the males. Among the working women, considerations. Better educated people tend to look less more than two-thied work on a permanent favorably basis. than others on the mothers who take an outside job. The less educated group, which usually belongs to low socio-economic status, has Of the unemployed population in the labor force, more a greater economic need which than one-half have had work experiences. There necessitates the wife's taking on an outside job. When the are more ex- wife takes an outside job, she is nevertheless perienced but unemployed rural than urban expected to women. More rural take care of her domestic responsibilities. women regard themselves as full time housewives although they may be engaged in seasonal types of work as unpaid family Limited opportunities for training - In spite of equal workers. Among the remaining half of the population who are educational opportunities for men and women not in the labor force, there are twice as many females in tie than Philippines, women generally tend to choose males, with housewives forming the bulk of unemployed less work­ women. directed courses. Even vocational training is less for women than for men. Consequently, women have less skills train- The majority of female workers are wage and salary ing; less work experience and opportunities work- becoming less qualified for jobs. They than men, thius ers (46%) followed by unpaid family workers lack continuity of (30%), and finally on-the-job training and work experience, by self-employed workers (24%). mainly because of maternity leaves and child-rearing responsibilities which The wage and salary female workers are interrupt the working women's labor force participation. mostly service or Because of this, on-the-job training sports workers (35%), professional occurs each time she or technical workers (20%) goes back to work. and clerical workers (11.6%). Self-employed females, are in sales work (48.6%); production (26%) and farming (20%). Un- Cultural distinctions between men's work and women's work - this originates in the educational system, where 40 A Profile of Filipino Women Empirical Data 41 sex-typed courses are opted for. Some occupations are 2) The hiring of women may be considered more expen­ clearly male-dominated, while others are female-dominated. sive because of the maternity benefits and other invest­ The differences in aptitude between the sexes are said to ments needed for social be minimal and not sufficient to assign some tasks as services. "male" or "femal " 3) Protective labor laws and other constraints restrict Other fields however are starting to open up to women women's labor force participation. professionals,ture. In spite ofsuch the as reported medicine, utilization architecture, of women's an.-agricul­ scien- ~.Attitudes and policies of employers toward the employ­ ture. Indsptehogicareprteutinlizati oficmes ieny tific and technological expertise in public offices, ment of women are less than favorable because of the addi. industry tional costs involved and the attitude that the woman's and institutions of highier learning, it should be noted that place is at home. Ranking of general wom en in the profession represent the elite or sm all m inor- place by emloe in r e n erqualifications plac edos con­ as ity of Filipino women.to regwaStudies tiod on Philippine attitudes minle-e work m a erol se s s o w hatfourth sidered inby im employersportance only,in recruiting preceded workersby w placed sex toward male-female segregation in work roles show ork experience,as that educational attainment and age. Although the higher un­ females are more egalitarian in thei: role assignments more flexible in comparing preferred andemly ntreofw against most probable employment rate of womenenicamdtobdutois is claimed to be due to occupation. Female participation dis­ in other occupational crimination, experienced women workers tend to find work fields could therefore be encouraged, given the education much faster than men. This implies that larger unemploy­ and job opportunities, ment rate occurs due to the large*turnover of women in the labor force. This is in congruence with the seasonal, d. Overburdening of women due to multiple roles at home marginal nature of women's employment and their propen­ and at work - Work is important for a majority of women sity to migrate. This is shown by the fact that 47.4% of married women are Inequality in wages - Women's wages in the Piippinesare also working. In te rural areas where the majority of generally lower than those of men, even for women have to work in the fields the same type as unpaid family workers, of work and with the same degree program marriage and family life (among college have to be combined witl- daily graduates). As of 1975, men's farm work routine. A major (rational)average weekly source of family conflict there- cash earning was M as compared fore stems from women's toP49 for women. Fe­ dual home and work responsibil- male employees fr private ities. Problems arise organizations get much less because oi their inability to perform m3l ) mpred wromite or their domestic roles satisfactorily. ale e es he (P35.00)compared with 175.00 for male employees.The gap among government employees ismuch less -t102 for Alternative ways ,[coping up with the wife's dual role males and 1'02 for females. may include: wise-time budgeting, part-time employment, Sex differences are most notable in the following indus­ household help, and extended family arrangements. try groups: manufacturing, domestic services, personal ser­ e. Inequality in employment opportunities - Females have a vices, and commerce; and in the following occupational higher unemployment rate (5%) than males (4%). Several groups: sales workers, craftsmen, production explanations have and process been presented for this: workers, and service and sports workers. 1) Female labor is generally considered as marginal, dis- fm It as been estimated that among the employed workers, pensable, and seasonal. This stems from the traditional females earn about 44% less than males; among the el­ attitudes that men are the principal breadwinners and employed workers, they earn only 31% less. women's economic role is only secondary. The sex differential in wages are due to traditional 42 A Praofeof pii 0 Women social prejudice against women workers, but also due to the unintentional EmpiricalData factors: consequences Domestic helpers: They 43 are estimated to number about of social and halflabor a force.million, economic Despiteand constitute legislation14% of the women in the setting a minimum 1) The traditional wage attitude is that husbands are cipal wage earners the prin- and other conditions, domestic and women's income is only in terms of getting helpers are stiil exploited plgeear sup- lowest cash earnings (for women) plementary. aweekly long working hours. Male and household help get an average cash earning of P29 as ol e of 1975, while the females 2) Equal wages for only get'?16.'6 women may mean serious competition with men. 3) Some believe that men are more efficient Prostitutes,women jobs and women at certain ments": This class ofin women"leisureand entertainmentestablish. are relegated to lower standard ment with an workers provide the govern- of jobs. kinds estimated income of P14.5 million Most of them are young a year. girls from poor,big rural families with little or no education. In quently entail spite of this, these women 4) Men generally higheroccupy salaries higher positions,i which conse- are subject to social prejudice and unfair requiringtions from their employers. working condi­ 5tPheyaal operation Although a law has been passed differenceb n ean, wwomen of such establishments the "natural" to difference in earnings. workers consider tinese as employees with rights provided here is little reason to believe that operators by law, 6) Protective legislation abide by the opportunities sometimes limit employment- for women as well as their earning cities. For example, capa- egulations. compw.nies make up for the mater- 5. ;ons for working: Most women work for financial reasons. nity leave with pay by ng the lower class women, paying lower wages to women. their only attraction to work eeconomic benefits. 7) Women tend They could not derive intrinsic moti. to work fewer hours than men. ,n from their work which is 8) Women have generally 3ersonally unrewarding. usually tedious, exhausting lower level of training and work experience than men. elf-satisfaction and professional growth appear only as h. Inequalities in promotion idary motivations and are generally - Statistics show that n in the limited among career 1% of less than middle and upper classes. Women employed women ition work with higher and managerial occupy more for psychological and social positions. Womenadministrative,tend to complain reasons. zbout their poorer executive,more chances for promotion than about nly about 2/3 discrimination. Such inequalities wage of women working before marriage in promotion are camou- ] working after marriage. con­ flaged by employers' claims given Family-related considerations leadership of possession of qualities of as reasons for quitting jobs: by pregnancy, to spend males. time with the family, because eadae drshi m e ns of the husband. 6. . 'e Income: The husband 4. Disadvantaged working women's groups: is the sole source of income for )fif thethe families. a. Teachers: The teaching households.In general, The wife is a source of income profession is characterized rural women earn for majority by a less than their of women who are the lowest counterparts. The paid among all the strongest determinant of women's professionals and who e is their level have minimal chances of promotion. of education. 44 A rofile of ilUpino Women Four-fifths of the wives (86%) earned less Empirical Data 5 non-cash than P1000 a year in cashincome for 192 Sic a •aoiyo employment slightly outnumbler income and around 50% earned lesseml mlye the male's. Women, however, in noncasin omefor1972. thanP500 in leadership and supervisory positions work on a daily basis Since a m ajority of fem ale employees comprise a very small minority. by piece rate, their source of income is These situations, clearly supported by statistical the Filipina'straditional figures, reflect Most housewives earn money from concept of her status and ities, non-employment activ- role as subordi. such as buying nate to men's in of these and selling goods. terms of leadership capacity and opportunity. small business ventures mayThe result non-steady looked in its beingcharacter over- as a significant source of family income, The following conditions may although they have been noted for women's access provide a major or even primary source to political leadership: completion cially in poorer of income, espe- of professional educational; households. The complementary comes from a family of politicians female income function of or access to a clique, e.g., pro­ as a contribution to total family fessional group; comes from the characteristics income is more upper middle and elite classes. A of low income household. The typical female leader is either unmarried and more affluent or a mother with grnwn urbanized areas have fewer households children because the life that where the wife is a a leader leads usually conflicts with the busy domestic schedule source of income. of a married woman. 7. LaborUnion Activities: Women's participaticn in labor organ- Women's social izations has been minimal, participation is relatively greater they are a minority in tle laborwhich may be justified because than their force. Their membership in political involvement. organized labor unions is only groups. More working Urban women are more active than unios, 13%, while in independent labor women (including working mothers)rural i is 2.4%orcanization groups. are unions, Moremembers working thanwon n it is 22.4% nonworkingcluing ones. on g h ) Reasons for this may be: (a) Women remain in the labor market for a temporary period Membership in wmen either unpaid of time; (b) NMost women, are 's socialorganizations is usually family workers especially in trated among concen­ self-employed; agiculture work, or the middle and upper classes. (c) Family responsibilities consume The role of lower class and rural women's time and there most of the women is more commonly is little time left for outside activitir-s; that of recipients of government They and other organizations' benefits. (d) A natural lack of interest by are usually the object ofdevelopment women to ptrticipate in su i programs rather than organizations. Theyiat uaget E. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION the initiating agents. reported by Awarenessa smallof community percentage programs, specifically nutrition, is of women (26%) People are generally from low income not soenthusiastic over women becoming involved in politics because of communities. There the attitude that women are for the is even a much smaller participation nutritionrationing activities (14%) in home. activities. whichThe mostis highest in the feeding fre' ._ntlystated of children and reason for absen­ Women slightly outnumber the men teeism or dropping out is the in voting participation. work of the mother at home and in the farm or other Howeve,, a very small minority of women politicians achieve na- income generating activity. This tional and local leadership women need help to ease up their household and workimplies load that to positions. At the "barangay" or village enable level, even more women participate in local them to find the time to actively spite of this, they themselves poitical meetings. In- affairs. participate in community persist in electing the men as their Only a fourth of institutions married women make use of social like hospitals, health service The same pattern and family planning Teame pThese is found in government service, where centers. fernalo are mostly urbanized and working women. 46 A P- fib f ipinoW omen Female Participation in the 10,538 Samahang cooperative association Nayons (a pre. and at the village level) EA CAL Emp fk cDa 47 officers (5.4%) as members (10.4%) DATA ON THE STATUS aging signs is also AND ROLE OF that if properlylow. motivated These rates FILIPINO womenmay be could taken Participate WOMEP as encour. A. and even hold leadership SICAL WELL.BEI.G positions in a predominantly OF THE FILIPINO WOMEN ization male organ. One suchnotable as this. project of the Department Development is of Social Services the Self-Employment Assistance and which aims to develop Program (SEAP) Health is economic self-sufficiency an indicator of the level for the poorest Population. of development of Mortality rates, life expectancy a section of the population. have been utilized and nutrition and wom en alike Opportunities as some of the measures . are available to both men o health status. Although a large majority of married women are Catholics, regular attendance a. ConsideringM r a i at religious services Rthata e 55.95% of recored deaths in 1973 third. Using i, practiced by only are church attendance as one- may be concluded an indicator of religiosity, males while that majority of Filipino it only 44.04% are females, wives are not religious. the latter are can we conclude that healthier than the former? te te ar (Table IV-l). To axtnd the comparisonio further,ther the for the mortalityTal ratesra forTo male ind female per 100,000 population 3ectively with are 7.9 and 6.2, a ratio of 1 male death res­ Table V-2). to .75 female death. (Book of the Phil., 1976). The age of infancy (under 1 year) ighest percentage of usually records the mortality. In 1973, infant 2te (I14R) represented mortality 23.9% of all deaths. iales was higher by IMR among ?sulting 2% than that of females in a male infant death (Table IV-1), rate of 53.3 pjr 100,000 Iainst 40.3 for females. as Maternal mortality rate has declined significantly period of over 10 years (1960 to 1971) 000 live birth. from 3%to 2% per This is inspite of :m an increase in live births 649,651 in 1960 to 963,749 1 9 7 in 1.(Table IV-3).

Life Expectancy The seemingly female physiological superiority male counterpart continues over 'ectancy pattern. to manifest itself in the Inspite of the rigors life lale life expectancy of childbirth, has been increasingly es, from 11.54 and 13.92 longer than 35 and 62.85 years, years respectively, in respectively, in 1975 1 9 8 1902 to I). to 0.(Table TABLE IV.l. MORTALITY: ALL CAUSES BY AGE & SEX No. & Percentage Distribution 1973

O Number of Deaths BothSexes Male Percent Ditribution Female Boths Sexes Male Female '. Allages 283,475 158.611 Under 1 yr... 124,864 100.0 67,811 39,407 55.95 44.04 k 28,474 23.9 1 4 yr .... 50,312 24.8 22.8 a 5 9 yr..... 11,652 26,749 23,563 6.468 5,184 17.8 16.9 18.9 " 10 14 yrs... 4.1 4.1 5,107 2,962 4.2 15 19 yrs... 2,145 1 8 5,539 3,305 1.9 1.7 20 24 yrs... 2,234 2.0 6,864 4,249 2.1 1.8 25 29 yrs... 2,615 2.4 6,371 3,803 2.7 2.1 30 34 yrs ... 2,568 2.2 7,017 4,098 2.4 2.1 35 39 yrs... 2,919 2.5 7,996 4,692 2.6 2.3 40 - 44 yrs... 3,304 2.8 8,038 4,780 3.0 2.6 45 49 yr... 3,258 2.8 8,687 5,311 3.0 2.6 50 - 54 yrs... 3,376 3.1 9,357 5,588 3.3 2.7 55 59 yrs... 3,769 3.3 9,832 6,002 3.5 3.0 60 - 64 yrs... 3,830 3.5 12,708 7,391 3.8 3.1 65 - 69 yr... 5,317 4.5 11,588 6,539 4.7 4.3 70 & Over •.. 5,049 4.1 51,611 25,614 4.1 4.0 Not Stated 25,997 18.2 ... 2,915 1,653 16.1 20.8 1,262 1.0 1.0 1.0

Source: Disease Intelligence Center

TABLE IV-2. MORTALITY: ALL CAUSES BY AGE & SEX No. & Rate/O0,O00 Pop. 1973

Age Number of Deaths Both Sexes Male Rate Female Both Sexes Male Female ALL AGES... 283,475 158,611 Under 1 yr 124,864 7.0 . . 67,881 39,407 7.8 6.2 1 4 yrs ... 28,474 46.9 50,312 26,749 53.3 40.3 5 9 yr$... 23,563 9.5 11,652 6,468 9.8 9.1 10 14 yr ... 2,184 2.0 5,107 2,962 2.2 1.9 15 19 yrs. .. . 2,145 1.0 539 3,305 1.2 0.9 20 24 yrs ... 2,234 1.4 6,864 4,249 1.7 1.1 25 29 yrs ... 6,371 2,615 1.9 2.6 3,803 2,568 2.0 2.5 1.61.4 30 34 yr. ... 7,017 4,098 2,919 35 39 yr. ... 7,996 2.7 3.1 4,692 3,304 2.2 40 44 yrs ... 8,038 3.8 4.4 4,780 3,258 3.2 45 49 yrs ... 8,687 4.8 5.6 5,311 3,376 3.9 50 54 yrs ... 9,357 6.4 8.1 5,588 3,769 4.8 55 59 yr ... 9,832 10.0 13.0 60 6,002 3,830 6.1 64 yrs. ... 12,708 10.0 13.0 7,391 5,317 73 65 69 yr, ... 11,588 15.8 19.2 6,539 5,049 12.6 t 70 20.1 23.5 & Over 51,6116.. 25,614 2,99 20.1 23.5 16.98.2 Not Stated • 2,915 1,653 25,997 87.9 88.6-

Source: Disease Intelligence Center

C' 50 A Profile of Filipino Women Empkical Data 51 TABLE IV-3: MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE: 1960 to 1970 c. Nutrition Y ear Live Maternal Maternal Malnutrition is one Births Deaths Mortality of the major health problems in the country. The nutritional problem in the Philippines Rate* may be classified into the following: 1970 966,762 1,950 1969 2.0 1. Nutritional 946,753 2,047 2.1 poverty which results in inadequate 1968 898,570 1,979 calorie intake by the majority of the population 2.2 due to 1967 840,302 insufficient income in relation to food 1966 1,822 2.1 823,342 1,829 2.2 1965 795,415 prices. 1964 1,757 2.2 802,648 1,031 1.2 1963 786,698 1,783 2. Infant and child malnutrition due to poverty, 1962 2.2 excessive 775,146 1,944 2.5 child bearing and poor child spacing, 1961 faulty weaning practices, ignorance and inadequate 1960 647,846 2,023 3.1-jpatcs 649,651 1,981 3.0 food distribution within the family. *Per1000 live births, 3. Dietary imbalance leading to vitamin and mineral deficiencies as a result of poverty, ignorance, Source: Philippine Yearbook 1975, NCSD. cultural preference and intestinal parasitism. (Hawkins, 1976). Poverty is an underlyingfactor in all three classifications of the nutritional problem. The poorest group has been TABLE IV-4: EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT BIRTH, 1902-1980 estimated to achieve only 88% of the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA-is the person to meet his physiologicalminimum prescribed food intake of a needs) while for the richer rExpectation of Life at Birth group, it is 125%. (Ibid). Year (Years) In 1971, the National Food and Agriculture Council did a food Males consumption survey which included food prices and Females compared 1902 11.54 this with the results of the Family Income Expen­ 1918 13.92 diture Survey 25.17 26.07 (FIES) conducted by the Bureau of Census and 1938 44.80 Statistics Office (BCSO). After comparing the minimum cost 1948 47.72 of an adequate 48.81 53.36 dipt with income distribution data, it was 1965-1970 found that an austere 52.17 55.35 diet which obtained its calories mostly from cereals, roots and tubers and providing only 90% of the 1970-1975 55.65 1975-1980 60.35 RDA for calorie 58.95 62.85 requirement, cost P432.00 per person in 1971 or F1.29 per day. The FIES found that the poorest Sources: Wilfredo L. Reyes, "Philippine groups devoted Population Growth and Health Develop- this percentage is66.5%of allocated thei: t the expenditure family budget, to food. thenP650.00 (Ibid). If mcnt," First Conference on 1965. Population Institute, University of the Phil. Press, Quezon City, 1966, pp. 426. Bureau was needed by each family member in 1971 of the Census and minimum to meet the Statistics, D_!mography Division.indicatorsofSocialDevelopment needs annually or P1.78 per e i. For a family 1973. six, of Cited by Castillo, G., 1976. P10.68 was needed ino='der to meet its minimum daily food requirement. Considering that the minimum daily wage 52 A Profile ofFilipino Women at that time was only P8.00, it is not surprising to have an Empirical Data estimated 44% of fairilies to meet the minimum 53 being unable to afford a minimum RDA. After making adjustments for differences in cost of living, the annual adequate diet. food threshold com­ The situation has no improved since then. A survey by puted in 1976 for a family of six for different the Wage Commission shown in Table r-5. areas are daily cost offood in January 1975 estimated that the and other basic requirements in Manila was P29.90 per day for family Assuming that food constitutes 60% of the need at of five. Hence, a household would Assuminatheshod co puted with total budget, least three breadwinners, each receiving minimum the resultsudget, wages of P11.00 the total threshods were a day inorder to meet this estimate. That computed with the results shown cnly 33% also in Table IV-5. of the population are employed makes this possible. im­ (Ibid). considering The studythat concluded the that poverty has clearly worsened, Similarly, number of persons the Development Academy of the Philippines below the food made some threshold estimates and its resulting figures aire higher grew from about 11.6 million in 1965 than million to 16.6 the preceding study, with in 1971. Based on the total threshold criterion, below the minimum about two-thirds of tle population about RDA due to unequal distribution of three-fourths of families in rural areas in 1971 may be con­ sidered poor. The number of income. Included in its people below the total thresholl proposed set of social indicators of overall Philippine rose from threshold well-being are the two poverty lines offoed 22 million in 1965 to about 26 million and total threshold which were used in assessing in 1971. the 4. Malnutrition among Filipino problems of the poor. (Development Academy Women of the Based on the cited food economic family survey and economic survey, it may be concluded that TABLE IV-5. ESTIMATE OF ANNUM, THRESHOLDS from 40 to IN 1974 45% of families are under-nourishedas FOR A FAMILY OF SIX BY DAP. a consequence of low income. This predominant state of poverty, resulting in the inability of close to majority of the population Food to buy the right Threshold Total Threshold kinds and sufficient amount seriously of food, has most affected the Filipino mother. Dr. Carmen Intangan, director of PNRI Greater Manila (1975) reports that F6,633.00 P10,550.00 the mother suffers the most Typically, it is the father and from malnutrition. 5,300.00 8,844.00 The the older children who effectget the of malnutrition largest share of isfood mostat meal times. Rural areas acute when 4,633.00 7,738.00 women are pregnant or nursing.

two ruralA community areas and nutritiontwo low survey by FNRI in Source: Development Academy of the Philippines, 1973. income urban areas between 1965 and 1971 found the calorie intake of adults to be 81% adequate (in relation to The food threshold the consists of the amount of income RDA); toddlers (1 to 3 years) 64%; older children (4 to 9 years) 69%; pregnant necessary to buy the food consumption basket recommended women, 64% and lactating women, only 46% adequate. The latter by the Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) inorder and infant nutrition who are two figures have disturbing implicationsthe most susceptible for fetal 54 A Profile of FilipinoWomen Empirical Data 55 to greatest permanent damange mentally and TABI i. MORTALITY AMONG physically. (Hawkins, 1976). CHILDREN (UP TO 4 YEARS OF AGE) OF MOTHERS FROM TEN LOW INCOME COMMUNITIES The FNRI has therefore concluded that Infant/Toddler "Filipino women need to eat more" ("Filipino Abortion/ N Death women need . . .Phil. Daily Express, 1976). Stillbirth Miscarriage Total The N % N % N % N % study showed that Filipino women are often lacking in basic nutrients, protein and iron, making them more susceptible to anemia. From Lhe sample Urbal 20 180 of middle and low-income groups, the 22 29 3.6 238 29 447 54.5 following Rural 61 109 23.6 21 4.6 88 19.1 218 47.3 conclusions were cocuin eemd:Total made: 81 289 22.6 50 3.9 326 25.4 665 52.0 (a) Filipino families maintain erroneous food Sourc P Nutrition Baseline Surveys. habits, such as, letting the men have the most and the best food. TAB[ FREQUENCY OFMORTALITY AMONG PRESCHOOL CHILDREN (b) Low income which supposedly is responsible MOTHERS FROM FOUR LOW INCOME COMMUNITIES for malnutrition and consequent vitamin deficiency in women, did not affect the men. Fri Infant/Toddler Stillbirth (c) Ai g TOTAL Women's supply of nutrients dissipates with Fr ____Deaths_ Sti__birthMiscarriage each pregnancy. Incidence of malnutrition _N____ therefore, is more common among women URBI = 420 with more than three children. On 57 11 100 168 84.8 T1 One effect of the poor nutritionalstatus of the pregnant 9 1 10 mother is highermortality rate among theirchildren Th 3 20 10.1 and fetus Fo es 0 1 4 8 4 due to abortion, miscarriage,still-birth and 0 2 2 1 infant and toddler L deaths. 198 99.9 This is borne out by baseline data collected by the Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) from 1973 to RUR. = 150 1977 from ten low-income communities (three urban seven rural) with average weekly and incomes ranging from On P38.00 to P83.00. Data 32 9 16 57 in Table IV-6 show that the 1281 T0 76 women Th% 3 3 respondents witih pre-school children have experienced 0 2 1511 14.6 Pa es 1 64.6 a total of 665 (52% ) fetal or infant/toddler mortalities. 0 0 1 1.3 As Fi% a 1 a whole, the urban mothers had a higher incid;-nce (54.5%) 0 0 1 1.3 75 than the rural mothlers (47% ). A much higher proportion C 99.8 of abortion/miscarriage was reported by urban women (29%) compared to rural women (19%). copaedtorua(9%.Sol wme PBSP Nutrition Baseline Survey&. On the other hand, at least a third women (24% ) had from two to five deathsmore amongof the ruraltheir The above findings from these preschool children, compared to urban women (15%). (Table baseline surveys may be IV-7). tly explained by Encarnacion (1973) who theorizes that­ men from families with income that is below the threshold 56 A Profile of Filipino Women level probably Empirical Data have poor health which reduces their biological 57 capability for livebirths o miscarriage and abortion .nThus, this there is more ta'ndency for group of women. CE ' t

z 0 Children who are born to these women co lo N resistance tend to have weaker E ., m co since their health status is preconditioned nutritional and health status of the mother during by the pregnancy. U0 0 00

5. Malnutrition Among Preschoolers z .. z - M - o

Although recorded deaths among male adults and 0 oc z -a rateinfants are reportedly higher than that of of malnutrition is more widespread amongfemales, the female ze c preschoolers than the males. " " so Results of the "operation W m timbang" (systematic weighing of preschoolers) ducted in five con- 0 low income communities by PBSP show that only 30%of the males were severely malnourished z ID M ,0 (second and third degrees malnutrition) as against -, 41% 0. a of the females (Table IV-8). Comparing .0 urban the against rural preschoolers, there was a higher 5: c.o rate of malnutrition among urban (35%) than rural ao m W children (31%). 2: M 4 -000 *.

0 2. Attendance at Birth and Fetal Deaths M -. 0 L4 ~ 1z m Z: m Nationwide statistics show that births one-third of all registered for the period of 1970-72 .0 . .0 midwives or "hilots" were attended by unlicensed . (34.26% ); one-fourth by physicians 0 azM 0o w (24.63%); another fourth by midwives (24% each) and a very E- z, small percentage by n'r:scs (3.8%). Other types of attendance . or non-statement of type z of attendance accounted for 12.59% c4 of births (Table IV-9). cq .0 0 -0 m =

A closer examination of Table IV-9 reveals -w 0 io disparities in the manner the regional surprising that deliveries of attendance at childbirth. It is not M :n Manila and suburbs are mostly E W attended by physicians (87.13%) since this 0.0 . medical center of the country. On is considered the aeliveries in Cagayan Valley and Batancs the other hand, child were the least attended C :<-' . 4 0. by physicians (2.5%). Midwives were most active in Central 1o 94 0 "a z ~ ~ ~ ~ - C0. ' 58 A Profile of Filipino Women Z'o € o :M" 2.c *v empiricData 59

ui Q o u j. m - Ca and Southern Luzon 34.56% and 30.53%, respectively) but functioned the least in Manila with Iq C!. attended by them. Rural Health only 11.96% of deliveries birth, the nurse, Unit (RHU) personnel in child­ was most active in Western Visayas (5.8%) r- G r C t:c to O but hardly attended child deliveries in Manila (.4%). Q2... CC . ... Unlicensed midwives attended over two-fifths of all births in Bicol child­ (53.56%); Southern and Northern Mindanao C-a, ,, "o 0 M :; 0- (51.73% and 45.H%), respectively; and Cagayan Eastern Visayas (42.85%) the utilization Valley/Batanesof unlicensed (41.7%). The increasing , midwives in predominantlytend rural in areas where economic ar generally conditions and transportation facilities poorer than the rest of the country, implies G9 "q I R G OR the < "Ri ,eed M LaMV MOcidwives to explore the possibility of training and licensing of in as many rural communities as E-. possible. ar-0 M M C- That the other : - :U 6 w ,_; 0r types of attendance or non-statement 4 cNe if type of attendance at childbirth accounted for 12.59% may related to the high percentageof fetal deaths (P25.8%) that . ,ere either not given medical 9attendanc attention or did not mention any Z t . . nedical attendance in the .nalysis death certificate. (Research and Center for Communication, 1976). 4. [ealth Expenditures . < ,o Hawkins Zi (1976) reports that the rural household spent an ierage of 1.7% of its family budget for medicalcare "tionalrban household government while the expenditureallocated isin 2% in 1971. In 1974 an averageaddition, ofP5.43 the .10o . ; per 'ocDo .2 ipita for health care (NEDA, vi t a 6 L6 _ _; ,t_ zi 1975). When added together ie total amount may Lo =" still be considered very small to provide lequate health care to the family toW G Lo M r- o members. This has implica­ ns on t ehealth and nutritional status - rly those who are pregnant of mothers, particu­ _ 0 or lactating who need regular iysical check-up and W possibly some vitamin supplementation, a view of the reported prevalence of inadequate nutritional , take by this physiological group. itritional intake by this physiological group. .> vel of Satisfaction with 0 w i; Health and Physical Condition In llo's study (1977) the Bicolano female respondents 0o. t neutral about their C3co 4 a health and physical condition; the ilability of health and social services. They also felt that the 60 A Profie of Filipino Women

assurance of health Emprica.l and social services and of institutions Data 61 that B. are of benefit to her MESTIC STATUS AND ROLE effect and her family have only a moderate on the over all quality of life. Considered weak effect on as having a the over all quality of life are: keeping age and herself healthy, the family costs of living adequately meeting a Civil Status as well as maintaining her theefficiency increasing management, particularly in homehigh in providing sufficient food Traditional values and and socialization reinforce the separate domestic roles of drink to the family. men and women. The desire to get These findings married and have children are two of the strong charac. seem to indicate that in view of effect of health on the the invisible quality of life, there is a need to motivate teristics of the value train and create awareness of "feminismo" previously discussed. among women of the need The "feminismo" ideal to improve the health for, stills is clearly centered on the woman's and nutritional status of their domestic role. Social Moreover, opportunities families, expectations restrict the role that should be provided to enable woman takes, such that the Moreoverh opportities them to even her aspiraions are geared shouldbeprovideaspirations towards the family. Thus, were subordinated it has been found that women's which to their have to doduties with andpersonal responsibiities advancement the home (Agpoon, 1973). in

t.aver a span of ten years, the proportion females and males of unmarried increased by at least 2.3%. (Table That more males IV-10). than females remain single throughout

Ta' -10: MARITAL STAMUS OF THE PHILIPPINE POPULA. TION, BY SEX, 1970

Male 1960 1970 1960 Female tal 9,054,265 1970 12,271,282 9,091,697 12,711,282

100.0 Nevo r ed 48.0 100.0 50.4 43.7 46.0 Man 48.9 47.0 49.3 47.0 Wid( 2.6 2.0 6.3 6.0 Divo ;eparated .5 0.4 0.5 1.0 Not * 0.2 0.2 * *Les .01 percent Sour4 idl. Yearbook 1975, National Census and Statistics Office. ted by Castillo, G. 1976 62 A Proflea of FilipinoWonwn EmpiricalData 63 their life time remained the same. By 1970, the percentage national singulate mean age at marriage (SMAM) of married females and males became equal. That widows increased by 2.8 years between 1903 and 1973 for continued to outnumber the widowers may be attributed females reaching a level of 23.4 years in 1973 (See to the longer life span of women. Although divorce is not Tables IV-11 and 12). The comparative figure for allowed in the Philippines, the reported cases of divorced males for 1973 was 25.7 years. females doubled from 193-j 3 1970 and they also occured twice as often for females than males. 2) Male-Female Ages at Marriage b. Recent Nupt _ality Trends: In general, women marry 2 years earlierthan men. 1) Increasing delay in age at marriage for females: The mean ages for marriage are 23.7 for female and 25.7 for male. Both the rural female and male marry A significant delay in age at marriage for females earlier by at least 2.1 and 2.5 yeas, respectively, than was evident over the 1903-1960 period and an accele- their urban counterparts. ration of the trend during the 1960s is reported by the Marriage at an early age is most prevalent in the 1970 census. IVMoreover, data from the 1973 National Cagayan Valley and Batanes region (20.1 and 23.5 Demographic Survey (NDS) indicated a further accele- years for females and males, respectively). Table IV-12. ration of the trend over the 1970-1973 period. The

TABLE IV-11: MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE OF FEMALES BY REGION, 1903- TAB -12: MEAN AGES AT MARRIAGE BY SEX, URBAN-RURAL RESI. 1970 DENCE AND REGION, 1973.

CENSUS YEAR Female Male REGON1903 1939 1948 1960 1970 R 93 13 98 16 90E C. O N Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural 22.40 PHILIPPINES 20.9 21.9 23.1 22.3 ppinea 23.7 25.2 22.3 25.7 27.3 24.8 I. llocos & Mt. Province 20.5 23.45 22.54 20.69 22.40 I. Cagayan Valley-Batanes 18.36 21.56 21.82 20.87 21.20 1. 'oManila 24.5 24.5 27.6 27.6 I1. Central Luzon 20.83 22.90 23.12 22.56 22.87 II. ) & Mt. Province 22.6 25.9 21.7 24.9 29.9 24.0 IV. Southern Luzon 20.55 22.37 22.10 22.76 23.27 Ill. yin Valley-Batanes 20.1 21.8 20.3 23.5 23.6 23.4 V. Bicol 20.89 21.10 21.70 21.97 23.03 IV. ral Luzon 24.4 26.1 23.8 26.0 27.8 25.5 VI. Western Visayas 20.68 21.73 22.64 22.71 23.44 V. hem Luzon & VII. Central Visayas 22.72 22.48 22.56 22.56 23.59 da 24.0 25.8 22.4 25.2 26.8 24.0 VIII. Eastern Visayas 21.99 21.02 21.83 21.57 22.11 VI. 1 24.6 28.0 23.3 26.1 29.0 25.7 IX. Western Mindanao 20.86 20.38 21.18 21.60 22.26 VII. ern Visayas 23.1 25.2 20.4 26.2 27.2 25.9 X. Northern Mindanao 21.47 20.65 22.01 21.79 22.59 VIII .rn Visayas 22.7 23.8 22.1 25.2 27.1 24.6 XI. Sourthern Mindanao 19.67 19.26 20.54 21.51 22.13 IX. hem Mindanao 22.3 24.6 21.6 25.2 27.2 25.0 XII. Metro Manila 20.14 23.27 23.84 24.24 24.55 X. bern Mindanao 22.5 26.2 21.5 25.1 26.9 24.6

Source: PREFF Research Note No. 70 Sourc Population Institute, Research Note No. 19,Distribution of population Dela Paz, D.R. and E.A. de Guzman. The Filipino Family in the Year 2000. Age, Sex, Marital Status, May 1973: Urban-Rural and Regional Patterns Determinants of Population..... 1977. Peter Smith, 1974. Cited by Castillo, G., 1976. 64 A Proffl, of FilipinoWomen EmpiricalData 65 Later marriages take place in Metro Manila (24.5 and tion, especially in white collar types of occupation, as 27.6 years for females and males respectively) and proven by impressive statistics on the rising proportion Bicol region (24.6 and 26.1 years for females and of women in the area of salaries and wages. (Smith, males, respectively). Castillo (1976) observed the 1974c). significance of the tendency towards early marriage and much lower proportion of single women in rural 3) Social Mobility areas than in urban areas. She attributes these to socio­ economic and cultural factors. As an example of the Part of the norm of male superiority is the expecta­ latter, an unmarried' rural woman at 25 is considered tion that in tems of occupation and education, a man an old maid and becomes the subject of jokes, marries someone younger and of lower status or at least someone of his own level. Data compiled by the Castillo (1976) cautions that this delay does not University of the Philippines Population Institute mean that marriage has become unattractive to women. (1974) and cited by Castillo (1976) show that males This is indicated by the fact that there has been an generaliy marry females younger than themselves. increase in crude marriage rate from 10.4 in 1960 to 12.8 per thousand in 1972. Mioreover, the cumulative About two-thirds of rural males and females percentage of single women from age 30 to 49 has (62.5%) marry spouses of the same occupational back­ decreased from 42.2% in 1903 to 33.7%in 1973. This ground (i.e., similar to father's occupation). (Table I.­ is inspite of the increase by 2.3%and 2.4%, respectively 13). Castillo attributes this tendency to the homo­ in the proportion at females and niales who never geneity of occupations in rural areas. Among the remain­ married over a decade (1960 to 1970). ing one-third of the rural population it is notable that The increasing delay in marriage has important more wives (21.1%) than husbands (16.4%) r--­y up­ implications and consequences. The period of pre-adult wards in terms of occupational background. independence was almost non-existent in 1900 but has a I-13: PERCENTS OF WIVES AND HUSBANDS OF SPECIFIED slightly expanded by 1960 as a result of marriage delay. OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUNDS (FATHER'S OCCUPA. By 2000, it may be expected to be a significant period TION) MARRYING SPOUSES OF SIMILAR, HIGHER AND of the fewnale life cycle - as the time of expl ration LOWER OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUNDS. and self-discovery between the end of high school and entry to marriage. (Smith, -, 14a). Moreover, the increasingnumber of single women Percent of Wives Percent of Husoands necessitates the development of other non-p'ocreating Marrying Spouse of Marrying Spouse of roles for women, such as socio-economic functions, in Given Occupational Given Occupational order to lure them away from early marriage and child Background Background bearing. Such social changes are more profound than those brought about by reductions in family size. Same Lower Higher Same Lower Higher (Smith, 1974b). "I 56.2 19.6 24.2 56.2 24.2 19.6

In another paper, Smith cites the socio-economic t 39.7 27.9 32.4 39.7 32.4 27.9 forces which explain the trend towards delayed mar- 62.2 16.4 21.1 62.5 21.1 16.4 riage by Filipino women. He attributes this to the improved literacy level which increased by 11 points S University of the Philippines, Population Research Note No. 10, "Assortive from 1960 to 1970. More important, howa-.-r, is the Mating on Father's Occupation: Philippines, 1968," by N. M. Castro and continuing transition in female labor force parilcipa- P. C. Smith, 1974. Cited by Castillo, G., 1976. 66 A Profile of Filipino Women Empirical In the urban sector, the proportion of wives Data 67 marry. fertility rates which are ing upward is higher (32.4%) as compared to worth examining. The highly the hus. urbanized Metro Manila residents bands (27.9%). Urban wives have more opportuniies have consistently mani­ fested the lowest rates of 4.08 while those in the Mindanao than rural wives to move upwardin marriage (Ibid). regions have the highest rates. The level of urbanization and modernization may be one explanation Education-wise, more wives (30%) than husbands of these differ­ ences. The presence of more nuclear families (23%) tend to ma'-ry spouses with higher educational in urban areas like Manila (60.3%) than in rural attainment than themselves 'Table IV-14). Castillo areas (77%) which results in the inavailability of help may serve (1976) observes that persons with either as motivating factors very low which limit the number of children. educational attainment and those with college degrees tend to marry partners with more or less the same TABL .4: PERCENTS OF WIVES educational background. Those with high school and AND HUSBANDS OF SPECIFIED EDUCATION MARRYING SPOUSE OF SIMILAR, HIGHER college undergraduate education tend to marry spouses AND LOWER EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT with less education than themselves. The proportion of wives in these categories who marry upward is bigger than that of husbands. Thus, Castillo concludes that Percent of Wives Percent of Husbands more wives than husbands marry upward in terms of Marrying Spouse of Given occupationalbackground or in educationalattainment. Marrying Spouse of Given Educational Attainment Educational Attaihment This phenomenon is more observable in education than in occupation. The general tendency for wives to Same as.nme the housekeeper Lower Higher Same Lower Higher role, with no source of liveli- 1. No hood or ing 57.4 - 42.6 49.8 - 50.2 occupation of their own, may be one explana- 2. 1-4 tion for this social trend. 53.0 14.0 33.0 57.6 16.6 25.3 4.3. 1-35.7 iigh 43.0 32.7 24.3 49.1 40.7 school 26.6 43.2 30.3 10.2 25.5 64.8 9.8 5. Hig ol graduate 30.4 38.2 31.4 20.1 64.7 6. 1-3 15.2 ,ollege 19.8 51.4 28.8 19.3 66.4 14.2 4) Intermarriages 7. 4+ :ollege 55.6 44.4 - 46.5 53.5 -

Another aspect of social mobility related to mar- All 4C.8 22.9 30.3 46.8 30.3 22.9 riage ti;t is touched upon by Castillo is intermarriage with other nationalities. Although considered still - Source r Smith. Research Note No. 2, Assortive rarity, the tendency for intermarriage is twice as often Mating on Education: Urban Rural Tables for 1968, U.P. for Filipind women than men Population Institute, December 19, 1973. or 1.5% and .739o, res- I by Castillo, G. 1976. pectively, of all marriages in 1972. The most common nationality of the foreign groom is American. Castillo (1976) examined a number of factorsassociated 2. Family Size vith variations in child-bearing capacity. Table IV-16 ;hows that more children are born to rura! women who live n agricultural areas, who are unemployed, who marry a. Fertility Patterns !arliereneralization, and who however, live in a nuclear household. This pattern of cannot be applied to education Total fertility rates declined by .57 from 1958 to 1972 (Tabl ertilityn ratesgclinedby.57froma 1958ations192 nd literacy status. Normally, one may expect a negative (Table V-15). There are significant regional orrelation such that with lower variations in evel, fertility rate would go up. Theeducation trend shows and that literacy with 68 A Profile of Filipino Women TABLE IV-15: TOTAL FERTILITY RATES, PER WOMAN, PHILIP. A Profife of Filipino Woman PINES, AND BY REGION. TABL .16: AVERAGE 69 1958-1972. NUMBER OF CHILDREN EVER PER WOMAN, BORN AGED 45-49, BY PLACE OF DENCE, RESI. EDUCATIONAL STATUS, CURRENT WORK EXPERIENCE, TYPE OF NEIGHBORHOOD, LITERACY STATUS, -,4D HOUSEHOLD P E R IO D STRUCT. R E URE, NDS 1973. G 1 0 N 1958-1962 1963.1967 1968-1972 Philippines 6.46 6.30 5.89 1. Pia Residence I - Greater Manila To 5. Literacy Status 3.86 4.40 4.08 ...... 6.4 Read and write - I Ilocos U ...... 6.5 and ...... 5.9 Read only...... 6.1 M t. Province Ru ...... *.... 6.6 III - Cagayan Valley 6.3 6 6.44 5.5 2 Neither read nor 6.49 7.18 5.98 rite read 6 .2 IV - 2. Em ient Central Luzon 6.38 5.94 of Women write...... 6.2 V - Southern Luzon 5.75 Ye ...... 6.09 5.92 5.23 6.1 6. Household Structure No, ...... VI - Bicol 6.95 7.01 6.5 Nuclear...... 6.7 VII - Western Visayas 6.25 .. 5e ar. 6.30 5.87 5.91 ...... VIII ­ Eastern Visayas 3. Tyr leighborhood IX -- Northern 6.31 vertical younger 6.38 6.33 Eticald younger Orij generation only ..... 5.4 Mindanao 7.50 X - Southern 7.76 7.40 Agri ...... 6.5 Extended Non !ultural ...... vertical, Mindanao 6.1 younger genera­ 7.61 7.30 7.01 4.tion only ...... 5.9 7..Ed catintritatu Source: UP,1976.from P1theResearch 1973 NDS," Note No.by M.B. Concepcion, 13 "Changes in 1974.Period CitedFertility by Castilloas Gleaned G., 7. Educational Status 205 - ...... 7.9lo S7.3 oSSchooling...... 6.1 ho ln . . . . 20...... 6.56. Elementary ...... 6.7 ...... 4.8 High School...... 6.3 increasethe number 3 0 increase in educationalof children.attainmentHowever, there is an increase in 3 .1 College Train ing ...... 5 .6 at a certain level, the 35 - ...... 2.7 expected correlation becomes 40 College Degree ...... 4.6 evident. There is a signi...... 0.3 ---- "..... ficant difference of one elementary schooling and child between a woman with some college training. This Source: PI Research difference doubles when ied Note No. 22, "Fertility Difference tihe comparison is extended Women in the Phil.", by M.B. Concepcion,Among between an elementary I by Castillo, 1974. graduate. school graduate and a college G., 1976. g ath e n n se This phenomenon is partly explained by Encarnacion children. On a parallel line, it was shown in the (1973) who theorizes that rising income ion on Physical thresh beyond a certain Well-Being that for women from ,ld level offamily income enables lies below the women to acquire threshold level, the resultant poor ber., ; health. resulting th greatly affects in their greater capacity to bear the occurrence of fetal and pre­ ol children's mortality rates. 70 A Profile of Filipino Women Delaying marriage beyond 25 years of age results in a T al Iv 7: D Numb r of C h per u yarried 7 dramatic reduction I-1:umer Dsied f Cilrea pr cmnEmpirical Data 71 in the number of children. There Tabe highly significant isaW difference of three children between gdIL4 a ySlce cm E mri woman who married at Woma A.d 1544bySeletdCa ric lal 7973 To explain the lower15 numb~erand at 25. e.. , 1973. of children born to em. Cnara-terMnNcs ployed women, Desired Concepcion (1972) formulated of role incompatibility. She the theory states that in cases of incom- A Re of Residence patible roles TO relation will dependfor a woman as mother 4.2 on the availability andof contraceptiveworker, the technology. When available, L Bocce the working mother U. Cagayan& Vadley-BatanesMt. Province attempt to regulate can 4.64.9 fertility to reduce the strain of incom- t Centre Luzon SoVt.ern Lo 4.2 patible roles. 4.0 VL western Visayas 4.1 V v.III. Eezter V may Some interesting observations VII. Centralmcl ViayuVrsayi u3. were made by Castillo 4.94.1 (1976) relative to this MX western Mindanao theory. Child-bearing and X. Northern Mindanao keeping roles are performed house- 5.04.9 by household help, R. Southerlun Mnao enabling thus &. educated and upperclass women dc ation careers. Where domestic to pursue their .. helpers are not available, . Educutio6 children are relied upon older to care for younger siblings Total enable the low to 42 income women to work outside NoScaooln or in the farm. the home 4.6 This may also partly explain Intennediate the frequency 4.2 of dropping out from school of girls from low income ichool families, especially those C. l R.dn .6 coming from the rural areas. c. Urba aidenc

Total 4.2 in theThe need for children to Urban farm may also be onehelp of thein household chores and &-7 number reasons for the large of children in rural areas. TotalRupal 4.24.o TypoA In the B 3.7 case of extended families, one might expect a 3.7 larger number of children than nuclear families because C the presence of of D 4.7 other family members who can help in the 4.7 . , household chores. No explanation 3 5.1 as to why this is not the case. has so far been advanced Catholic b. Family Size Preferences Toahli 4.2 (FSP) Protestant 4.2 Agapayan PglieastaIglesia ni Kriuzo 4.03.8 6.0 3.8 As reflected in Others of married women Tablebelow IV-17, the family size preference 5.48 45 years of age is 4.2, which sowr: Nrtae and do uzm lower than the actualfertility is - UPP1/REPF R Note No. 73 rate of 5.89. The family O- rtatez ade u preference of urban women size rkanUeaNt. N.73 (3.7) is lower than -A. . a:fibt.d, .8 that of W" giP.P,., . B"om, .i Pr. W I - k.. -dpL- spO l &-AdRLwd Workesi d D-P-,% L w- LA -.. _•..Rbti_ rv­ 72 A Jamleof pio Women rural women (4.5). The lower family size preferences EmPirical Data 73 Manila, Bicol, the Visayas are in regions and Southern TABLU IV-18: E)POSU_ The higher family Mindanao. TO FAMILy PLANNING CLINICS, size preferences are in Northern . ,MuNICA'rON Western Mindanao & FRW,FAMLYWt A AWARE and Ilocos and Mt. Province AMONG ?ANNIG OFD" t regions. MARRID WOMN UNDER BEHNVIOR The educational AGE 45 BY background URBAN-RUAL AND PH UPPNE. relationship has a with FSP. clear indirect the lesser The higher the is the given FSP. level of education, TotaPeetimatedrnumer Occupations are generally of ranked from highest level lowest to (A-D). Types A & B, which ma46.ed eligible women under higher include women in the professions have the lowest Pe46 most probably concentrated FSP (3.7), while Type D, 4.559,372 in the rural areas, has the 1,369,54 3.189,832 1.Knowinformation of any clinic where for family or supplies Planning can The be obtained religious classification unfcrtunately 57.9 718 52. include the Muslims. did not In Table IV-19, Aglipayans, 2. r minority group have the lowest a religious fedworker FSP while Iglesia ni Kristo who encouraged members, also a religious attendance minority group at a family planning clinic The majority of have the highest. 24.8 26.9 Catholics conform to the national 24.0 FSP of 4.2 average 3. Have ever visited afamily . planning clnic 23.9 33.6 19.7 4. Have actually used a method Family Planning Famil Planing5. learned from the clinic 16.6 24.2 Arm still using a method 13.4 The most recent report from the Population Commis- obtained from a clinic 10.5 15.9 8.1 sion 6. Will vit clinic ("S uccess of RP 's fam ily planning. . ." again 7.0 Express, Feb. I,1977) Phil. Daily 7.H.v n.1 9.1 6.1 family planning states that government efforts has :educed the population at growth rate but would like to visit from an average of 3.01% during the 1960-1971 one now 2.66% in 1975. period to 8. Do n8.3 43.5 34.0 4&3

about any method of family The number of family planning acceptors totalled planning 715,158 in 1975, registering 57.0 60.1 55.7 an increase of 2.03% 9. Ha !never talked with the previous year's figures. over 58% used pills; Among these acceptors, r,,d, relatives or 21%, condom; 10%, IUDs; 4%, 5%, sterilization; neighbors about way­ rhythm method and 2%, ong other methods. pregnancy 36.0 1.k 29.3 38.9 10. Knownow itof a nobody f or do not While family planning ind so r d is the responsibility of both o husbands and wives, in fact, it has been most frequently relativea use any method the woman who takes topelany the framework primary concern in this area. delay cr preeto prevent 4 values, of one's Withinprgay429 women can significantlyreligious beliefs contribute andto nationalcultural 33 National196e: Demograpic Sury, 1976. 1973. Cited by Cstillo, G., 74 A Profile of Filipino Women development by actively cooperatin~g faDlaPanin In astuy obyGonale lo-inomewome (176)for Eminca effots Erikson 197 ) education 81%81 n afstudyof low-income and inforrnatior.al of mothers and 85% of fatherswomen by Gonzalez sriki glybig Tse data may communication, favored limiting (1976)family be indicative of the need size. However, only especially on fa ily planning, 95% actually practiced family plan- sply aarene wihge eeper than ning. simply the awarenes level.l. which goes The average family than the averaEe family sizesize of ofsix this children. group 1) Exposure was 8.4%larger 2) Source of Information on Faly to Family Planning Clinics Planning revealed that The the most National Demographiccommon source Survey of informationdata also Of the 4,5 females 59,372 estim ated marr ied over 45 years of age, 30.04% eligibleo while 69.96% live in urban areas n f ml are in rural areas. p a ni g m ng t e w e n by the (Table IV-18). Studies tie age group n th r p od c National Demographic is hearsay from friends exposure Survey (1973) on acquaintances relatives and to family planning clinics (39.9%), followed by this age among women in (22.8%). Only realthfacilities group indicate that close a small proportion mentioned to three-quarters of media such as radio, multi­ clinic.urban women (71.8%) television and movie (6.8%) information.Only one-half ofarethe aware rural of a family print (4.8%) as sources and Almost twice as many women knewplanningprn this of information. rural women urban women over have visited a family It is(48 encouraging)a so ce ofi actually used planning clinic; would like to learn to know othat m to.57% of the a method learned from more about family planningwomen continued to use the clinic and 44% are interested while this meth d ivlore urban in visiting a family planning women have The challenge then clinic. lies on how to make them also discussed family sustained basis, their use on a practiced it. On these planning and knew others selected family planning observation points, Castillo (1976) makeswho an method. that 3) Attitudes mation on family planningurban women toward Family Planning rural at theirtendown to initiativeseek while .women have to be approached, out infor­ which is a reflec- Data tion of their level of motivation. on the attitudes of women She has also observed tive age in the reproduc­ this type of behavior group show that on the among farmers who obtained thirds whole, at least two­ information on agricultural approve of family planning innovation from extension conditionally while only 14% un­ workers. They rarely visited disapprove. (Table the latter because fourth IV-19). At least one­ not necessary and they it was of the rural women were too busy with farm of and about twice as work. the urban women, either many had no opinion or On the other hand, it would reservations about their had be worthwhile to in- ning. Cagayan attitudes toward family vestigate other Valley/Batanes and ,-indanao areplan­ the possible reasons behind these such as location or behaviors geographical distance of clinic; level of modernization office or regions with highest proportions rme an t which may toward of negative attitudes he ownrr;a social"ndona distance result in family planning. Even a aiiybetween fetelad the Cagayan as a community norm, Valley/Batanes, Bicol farmer and the workers; Southernl rgos-n Eastern Visayas and sion workers and non-availability of exten- Mindanao/Sulute leadrvlecfal who may have been assigned the regions which dis­ largewhle to a very approve of it. This is significant le the Mindanao Eastern Visayassince and Cagayan Bicol regions Valley in tern ia ayBco TheilyfamilypdaierenclinicPlannigdcife nic (5et n thosed who re b 5e.9en those a e fmanifest who ae doubly the highest fertility rates. The task therefore of familychallenging planning toworkerschangein these the attitudesareas becomes of the 76 Empirical Data

r~ - women and the community as a whole and to make the couples accept and practice family planning. C !- .-Cl. .­.! ,dC4 . Ab or tion 0 C4 ZAmong C Z i06 C all the family planning methods, only abortion 2 C'C'- oo C40 C' dis considered illegal. Under (Art. 256-259), the Revised Penal Code > 7 - it is a punishable act. .q0C 14'oco 0 - Throughout the women now world, more than two-thirds of the have access to abortion in their countries. C%7 MC - 4 ("More women. " - 1976). According to a recent d 40 4c; c; news­ oaccept - paper report, CO 100 OD:, -o 29 countries have liberalized abortion laws, 34 conditional abortion, --.oN C63("v countries. .",1976). and 37 are against the practice ato According to the UN Fund for Population Activities, T -a > w 0 mM " between 40 to 55 million unwanted pregnancies are by abortion annually ended have shown that ("More women. . . 1976). Studies i c.0.1c o c4 to in countries where government attitude towards abortion - is more liberal, the incidence of maternal - .. ** death due to abortion .mortality tended to be low, as against the high q 9iRqCaJC rate in countries which procedure. totally prohibit the Around 150,000 women die annually of illegal Ce c0 - abortion ("63 In the Philippines,countries.. .," 1976). opposition to abortion is based o - Omainly 1973 Nationalon religious ar~d cultural Demographic Surveygrounds. presented However, facts which the Co - "-- o Co CZ) C') - sh ow that abortion is a significan t part of w omen 's lives. :, About 20% Ci woCnRo( R w of the women throughout the country, were aware of somebody Cr - : ' who has had an abortion. About 16% of them approve the practice unconditionally; = o c"l V.than more "Q 20% approve of it under certain conditions; disapproved categorically; one-third C - - v 28%did not know (cited by Castillo, 1976). 0 Castillo states that perhaps, the eligible women who o. o.. are vulnerable to the risks of unwanted - .= oo. n prcgnancies -a are more permissive because they are potential users of such a practice. 21 0 . W r_ a2. Another survey was conducted 0 C s Z to determine conditions 22 for < 2"E ' L legalization of abortion, by the ' ization of the Family Planning Organ­ Philippines in Quezon City ("Abortion not .. .",1976) on a select group which may not be representa. 78 A Profile of FilipinoWomen Empirical Data 79 TABLE IV-20: CNDITIONS FOR ABORTION CITED BY FPOP SURVEY RESPONDENTS 1976. selves. Seventy percent of the 334 women were and had married an average of 2.8 children. 829o were from urban Manilapercent orof Cabanatuan these women City. had 45% of these women had completed 10 or more yearscorn­ Conditions had induced Agree Disagree No Comment of schooling. Threeabortions, timesas assingle many womensingle women in Cabanatuan. in Manila In special cases 84.20% 9.56% 5.66% ("Legalized abortion...," For minors, 1977). dates, rapemental victims retar­ When 63.04% 30.86% 6.08% life of mother 3. e-female domestic roles endangered is 85.21% When mother 5.65% 7.80% is a hope- Tradition has dictated predominant roles for men less retardate hen. The husband's and 65.28% 23.831/a 10.00% role in the Filipino home is mainly Malformation iomic. (Mendez and Jocano, of fetus 68.10% 16.08% 5.66% 1974; Licuanan and Gonzalez, Abortion should be per­ 6). formed only by a licensed physician The typical role for women is that of housekeeper. in medical clinics and Gonzalez, (Licua­ 1976; Castillo, 1976). Her duties are to or hospitals 80.00% 3.4% the house in order, attend Abortion 7.39% to the needs of her husband only during children, and to take care of domestic activities. isa working Even if the first three months mother,she is expected to fulfill herdomestic of pregnancy lations. (Mendez, 1974). 55.65% 26.95% 17.4% Source: "Abortion not fully taboo," Times Journal(Aug. 3, 1976). Phe ien isattribution so much of separate domestic roles to men ingrained in Philippine culture that itand is recognized and reinforced in the law; ' The husband is tive of the population at all. Subjects included 230 profes- )nsible for the support ly" whie "the wife managesof the wife and the rest of the sionals, adult m em bers, and guests of a the affairs of the household." the "Dangers film showing on ly " 197,"the oma n s h s ") . of Abortion." Females comprised the major- ity of nero, 1977, the audience. As shown in Table IV-20, 56% approved "Forum on Womens Rights"). of its bocial Attitudes Toward Domestic Roles legalization; 21%disapproved; 17%had no comment. Further studies on abortion could investigate attitudes A number of surveys have been "'nducted ocial opinion on domestic roles. to assess from specific members of the population: the and unmarried women, prostitutes, and nuns. men, married A recent questionnaire distributed among 145 female Solid nd 100 information on any aspect of abortion in the male senior college students in two Manila univer­ Philippines is rare. Some statistics, however, were ties showed gathered tai that child-rearing and housekeeping are the by tasks attributed to women. (De Jesus, 1976). Dr. Amanda Valenzuela and Irma D. Jara from University the out of of the Philippines. The researchers reported, that 1,467 women admitted for abortion to two hospitals in Manila and Bulatao's Cabanatuan, 335 women, or one in five, national survey (1977) notes that 40%of the admitted 'spondents believed in the interviews that they had come to the hos- that running a home is a woman's pital to complete -1mary role abortions which they had started them- and also the primary advantage to being a oman. That women are expected to stay home and take 80 A Profle of Filipino Women Empirical Data 81 care of the family was mentioned three times more than The most satisfying any other reason for a woman's existence, life aspect for the majority of the women in Licuanan and Gonzalez' (1976) study of 300 male and female lower class respondents are the activities dy by G e 5) shows i Anerirstudy bGuerrero (16)sosinteresting and relationships related to family life; whereas differences in the perception of the wife's role among majority of the men, for the majority of th it is these performrance enand omof theireson­ occu­ husbands and wives. The sample included 52 professional pation. Thus, a majority of these men and women respon­ couples at the U.P. Los-Bafios campus. This is a highly dents are satisfied with their roles as men and women, selective educated population, which is hardly representa. respectively. tive of the average Filipino couple. Results showed that Bulatao's national survey (1977) ab ou t tw o -thirds o f thwivee hu sbaran dntrditin-oiened.s ante oher and 69 ofon included a question d on y on e-third of the theBt aadvantageta o of fbeingb eina a manmanor 7)nor97woman. Thee a j rit y wives are triitionoriented. On the other hand, 69% majority of of the respondents from both sexes the wives and only 39% of the husbands are companion. indicated that a man's role in family life was his biggest advantage. ship-oriented. These proportions probably indicate Correspond­ that ingly, woman's domestic role, i.e., the women are more inclined and ready for a change in staying at home and taking care of the family, was most often mentioned as the role in the domestic area. (Ibid).adntgofbigawm advantage of being a woman.. Both husbands and wives did not seem to be clear about the role of the wife. Both Illo's findings (1977) sepm to point to a moderate were inconsistent on psychological preference certain statements as shown among Bicolano women to stay by responses which bordered at home between traditional and companionship-oriented after marriage. With tile exception of women who view- have been employed before rharriage, points. For example, some husbands preferred the wives to or whose level of training is so high that nonpractice would result in stay in the house. At the same time, they wanted their too great a loss in prospective income, the wives to be more exposed and knowledgeable about events absence of opportu­ nities coupled with the nonwork preferences occuring outside the home. Some even expressed pride appear to in foster the present full-time housewife their wives' academic achievements. (Ibid). phenomenon. How­ ever, a comparison between housewives and working women showed This select population may be an illustration of how that women who are saddled with full-time house­ keeping report significantly lower satisfaction, education and increased exposure to modern and are not ideas may as happy as the working ones. facilitate the balancing of domestic roles among husbands and wives. The theoictical goal of social modernization seems to be this balancing or equalization of male-female roles. From these data on role satisfaction in the domestic. husbandsarea, it seems and wivesthat efforts towards role-sharingbetween may take some time to become effec­ b. Role Satisfaction tive. Licuanan and Gonzalez (1976) made that the system of role definition has not thechanged observation much For an assessment of the practicality and ease of achiev- through generations and will probably ing proposed social changes, it may remain the same in be significant to exam- the succeeding generations. ine the status quo and the level roles. of satisfaction with existing A more "optimistic" viewpoint is presented by Guerrero In a survey given to 400 career women, all the (1965). The traditional role definition of women undergoes respon- a change among couples where dents specified that they derive pleasure and satisfaction the wife pursues a career. The wife's role is midway between from motherhood and homemaking. (Flores, 1969). the traditional view and the modern, companionship-ariented view. It is notable 82 A Profde of Filipino Women that this tendency towards the modern view is more preva. Empirical Data 83 lentamog part-time working lent among the tete hsbads.A wvesthanamog r.other (traditional transitional) roles. wives titan among the husbands,.h small number of nontraditional career women make up hrhtsila niin the third, but still an incipient leaie Jayme's data (1976) from two alternative. upper class Filipino generations of urban wives support the hypothesis that family role will C. Family Headship tend to differ between generations with the you nge r gen era tion favorin g the self-fu lfillm en t role. husband. h Lesse thana 10%t, is ofo householdsg e ol da r ib ue d b y e The samples are headed by fe- from the studies of Guerrero, (1975) and Jayme, (1976) are however males. (Table IV-21). highly selective and definitely The very low rates of headship for more inclined towards modern-orieted for females may be taken to be a reflection role change. household, of the univer­ sal tendencyin tocases consider where the Illo (197' esents a marriedhusband as the head of the two alternative female roles which couple are living dominate the local ther (De La toge­ scene - the pure housewife and the Paz and de Guzman, 1977; Mendez, 1974; Bulatao, 1977). This implies that he makes major family TABLE IV-21: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS decisions while minor decisions are delegated to the wife. d. Household duties: BY FAMILY TYPE, 1968 AND 1973

Household Type and Sex 1) Child.rearing of Head 1968 1973 Perhaps in no area have sex roles been more clearly ALL HOUSEHOLDS L100.0 Htionally 100.0 differentiated than in child-rearing.This has been tradi­ the woman's Male Head role. One-person household 90.2 90.2 Respondents from 0.1 0.6 De Jesus' study (1976) perceive Nuclear the upbringing of children to Stem 73.0 be the domain of women. 14.1 72.911.4 Joint/Stern-Joint Baltazar 3.0 5.1 (1971) conducted a study among married Househc'd of Related Persons teachers 0.0 0.1 consisting of 150 females and 50 males Household of Unrelated Persons public schools. from - 0.1 The respondents agreed on 10 child­ rearing tasks which are equally shared by husband and Female Head 9.8 9.8 wife, and on four which are done mostly by the wife. Bicolano women NuclearOne-person household 0.6 are fairly happy with their child- 5.1 5.00.8 rearing role. However, they ment of family behavior in generalfeel that and adequate the number manage­ Joint/Stem-Joint and 3.0 2.3 household of Related rearing of children in Persons 0.10.9 1.4 particular, has only a wec effect ousehold 0.1 on the overall quality of life. (Illo, 1977). of URelated Persons 0.1 0.1 Household of Unrelated Persons To provide a general idea on the magnitude of o.i 0.2 child-rearingon the children responsibility,and youth populationCastillo (1976) cites figures 'Source: De La Paz, D.R. and of the E.A. de Guzinan. The Filipino Family in Philippines. the Year 2000 Determinants Every woman of Population 1977. within the productive age group of 15 to 44 has to take care of approximately one child aged 0 84 A P rfie of F lipin o0W om TAB:LE IV-22: PROPORTION en OF FEMALES 19 YEARS OLD AND OVER BY TYPMLEFATIVI LET E ~ r c ~ a 5C A Mto EmnikicalData 85 BAN MALE AND FEMALE 4 years. The ratio per in t - Philippines is 95 chi!dren fertility rate 15 44 As result Of lower in Greater Manila, is the ratio aN r o s Ye 68 children per is lower, which as O 100 women. Cagayan Un- Bicol, Valley and Employed Employed House- which have among the highest Keepers Students Others Not fertility rate, have Females Stated high ratios of 106 and 103 cidersctvlper 12,831,489 3,464.316 children, Philippines 464,416 6,120,087 7 1 0 w m n respectively, 3t,,660 2,013,365 32,645 If participation Percent of ities wil! be in the labor force andpublic encouraged other alternatives activ­ be will have to Percet o0 provided to th'e married 2rearing woman to ease MetroManil3Percent of her child­ rearing, workload.day-care centers Solutions such UrbanTotal of hoe care as bycommunal household child­ help 100 31.0 3.0 or 43.0 8.0 the extended family, and 15.0 ar shared responsibility by parentsa i g area possible- a e c options. Total 100 30.0 n e s o (Erickson,n y 1975). 3.0 44.0 h u e o d h l Percent of 7.0 16.0H Rural e Prcnt 10 2country's Motales Data in table IV-22 show that almost half of the greater women who in the are ten years old and above Philippines classified as housekeepers.rural than are , in urbanThe proportionareas. is slightly Total12,283,574 100 64.0 Although 7,890,559 477,2924.0 4.0 6.0 alittle less than a third only 453,868 746,372 22.0 *tecue centage (27%) are employed the 2,703,241 12,242 of unemrployed women per­ Percent of is very small (3%) since Perctl10 it excludes housekeepers ineepr(8) nthr6o Pecet of 6population00 (48%). Another 6% h 4. . . opportunity of the consistsfor urban areas schoolingof students.in The existence of greater Total 100 is reflected by th"Metro higher Manila percentage Perca 60.0 4.0 4.0 and otherof 9.0 23.0 * Urban nto." students in both urban Total 100 59.0 res(% h(8% ad7,rsetvl)ta 4.0 4.0 8.0 andp 7o,retivel) th ane Tot~i 100 25.0 in rural areas (5%). The 67.0 4.0I 4.0 low percentage in the irtter 5.0 20.0 the daughter by the parents, thus forcing her to drop 'Less than 1.0 percent. u ro c ol Perce t orout Source: *Les th a 1 .0 p erc nt.in from school. 1970 Census of Population Only a and Housing and Special Report h o usek eepsmall proportion of No. 5.Manila ing, wh ich clearly inmalesd ica tes (4%) th isare as aengaged Metropolitan Area. ioek fem ale Under the category of "others" are persons who are retired and do not wish to work or are work due to physical unable to disability or those working out pay (outside their family with­ farm or enterprise) in their own home. The percentage of both sexes under this category is disturbingly higi at 16% for females 86 A Profile of Filipino Women Empirical Data 87 and 22% for males. Castillo (1976) hazards a guess that they consist most likely of the out-of-school youth . who are not in the labor force and could therefore be ,,., . considered as dependents. R...i ,,R ,o.I o A 1973 National Demographic Survey focuses on the main activity of married women. (Table IV-23). ,oioo .. 1; cc. Seventy percent regarded themselves as nousekeepers. c ,4 M v According to 80% of the womrn, their main activity "cmvd " " o N c, takes place in the household. There are more rural ,".-o, o ic.., -14 women (73.8%) who report housekeeping as their main .ci c. cacI O 'i ci "" c. cmca' activity compared to urban women (64.1%). Castillo -,cc ,di ..._;ia;,d c; d ,, (1976) points out, however, some inconsistency be- cc ...... tween the data in this Table and the labor force partici- a i % ci co'v"u Ci"m pation rates of rural and urban women, which is higner dcs c;c c ; m ddid5-W t c4 c4a; L6c; a; c c '"*-c . ,.u" for the urban than rural women. She explains that it is not uncommon for rural women to engage in part-time, u--' R . vc ao self-employed (non-paying) type of work like farming, 2 - lo -. running of sari-sari stores doing laundry, etc. Conse- R -R! a0RI. ci 1c. quently, more rural women have become the source of.,.,o. ... o ,.,".o family income and are more in the labor force on part- c' ooc time basis than urban women who are employed full- A . . a "m time and regard working as their main activity. 4.i~; 4 ; ; c .,a-icc.c L 4ao,m- omc,., cci cd The average Filipino wife spends at least 29 days a r-o.''',c-I.a- iad0 i c-c4­ month and more than eight hours a day on her main V ia . .. c.. m. activity, housekeeping, which is more than a fulltime - R 0o job. In addition to their main activity, one fifth of the ,. , . rural women reported other activities they C6 have to per- . form. The proportion of women who admitted doing nothing, is less than 3%. * .,-c. .c.4. .,.

The regions with the largest proportion of women "R o. ,ca with iousekeeping as their main R e " activity are Cagayja Zi.... ., , - Valley and Batanes (81.6%) and Southern Mindanao and Sulu (77%). Regions with the least proportions are Ilocos and Mt. Province (59.6%) and Manila (65.5%). " a

Table IV-24 shows that Bicolano mothers take on ' the largest percentage o- . g.' 2 - (56%) of housekeeping time,- - -" . . compared to other household members. Other children, Rzczoz o . . 8t more than fathers or relatives and helpers, also contri-. . bute significantly to household tasks. (!llo, 1977). 14 ci 1c; 88 A Proe of FiaipinoWomn the City housewife The Presence of a significant proportion of helpers in urban householdsof house- relieves to engage in hold chores, while her nondomestic activities, such rural areas falls prey counterpart in poblaciones as economijc to the confining role and Empouswi Data 89 keeper. Regardless of soL3 house- kae(6usper.R egadessof residence more employment the mother's ofreiee more thanthan one-uthrone-third of ever, pitch than those with spouses home production of in. The usual household who rarely, if time is spent in child marketinghusbands shareand the activities in which are malechild chiorescare, food-of e-hnwaradpreservation house repairs. (Ilo, and cae(6husprwe)while 1977. fetc-iing food preparation more than water and 46 weekly home-production(13 hours). The rest of one-fourth,the onhosreas.(b,17) spent.in hours of the estimated laundering (5 hours), dishwash;ng mother is (4 hours), e. Husband.wife relationship: and other pre-occupations In Bulatao's study (1977), at home. (bid), majority of the wives stated TABLE that they generally do not have complaints IV-24: AVERAGE HOURS about their PER WEEK SPENT BY HOLD MEMBERS HOUSE- husbands' treatment. However, IN HOUSEKEEPING (INCLUDING drnness stated complaints included BY EACHRI EREMBER BASI ( ICOL, NOV..DEC., CHiLD CARE), (2 %), not following wife's BY 1 76going wishes (12%),. and ANDEACH PERCENT MEMBER (BICOL RIVER io witt gae ng(12%).dn OF TOTAL HOUSEKEEPINGBASIN, NOV. DEC., 1976). 19 fl ta TIME CONTRIBUTED being treated well by Labor their husbands and having a Contributor week) part in Labo wConrib) o Percent Pdecision-making quality oflife. at home has a strongeffect Mother on the over-all Father 45.9 56% Helpers/relatives 7.8 f. Authority patterns: h ithan 8..6 19.0Children 1110 23 husband or wife having slig. tly more say Total Household Theothers. Filipino (Mendez family in certain areas 81.3 andis generallyJoano 1974;egalitarian, 100% Porio withLynch, the Hollnsteiner, Soure: 1975; Baltazar, Source: 1110(1977) Ilo ( 977)lez, 1976; Castillo, 1976; Goaza­ imposing1976). discipline In spite The division in areasand theof of the fact that most wives authoritymother involves the father occupied with are extremely taking housekeeping activities, care of the less than half of children, home chores, budgeting, ment and the informal arrange­ the men, fathers of home activities. (Mendez performance and sois alike, help and Jocano, 1974). men who of domestic the woben in the do, more urban chores.lcwincome However, out in the household husbandsamong help chores than do tiieir rural the parts. (Licuanan and counter- One important point is Gonzalez, 1976). (1974). Although noted by Mendez and Jocano relations between husband maintainedin and wife are In the more urbanized an egalitarianmanner, outwardly, areas in the Bicol River Basin, bandconstitutes the hus­ however, more the symbol of authoity. sharing at husbands with the traditional male Thisisin keeping home, especially iflean no domestictowards role as head of tzie family. orsome kin assist-work­ ance is available. In certain occasions, where Expectedly, wives with the wife is the main source share in housekeeping husbands who chores would have greater chances of economic support, she exerts family. (Ibid). mare authority in the 90 A Profile of Filipino Women V^ Data 91 Empirical suit each other in family matters to preserve marital In accordance with the egalitarian pattern of authority harmony. in the Filipino family, Licuanan and Gonzalez (1976) report that spouses consult one another before making 2) Specific Areas of decision.making decisions in their respective areas of influence. Decision­ making is shared by the couples on social and leisure activities. Other studies specify the respective areas of deci­ sion-making for the husband and wife or other family members. 1) Joint areas of decision-making IMartinez-Esquillo's (1976) study indicated that Illo's study (1977) reports that, with the exception majority of children's activities the selection of husbands and wives alike expect the hus­ of which is done band alone primarily by children, the common household to decide on economic matters. The wife's decision- decision-making participation maker is not just the wife or husband, but both. This is more extensive in the is following activities: purchasing particularly true in family planning matters, family :Iaily supplies, child care, household chores, keeping and allocating affairs, family ecreation, and children's external parti- family cash. Although majority of the husbands and wives cipation. The wife, for her part, is acknowledged to be alike expressed the view that the wife alone should the major decision-maker in matters pertaining to the tion in the labor decide on household chores, a much higher percentage family budget andmarket. her possible (if not actual) participa- of Thewives author (74%) noted expressed that most that wivesthis should seem tobe bethe deter­ case. mined to monopolize decisions pertaining to the per­ Martinez-E3squillo's (1976) interview of 100 working formance of household chores. More husbands seem to class couples from a suburb of Manila reported that agree to participate two-thirds of the couples favored joint decision-making in household chores than wives would approve of. regarding child care and discipline. Guerrero's study (1966) also showed joint husband- In Porio, Lynch and Hollnsteiner's study (1975), the wife mainly took care of the wife decisions when buying or renting land, borrowine family budget and expenses. Children generally money and deciding what to plant. Eighty-six percent made their own decisions regarding the cho.ce of course of study and friends. of farmers in Dimaano and de Guzman's study (1966) consulted their wives in matters related to farm business. Castillo (1976) concludes that wives In Licuanan and Gonzalez' (1976) study on lower are generally con- class groups, sulted and exert women were reported to exercise greatest practices, particularlysome influence when thisin adoption involves of new farm additional holdinfluence chores, in tecare same of children, areas of family activities: house­ expense, discipline, particularly of ondaughters, the and allocation of monetary other hand, exercise the resources. Men, greatest influence in Joint decisions mentioned in Guerrero's study matters related to occupation and livelihood and the discipline of sons. Decision-making on social (1966) among farm families pertain to the disciplining, and leisure activities are about equally shared. schooling and choice of baptismal sponsors of children. With longer marriage, the number of joint decisions Bulatao's more comprehensive apparently increased. Reasons expressed for this study (1977) reports that decision-making in the family practice is the prevailing norm that couples should con- is generally a male function. Wives are generally not consulted by the hus­ 92 A Profile of FilipinoWomen band nor do they usually make decisions on their own. EmpiricalData 93 Only 19% of the wives said that they were consulted Rural to urban migrationis also more significant on the buying and selling for women of properties, household than men. Consequently, the urban sec­ appliances, farm animals, tor has a larger proportion of females (51.7%) struction and materials for the con- than of the house. Even in the buying of kitchen males (49.62%). needs and Among household necessities, only 5%of the sample married females, 15 years and over, said they are consulted. more The same percentage applies than 407 have changed their place of resi­ dence at least once, from birth to 1973 for consultationDemographic Survey, 1973). (National Guerrero (1966) reported that purchase of farm tools and operational Except pendent decisions of thedecisions husband on the farm were inde- for Greater MHanila, Southern Luzon: while the wife decidedmarefeashaeoniudt and Eastern Visayas, the places of residence of on the purchase of household married females enteag­ furnitures and the aloca- have continued to be in tion of money cultural the agri­ or other resources in the farm business; neighborhood where they were born, up how much to save and to borrow. until 1973. (Ibid). The region with the most female migrants is '3) Social factors affecting decision.making patterns greater Manila (with greatest Rizal and Bulacan having the influx); followed by Mindanao and South. fewstudies tried to identify certain sociological ern Luzon. Regions With the least percentage of factors that may account for the egalitarian migration are Cagayan Valley, Western Visayas and pattern of Central Luzon. The biggest outlow of females are decision-making process. Porio, Lynch and Hollnsteiner (1975) report that generally, the Eastern Visayas wealthier and better Western Visayas (Negros(especially Occidental) Leyte and andSamar); Bicol/ educated urban dweller show a greater tendency others than to report joint husband-wife decisions avnsbate (Camarines Sur) (Kim, 1972). areas of in the children's discipline, schooling, family invest- a. Directions of Migration Perez (1977) points ments and business. out variations in sex ratios of paper the streams or directions of population middle by Ceclio, et al. (1976), based on 30 class couples from vianila, report different 1)flow streams which toare the characterized by the following: patterns of family decision-making. Mindanao regions were male Among couples dominated over time. Sex ratios may have with non-working wives, decisions regarding the home declined among inter-regional migrants within are often made by the wife alone. Among couples with Luzon and Visayas, but they were sustained in working wives, decisions regarding the home alternate Mindanao; 2) males dominated population flow between joint-couple and wife-dominated decisions. to the frontier regions (like Mindanao) while 4) Migration females dominated urban flow; 3) male-domin­ ance was also apparent in migrations covering ing the propensity of females to migrate: long distances while females dominated short The following observations have been made regard- Visayas to Manila are distance migration; heavily4) migrations female whilefrom males the dominate the Visayas to Mindanao migration. In the over-all interprovincialmigration, more females (51%) than males (49%) respective provinces in the periodmoved out of their 1960-1970. (Kim, Table IV-25 gest migrationshows trends that are for both sexes, the big­ 1972). from rural to urban andrural to ruralareas. 94 A Pril of FilipinoWomen

95 Empirical Data - OM ).4q, 2d "urbanFemales seem to be r.-- esponsive to the of pull", probably due to the proliferation service industries in this sector. Education and previous " occupation exert strong positive o o, oo­, = . ooo o, o , o(Perez, ~e o a ~ ~ 1977). ,I Ieffects 2- II- cc'C1 on m igration, especially , . 60 for males. I oan Among women, age and marital status 0 V inhibitive have sive factor effect on moving. The most deci­ 0 for their decision to migrate is the presence of relatives in the area of destination. tMa (Ibid). 0 o O2CoCu:,-l! 0E On the other hand, marage z appearto be and family 01-8.I k the most importan!considerations 45%for migration. In leaving the previous < of the women mentioned residence, ,- marriage as the reason while 12.5% moved for work purposes. So - .- co0 Co' - W 4t A 0-, t o v wm 0 a! oiitla Inchoosing '0 WeL~~rd6Wtc~r'm v Ca"family the present Com0dwo'i icc residence, 42% gave C) QCC0td C4a- 1Z vC " reasons while only a,O~O~C-,Co~.O~o~m.,.C-tional CoW CmLo .. 1a-" 6.9%gave occupa­ o - V Co 4 4 reasons. (National Demographic Survey, - 1973). c. International Migration oZ r, Wcn mW Lo;,fZ ,. o 0 For international migration, United States Z>r r- en 0; immigration statistics CoC,40 .4 .dr. I--c show a higher migration I 'ac 0 1 ; -D_o figurebetween for females (93.000) than betee 199.961959-1968. (Ranca, 1972).males (89,000) cc Clonu~. Z::::'a­ Castilo (1976) GWQ~ocoi Go r L- cites more recent data "ov~Co tog ".C~o ,.0 "CCo.4OoCC : -" I -mo DvO (January toa- -c :Vt to September 1975) S0co, COo0-tl q L' .i 11 C which show that W" v a" q ' rm of the total 4,627 vcm " li EC immigrants registered with -M the Overseas Employment Development Board, 55% were females. There were more married than single females 0 9 -2 -e registered. An overwhelming .majority 5 : 5.... E1Z The largestwere destined for the U.S. (73.74%). Ca: -21 number of immigrant workers, :teachers the professional in female category, were instructors dominatedand nurses, or were jobs.which That are a predominantly classified as high percentage housewives reflects family as the reason for migration. 96 -4Profileof lipino Wom n C.ROELEEm D C A TI NA L T A T U A ND El pirical Data 9 C E. AIN SAAGED Table IV-27: PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN (AGED 6-14) 1-24) ATTENDING AND YOUTH SCHOOL, BY SEX AND REGION. 1. Literacy: S"6-14 Inspite 61 Yealo ~ 1524 Yea= of being an underdeveloped country, the Philippines 52 o has a relatively high literacy rate. From 1960 to 1970, the . 621 0 28.7 went up from 72 to 83.4% rate nlae .5 279 for both sexes (Table IV-26). What 74.1 74.1 74.1 is even more significant .... JMlPlv. 46.5 50.6 43.2 is that sex difference gaygnM PrValey6.4 66.1 65.4 in literacyare very 66.2662]4. 34.1 30.7 minimal, a C 35.7 32.5 3.9 62.3 6.7 30.46 miial a~t,.L,utral Luzon 69.266.5 thern Luizon 66.9 69.0 69.4 66.3 67.5 26.728.6 23.30.5 26.026. Table IV-26: LITERACY OF PERSONS :o 26.9 10 YEARS OLD AND 63.5 62.4 64.5 OVER, BY SEX sternitem ViayVisaye 26.3 26.8 25.7 AND RURAL-URBAN, 1960 62.257.8 60.555.6 63.9 and 1970. 58.3 23.226.7 28.0 28.8 rthernAthern Mindanao]Mindanao 22.7 23.6 54.959.7 54.258.5 60.8 Total 55.7 27.924.3 27.2 28.5 Philippines, 1960 Urban, 1970 249 3. Both Male 1uIu FemaleBoth Bot Male Se xes Boti4.Male Mal4.2male.Ca24.3o,24.8FemleFenmale Sex e s Source: Soclel Indicators, Vol. II, National Census and Sexes 7reversed Sexes c t l o . 9 6 Statistics Office, MnIla Cited29.9 72. 73.6 70.6 92.8 in the older age group, when boys 93.9 91.8 seem to be slightly out number the girls in higherthe enrolment. for females. In this age group, drop-out Total Philippines, This may rates 1970 Rural, 1970 again be due 83.4 to early 84.6 82.2 78.7 80.2 marriage and increasing household 77.2 level may responsibilities like taking care of youngerentail siblings.more Moreover, expenses. A educationmajority in the secondary Source: of the Census of the Philippines, 1970. Cited by Catio, G., 1976. parehts in Bulatao's National Survey These (1977) indicated that if forced to general figures demonstrate that the educational field is probably one choose, of the few areas where Filipino women' they would prefer to send sons to school. status is equivalent to that Among of men. The difference between the younger group, there are more urban (92.8%) and rural males in school, lemales than (78.7%) literacy ratesis significant n in all the regions except in Manila, addition, the gap between urban the sex ratio where and rural women (9 1.8% is equivalent. In the older group, however, against 77.2%) is slightly bigger are slight variations there rme(9.9against islihtlbggenrolment80.22).than that between urban and in the male-femae enrolment ratios among rural men (93.9% against 80.2%). the different regions. The females in four regions (Cagayan Valley,slightly outnumber male Visayas and Northern Mindanao). For Western and Eastern 2. Enrolment: both sexes and for all regions, the rate of enrolment drops significantly in the older Close to two-thirds of the children age age 6 to 14 are enrolled. group. Another significant fact is the (Table IV-27). Among the among the regions. disparityin enrolment 15 to 24 age group, less than one- Manila and the suburbs have the highest third are in school. This drastic decrease proportion of enrolled may be due to population. The disadvantaged regions number of social or those with the lowest and economic factors such as early marriage, population in school are Eastern Visayas and Mindanao pressures to get a job, the need regions. and other economic to help at home or in the farm factors since elementary school is the only level which is free. Choice of Courres: a. Academic training In the lower age group, the numb _r of girls in school is slightly more than that of Inspite of boys. The situation is however, the very encouraging data on female enrolment in relation to male enrolment, the educational situation still 98 A Profile of Filipino Women Empirical Data 99 maintains some kind of sex differentiation. The very nature of the curriculum itself reinforces the cultural bias for the girls' domestic '": preparation. As an illustration, sex-linked " Q 1 . C' Q a!. C i 7 R 1 - 0 " 0 - values are attached to specific courses such as home r- C - arts r­ for girls and industrial arts for boys. colleges for A few private elite girls would not usually offer engineering .. R Q W Q La. courses, while social work courses would rarely -c4 c- 6 eq - . in be found an all-male college. Even when these schools turn , educational, co- female students usually choose the humanities 0 ,- ao and m L a 6 social sciences, while men favor the stricter physical 6m c -­;4 I sciences. (Role of Women in the Philippines). 0 - - The choice 'T L 0 to ofcourse may in part be determined by sex m c-1 c o differences in aptitude. For example, boys in general are .0• better in mathematical and technical - m m subjects, while girls z do better M'c w 0 in verbal tasks. (Ibid.) o . C*O " . On the other hand, these choices are also undoubtedly 2 c o~ 0 i N- m t~~-.o influenced by 0. c, ...... - their perceptions of the kinds of jobs they expect to seek or obtain after graduation. Women, for 4, example, know where -­ C their chances for employment are U good, and engineering, architecture, c. a 6 .6 ,; 6zV ..... andmanagerialpositions . do not traditionally fall m m g. From under this category. (Ibid.) z 1969 to 1972, female enrolment in the different Q6 -a c;cv c 6 L61 _ 46 z I " a 3 cc c oo q , courses C has either remained the same or ~ c m- c-E ',z increased. (Table 0 IV-28). Female-dominated - c! C 'T c R cq c­ courses are nutrition, nursing Lnc4- -cc and midwifery, pharmacy, and teacher a0 v- 0, . 6 training. The fields c 6 6 .- c6o of chemistry, M , " • liberal -- and business administration are z more than. o V0! half female. Male-dominatedfields are engineer- ing and techa. 0 , C . agriculture, ology, la, and foreign service, nautical science, A Ec-4 music and fine arts. From school years 1968-69 > to 1971-72, there to V 6. a c. was an increase in the proportion of a c-. 1 1 -oc 4 _ females enrolled in agriculture, chemistry, c-a - - commerce and U c! ! business administration and in graduate school. Although .: female enrolment N. -o in the traditional male fields of engineer- o t0I i c00 o I I ;' ing, agriculture, and nautical sciences has gradually in- - creased, their 4,...... -...... representation is nevertheless still very low. lo , •-. . . . . Aside from providing . : course options equally to men : . *.. ,U.. . . . and women, a basic shift in The possibilities motivation is also essential. L .- of future female employment in male- E- A E .2 0 7 " o E I - -a -a dominated fields m ust be provided. o - E " 0 . .­Z T A 5

0 4.c32 - 100 A Profileof FilipinoWomen EmpiricalData 101 b. Vocational Training It is interesting to note that among public vocational Data from private vocationalschools show that schools, almost one-half (48%) of the total enrolees in females field of fishery the form two thirds of both enrolees and graduates are females (Table IV-30). In vocational of special agriculture, vocational courses (Table IV-29). These 41% of enrolees are females. This is almost female students, double however, are concentrated in the beauty the proportion of women enrolled in colleges of and fashion agriculture courses. A little more than half of the men for bachelor degrees. The higher enrolment in were in technical vocational vocational courses, agriculturemay be due to lower costs of educat­ ion, less rigid requirements and accessibility.

Table V-29: PRIVATE SCHOOLS-- ENROLMENT AND GRADUATESSPECIAL VOCATIONAL BY SPECIFIC COURSES AND SEX: SCHOOL YEAR 1969-l7 . When compared with private schools, the public school curriculamay be consideredmale-oriented.Consequently, Encolmezt Graduates the proportion Total Male Female Total Male Female of females enrolled in public vocational T o t a I N = 95.309 schools is 34.724 60.685 48,110 17.493 30.617 only about a half of the private school female T o t &I % enrolment. The proportion 100.0 36.0 64.0 of females who graduated from 00.0 100.0 100.0- 100.036.0 100.064.0 the different courses approximate the percentage of females B--inesndclal courses c.m... 37.0 34.0 33.0 enrolled in the same courses in 27.6 vocational schools. both private and public Beauty and Fashion courses 12.0 63.0 10.0 72.2 racticsltrade couesarts and 0.3 1.6 0.4 0.1 Table IV-30: PUBLIC VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS ENROLMENT GRADUATES AND cENROLMENTFOR MALI.Si AND FEMALES. 1972-73. c0.7 1.4 66.6 0.1 GRADUATES courses507 145. 0. Source: w FFeae os Pecn Male Feoale Department of Education. Bureau of Private School Total Percent Statistical Bulletin, 1969-70. Tc 44.185 22.335 66,895 33 8.147 3,805 12,222 Ag 22076 16.124 39.183 31 41 3.393 2,495 8,888 41 Fl , 7.595 6.911 14.506 48 1.114 1.096 24210 49

In a recent study involving 300 high school graduates in Pagadian City, ("These student. ." Phil. Daily To 75.169 45.370 120.584 37.6 12.924 7,396 20,320 34 Express, d in June the ,.Role of Women in the Ph tpine". 15, 1976) 86%of the respondents wanted to enroll in short-term vocational and technical courses, while 14% pre- From the data ferred to go to college. Their reasons for choosing in Table P131 tht th vocational who schools are that they are less expensive e we can see that on the and offer better whole, opportunities for employment. As expected, boys an insignificant proportion (2.3%) of marriedwomen opted have had vocational for courses such as: radio-TV repair, refrigeration, wood training. The number is even signifi­ cantly smaller in the work, machine shop operation, auto mechanics, tailoring, rural areas (1.1%) compared to urban watch areas (4.9%) Northern repair and practical electricity. Several females chose Mindanao & Western Visayas. For those who had vocational training the male-dominated courses such as practical electricity, radio- average length of training is 11 months. telephone-teletype operator. The majority, however, chose beauty culture, dressmaking, hair science, and cooking. This serves as another illustration of the clear differentiation of male and female courses. 102 A offeof Filipino Women

Table IV-31: VOCATIONAL Empia1 Data 103 TRAINING BY MARRIED FEMALE YEARS 15 OR OVER BYREGION, 1973 NATIONAL According to Mrs. Lucina Alday, head Women of the Bureau of and Minors of the Department of L,bor, the lem of equal prob­ access to vocational Had V cational Training training R e g a a Yea is not serious No Average number of mos. the Philippines. The problems iivolvepreconceptions in the delineation of roles between about among those trained men and women and the Philippines number or job openings available. 2.3 97.8 10.7 in educationSex typing where 4. in academicmale-femaleandvocational coursesstill exists 9 1 roles continue to neated. Sex differences be deli­ in the choice of courses may be due Rural I - Manila 1.1 98.9 9.47 5.0 95.09 to several ities availablefactors in schools, such as variations in aptitudes, opportun­ and job opportunities level of motivation of the student II - IlocosfMt. in relation Prov. 1.9 98.1 10.6 to the chosen regardless of sex of the job applicant. course III - Cagayan Valley/ Batanes Sex 1.6 98.4 12.1 difference may be considered to be more nounced in pro­ the choice of vocational courses than in the IV - Central Luzon 4.7 95.3 11.3 choice of academic those mentioned courses. Other factors, in addition to V - Southern Luzon above may be involved. One example, is 1.5 98.5 13.4 tional courses VI - Bicol that women areinvolving generally "strenuous 3.7 96.3 7.6 not encouragedskills," suchto take up voca­ and automot-re as carpentry machanics. In this case, what is important, ViI- Western Vizayaz 0.4 99.6 perhaps, 8.7 is to leave the option available to women VIII - Eastern Visay-. think themselves capable of doing a who 1.1 96.9 15.6 great deal of physical work. IX - Northern Mindanao 9.2 - Southern Nlindanao 99.8 13.4 2.2 97.8 6.5 Gonzales and Hollnsteiner (1976) and girls suggest that boys must be provided with academic and vocational Source: National Demographic Survey. Cited by Castillo, G., 1976 trainingearly in occupational life so that they will appreciate and develop skills in areas that are not their traditionally c. Vocational Aspirations sex-typed and vocationaldomains. All types of courses both in professional schools, should be equally open to boys and A FAPE 9 survey (FAPE, 1 74c) on the 1973 NCEE I girls. examinees carpentry,Women can be given training in practical mechanics, (N-296, 823) notes that 9.39% of the males and industrial arts; men can be given in foods training aspired and nutrition, handicrafts and home economics. of the femalesfor vocational or special training while only indicated the same interest. This may3.62% be due to the greater Vocational guidance demand for and higher pay given to and motivation are highly needed vocational skills in order learned by males than those which females to develop favorable attitudesamong the students towards vocational work classified .usually engaged in. as either men's or women's areas. An early thesis by Renovilla (1967) mined the possibilities exa­ National College Entrance Examination of teaching home economics to ­ government examination given to high school graduates to test their Gradeboys, Six boys in Albay province. college preparedness. teachers and parents to the programThe reactions were of the favorable. generally 104 A Profle of FilipinoWomen The proposed changes seem to advocate a more equal distribution Empirical Data 105 of the sexes E c t among the different vocational fields. academic 4. Scholastic Achievement and ' "-" a. General Scholastic Aptitude o o 0 - C 0 0 3 z In the FAPE stud y of a sample of the 973 NC E E E5 > examinees, "Z the males scored slightly higher in the ," regions inScholasticAptitudetest(GSA) the Philippines (Table IV-32). in ten out of eleven higher in Males also scored t.9 abstract reasoning, mathematics, and in symbolic .0 and verbal relations. Females . obtained higher scores ' in t 2 2 English and Science n0 . higher science scores). (except(FAPE, in9 7Manila, where males got t . 2 1 4c). It may be concluded 2 that the GSA average ,U females, values of 483 and 480 for respectively, yield males and very little sex overall indicator differences as an 2 Moreover, of intellectual ability. there are no significant sex NCEE differences in the 6 - 6 performance although there are marked ig . ' 1 6 .9 differences, with regional I. , Manila andsuburbs very much ahead. . . regions The I with the lowest GSA score for -7 females are both males and 7 Eastern Visayas, Northern Mindanao ... Cagayan Valley. and rl .C! . ! !r "RC Alater - FAPE (1975d) study examines F intheperformance sex differenceste E S inthe 1973CEE 0 CR R3', byspecialpopulation. t 0 0 - - t 0 - 03 030 00 From private schools, femaes performed significantly better in the English subject. the difference with themale They also obtained a higher mean score and lower standardperformance isnot signficant. . In the deviation in science, but . ,, GSA and ' ' * ' remaining subtests . ' ' ' ' the males obtained ci higherIn themean public scores.' schools, females scored higher in English -a - mathematics,aela.abstract reasoning symbolic and verbal tions,and science.and The males again in the general scholasticwere aptitude. significantly better in- " > > 6 A :5 GSA is the most complex of all the NCE Score. It expresses in one score the intellectual ability which the NCEE wants to tap." > > 106 A Profile of Filipino Women Among the high ability group (90th GSA), percentile in the Empirical the males were significantly better This is in reverse Data 107 in in the GSA and of the results of NCEE wherein math, science, abstract reasoning, scored higher in females relations. symbolic and verbal science than males. A notable observation It was only in English that females based on a comparison performed of the EDPITAF data and NCEE results is that at the beter han males, the younger age level, females are better achievers than males. As they grow older, something scholastic happens inachievement the competitive process soof thatsocialization that affects as the they no longer their Male-female males in the become differences in achievement generally male-labeled as the three scores among sub­ sub-groups were more or less consistent. jects. Perhaps females The experience social rejection if results of another national survey out-perform the males they on Philippine elementary in these subjects and the desire education (EDPITAF, be accepted to 1976) are shown in Table IV-33. and to be "feminin,"" prevails. Educational Table IV-33: COMPARISON Aspiratinns OF STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT OF MALE AND FEMALE SCORES SUBJECTS (1975) A comparison of the educational females aspirations of males and females revealsaspirating that there is for highera levelhigher percentage of males than Subject areas Males Scores T-Test of academic education Females Difference Value as well as for vocational or special 19 7 Reading the other hand, more training. (FAPE, 4c). 49.3 females aspire mostly for a college On 50.6 1.3 9.6861 degree Language andgraduateschool, 48.7 even if they may not finish 51.2 2.5 19.1065 it. Pagbasa (Tagalog These findings may subject) 48.8 51.0 indicate more practical, occupational­ 2.2 16.8988 college orientededucation aspirations is for males. Females Wika (Tagalog subject) of utmost importancemay however feel that Mathematics 48.6 51.2 2.6 for 49.7 50.2 20.4470 them to advance 0.5 3.6972 presentedin life. In Bu!atao'sto the surveyfemale (1977), Science subjects: the following question was 50.0 49.9 "When you were 0.1 1.2023 about 16, what did you want Social Studies to become?" Forty percent answered: 49.6 50.3 have a profession." "To 0.7 4.9588 This seems to indicate Source: Filipino the Filipino women that almost half Women as Partners do start out with career aspirations. of Miren Gonzales of Men in Progress and Mary Racelis Hollnsteiner.and Development Ateneo de Manilaby AnnaUni- versity, Institute From the parents' point of Phil. Culture, Q.C., 1976. To of view, educationalexpectations were twicesummarize, ashigh forasonthe FAPE than (1 9for 7 a daughter. (Bulatao, 1977). There are small but systematic 4c) survey differences in the achieve. showed that more ment scores of males and remales females. However, from these than males wanted to go to college data, females tend to score rhis and graduateschool. somewhat higher than males in is verified by previous data on most of the subject renerally, enrolment rates, where areas. They are largest in the areas more females occupy courses language, pagbasa (reading and of ,icuanan's; in higher education. wika (speech). The statis- study (1976) concluded that tical tests show that the differences figher achievement female adolescents had ficant. in these areas are signi- motivation than male adolescents. From the FAPE studies, females onclusiorn, however, This these subject also score higher in is tentative and has not yet areas. In the EDPITA study, xplored, nor replicated. been fully it is only in In general, women have been d with a relatively low attribut­ achievement motivation and a science that the males scored slightly higher than high females. ffiliation need. (Homer, 1971). 108 A Prkofe of Filipino Women

6. Educational Attainment EmpiricalData 109

There are more females (22%) than males any educational (17%) without attainment (Table IV-34). The rate is lowest 1Z in Manila and suburbs 0 0 0 006 6 ; ; and highest in Mindanao, Ilocos, Mt. Province and Eastern Visayas. That Manila has a tremendous advantage over the others in all aspects including educational opportunity is shown by its tremendous lead over the other regions '6 in the proportion of both sexes who have attained - - c =R ! 7 1- second and third levels of education. The table shows the trend of females from school starting to drop out even before finishing the first level of education so that eventually, there is a lowe- proportion of females who . finish . the second level. In fact, there are one-third more males T-E than females in this stage. The gap in percentage 1- 7 1 q between the r " males and the females o c narrows down in the third level. Con­ sequently, more boys than girls school and complete elementary and high start college. The only exception is in Manila, where more girls ,i than boys finish the elementary grades and .. *...... ' continue on to high school. In college, however, the percentage of male students drops - drastically such that this may again _- C . .6... be related to socio-economic factors. When ... made to choose, C parents would rather invest 15-1 Besides, the on the education of their sons. daughters at this age are probably compelled to q a - r-.. stay home to provide the much needed household help. - , The Bicolano I- female respondents of Illo (1977) felt fairly C> 0 unhappy with their own education. In the case of their children's 0C.. education, they felt fairly happy. The respondents also consi- dered getting as much education for themselves as possible as C U" - having a moderate effect on the quality of !ife. .. M D M 7. Education LN and Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) . EE-Ec' The improvement of the status of women has to consider the aspect that is strongly reinforced by'society--the good education. need for a . The need for this factor may be strongly felt more as a means > C-C to economic security, inasmuch as this is readily more assured given an adequate education. (Illo, 1977). . .> a >- > Data (Perez 1976) show that improved education has had t EE t t - Z! . corresponding effects not only on r 41 the quality of the labor force, ...... but also in the work pcrticipation rate offemales. . - -> 110 A Profil of Filipino Women In 1961, 60.1% of the female labor forcehad more than five years not completed of schooling, Oauly 3.8% L Empirical Data III had at least four ORC E OF THE A PEEDCAT-O: N IN THE years of college. By RC EOF AES A FEMANS 1965, these figures had improved ON AREAIN O to 55.8% and 6.9% respectively. slightly However, the highest LFPR's EDUCATIONAL (81.1%) in LEVELS IN RURAL years of college.1965 Thiswere isthose a significant of females THE PHILIPPINES, MAY, 1968 AND URBAN AREAS OF increasewho had from at leastthe 66.7% four female LFPR in 1961. Educational Levels Urban Rural ucational Urban Rural For the same levels 69.3 four-year period, 82.0 40.9 46.9 lowereducational the LFPR's attainment decreased, of females who except those of women.eswith had not completed a single year of schooling. 63.4 No schooling 81.5 37.0 46.3 Thus, it was found that 70.3 LFPR's increased for the two 83.8 40.1 51.1 extremes of educational attainment (i.e., less than first level nmary 56.8 college degree) but decreased for and 76.4 34.9 44.4 assume the in-between levels. We can 56. that on the one hand, larger rinediate 8 6.2 39.1 45.8 trained demands for technically 66.5 86.2 labor caused increased participation -ighSchool, 39.1 45.8 graduates; of female college not graduated 64.4 on the other hand, the need 83.3 34.7 45.8 income to supplement iamily influenced females with no education 'vel 34 5.5 ment. In to seek employ- 81.8 87.8 51.4 contrast, women with intermediate Ugh school graduate 56.5 lack the necessary attainment who 85.3 92.3 skill for specialized jobs and do :ig rgraduate 41.7 51.7 supplement family income not need to 72.0 75.5 42.4 would tend to choose housework oilege undergraduates 72.0 44.7 over 75.5 42.4 other work outside the household. degree and above S4.2 Mejii-Raymundo (Perez 1976). 98.0 82.6 4.lege83.3 (1972) years improved further supports the effect of schooling education on the work of (Table participation rate year o cn9 IV-35). When women have a ine the tunity college degree, the oppor- labor force 8.0 4 to join the labor force almost ource: 5.0 6.9 4.6 doubles. Moreover, this C.G. Mejia-Raymundo, The opportunity is slightly Characteristics of and Extent higher among rural women. employment Among the of Un- graduate women also College Philippine High Level Manpower. Un­ tend to continue working published MA. and family. despite marriage Thesis, U.P. Graduate School, Feb. 1972. Cited by CastilioG., 1976. The positive effect of for education, however, is evident studyCastillo (1976) analyzes those with higher education only in relation to the grossotedt rmMji-a nud' levels. While national females. 34.8yeasyears tan of activehosewitoutdegee 21.8yeas),desiteis life of males and statis­ For females with a college degree, enrlmenturestical figures show an almost this is much longer at only one-third. an educatiequivalentval ratio in male-female enrolmnent The proportion of ent the female-fea marriage34.8 years than those without rates and educational attainment,women seeking work or of the former. In the casedegree of (21.8 years), despite the female LFPR able difference males, there is no notice- in the number of economically wardworking, tn in relation to the total among college active -ars Mot h e mafemalenot population, is a down. undergraduates and graduates. ward trend. ion,it aedown­ they have As breadwinners Most housewives may not consider to stay in thestroger labor force regardless to work because it necessary marital LFP amogeteminat fmale o of educationthn and their domestic role is status. Castillo generalized that maesto important either considered more stronger education is a much the needsor time consuming. From determinant of LFPR among view, the of the labor market ("Womenthe economic point of females than males. courses completed by women Professionals ... College education increases female Phil. may not be responsive," LFPR, lengthens her gross Daily Express, 1976). For example, years of economically active life preference girls show a marked which continues even after for general academic work ing to a rather than courses lead­ marriage specific occupation ("Working women and reduces the unemployment rate. "Phil. Daily Express, 1975). hi. 112 A Profle of Filipino Women D. Economic S:zaus and Role Empirical Data 113 b. Residence 1. Factors in Women's Labor Force Participation (LFP} the WeFebruary have seen earlier that fmployment rate is lower in a. Modernization 1975 National Sample urban (93.5%) as comparedto rral areasSurvey (98%). of HouseholdsData from Offhand, modernization and its accompanying ization, urban- Bulletin seem to have a significant effect on women's (NSSHB), gives 95.0%as the employment force participation, labor urban rate for by way of its expansion of the latitude women and 97% for rural women. Mangahas of social Jayme-Ho (1976) and roles for women. However, as Green ( 19 70 provide the following hypothetical ex­ thi.s is true only )states, planations for the middle and upper class women for the higher employment figures in who have areas: (a) There the rural access to new ideas and education, is less of a commuting problem in rural This is areas; (b) Rural wives need to add to supported by Jayme's study (1976) on two tha family c.,sh in­ generations of come because upper and upper-middle class women. The men's cash incomes are less in rural areas; data shows a highly significant (c) In rural association between the areas, it is easier for other members of the work role and family to take care of children generational status. Proportionately more of and therefore easier for females to work outside their homes. the older generation than the younger generation workers. are non­ the greaterAmong the working older generation mothers, number assumed the integrated two-roles (work and home), Licuanan while the opposite is true for the younger and Gonzales (1976) reported the same find. eration. gen- ings from Jayme's findings show that, in fact, the their study of lower class women. More rural home-makers sheltered semi-urban and are a minority, and the majority of mothers are employed as compared upper-class the urban mothers. to urban Filipina women are actually engaged in econom- There are also more rural and semi-urban mothers ic activities engaged in usually either in self-styled entrepreneurship both a primary and secondary occupation. The or following helping out in the family business (for women explanations may account for these differences: older generation) of the (a) There and professional employment (for those are more work opportunities available for women of the younger in the rural and generation). The urban upper-class Filipina semi-urban areas; (b) Work opportunities, wife, at least being closer in Greater Manila, does not therefore appear to the home, make it easier for rural and semi­ to urban women conform to traditional models. to combine their work and wife-mother roles; (c) It is less risky to Green leave children alone at home in the (1970), however, presents a diffetent case for rural and lower class semi-urba-i areas than in the city slums. women. If she is ever initiated into the labor force, it is not due to ofable her to sustai or modernization, but primarily to be family. Herhelpeconomic sustain role the is basicmainly subsistence an extension eeds of statesFurther that inexplanationurban areas, from where Mangahas formal andindustrial Jayme-Ho her traditionaldomestic role. and serviceured, takingsectors the prevail, workerjob oppotunitiesare usually Women's away from struct­ labor is more dependent on prevailing econo- the home and mic ing regulated demand­ conditions. Her participation is auxiliary, seasonal, and longer working hours. Whereas, often and woman the dispensable. This is regardless of modernization, belonging to a farm household would easily the opportunity find to participate in production activities in That the employment of women is greater in the farm. At the same time, than the rural and she usually keeps less regular, in the urban areas is a negative indicationof shorter working hours. This explanation ization modern- by is supported (urbanization)on women's labor force participation, Perez (1976) who states that women work longer in hours urban areas than in rural areas and shorter hours households than in non-farm households. in farm 114 A Proli of Filipino Women Empirical c. Labor Market Conditions Data 115 When the husband's income is high, the wife's time would probably be Upoa employment, the hours of work of more optimally allocated to home a woman production may be influenced by the nature of her employment, and her LFP would tend to decline. (Ibid). for This example, her class of work, industry, or occupation. is usually the cae in middle and upper class homes, Wage except earners keep the longest working in cases where women actively seek employment self-employed, hours, followed by the to and then the unpaid family workers. (Perez, pursue their career. In ios 1976). study (1977), th. more prestigious and the higher the income One's of the occupation held, the greater the decision to join the labor force may also be in- fluenced women's participation by existing demand conditions in the labor market, in market activities. The loss in earn­ or ings due to specifically one's expectations on the availubility non-practice of a profession or training could be employment of high opportunities.This means that when enough to encourage the woman to work, at least employment the un- time, part. rate is high, potential labor force participants in an occupation. Thus, where a woman'sjob profitable, ishighly are discouraged from joining the labor she might be enticed to work longer hours andi a e o force. (Mangahas de­ mjfe. spite the possibly increasing distance from parablythan work ina home, rather well (transportnearby enterprise and other which might not pay com­ factors being taken into For example, single ties than women have more job opportuni- married women. (Seminar/Workshop on Working account). Women, Married 1976). This may be one discouraging factor women among the lower classes would strive married for to prov;de women, especially in urban areas. In fact, there the family with some minimum (purchasable) more single are basket of working women than married women in the goods. Economic pressures faced with inade­ quate husband's income, would therefore cities. prod the wife to dominatingengage in any cash-earning enterprise. Thus, w,- find d. Income the informal sector's petty trading and womenmanu­ facturing activities. (Illo, 1977). Separate sources of income, from the woman's own e. Educational Attainment wage and that of the husband z.re considered. Castilo (1976) reports that education is Mangahas and Jaynmo-Ho (197W) provide a theoretical a stronger formula for the prediction determinant of labor force participation of LFP for females than for males. It is also (LFP) based on the woman's the finding and husband'sincomes. Labor of Mejia-Raymundo (1972) that when have high educational women supply theory preseats LFP as a choice among attainment, they tend to continue three alter- working native uses of time: market work, home despite marriage and family. (See Educational where work, and leisure, Role: the opportunity cost of time spent on leisure Education and LFPR). home or If work is the income foregone by non-participation womcn with low education attainment can be assum­ in the ed to belong market production. LFP is thus viewed as a function to low income families, the income effect of of wage on the LFPR of one's wage, or one's potential w'ge. A high wage these women will surface. (Mangahas means and a high Jaynie-Ho, 1976). "prce" for non-market time and thus a low demand for it, and greater participation in the labor force. At the f. same Marriage and family responsibilities high demandtime, a high wage means a high income and thus a for leisure, which is viewed as a normal good. Thus wage Respondents has both a sub."rLution and an income effect for a study by Marquez (1959) report that marriage and childbirth which have conflicting influences on LFP. do not prevent women from parti­ cipating in the labor force. 116 A Profile of FUipino Women

Among family responsibilities, the most time consuming eiaEmpirical ofa Data 1177 and the most urgent is the care of childrenat infancy and wife involves a husband acepting at the pre-school ages. The presence of younger children is the idea of a modified household division of labor. (lb, 1977). thus(Mangahas expected and toJayme-Ho, be a negative 1976). influence on women's LFP. If female market participation husband is to be enhanced, the should start to accept Child-care time ind the number of alternative man-wife pre-schoolers are so that roles negative determinants of the mothers' market involvement, his traditional breadwinner role combines witi housekeeper roles in Child-care time is a positive function of the number the same way that his wife combines of the two. Both husband young children to be tended, and thp former also accounts and wife can work on a job and also collaborate at for a traditional female and labor-intensive activity. That home. Since housekeeping and child child-care care are major deterrents to is labor- and time intensive is borne out by the woman's market participation, mothers' time allocation. (Illo, 1977). easing her burden in these areas through more equitable distribution of labor would encourage a more profitable mix The presence of a child less than four years old of domestic and non-domestic invo'vements for both reduces partners. (Ibid). the working womens' working hours by 4.6 hours a week. However, the number of children does not significantly The extended-family type alter the mothers' working hours as does the mere presence of household can also be of a child less than four years old. (Perez, assumed ta provide the wife with more free time to involve 1976). herself in non-housekeeping matters. The availability of Feeding practice could affect women's market time. substitute labor at home mestic help) relieves the mother(older children, relatives, or do­ Breast-feeding involves more mothers' time than bottle- of some of her home res­ ponsibilities for work outside the home. feeding. With breast-feeding given the greatest weight, (Mangahas and it is Jayme-Ho, 1976). not surpr-ising that we should derive a negative correlation between baby feeding practice (as weighted here) and Statistics in relation to Women's Economic Participation mothers' market participation. (l, 1977). Official statistical data are gadered and processed by the On the other hand, the women's higher income would Census also improve their (and their household's) Office. Jobs reported in such surveys involve fixed em­ capacity to ployment provide their infants better mother's and regular wages. These therefore do not include milk substitutes with women's involvement in income-generating activities as self­ minimal, if any deleterious effects. (Ibid). jobs. employedOften workers too, their as theseeconomic are seldom perceived or reported as participation is on Concepcion and de Guzman a seasonal (in Encarnacion, 1976) basis. state that the effect of family size on female LFPR is nega­ tive. This has a larger effect on LFP in urban than in rural Thorrson areas. The explanation they give takes account of the cost (1971) notes that when the gro national product (GNP) is taken as a measure of time - it is less inconvenient for rural females to work of national development, women's activities for the home and the and care for children at the same time. family are not consi­ dered as contributinsto the GNP growth. More intensive market participation possible only by reducingchild-careof housekeepingby the womentime, is In fact, many women are automatically excluded from the economically active population in either through outside domestic and kin help, or greater national statistics because as homemakers they participation in housekeeping chores by the husband. The are not considered to be economically activw. In addition, a large least tiring or tedious arrangement tolerable for a working group of women are erroneously classifiedas homemakersonly becauseit is assumedthatwomen have no economic activity and theirstatus thereforeisnotcare­ 118 A Profile of Filipino Wome,,

fully investigated. Empirical Data 119 This occurs particularly in relation to women who, in addition to their homemaking ing for work activities, are also self. because of the belief that no work was employed as handicraft available or because workers or industry workers or unpaid family of temporary illness, bad weather, in subsistence agriculture. or other valid Thus, statistics reasons. ment also prese:ntan inaccurate picture of on unemploy­ they omit hot,.,ives the situation because Persons not in the labor force - Persons who are not recognized as part of repord as economically active population, the although they may, in fact, be not at work; without jobs and not wanting in need of and not looking work but are available for employment. (UN, 1975). for reasons other than those stated above. These include housewives, students, disabled The bulk of the or retired statistical data presented here is taken persons and and seasonal workers who were not wo-king from the National Sample not looking for work during the survey. Series No. 46, August Survey of Households Bulletin, 1975. The labor force data were collected through interviews b. Labor Force Participation Rates (LFPR) of 4,486 urban samnple households found 1 48 urban s am ple e nu me ration distric ts ( ED 's in sample households ) a n d 8 ,205 rural Th e 1 9 7 w or i a e a t moil l i o found in 406 rural sample ED's. The sample n T as of ED's are found in 43 cities and August 381 municif dities scattered all 1975 wasestimated at29.751 million (Table IV-36) over the country, Slightly over two-thhds (68%) of the males comprise the a . e f i i labor force, while female participation t i n s :t The percentage is only ,ne.half of ha t of the mal es (34 of.4 17employment ) . among males in the Labor Forcerefers to the population 10 years old and over who are either employed or labor force is unemployed. 967, while their unemployment is 4%. Among females in the labor force, the employment rate is 95%while Labor ForceParticipationRate is the proportion of those the unemployment figure is 59" lem is slightly more serious The unemployment prob­ holding or seeking employment. for women than for men, with twice as many males in the labor force than females. Employed ­ includes all those E IV-36: HOUSEHOLD POPULATION who were reported: 10 YEARS OLD AND OVER BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS SEX, AUGUST 1975. At work - Those who were or without pay on the working for pay or profit, N - IN THOiSANDS farm or business enterprise ope- BOTH SEXES MALE (N) FEMALE rated by a member % (N) % (N) of the same household related by blood, marriage, or adoption. An employed person who worked at least is considered 40 hours during the survey week working full time, otherwise, he is consi. Tot n o 29751 100 dered working part-time. 14,690 100 15,061 10 In tl )r With a job but not at work - Those who F had a job or 15,161 51 9.993 business but did not work because E .d 14,517 95.75 68.02 5,168 34.31 of temporary illness, 9,612 96.19 4,905 94.9 u )yed 643 4.24 vacation, strike or other reasons. 381 3.81 263 5.09 Not 2abor F, Unemployed 14,591 49 - Includes all those who were 4,697 32 9.894 66.3 wanting reported persons and/or looking for work on a full-time wanting full-time work but who were not loc.-basis; Sour tionaj Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46, Labor orce, Aug. 1975. 120 A Prolk of Filipino Women

The remaining half Empiricn of the population, 10 years and Data 121 over, are not included in the labor tern. These force. This account for data coincide with the previous table IV-36 32%males and 66%females who which shows are either students, house. that although the number of wives, disabled, or retired persons the labor women in and seasonal workers who force increased, their rate of participation were not working or looking for not show did work during the survey a corresponding increase. Fluctuations week. LFPR especially in among females maybe due to seasonal work. Table IV-37 shows that female LFPR does not follow a regularly increasing pattern, inspite Among of the increased num- the males, LFPR was higher in ber of women ipthe than urban the rural labor force over a period of seven areas, while for females, the proportion slightly was years. higher in the urban areas. TABLE IV-37: WOMEN IN THE The LFPRs LABOR FORCE: 1968.1973; 1975 in 1975 (Table IV-39) show an increase N -in thousands comparisonamong urbanwith females the 1965-1974and rural malesdata and females in Among the urban in Tab!a IV-38. males, the downward trend continued. The greatest LFPR is among the rural males; the least is among the rural females. The difference in male-fe- male labor Population Labor Lz; Force force participation rates is therefore Force Participation in the rural area. greatest

Oct. 1968 11,558 May 1969 11,716 3,848 33.3 3,957 33.8 2) Regional LFPRs MayMlay 197019 69 1 , 316 3,9 12,831 3,92957 3 . 8 30.6 The regions with the highest proportions Nov. 1971 13,355 in the labor of males 4,369 32.7 force (Western and Southern Mindanao Nov. 1972 13,894 and Cagayan Valley) 4,252 30.6 these regions also have the least proportions Nov. 1973 have of 14,611 4,830 females in the laborthe force greatest (Table 33.2 differenceIV-39). Consequently, between proportions of male the Aug. and female working. On the other 1975 15,06: 5,168 34.3 hand, Central Visayas, Metro Manila and Southern Taga- Sources: BCS, Survey of Households Bulletin; laborlog provinces force but Series No. 26, havethethe highestleast proportions proportions of males Oct. 1968; working. of femalesin the Series No. 27, May 1969; Series No. The differences in the proportions May 1970; of male- Series No. 31, Nov. 1971; Series No. female working are Nov. 1972; 36, therefore also the loist in thes. Series No. 46, Aug. 1975. regions. These disparities migrations are due to male dominance of migration tocovering "frontier" longareas such distances. asThus, Mindanao and to 1) Urban-Rural y.FPps more males migrate from Visays to Mindanao while more females Table IV-38 shows that from 1965 to 1974, migrate from was a consistent there Visayas to Manila. decrease in male labor force participa­ tion rate (LFPR) in the urban areas. Female LFPR both urban and rural in areas does not show a regular pat­ 122 A Profrie ofFilipinoWomen TABLE IV-38: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES BY URBAN 19 SEX, E mSiRI AND RURAL, OCT. 65,1967;AUG. 1971; ON, TABLE [V-39: PERSONS IN THE LABOR FORCE, NOV. 1973; AUG. 1974. BYSEX, BY REGION,

In Percent Both Sexes Urban Rural Male Female (N) (N) % (N) % Phi;ippines Male 15,161 9,993 66 5,168 Female Male Female 34 Region 1965 I - llocos 1,134 65.9 37.5 73.7 778 69 356 31 34.2 II - Cagayan Valley 653 Il - Central Luzon 468 72 184 28 1967 62.0 1,483 988 67 494 33 35.8 72.8 32.4 1971 IV - Metro Manila & 61.1 354 70.0 1973 60.2 30.4 Southern 36.6 71.9 31.1 Tagalc 1974 59.3 V - Bicol 1,162 35.5 71.0 29.7 751 65 411 35 VI - Western 1975 59.2 Viaayas 1,347 893 37.3 72.2 32.6 66 455 34 Vii - Central Visayas VIII - Eastern 1,337 806 60 531 Visayas 948 40 664 70 284 Source: Bureau of Census and 30 SourB ree o Cen s nd Statistics,tat Survey of Households Bulle i , SX IX- Western Mindanao - Northern Mindanao 718 528 73 190 27 tins for the yearsindicated. 1,377 919 67 458 33 XI - Southern Mindanao 1,254 919 73 335 27 3) LFPR of Various Age Groups (N - in thousands)

Source: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin Series No. 46, Labor Force, The greatest August 1975. LFPR among males is in the 25-44 age bracket, while 4) LFPR and Education (Table IV-40). among females, it is the 10-24 age group One explanation to this is that women women give Those without up working for marital reasons. schooling have a greater LFPR than others who went as far as high schuol and college, but It has belongdid not graduate (see Table IV-31). Presumably also been pointed out that for both sexes to the lowest socio-economic they and for both nomic pressures status where eco­ urban and rural areas, the age group from may be greatest. Because of lack 15 to 24 constitutes schooling of the largest number of unemployed, they cannot be too choosy and are with about 32.8% and willing to therefore 13.7% employed. (Book of the accept any job. On the other hand, those Philippines, 1976). who finished This is primarily because this age a certain level like intermediate, high group consists mostly school or college, of students who are not working have better LFPRs than those who started the next higher level of or looking for work, education but did not complete it. Castillo (1976) points out of that possession a diploma, indicating completion of requtirements 124 A Pofile of Filipino Women EmpicalData 125 Table IV-40: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLD POPULATION IN THE TRLE IV41: PERSONS LABOR FORCE BY AGE GROUP, SEX, AUGUST EMPLOYED IN THE LABOR FORCE, BY MARITAL STATUS AND SEX, 1975 AUGUST 1975

Male (%) Males Female (%) ital Status Females Age Group (N-9993) (N-9612) (N-4905) (N-5168)- werv married 33.2% 43.3% 10-24 years 32.0 37.0 Lrried 25-44 years 64.2% 47.4% 42.3 31.4 dowed 2.0% 45-64 years 16.1 7.8% 16.0 3arated/Divorced 0.5% 1.4% 65 years and over 4.4 4.6 Source: National Sample irce: National Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46 Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46, August, 1975. Labor Force, August 1975. regardless role of of educational level, seems to make a great the males. Among females, married persons have a slightly higher LFPR than the unmarried. deal of difference in joining the labor force. Among those in the labor force, urban males have The the highest unmarrieddifference in LFPR between married and median years of schooling; rural females subjects is much more significant among have the males the lowest. This vhows that being in the urban than the females. It may be hypothesized area is an that, inspite advantage in terms of more opportunities for of greater economic pressures entailed by longer married life, schooling for both sexes. The advantage of more more females than males drop out of the education economic field in order to in terms of more job opportunities is appa- put more time into their domestic role. rent in the rural areas, even at the lower level. College graduates for both sexes have the highest LFPR, high which generally illustrates the advantages levels of education in relation to economic partici-of tion,pation. Among women The majority of workers the LFPR is almostwith doublethe highest those level with of educa-lower work full time (Table P/ ­ however,42). The ispercentage much largerof full time male education. than that of workersfemales (66%).(82%), mostOne-third twice of as themuch females work part-time, which as male part-ime workers. is al. 5) LFPR and Marital Status Most of the farmformer or arewho married combine women who have to work in housekeeping with other in­ Table IV-41 shows that the greatest LFPR is among married come augmenting males, which is twice as much as the LFPR of jobs. Again, this may indicate the compromises- that the unmarried group. This reinforces the breadwinner women make between their work and domestic role. 126 A Profile of FilipinoWomen EmpirialData 127 TABLE IV-42: EMPLOYED PERSONS AT WORK IN ALL INDUS. 8) Employment Status TRIES (AGRICULTURAL AND NON-AGRICUL- TURAL), BY NUMBER OF HOURS WORKED DUR. Of the tota 28,751,000 population 10 years old ING THE SURVEY WEEK, BY SEX, AUGUST 1975. and over (Table IV-43), only 51% are in the labor force, with the males outnumbering the females by more than 2:1. Only 89%of those in the labor force are fully or partially employed, with majority in the agricul­ Males Females Both Sexes tural sector. This indicates that inspite ofindustrializa­ (N-P,,353) (N-4,786) (N-14,140) tion, agriculture continues to be the major absorber of labor and manpower in the country. Two-thirds Hours of the males are engaged in agriculture; the same proportion Less than 20 hrs. 3.5% 10.5% 5.8% of females are in non-agricultural types of work. 20-39 hours 15.0% 23.7% 17.9% Among the remaining half of the population who 40 hours & over 81.5% 65.8% 76.2% are not in the labor force, there Total are twice as many 1females than males, with housewives forming the bulk 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% of unemployed women. Other categories in this group Source: National Sample Survey not considered in the labor force are students, disabled of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46, or retired persons and seasonal workers, not working or Labor Force, August 1975. looking for work during the survey week.

7) Classification of Types of Workers Of the total population that is unemployed, more than one-half (58.3%) have had work experience, while 1974-75)The Bureau of Women and Minors (Annual Report, the uihers have no experience at all. The proportion of conducted a survey of 63,371 female ema- experienced but unemployed males is more than the ployees in 4,428 establishments and made a classifica- females. The majority of the unemployed workers may tion of types of workers. This survey indicates that be skilled workers who are out of work because they more than two-thirds of working women are employed were laid off or are looking for new employers for bet­ on a permanent basis. ter pay. The other half of unemployed labor force with- out previous experience tc speak of consists of students Type of worker % who dropped out from school and housewives who have to augment their income for economic reasons. Permanent 69.3%

Temporary 7.7% The total popLlation of 10 years and more in the Casal 6.urban areas totalled 10,169,000 of which 64%are males 6.7% and 54% are females. A little less than one-half of this Probational 2.0% population is in the labor force, with 92.2%employed fully or partially. Those unemployed include 8%of this Apprentice .2% population. In spite of the higher proportion of females Unstated 13.9% than males in the urban areas, only one-tb;rd of the former are in the labor force. 128 A Profle of Filipino Women Table IV-43: IHowisgcidPopuio.o.,1Bysv--Urban .: mpbro n~o0dmdOoy~teAi, 1s. D.....nt of Total Persons Data Two-thirds of the age are in the ruralareas.populationA little at least 10 years of - more than half of the Rasplnt Staus. T 0 T A L 1 Olit o v, Both rural population Both in this group are in the labor force. ToFpfo..1 mpartially Slightly over 97% of the rural labor force are fully or to the totalemployed. The ratio of unemployed TowPultioY. old to population 10 Years old or more persons . ori 29.751 14.690 15.061 in rural 100.0 100.0 100.0 areas, is smaller, urban areas. with only 2.6% as compared to 8%in E-los(.H y& This again serves to indicate the P.ti.. yr 14.17437 992 49o ss availability 9.612 6.10 41.0 69.45. 34 At Work 14.140 relation to 9.353 4.786 47.5 of more jobspopulation (of agricultural than in urban 63.7 31.8 nature)areas. in rural areas in I o- .t.587 5,935 1.662 to populatin J toa . N . 23.5 40.4 11.0 than in.rban areas 3 2591 2..53 3.418259 37911919 4 1.3 in..oudw.. ad t 1.3 11.0 . ut ur. 611 14 36 0. 2 19 7 114 0.6 1.o 0.2 Among the .197 8 . unemployed women, the 114 . 0.5 from rural proportion .7 0.9 0. areas who have never worked .olu before, 30.1%, o d 643o26 31 213 is considerably smaller 212 9 2.0 0.7 than that of urban women. No---- .obo. 14.91375. There 460 11. 49.0 is also a bigger gap S47possibly 1.0 6.0 in the proportion of males and fe. males in the labor force in rural areas Ura ooselves indicating than urban areas, that more rural women regard them- Totlopto. 10 .1 . as full-time housewives Sold and mw .4 . 1ointerested and are therefore not 10,.4.62 2.772 2.000 1.0.2 570. in or Eon .dbF. were not actively seeking work during Partially) 47.4 59.2 the survey week 4,444 2.547 1.899 37.3 although they may be engaged At Work 43.7 54.2 34.7 sonal in sea­ 4.319 2.4 types of work or acting I. rn-a ulu 5 1.862 42.5 at as unpaid family workers r 3% 349 52.3 34.0 other times. t 47 3.9 7.4 *odusw3,923 3.923 2,1092.1o, 0.9 1.8141.914 38.28.61.0.2 44.9 20.1 With . Job. Not at Wok 125 36 9) Employed In avno t 1.2 1.9 0.7 Persons by Occupational ura 21 Groups ' 10"4~~o.1d04 19 2 70707 343342 1.2 0.4 5.01.0 1.5 10 Totally Unampioy,d 377 The 10 major occupational W.okd 235 142 3.7 groups wherein em­ bfora 189 124 5.0 26 75 1.9 2.4 1.2 m Not anth. Lab.c, .,346 ployed manpower 1.914 3.433 526 40.9 2.7 in the country are classified are fromshown one in Table IV44. The groups are distinguised another by tle nature Total PopuLIon. 10 of their Y .old oec work and by 1. .. ,,orce 1219.583 9,994 9.589 class of workers. 100.052.8 100.072.2 100.032-5 E.pioy. (Fuy A. .wages Wage and salary workers are those employed for or salaries At W-k whether for private employees 9,420 6'M16 2.925 or for ta nuAicur 50.1 69.0 30.5 :91 556 0 36.7 55.9 1. .-sttn. 16.7 Witha Job. Nota, Work 269 13aJ.2 34 253 170 93 21 1. In agriultou 1.3 1.7 0.9 cash 1. or in kind and may no-a-Ictura . 160 126 include tips, bonuses and com­ L4d-t,,9 344 0.9 Total1yTo.t Uo.,oploy.dnepoye 1.31. 0.4 2656216 146 120 0. 0.4 0.5. 120 0.41.4 1.51 1 3o Ne ,., 1.5 Wo-k.SN. w bido.-olbeddbe bfo ..s 880440 2393g 4.1 own Self-employed workers Not in . orce,o 9.2141196 105 41 0.4 0.4 business and do not employare those who operate their 79 47.2o.0.9 1.1 0.4 conductbu.s paid workers in the 7.0.6 ( e i.n0e.4eof a )otheir econom ic activities. Fawrers and sari­ sai (general) store 1 ~ a o s c n t t t )loni tions operators constitute the perons andStatisticsno n 3 t s most com­ IlIcludes m on types of self-em ployed persoonsfor whbomno Indutry cumbering persons. 39 thousacd, for both Woes.mntpso efLmlydpros 130 A Profile of Filipino Women

Unpaid family Empiricd Data 131 workers are members of the family of w ho assi s t another m em ber in th e operation of t he female workers are wage and salary o ll o e b y u n p d ai y wsalo rkeworkers rs (4 (46%)d e family farm or business receive any wage or salary forenterprise their work. but who do not employedfollowed by unpaid workers (24%).family workers (30%) and self- are inOver the a occupational half of those employed (53%) for both sexes groups ofOverayed(53farmers, h )lf farmfo fboh laborers,tosesxessportsmpl Female wage and salary workers are in service and fishermen, hunters work (35t); professional/technical and loggers which and clerical work (11.69.). group (20.4%) greatest constitute the all the othernumber of employed persons. In comparison, nine groups which comprise the organized labor of industrial consitutpoulatonwho onl 47%of Females and service sectors, when combined, he eployd e esalso form the bulk of upai -y in additionare uou npaid muilawomk­work­ er (81%). Theseto houskeping also assist constitute only 47% of the employed population, are undoubtedly the ruralin the women farm but do not get paid in spite of all the time they spend The wage and salary workers (40%) largest comprise the proportion for both followed closely of workers types of work. by the self-employedby employment workers (37%). More than one fifth type, (23%) of those employed for both Among the sexes are numbers self-employed females, the greatest considered as unpaid family workers. are in sales work (48.6%); production (25.8%) and farming (20%). The unpaid female family workers Constituting the largest portion of wage and salary consist mostly of farmers (81%) workers are service/sports (11.7%). and sales workers production/process workers (20.1%); craftsmen/ groups (18.9%). workers (19.7%) The professional and technicaland farmers' group of workers comprise only 12.7% of all employed who Close to two-thirds (62.7%) of employed in farming. males are are in the wage and salary occupational group. Majority of these farmers (83%) consider themselvesself-employed as malesself-employed. constitute Unlike the females, of the largest classificationthe The male employment, followed by proportionfarmers' of group again constitutes wage and salary self-employed and unpaid workersthe highest (69. paidworkers. There is also 4% and 87.7%, male family workersa much(18.8%) lower than proportion females of un­ respectively). This is followed by the (30). sales workers group who are self-employed (16.7%) and mayunpaid consist family worker (7.22%). These sales workers of the small and medium size proprietors There ae also salaried male farmers and they con. who act as middlemen throughout the and distribute commodities stitute the highest country as well as the many rural '-sar- proportion among the class B wage and salary workers (37.3%). sari" ing is also the occupational On the other hand, farm­ (small variety) store operators who supplement involvement of the highest proportion of unpaid male tnleir meager income from farming. family workers (11.819).

Less than a third Lesspatianlagrhirdrefof employedhpersonsobymmaoyedgreatestemployed persons by major females Comparing the male with are in the farming group (34%). bulk of the female workers, the largest The second male workers, regardless of employ. group are the sales workers (48.6%) comprised ment classification mostlylarestl ofo thosethoup e whow te isairores are farmers. Among the females, tend "sari-sari" stores.6%) aside omri from d this is true only for the unpaid number of wage and salaried family worker. The most seroice/spo,ts occupational groupfem ale workers are in the performing their domestic roles. The highest proportion while the self-em. ployed areprimarilyin sales work. 132 A Profile of Filipino Women EmPbia Data 133 10) Females in Managerialpositions - It is interesting to note that females occupy a very insignificantpropor­ tion of the total number of administrative,executive, and managerialpositions for both the wage and salary and self-employed work classifications. Among the wage 0 ' !C ! C:R C 0 t ' IC and salary workers, only 0.4% of females occupy mnana* 2 0" 'i d d 0 i a- d C; gerial positions inspite of the fact that the next highest proportion of salaried females are employed in profes- i6 - sional technical work. Among the self-employed work- t­ ers, females occupy merely 1.4%of administrative, exec- t C" C"O t CO V 0 • - utive or managerial positions. These data indicate that in spite of equality in educationalattainment,females V : have 00 OO.- a long way to go to achieve C0M0 atleastan equalpro- portion ofhigh C;~ a; as0 ; 0 or leadingpositionsas the males. g 2 -; -6 0; C0; j ' . 0- . , 4 C" - - . -"-" - W 0 O q "0 C 0 0 t

C00 - Ci 0 C C­ V 03- a-...... - C C4

. . M . c .-

0- CC! -0

C - i CL C C C

0 000 0 3 F .34V, -0 CO0-00- - O CC5 - C. 0-3 0

* 04 0 *C04 0;a04 404 .0 4 0 0C 40 C 04 Meg C C04C W- ZtlC0- CX44 It it r It 'to C5 Table IV-44 contd. - 2

Wage and Self-employed Unpaid Major Occupation Grp. TOT Family A L Salary Workers Workers Workers N % N %. N . N %.

Female 4,905 100.0 2,249 109.0 1,159 100.0 1,482 100.0

Professonal, technical a. & related workers 472 9.6 459 20.4 7 0.6 5 0.3 Administrative, executive & managerial workers 29 0.6 9 0.4 17 1.4 8 0.2 Clerical workers 268 5.5 261 11.6 ... 6 0.4 Sales workers 863 17.6 .4 126 5.6 563 48.6 173 11.7 Farmers, farm laborers, fishermen, hunters, loggers & related workers, 1,686 4.4 251 Miners, quarrymen 11.2 233 20.1 1,202 81.1 " & related workers 1 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.1 ... Workers In transport & . ... communication occupation 12 0.2 11 0.5 1 0.1 Craftsmen, production process workers & related workers 716 14.6 336 14.9 299 25.8 80 64 Manual workers & laborers' N.E.C. 8 0.2 8 0.4 ... Service, sports & related workers 836 17.0 784 84.9 39 Occupation not reported 3.4 13 0.9 14 0.3 3 0.1 ... Male (Urban) 2,547 100.0 1.757 100.0 641 100.0 143 100.0

Professional, technical & related workers 233 9.2 201 11.5 29 4.5 , 0.2 Administrative, executive and managerial worker, 97 3.8 Clerical workers 231 68 3.9 29 4.5 9.1 229 13.0 2 0.3 1 0.4 Sales workers 360 14.1 108 6.1 209 32.6 43 30.1 Farmers, farm laborers, fishermen, hunters, loggers & related workers 349 13.7 62 3.5 218 34.0 69 48.4 Miners, quarrymen & related workers 11 0.4 5 0.3 4 0.7 1 0.7 Workers intransport and communication occupations 272 10.7 234 13.3 37 5.8 1 0.5 Craftsmen, production process workers and related workers 552 21.7 435 24.8 93 14.5 24 17.1 Manual workers and laborers, N.E.C. Ib8 6.2 155 8.8 2 0.3 Service, 1 0.4 ralatedsports workers and 277 10.9 256 14.6 19 OocupaUon not rmportad 6 0.2 2.9 2 1.6 3 0.1 ...... 1 0.6

TaW. IV-44 eontd. . 8

Wage and Salf. mployed Unpaid Family jor Occupaton Grp. TOT A L Salary Workers Workers Worker, N % N % N % N % Female (Urban) 1,898 100.0 1,348 100.0 382 100.0 159 100.0

Professional, technical & related workers 806 16.2 297 22.0 5 1.4 2 1.4 Administrative, executive & managerial workers 23 1.2 9 0.7 18 3.4 Clerical workers 1 0.6 223 11.7 217 16.1 ...... 03.8 Sales workers 444 23.4 78 5.8 259 67.9 105 66.2 Farmers, farm laborers, fishermen, hunters, loggers & related worker, 47 2.5 9 0.7 16 4.1 23 14.8 Miners, quarrymen and related workers ...... Workers in transport and communication occupations 10 0.5 10 0.8 ... Craftsmen, production process workers and related workers 220 11.6 136 10.1 71 18.5 18 8.4 Manual workers and laborers, N.E.C. 6 0.3 6 0.4 . .. Service, sports and related workers 612 82.3 585 43.4 18 Occupation not 4.8 9 5.7 reported 6 0.3 1 0.0 ...

Male (Rural) 7,066 100.0 1,827 100.0 3,562 100.0 1,666 100.0

Professional, technical & related workers 101 1.4 82 4.5 11 0.3 4 0.8 Administrative, executive managerial workers 22 0.3 8 0.4 12 0.3 Clerical 2 0.1 workers 57 0.8 57 3.1 Sales workers 191 2.7 49 2.7 123 3.4 19 1.2 Farmers, farm laborers, fishermen, hunters, loggers and related workers 5,678 80.4 787 43.1 3,272 91.9 Miners, quarrymen and 1,615 96.9 related workers 1 0.2 14 0.8 1 0.0 Workers in transport and communication occupations 209 3.0 163 6.9 44 1.2 2 0.1 -­ Craftsmen, production process c. workers and relsttd workers 487 6.9 378 20.7 87 2.4 28 1.4 Manual workers and laborers, N.E.C. 155 2.2 148 8.1 6 0.2 Service, sports and related workers 142 2.0 135 7.4 7 0.2 0e Occupation not 0.0 reported 9 0.1 5 0.8 ... 136 A Profileof Filipi.o Women

r3. CD * CD*a Problems of Working Em f D"4 137 0 C%I Women N-) .labor One of the most pervasive obstacles to force participation lies women's labor in the traditional attitudes concerning market,women's role and status in society, in particular: as a whole, and in the labor

"t . 0 a. Attitudes 0S'.. toward working women a: .. commo : ,Most " " Hchildren, Misgivings abound over wife-mothers who hold commondelinquency, are the quarrels between jobs. and abandoned fear of lower healthhusband status and for wife the housekeeping responsibilities. also The opens himself to .criticism by husband wife his peers if he allows his to work. Society still dictates C! that the woman'splace - Q a 0!o3 i N 4 - is the home. If the man can afford it, he should not let wife work. A working wife his hisand indicates his inability to support family,father. and almost by definition, (Ilo,1977). his failure as a husband co N, 3 C4 Mc There are sex differences in the attitudes ing women. In a study toward work­ by Castillo (n.d.) with a ,30 sample of o Lo-C D * o . C. .476 Cq;,D - CD 0 Cv senior ; I Cta m students, boys tended to be m ore restrictive in their attitudes than the girls. However, the girls reported certain degree of willingness wishes. to defer to the husband's Neither the boys nor the girls the husband's opinion believed in ignoring regarding the matter. Z1z oFrcml CDtoc 1965), the anothermajority of the husbands sample of 52 campus couplesliked the (Guerrero, present

arrangement where the wife also worked. However,if the . .. .. husbands had a 7 ."a". '- - * choice, they would want -I .11 -N o 3 their wives to ** ,1D C- - Ma 0 aCD .2~ Z0 m-d C 0 stop w orking. Tw o-thirds o f the h e a~~ W=oy . 0.... 2- -by u sb an ds rep lied "y es, 0 0 8- categoricalall means", "no." wOf hile the only husbands one-th whoird osaidf the wives said Q ". .. "yes". A little less than half "yes",mr 5 . of the wives answered with a concept. The wives, on the than 90% believe in the othertraditional hand, emphasized personal . , wife-is-for-thehome .. C)0 -a -If. -S. .s .C 0"-"0 : enjoymen t of their work o uside the home , an d utilizing reasons for working such their education. as: finding housework boring, 138 A Proileof Filipino Women The statement "People think less of a man if his wife Emp&ic Data works", in Illo's study complete elementary 139 as non-conformists (1977) had as many conformists schooling. Better-educated people amongas nn-coforistsamogwomen (45% for both sub. cten woen 45% or oth ub.takes tend to look lesfavryless favorably hang ter groups), while among an outside job. If lowthan others on theemte mother powho the male respondents, 51% tend to education may be related t agree with the sacis statementThe and 41% would rather disagree, econumcistatus, th les educat nresuretofr m w rkigeep apeaswom t behave socio-eeonomic o may also a greater economicstatus, the less educated group The pressure to keep women need which necessitates themay wife's also stronger on the men, whose fromabilityworking appears to betaigoanusdejb family is threatened-and to provide for his his prestige lessened-by the taking on an outside job. presence of a working wife. A survey by the Nonetheless, one should also Philippine Social Science Council, con­ notice the fairly sizeable proportion ducted by Porio and who opt for the more Fernandez (1976) found that a slight flexible arrangement. (Il, majority of the respondents 1977). were of the opinion that it was good for a woman augmentation to work. Financially it would mean of the income of the family. Psychologically From these it provides the woman some degree studies, we can see that husbands generally of freedom. Sociol­ attributethe domestic gically, it gives the role to females, woman an opportunity to widen her circle of acquaintances. Other However, the majority who studies, however, report a favorableendorsement favor working women had of the working wife, based only a slight primarily on financial consi- edge over those who felt that the should be a housewife. woman derations. Based on a sample of women The analysis, prepared by Holn. Manila companies, Marquez (1959) working inthree reports that almost Steiner and Porio, all the women claimed that working assume shereports: "Even those who favor her their husbands, parents, close will do so without sacrificing the relatives and friends, in general, proper running either encouraged them to of the household': They predict work or were neutral about their decisions on whether that going to work. The most or not the mother should work frequent explanation given for such would cause tensions an attitude was the in homes of husbands who may feel economic advantages that a woman's place for the famil,. is the household and wives who think they should work. (Lara, 1976). Flores' (1969) study Illo's findings on careerwomen showed that all (1977) showed that working mothers of the subjects claimed that their have children of higher husbands approved of nutritional status than those of their full-time jobs. However, non-working mothers, about 20%of the respondents regardless of socio-economic status. mentioned "conflicts" which arose, Husbands eventually specified, but these were not accept the idea of a working wife, particularly if the latter was working and is even before marriage, earning well; anid the woman still does keeping when she returns home, including the house­ clothes, and washing the The more recent caring for the children. Where no relative study of Porio, Lynch, and Holn- or ofsteiner mothers (1975) who reportshold jobs that outside helper can attend to 73% ofthe the home. respondents This awareness know the children, the wife makes sure that shewill doesnot eatnot upworktoo toomuchfar of her is more widespread from hometime. andThus, that in hervery work few in urban (76%) than in rural areas cases do we (66%). Three-fourths of these respondents find husbandwife strife based on her work. working mothers, with approved of little difference by residence, sex, b. Limited opportunities for training or income. However, variation in approval The Philippines is one educational is found with of the few countries where level. Approval came from educational opportunities 68% of college- are more or less equal for men educated and women. However, as discussed respondents and 79% from those with an in- in the previous section on education, women generally tend to choose less work­ 140 A Pofide of Filioino Women directed courses such as the humanities. Even vocational The ctural distinction betweenEmpiricoj special abilities training is less for women than for Data 141 generalized men. It can therefore be that women have less skills for training and less each sex, which has a certain degree work experience and opportunity basis, has led of biological therefore than men. They ate to the establishmentofrigiddesignations at a disadvantage because they of most occupations become less as either male or female. qualified forjobs, beliefs about These the relative competence of have the sexes strongly influenced the options of each Aside sex in the from a deficiency in skills training, and Jayme.Ho Mangahas social set-up. (1976) also refer to the Castillo's data training erratic nature of (n.d.) suggests a relationship between for women. To start with, women the perception to spend usually expect of occupational sex role definitions only a part of their lives in the labor occupational and 1970). Therefore, force (Mincer, inclination, although the relationship there is less incentive for them by no means perfect. is in human capital, to invest The tendency n be drawn to'vards or for their family to invert one occupation rather in them. than another is somehow con. This is felt to be important not ditioned by society's formal so much in the case of prescriptions as to which jobs schooling as should vocational training. in the case of on-the-job be held by which sex. training and De Vera (1975) has concluded that occupations Tidalgo (1975) reports that there is a serious lack of chosen by males training opportunities for female males are those considered suited children. Because of this in our culture. Similarly, the occupations for lack and the discontinuity by females chosen in work experience, earning are those culturally approved a woman's function as for females (Mincer becomes segmented in the Philippines. and Polachek, 1974). Such segmentsaccording marked off canto agebe by significant events in a woman's In Table IV-44 leaving life such as we have seen the effect of school, obtaining the first job, expectations social the first marriage, bearing on male-female choice of occupations, child, and the point at which the as reflected in reaches youngest child the proportions of male-female employ­ school age. With ment figures in the various back to work for good, the last event, occupational categories. at which times theysome have womena stronger incentive to acquire on-the-job go training. Thus, there is a Data from this table are very general. tendency for the on-the-job training Montiel For example, for female workers to and Hollnsteiner (1976) hypothesize be sp.-ead our over time, and predominance that the the most significant one may of women in the professional, well be the obtained in the early fields may technical stages of the latest job. have been caused by tWe concentration females of in the nursing and teaching professions. c. Cultural distinction between men's work and women's work 2. "Fe z o t 1. Prescribed occupational sex role Table IV-45 from the Professional Commission gives Regulations Societal a more specific listing of occupations. discrimination starts at birth The with and continues list is still incomplete. For example, the early acquisition of sex profession where the teaching and roles. This attitude female participation is very sex role differentiation in not included. high is extended the home is further Some occupations are in early education and carried dominated. clearly male­ on in society's engineering, forestry, geology, architecture, veternary medicine. Female-dominated treatment of women in general. professionsare those in the medical field: nursing, nutrition, midwifery, 142 A Profile of FilipinoWomen E"Pbc at 143 pharmacy, ment opportunitiesoptometry, abroad medical definitely technology. play an importantEmploy. TABLE IV-45: profession Tentative nuznbtras Of Nor. of registered26, 1974: males and females in each morerole in than this choice. Earnings abroad are easily what they would earn locally. As rivef today, times doctors, midwives, nurses Profession and medical technologists Males Females. Both Sexes PN oN are still in demand abroad. The high rate of interna- I N tional migration N professional of Filipino women is partly due to reasons. Health-related fields: Nurse 3,087 1.37 49.036 Physician 23,159 21.8 52,123 23.17 In many counties, female physicians 10.3 11,526 5.12 34.685 15.42 Developments are a rarity. in the Philippines with respect to Midwife 620 medicine are DentistPharmacist .27 20,554 9.14 21,174 9.41 therefore wort0 examining. Medicine 6,8372,237 .99 17,613 7.83 practically was 3.04 5,772 19,850 8.82 a ma- monopoly before 1930 2 Medical technologist 2.56 12,609 5.G ( .5%female). 921 .4 3,924 1.74 4,U As of 1969, the percentage of Optometrist 45 2.15 female physicians had 948 .42 1,877 .83 2,825 risen to 43.5%. The enrollment Dietitian 1.25 figures for 1970.71 1 1.117 .49 1,118 .49 show that there were more females Chinese druggist (51.0%) than males 333 .14 3 * 336 in the medical Physical therapist .14 schools. The trend may now be in the 7 34 .01 process Occupation therapist 34 .01 of reversing in favor of women physicians. 27 There Engineering other hand,are more there males among older doctors. are more female physicians Onamongthe the younger Civil engineering 13,234 age groups of 34 and below. (Kintanar, Chemical engineering 4,.119 5.88 422 .18 13,656 6.07 1974). 1.96 1.795 .79 6,214 2.76 Electrical engineering 5,428 :.6 2'- * 5.450 2.41 Geodetic engineering 3,128 1.39 50 .02 3,178 1.41 Mechanical engineering Arch:lecture is Mining engineering 1,585 .7 1 another masculine field which has 1,059 .47 - 1,586 .7 slightly opened Electronics 1 * 1,060 .47 up to women (Ocampo, 1976). From & Communications 808 .35 1921 to Agicultura 9 * 817 .36 1931, thele were absolutely no women engineering 428 .19 this in 13 * 441 .19 field. Over a 40-year period, 1931-1971, Sanitary engineer 407 females .18 23 .0] 430 .19 Marine engineer 113 in the professions have increased up .0 3 0 116 .05 total registered architects. to 10% of the Miscellaneous Certified Public Accountant :5,996 7.11 10,062 4.47 26.058 Chemist/technician 1,.238 11.58 Architect .59 3,056 1.35 5,732 2.54 3,717 1.65 367 .16 4.084 Master electrician 1.81 2,514 1.11 Social Worker 3 6 2,517 1.11 12 1,201 .53 Master plumber 990 1,213 .53 .44 74 .03 1,064 .47 Veterinarian 841 Forester .57 85 .03 926 .41 619 .27 46 Geologistfaie .02 665 .29 371 .16 13 Master Mariner * 384 .17 Custom 365 .16 1 * 3 broker 324 .14 366 .16 Sugar 46 .02 370 .16 technologist 28 .01 5 43 .01

96,131 42.6 128,781 57.14 224,912 99.8 Source: Professonal Regulations Commnision 144 A Profile of Filipino Women EtpiiData 145 Agriculture -isa field tradit;onally associated with 3. Sex differences inaptitude men. There are definite signs or "feminization" of this field. In the Cllege of Agriculture, University of the Philippines at Los Bafios, the leading institution in this The male-female work role field, the female enrollment segregationisapparently in the early 1960's was a universal phenomenon, only about 25%. In 1971, this has grown with slight variationsin each to more than culture. In the Seminar/Workshop 40%. In a study of 687 women agriculture for Working Women graduates, (1976), the need for maintaining there were some evidences of employment traditional distinction handicap between men's work and due to sex as indicated by 20% who mentioned women's work was questioned. male Erickson (1975) gives proper preference as a reason for being turned down consideration to essential in the jobs differences between the they applied for. The same factor was mentioned average man and the average by 4% woman. However, there of the respondents as a difficulty anticipated is considerable overlapping in in moving the distribution curves to the jobs they desired. The current jobs in agriculture of the characteristics of the sexes (apart from women's unique childbearing for women are in teaching, extension and research. func­ tion), and considerably more variability These are the same general types of jobs which among scores male of the same sex than between agriculture graduates have. Other job opportunities tWe sexes. There are many women with better also seem to be available for women agriculturists. Half mechanical aptitude than men, and men with more manual dexterity of these female graduates were employed after having than some women. The differences between the sexes made or'y one application while the rest were employed are there­ fore not sufficient to assign some tasks after the third application. Contrary to the earlier as "male"and fear others as "female" Most jobs that perhaps female agriculturists will not be employed require a mixture of abilities and attitudes for successful in the field for which they were trained, only 10% performance and of may not be attributed to a single graduates had their first jobs which are not in agri- ability such as finger dexterity. The best use of resources would be to seek culture. Only six per cent of all respondents rated their the individualwho is best qualified,regardlessofsex. current jobs as unsatisfactory. Apparently, women graduates in agriculture find their place in agricultural fields. (Simpas and Miranda, 1974). Erickson's theory on miniwz! differences in aptitude between the sexes still needs to be tested and its acceptance may still be a long way off. Women's scie:tific and technological exp,,rtise are utilized in public offices, industry, and in institutions of higher :zarning. In 1965, more women (53%) than The brief description on the men physical scientists were employed evolution of fer..ale in government participation in several offices. Women physical scientists were also relatively male-dominated professions seems to be very encouraging. However, well represented in the universities (40% ) and in it should he noted that women in the professic; - represent industry (34%). Women represented half of the the biolo- elite, the small minority of Filipino gical scientists employed in universities, 36% of those women. One very realistic argument against the male-fen'ale in public office, and 31% of those in industry. Female demarcation in employment is that of the very social scientists comprised 47% of those in public office, limited notion of work "suitable by its nature for women." 42% of those in the universities, and 6% of the Such work social is usually associated with home scientists employed in industrial activities, or low pay­ firms. (National Sci- ing work requiring ence policy and organization of research in tb- Philip- low skills. Such an attitude is pines, 1965). congruent with the traditional notion of economic participation than women. as a more important role for men rather 146 A Profileof Fiipino Womgn 4. Attitudes toward segregation in work roles E-Pbkw Dat 147 So far, only two studies have investigated Philip. pine attitudes TABLE IV-46: PERCENTAGE toward male-female segregation in work i OF FEMALES IN THE FORCE, LABOR roles. In Castillo's study (n.d.), BY MARITAL STATUS AND RESIDENCE, egalitarian females were more in their role assignment AUGUST 1975 of the following eight occupations: college professor, corporation Marital Status Rural executive, dorctor, Urban Total keeper, lawyer, government small factory owner. More male clerk,respondents store­ than females indicated that these Never marriea 37.7% occupations should Married 52.3% 43.3% be for men only. 53.1% 38.4% Widowed 47.4% De Vera's (1975) questionnaire 8.1% 7.4% distributed to more Divorced/Separated 7.8% than 1.2% 1.8% 1.4% revealed3,000 college-bound students all over the country strong evidence of sex-typing in the choice of Source: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, occupation. Male choices include the occupations Labor Force, 1975. sidered con­ suitable for males in our culture: engineering, military, navy, technician, mechanic, architecture. Similarly, the occupations chosen culturally by females are those approved for females in the Philippines: 1. Conflicts due to wife's job nursing, midwifery, Family conflicts laborato, technician, teaching, as a result or the woman's job may be accounting.comparison inevitable. Even Anbetween interesting preferred finding occupation however, with is :hthe if husbands initially approve of wves takingaigo ontulltime ultm jobs, conflictsini mobsnds m may stltillaro.e arise. The majoro most prio nab eee n re faser re occu tin i rth g among probable. There was more shifting source of conflict usuallystems from the females than among the males. inA ranking the dual role of work greater Licuananand home responsibilities(Pores, encouragement to female participation and Gonzalez). Gonzales1969; (1965) Guerrero, states 1965; leeway for educational and job optionsin mayother beoccu. an i enan an o that evidently, an outsidentsie jobjo does zdoesnot sa tes th e pational fields. not necessarily put the womanbands, wiveson equal have footingto hurry with the husband. d. Overburdening of women home after To the hus­ due to multiple roles at home office hours to assume their other role ­ and at work that of wife and mother. In It may Table IV-41, we looked at the LFPR by be worth noting that under the Civil Code, martial the status for wife is allowed to exercise her profession LFPR of both sexes. Table IV-46 shows the difference or engage females alone, by marital status and residence. Inin general, there in business only as long as are slightly more married women in the her husband does not object. work force than In the study single women. The urban-ruralproportions, of Licuanan and Conzalez (1976), more however, are than half of interesting. There are more married women the working mothers are experiencing riie working in rural conflicts because of their inability areas than single women. The reverse is to perform their trai­ true in the urban tional roles satisfactorily. becausewomen working areas: where there are more single the majoritythan of married urban womenwomen. quitPerhaps employment this is InBltos(97In Bulatao's (1977) nationalainlsrvey, su workk was uponbun gettingein maorie. of rur as con­ married. In rural areas,o however,tver, whereem etethe majiority of women femalesidered respondentsimportant by the majority of women. 45% also have to work in the fields as unpaid were working at the time of the survey;of the family workers, 18% had worked marriage and family life necessoirily have previously; 62%have had some kind of work experience. However, 74% of the working to be combined with daily farm work routine. mothers 148 A Profile of Filipino Women Empical Data 149 felt guilty that their children do not receiveproper,perso- rate (5%) than males (4%). Several explanations nalized care. Another 10% said that the discipline of their provided for this: have been children is disrupted, a. One general attitude is that female labor is marginal, dispensable, 2. Alternative ways of coping up with wives' dual roles and seasonal. Women are usually considered "first out" and "last in" in case of insufficient demand for labor. When The following alternatives have been applied seasonal demand for production output is in families high, women are also more often regarded whie the wives continue working inspite of dual role as an expedient labor group. (Montiel and Hollnsteiner, 1976). Women's responsibilities: wise time budgeting, part-time employ- work opportunities are more dependent ment and household help. Since only 27 of households on social and economic conditions. For example, during a recession, have domestic helpers, household help is not the solution to the problem women have less chances than men of finding jobs. In­ of a majority of housewives (National dustrialization, Demographic Survey, 1973). which utilizes less manpower because machines can do the job faster, more immediately, affect women (Germaine, Other ways of coping with the multiple roles of 1975). All these stem from the tradi. tional attitude that men are the principal breadwinners and working wives are extended family arrangements, help women's economic role is only secondary. from friends, neighbors, and relatives, children taking care of younger children and household chores (National b. Another limitation in employment Demographic Survey, 1973). opportunities is due to the opinion that the hiring of women generally entails greater costs. Anthropologist Results from Flores' study (1969) show ,hat 74% of June Nash of the City University of New York, ascribed this to a basic assumption those who lie in Manila and the suburbs leave the care that links women's biological reproductive of their home and children to domestic helpers; 15% to role to her social role as mother and wife. "When this assumption is their mothers or mothers-in-law who supervise hired help tied to a development process that in the care of children; and 11% to sisters, aunts, cousins places greater emphasis on growth in production than on the development who also supervise the care of the children. About of 53%of society, the implication is that the employment those who reside in the towns of women depend on their mothei. in the advanced sectors or in-laws; 9% on other relatives; of the economy is uneconomic, while 38%leave the care since it requires heavier of their home and children entirelyin the hands investment in social services of of domestic child-care, improved working conditions helpers. The reliance of the majority -nd more flexible of working wives hours than in the case of male mainly on domestic workers." (Meeting in Mexico, helpers is accounted for by the fact UN, 1975). that the sample in this study is comprised of careerwomen. In an answer to the question "Who takes This is iurther reinforced by protective labor laws for care of your women than men. (Montiel and Hollnsteiner, children while you work?" (Bulatao, 1977), 19% 1976). How­ of the ever, the childbearing function of women women depended on other children; 16%on maids; 12%said cannot be done away with, and maternity leave benefits are provided as that the children looked after th,?niej" es; a few referred to a necessary protection for working women. different relatives. c. Protective labor laws e. Inequality in employment opportunities: also restrict women's labor force participation,as in the case of occupations that demand strenuous physical exertion and business As previously itoted, females have a higher unemployment operations that go on. a 24-hour basis. (Mangahas and Jayme-Ho, 1976). 150 A Profile of Filipino Women1 d. Women workers are also known to be affected by many is tueagain in congruec marginal constraints. and seasonal They are reluctant to accept work far from home, nature of women's in order to be physically available to their children. er. At.' Women alo tend to be If the husband's more migratory than n,, , job entails a change of location, she this can also contribute to a high rate of turnover in the labor force. usually moves with him.

In this f. Inequality in wages the connection, it is important to note that legally, wife has no say in the choice of residence of the family. Is there equal pay When the husband decides for equal work in dhe Philippines? follow h" decision. to move, it is her legal duty to Studies show that women's wages are generally lower Several studies have been conducted to determine than those of men, even for attitudes of Women in the Phil., Dept. the same type of work (Role and practices of employers towards female.em. of Labor, 1974; FAPE, f975; ployees. Licuanan and Gonzalez, 1976). 1. Average weekly The cash earnings sentativesattitudes and policies of employers and repre. interviewed by Marquez (1959) were on the whole found The to be less than favorable towards the employ- average cash earnings of males and females in ment of women. the different major They claimed that it was more costly to industry and occupation groups are employ given in the Nationai women than men due to maternity leave with Sample Survey of Households pay. (1975) There shown in Table IV-47. need notalso seemed to be the prevailing notion that support herself since her husband's earningsa woman are sufficient The average and/or that the woman's place is the home. weekly cash earnings of males is at least one-and-a half times more than that of females Another study was made to determine (P80 and P49, qualifications the general respectively). Sex differences in salary which establishments consider in recruiting are most notable in the following industry manufacturing, groups: their employees. These are as follows in their domestic services, personal services, importance: order of and work expe.ience, educational attainment, age, commerce, wherein men's salary is almost twice sex, as that of women civil status, and blood relationship. (Castillo, 1976). in the same kind of work. Females' salaries slightly top that of males in transportation The latest labor force surveys (National Sample Survey storage and communications of of females work. The average earnings Househo'ds Bulletin, August 1975) show that unempioy, in the administrative, executive and man­ agerial ment in the Philippinesis higherfor women than occupational group could not be estimated According for men. because to Concepcion and de Guzman (in Encarnacion, of the smallness of sample, which is an indi­ 1976), cation of the gross ur' r-representation the higher unemployment rate is due to discrimi- of females in nation this group. in employment against women. However, Tidalgo work(1975) finds that among experienced workers, much faster than men, the search for a jobwomen averaging find only 10 The same to 12 weeks versus 15 weeks for men. In this case, sample of workers were re-cla'sified a larger according unemployment rate for women than for men to occupational groups. (Table IV-48). The only can greatest occur if the rate of turnover of women in sex differences in salary rates are in the follow­ force the labor ing is very large. According to Tidalgo, women go groups: sales workers; craftsmen, production out in and process and of the laborforce much more fi-equently than workers; service and sports workers. As in men. This preceeding the table, females have slightly higher salaries the field of transport and communication occupations.in 152 A Profde of Filipino Women TABLE IV-47: AVER AGE CASH EARNINGS DURING THE SURVEY WEK OF Epirica EMPLOYED WAGE AND SALARY Dta 153 GROU,195).WORKED B WORKERSSE, WHO (AGUS TABLE IV-48: AVERAGE WORKED 40 HOURS OR OVER, CASH EARNINGS DURING THE BY MAJOR INDUSTRY 40 HOURS OR MORE, BY SURVEY WEEK OF EMPLOYED MAJC'l OCCUPATION GROUP, BY SEX, (AUGUST 1975). WAGE AND SA.LARY WORKERS GROUP A-ND SEX, AUGr - T 1975. WHO Male Major Industry Group Average Female Average (N) Cash (N) EannsEarnings(N Cash Male Average (N) Female Average cash (N) cash (P) (p) ah(N)as (P) or Occupation Group (P) Earnings Earnings Mining (P) riuinr,huntingh untring (834)(845) P"98 (P) . 40 (233)( 2) P2t&ed7essional, workerstechnical, Mining& q uarrying and (281) P144 (447) Manufacturing ( 45) FP 98 P97 (647) 7 87 ( 2) Electricity, gas, water, (377) P42 i linistrative,n s r t v ,e e u i e n and sanitary services (40) executive, and P118 ( 4) nagerial workers Construction (75) 1301 (408) P 66 ( 6) ical workers ( 9) Commerce (283) P103 (259) (287) P106 1workers (152) P191 Transport, storage, (185) P 8) (123) P'36 communication sa65rers,farm laborers, (357) P"72 (20) P84 ermen, hunters, elated loggers, Government, community, workers (786) P" rsquarrymen,and 37 (231) r26 business, recreational services ited workers Domestic (643) P102 (20) 1" 59 ( ) Services ( 96) P" (607) P92 29 (672) P16 than domestic (86) era in transport and 766 (80) P36 Industry not reported imunication ( 8) occupations (381) P" Total (3,451) ( 2) 73 ( 11) P-76 P"80 (2.189) amen, production-process Total (3,41 P 80 k49iers and related workers (l kers ('193) P. 66 (327) workers and laborers (383) P35 Ne, (291) P" 4870 ( 8) sports, and related (770) Data refer to the household population, P.18 the average is computed when the total number of pation not reported t employed persons at wark in a 7) ( 3) major industry group under a spcific class of worker category is 9,500 or more. (3,451) P (2 9 80 (2,189)) P49 Source: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46, Labor thousands Force, Aug. 1975.

e: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46 Labor Force, August 1975. 154 A Prot eof Filipino Women EmpicalDta 155

2. Male-female ratios in wages 4. Government and private organization employees ratiosPerez inwages: (1976) gives another listing of male-female Male government employees had an average weekly casl earring of P100 compared to P95 of female employees a. Agriculture,ma.:le- manufacturing, services: 2:0 (male- for the same period. In community, business, and recrea­ female) tional services, men earned an average weekly salary of P102 against P92 for females. The differences, however, are slight, and therefore may have been considered as b. Domestic services: 6:0 negligible by Perez. c. Government, community, business, and recrea- tional services: none From the NSSHB (1975), female employees from private organizations get much less (P36) as compared to P75 for male employees. Even women in zxecutive d. Professional group in government service outside levels get Manila: 7:0 less than their male counterparts, as shown by Councila study (citedconducted in Seminar/Workshop by the National Manpower and Youth on Working Women, These figures, compared with data from the 1976). NSSHB, 1975, do not tally with information o:n domestic services. According to the latter source 5. Salaried vs. self-employed workers (NSSHB, 1975), the wage differentials 2:1. are only about All of the previously cited data are based on employ­ ment figures. Fifth of female However,workers arein self-employed.the Philippines, The aboutdistinction one- 3. Earnings of college graduates between employed ani .alf-einployed is of relevance in the determination of the wage 'ifferential according to sex. Among college graduates. males from alldegree programs earn more than females of the same degree Encarnacion (1975) estinates that among the empl6yed worke,-, females ear"n about 44% less than males; however, program (FAPE, 1975): among31% less. the This self-employed difference workers, females earn only may be due to the greater pre­ a. Agriculture: a.mAgricultue:The male graduatesateseesituations earnTe slightly valence of discrimination according to sex in compared to self-employed situations. (Mangahasemployed more than the female prajduates. and Jayme-Ho, 1976). b. Commerce: The male graduates are earning more 6. Reasons for wage inequalities than the female graduates by about 10%on the average. Explanations given for the inequality of wages between men and women may c. Education: The male graduates enjoy a slightly be generally classified into two headings: the prevalence of traditional, prejudicial attitudes higher salary, but this can be considered toward women and the effects of social, negligible. political, and economic circumstances which directly or indirectly affect d. Liberal arts: Male graduates earn more than the management decisions on women's salaries. females by as much as 21%. a. One primary end underlying reason for wage discrimi­ nation is wuenotion that husbands are the principalwage e. Sciences: Males earn more than females. earnersand women's income is only supplementary. 156 A Proieof Filipino Women b. Some companies believe that women should not be given the same wages because this Empirical Data 157 may generate serious of women competition with men. and in fact contribute to existing wage differentials between the sexes. Thus, despite the c. Somewhat related to sex-segregation in occupations law's asurance of equal is restrictions can narrow pay for equal work, legal the belief that men are more efficient the hours of work of womei, at certain jobs. (Ibid). Due to socialprejudice against women's capabilities g. Otherprotective laws such as maternity leave with pay, ueyare somedie againti womencpabdiliies,y they are sometimes automatically placed in lower foster the cost-benefit attitude. Because labor laws make it more expensive to hire women, "standard" kinds of jobs. They therefore end up in companies seek to compensate for additional jobs that usually involve tiresome work, long hours, benefits required by low pay, paying lower wages to female employees. Women inand substandard working conditions. (Role of the Philippines).h. h. Another indirect factor which affects the differential inA male-femaleoh ridr tfat r w ih fecst e ife nia earnings is marriage.Fuchs d. Another reason for income inequalities which may be (1971) has shown that, in the US, the regarded as socially acceptable is that of rank. More ratio of female to male earnings is higher for those males hold strategic decision-making positions never-married than for involving those who have executive, administrative and managerial been married. The explanation offered roles - which is that involve higher salaries (Montiel and Hollnsteiner, those not married, especially if not expecting to 1976). marry, are more While accepting that persons of higher rank should likely to stay in the labor force and hence to invest themselves in the way of schooling and receive higher income, one can question whether on-the-job training. higher ranks are equally open to both males and e. Part of the difference in earnings potential betweenfemrndes. i. Another indirect reason for males getting highersalaries e. Prternigs f te otenialbeteenisdiferncein men and women has also been attributed to physical the fact that women formal employment thantend to work fewer hours in differences. Here, the implicit view is that the attributed men. For examle durin thereye in 75 earnings difference should be considered "natural" or For exampe, ofrig wosurvey week in 1975 (NSSHB, non-discriminatory. For instance, the size and strength 1975', 82% of the women worked f time.oIJ of females is on the average less than males, and this has been used L a ground for women receiving less pay on jobs where j. One very basic reason for loer wages for women is women should strength counts. But, symetrically, also receive more pay on jobs where their generally lower level of education, trainingand work experience than men (Seminar/Workshop on smallness of size counts. Moreover, the average is not Working Women, the same as the variance. Then in principle, 1976). Regression analv:s on Philip­ since the pine data by Mangahas distribution of strength of'men and women (cited by Perez, 197'3) manifest overlap, the importance of both education strong women should get paid more than weak men in women's total earnings. and age in explaining paid jobs wheremore thanstrengthlargecounts,women and in jobssmall wheremen shouldsmall sizeget The reasons for the sex-differential in wages have been classified as a result of social prejudice against women workers counts (Mangahas and Jayme-Ho, 1976). or as the unintentional consequence of social and economic factors. f. As previously stated, legal provisions for women limit women's opportunities working for employment, While it has been as well as their earning capacities. For example, established that women have consistently prohi- lower cash earnings than men, bitions on night time work lower the earning potentials Castillo (1976) states that we cannot conclude that employment on sex discrimination indeed occurs until it can be shown that the job descript". expec­ 158 A Profile of Filipino Women Enpiri Data 159 tations, and actual performance for the same job are exactly 4. Disadvantaged women's groups the same for both sexes. g. Inequalities in Promotion a. Teachers The teachingprofession is characterizedby the presence Filipino of a majority of women, who women do Occupy important positions in public are the lowest paid among and private enterprises, all the professionals, but very few reach the highest level, and who have minimal chances of Statistics promotion. show that less than 1% employed women administrative, occupy means top executive, and managerial positions prestige and decision-making powers. (BCS Surveywhich of Households A survey Bulletin, Series No. 40, Nov. 1973: Cited made in 1970-71 showed that 64% of teachers Status of Working in were Women in the Phil. Dept. of Labor, Bureau females and 36% mal., in all levels of education, of Women public and Minors, 1974). and private schools. H wever, a recent study showed that(20%) outareoffemales. Fox (1974) 127 division/cityIn the private superintendents, only 25 argues that, in the Philippines, leadership and schools, there maintenance regional superintendents, are 16 of discipline are traditionally male functions, of whom only 7 (44%) are that this may explain and women. why few women attain positions of high There are iio women vocational education superin­ rank. tendents. Out of Cohen (1971) reports that women do not complain a total of 2,543 public school principads, much about so there are discrimination in wages as much as about their 1,093 females (43%). (Role ofWomen in the Phil.) poorer chances It has also been for promotion as compared to males. Tidalgo observed that the higher the educational (1975) says level to that discrimination against women with respect be taught, the higher is the proportion of males (Board of National to promotions is camouflaged Education, Educational Statistics, in higher by employers'claims that those ranks have the qualificationsof "leadershippotential" School Year 1968-69). and "ability to work with others." In Marquez' study representatives (1959) where employees and their b. Domestic Helpers were interviewed concerning their and policies attitudes toward the employment of women, the subjects Domestic work is one of the few female occupations admitted that where demand when faced with a choice between a man and seems to exc, ed supply (Castillo, 1976). woman for a a Our knowledge higher position, all thingsbeing equal, the man of domestic helpers is usually based on our personal and was chosen, family experiences with them since there is Inequality a dearth of systematic descriptive studies on their in leadership positions between the sexes is also working illustrated in a and living conditions. survey of the Civil Service Commission and the Yet it is important to look at this National Manpower group of workers and Youth Council (1970). The survey because they constitute 14% of the showed women in the labor force (NSSHB, 1975). that forevery eight male supervisorsin the government civil service, there is only same one fem ale at the sam e level. At the tat ist of a r e bh eenave time, the ratio of female-male employees in the service e s t ote was 54.8% to 45.2% respectively. Department of Labor. Hosehelps have been estimated to number fessionalizationabout half a million in the Philippines Another of Househelps", (Bureau of Women("Pro­ example is in the educational field where teachers and in all levels of Minors, 1972). education include 64% females and only 36% Ramos Shahani (1972) states that five males. However, out ofsix domestic the supervisory and high level positions are workers are women. Data from NSSHB, predominantly (Aug. 1975) give occupied by men (Role of Women in the Phil.). a total count of 97,000 (14%) males and 686,000 (86%) females in the domestic services. 160 A Profile of FilipinoWomen Despite recent legislation setting a minimum wage and dt ormmes tiofc woowr e rsayina d 1 Another other conditions, the current exploitative _ wor i ngc survey of ten nightclubs cocktail lounges domestic workers situation of ababare tst ws ass conduc ted incont Ma rikina, R al , and and in terms of low pay and lone working izal, a sub-urban of hours is still apparent Manila in Filipino households (Role of (Bureau of Women and Minors, Annual Women in the Phil.). 1973-74). Women Report, One clear indication of this is that workers in these establishiments had no the lowest cash earning fixed 2 5 for women is in the domestic services. earnings,but merely got a %share from Male household help bills. They usually customers' get an average weekly cash earning had free lodging in their place of work, but their working of P29 while the females only get P16. hours often lasted from 5:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. In spite of these c. working conditions, these Prostitutes, women in "leisure and entertainment" esta lackwomen stay on the job for the following blishments of employment, no chance to obtain highereducation'reasons: poverty, abandonment by their husbands, to support their fatherless This class of women workers provide the government children an estimated income of P14.5 million a year. and to earn money the easy way. 5. Reasons for Working Studies on prostitutes and hospitality girls have been recently only Most conducted. A survey on hostesses, waitresses, working women work for financial reasons. bar and hospitality satisfaction and Self­ girls from 129 establishments in professionalgrowth appearonly as secondary Olongapo City was motivations (Flores, conducted by the Bureau of Women 1969; Guerrero, 1965; Marquez, 1959). and Minors (Annual These latterreasons are also reserved Report 1973-74). The majority of among careerwomen in the subjects the middle and upperclasses. with were young girls, usually from rural no gainful employment. They usually come areas,from poor, big families and received Marquez' surveyinterview (1959) among little or no education, women career women showed arethat many, although the needthe motivations comprehensive study by Evangelista (1972) to obtain the necessitiesfor working among states their in life for that the greatest dependents the need for economic working prejudice seems to be towards women of marriage, to sve for future aid in the early years in the "leisure and entertainment" establishments, emergencies, the deire to put children through school, or massage attendants in sauna parlors or and to own a house are the prime nightclubs. Aside hostesses in factors. In brief, the economic reasons overrides all other from social prejudice against their kind reasons. As of work these women material needs aeo reoand more adequately who, rather than pay tend to be exploited by employers met them fixed salaries, merely allot other reasons such them a percentage make more friends, as the desire to apply one's training, of the amount paid by the customers, to acquire exnerience, love of work, to Women working the desire and as massage attendants receive no social to keep one-self preoccupied follow. security benefits, have attained Women who paid vacations, or sick leave pay, highereducation worked more forpsychological they are since ,-, social considered independent operators. Their reasons. These women had a strong insecure job is desire for self. and their work span is short for tx:,,ession and to apply what they had learned. reaches after a woman Although most the age of 25, hardly any sauna or massage of the respondents expressed their intention parlor ing to continue work. will allow her to work in the establishment. for as long as they could, they did not wish law has been Although a to look at their passed whereby nightclubs, massage jobs as a career. Only a few, those doing and nical work, professional or tech­ sauna parlors are expressed a desire to make their work as employees required to consider such women workers a career. and therefore subject to the Labor Code (Ibid). governing working Guerrero's hours, salaries, vacations, and other (1965) subjects were couples at the benefits, there Baflos Campus. UP Los is little reason to believe that operators For almost half of the respondents, abide need was economic by these regulations, the most compelling reasongiven for working the economic After reason, the desire to make use of one's education 162 A Profile of FilipinoWomen Empiricl Data 163 and training was most frequently mentioned. Although the interesting to add that in answer to the question: "When you majority revealed having entertained definite plans of furthering were about 16, what did you want to become?", 40%answered a professional career, marriage was not totally out of the "To have a profession." question. For the 13 wives in the study who had M.A. and Ph.D. degrees, the majority obtained them after marriage. Marriage was not a barrier to career plans for about half of the It seems that economic exigencies and inability to pursue wives. The other half felt that it was a hindrance. If given the further education prevent such an aspiration from being chance to pursue graduate studies abroad, more husbands than realized, especially among lower-class women. Women in the wives are willing to take the- opportunity. About one-half of Philippines work mainly for economic reasons. Anothersubject the wives also said "yes" especially if their family could go worth investigating is why they stop working. with them. Flores (1969) tabu!ated the reasons for working under When cingle women in Marquez' study (1959) were asked, three categories: financial (72.3%); professional (11.7%); and "Will you stop working after marriage?" -45% answered "no", self-satisfaction (16%). 25% said it would depend on their future husband's desire, and 20% stated that they would stop, possibly withincome the Among Porio, Lynch, and Hollnsteiner's respondents conviction that the woman's place is the home. (1975), those who approve unconditionally of mothers working were asked why they felt this way, 97%gave financialadvantages as their reason. Only 2% mentioned psychological fulfillment, According to a National Demographic Survey Report the desire not to waste professional training as the reason (1973), only about two-thirds of women working before behind their positive attitude. marriage continued working after marriage. Family-related considerations were given as reasons for quitting jobs: pregnancy Among lower-class women (Licuarian and Gonzalez, 1976), (10.3%); to spend more time with the family (13.3%); because the attraction of work is limited to the economic returns that of the husband (6%); did not like the job (1.3%); other reasons it brings. Since lower class women are engaged mainly in un- (40.3%). skilled, unstimulating and often physically exhausting types of work, intrinsic rewards derived from the occupational task are minimal. Therefore, apart from economic necessity, there is Table IV-49 indicates some of the more common reasons very little reason for the lower-class women to remain in their for not wanting work as collected by the NSSHB (1975). One occupation. The majority of the respondents replied "no" half of the sample did not work because they went to school. when asked if they will continue working when economic This group was equally divided between the males and females. reasons are no longer required. The women preferred to face More than a third (39%) gave housekeeping as their reason and less role demands and to devote their full time to the wife- as may be expected, this comprised almost unanimously (98%) mother role. of females. Although the sample size is small for the group A significant number of the housewife-respondents in Illo's considered too young to work, iLis significant to note that study (1977) who were asked why they have continued work- there were at least twice as many males who did not work for ing (in some cases, over their husband's objections), pointed to this reason. Is it because girls, especially those in rural areas, the advantage of extra income, or the need to supplement are compelled to work earlier than boys, in the farm? their spouse's income as their overriding motivation.

Another recent study (Bulatao, 1977) reports tl'at the women's reason for working is mainly economic," to earn money for a living" (49%); to "supplement the husband's income" (29%). Only 1% noted 'self-satisfaction." It may be 164 AProre of FiipinoWomen Empric" D 165 TABLE IV-49: PERSONS NOT WAITING TO WORK, BY REASON FOR NOT Estimated non-cash income in 1972 of the 19%who received WANTING TO WORK, BY SEX, AUG. 1975 non-cash income: Reasons for not Male Female Both Sexes Less than P-500 wanting to work 50.1% N % N , N %. -500 - p3,999 13.9% Retired or too old 254 45 306 35 560 3.9 P-4,000 -'4,999 0.8% Going to school 3,717 50 3,684 50 7,401 51.58 P-5,000 34.8% Housekeeping 96 2 5,459 98 5,555 38.72 Permanent illness Four-fifths (86%) of the wives eared less thai PI,0 a or disability 75 41.2 107 58.8 182 1.27 year in cash and halfearnedless thanP500 in non-cash income Too young 157 69 71 31 228 1.59 Others for 1972. In general, Women's income is much lower than that 274 65 147 35 421 2.93 of men. From the NSSHB data (Aug. 1973), men averaged a weekly cash income of "80 while women had an average of Total 4,573 9,774 14,347 99.99 only t49.

Source: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin. Series No. 46 Labor From Licuanan and Gonzalez' study of low-income women Force, Aug. 1975. (1976), the employed women earned an average come of P189 monthly in­ 6. Female ("'2,268 a year) from their primary occupation Income: and P128 (P1,536 a year) from their secondary occupation. The National Demographic Survey (1968) gives a report This gives a more optir' picture of women's economic

on the sources of hotsehold income. For 45.3%, the husband situation than the data given by the 1973 NDS. However, is the sole source ot income; for 43% the wife is a source of monthly income may not come regularly, and averaged on a income; and for another 23.4%, unmarried children and/or yearly basis, the resulting figures may come out to be lower. other relatives are a source of income. Over two-fifths of the In 1976, 189 mothers participating in two community wives contributeto family income, nutrition programs being implemented with assistance from Another source (Mangahas and Jayme-Ho, 1976) reports the Philippine Business for that Social Progress (PBSP) in the the femalse hehols had for about 107of Filipino low income urban areasof Sta. Ana, Manila and Banawa, Cebu families. Such is te case when the woman is widowed, divorced, City were resurveyed to determine their economic status, never married, when ther heno male members in the house- skills, needs, interests and availability to participate in the hold, or when the male members are incapable of contributing economic component of the progras. At sufficiently the time of the to the family income survey, three-quarters of the respondents possessed at least one vocational The skill. Twenty percent were employed in sporadic more affluent and urbanized areas have fewer house- self-employment types of activities. it is significant to note holds where the wife is a source of income (NDS, 1968). In that in Sta. Ana, the employed male household members general, of however, rural women earn less than urban women the families of the respondents spent an average of 43 (Layo, hours n.d.; NDS, 1973). The 1973 NDS gives the following a week and earned P69.68 while the women worked 33 hours break-down on the total cash and non-cash income of females a week and earned P31.27 per week. In Banawa, the in husbands 1972: worked 40 hours a week and earned P58.25 while the wives Total cash income in 1972: worked for 19 houPs and earned P27.75. Problems encountered by the working mothers in their jobs were lack of capital, low Less than P1,000 85.8% income/profit, irregularity of market and lack of raw materials/ "1,000- - 2,999 6.9% equipment. Inspite of these, majority still wanted to P-3,000 -- continue P9,999 5.6% with their present income generating activities (IGAs),which is P10,000 and above 0.3% indicative of their pressing economic needs. Majority of them No information 1.2% were interested in various types of IGAs; they have identified 166 A Profile of FilipinoWomen EmpiricalData 167 their sources of capital and market outlets and estimated their Data from Layo (n.d.), however, reports thatself-employed average weekly income at P43.64 (Sta. Ana) and P20 (Banawa). women earned the least. Women working for family enterprises (PBSP Nutrition Economic Survey Reports, 1977). (possibly limited to the upper class) earned the most. He also states that the strongest determinant of women's income is In another survey conducted in 1977 to evaluate the their level of education. benefits derived by participants of community development projects assisted by PBSP (N = 1513), it was found that the Another interesting finding (Ibid.) is that based on average mean monthly income of female participants was P123.50 ­ figures, females from low-income households earn more in bigger by P46.22 than the female non-participants. What is relation to females from high income households. This probably more significant is the large difference between the monthly means that a much larger percentage of lower class women are income of males and females, both participants and non- in the labor force, whereas only a minority of women in the participants - P135.41 among parcicipants and P132.03 middle and upper clawes need to upplement the family income among non-participants. (PBSP - An Evaluation... 1977). and are thus relegated to the domestic role. Layo concludes that the complementary function of female income (as a con­ The above situations should be considered in future tribution to totnl family incon-e) is more characteristic of low programming so that special efforts may be addressed to correct income households. the disadvantages of working women. Also, the need to develop 7. Labor Union Activities more income augmenting opportunities and integrate them with the programs to involve a larger number of women parti- Women's participation in labor organizations has been cipants and make these activities more regular and sustaining, minimal. (Labor Statistics Service, 1969). Their membership are indicated by the results of these studies by PBSP. in organized labor unions is only 13%, while in independent The Bureau labor unions it is 22.4%. This minimal participation by females of Women and Minors (Annual Report 1974- may be justified because they are a minority in the labor force. 75) provides data on the manner of acquiring cash income, based on employment: The Bureau of Women and Minors (1974) suggested the Daily earners 45.14% following reasons for their low participation in labor unions: Monthly salaries P9.6% a. The nature of women's employment is such that women Piece rate, commission basis, plan to remain in the labor market for only a few years. unstated earnings 15.74% Since a majority of female employees work on a daily basis b. A large proportion of women, particularly or by piece those in rate, their source of income is relatively unstable, agriculture, are either unpaid family workers or are This also emphasizes the marginal, seasonal nature of women's self-employed. employment. c. Family responsibilities like children and other house­ hold chores Most housewives consume most of the women's time, outside earn money from non-employment activi- of the work place. Even leisure activities are possibly ties. Whenever time permits, she buys and sells all sorts of goods minimal. Whatever free time is left (if there is), would on a small profit basis. The non-steady characterof these small rather be devoted to the performance of their domestic business ventures may result in its being overlooked as a signi- functions. ficant source of family income, although they may provide a d. Natural lack of interest by women to participate in major or even a primary source of income, especially in poorer such organizations due to their concept that unionism households (Role of Women in the Phil.). No definitive studies is primarily a man's activity and is not beneficial to on this are available, at the moment, them. 168 A Pmofile of FilipinoWomen Empbiical Data 169 In addition to the above reasons, Mrs. Betty Basnillo, presi. its branches is the National dent of Union of Salesladies, comprised the Philippine Council of Trade Union Women (PCTUW) mostly of high school cites the following: graduates. These salesladies are generally active in the organization. An observation was made that it is often easier to organize 1. Absence of necessity for the women in agriculture, women in factories (numbering about 1,700) and those in sales, than professional women. This is where majority of women work, as unpaid family probably because those in the upper class usually associate workers, unions with "workers" (Ibid.). 2. Discriminatory policies of some unions toward women Mrs. Basnillo is the only female leader (assistant secretary workors who believe that the latter compete with ane of the organization) in the PTCCEA, which is a federated are a threat to men's emloyment. (Letter of M union. There has been no female president of a federated Basnillo to Mr. Heribert Maier, General Secretary, union. Top female leadership exists only in the local unions International Federation of Commercial Clerical and (Ibid.). Technical Employees. June 18, 1974). In the Petroleum Workers' Union (WU) the percentage of female membership is 50%. The majority of members are In view of the above, PCTUW initiated the following in solutions/recommendations urban areas and are degree holders (Interview with Mrs. H. to labor organizations: Briones, President, PWU, June 1977).

1. Promotion of equality among their members regardless of sex. 2. Enable women workers to hold key positions. 3. Provision to women workers of accurate and detailed information on the objectives and benefits of unionism through workers' education program. 4. Show their worthiness as a collective organization for the common good of the members. 5. Conduct a campaign among non-unionized women workers on the necessity of a union for collective bargaining and mutual assistance (Ibid.). No information is available as to what extent these recom­ mendations have been carried out. The Philippine Council of Tiade Union of Women (PCTUW) was established in 1972 for purposes of safeguarding the rights of women workers. Membership in this union consists of already existing women members in other trade unions. It is presently not functioning at all because collective bargaining services cannot be achieved exclusively for either male or female employees. (Interview with Mrs. B. Basnillo, June 1977) Women comprise about 30% of the membership of the Philippine Technical Commercial and Clerical Employees Association (PTCCEA), majority of whom are teachers. One of 170 A Profile of Filipino E- PUBLIC PARTICIPATIONWomen Empirical Data 171 1975). This event marked the Filipina's formal involvement 1. Political Participation in politics. Out of 11 national elections from 1953-1971, the percentage of female voters has always a. Attitudes toward women's been higher political participatioa than thaL of males (Cortes, 1975; Seminar-Workshop People Women Workers, 1976). We can on are i.o so enthusiastic (although still gentrally say that one positive gauge p l ver woen's becoming involved of women's political approving) overhaps ben ivoledlesspofts.in politics, in ir.erest and participation is the increase the proportion of registered voters who are females Surprisingly, from 40.65% in 1953 to 46.51% in 1971. In addition, or age group, perhaps, urban dwellers, regardless of a appearto be less approvingoffemalepoliticasex League of Women participation information campaignsVoters and extendwas established to conduct than the supposedly more traditional barrio assistance to women, especia in elecin tes popula!e. (Illo, 1977). especially during election times. An important point against female participation in c. Political Leadership political affairs is the incongruity of women's presence "Womenactivities which in . o are for theare home",mainly dissapprovesfor men. The of femaleattitude involve- that Lmitc arhips overWoren's the years, participation in "Wmn as shown by anpolitics increase has inslightly the number improved of ar forn ehomettiti," politia of femaleinvolve- female political candidates inent in non-domestic activities, political or not (Ibid). in 1971 compared to 1953. The ambivalent attitude over the nresence (Coftes, 1975). of women Empirical in political as op p ose data show that wcmen do not really exert d to socio-c ivic and religious o rg ani -a- s i aric l udata s th at o m en n rea s of e a 'ions also stems from the perceived iolitical r ca activities significant associated with the Batasang Bayan and Sanggw~iang influence as decision-makers in areas of local and national Ba , two s government. (Gonzalez and Holinsteiner, 3-Ln ig n ifican t polit ical forums cre a ted un de r mar tial 19 7 ) g i ve o f Fi l ts . A nat i law. 2olitics is still linked with pre-martial al l evel parteselecedinthecomunit, oliicalpostioslaw political m,'.(N-170), (1970) givesthere thewere following 163 males results. At the national level parties, elected political positions in the com and only 17 female leaders the active and energy-draining election campaigns.munity, a j !( seldom Very (4.3%). % hi t t el c ll vl N2 2 ,2 2 w do we find people associating "political involvement" while at the local level, (N-272), 242 we f mene andn with the exercise of suffrage, attendance and participation only 30 wcre wome, (12.4%). The 1971 election figures in Table IV-50 show the at meetings, referendum cr plebiscites. (Ihid). proportion of females in relation to males in elected posi­ sex-groups. While men engage in long and oftentir heated tions. The proportions of elected female officials ranged discussions from 2.33% to over political issues (e.g., martial law, the -2.5% for the various positions. These figures are very insignificant Aquino case, and referenda issues), women generally when compcsed with the small pursue proportion talks or home-related community issues like family of elected males and considering the proportion planning, of females in the total .population nutrition, prices, baby feeding, and sLi'ilar (Seminar W1rk96op problems. (Ibid). Women Workers, 1976). Cortes (1975) states that there are no compiete data b. on Voting how many female candidates ever goLt elected. Hence, one can only guess why only a few females get elected into womenIn th2cast plebiscite their of April 30, 1937, office. Castillo (1976) sumised votes on the right of suffrage.about 50J0,000(Cortes, them ran for public that either only a few of candidates bw. only a fewoffice gotelected. or there were many female and Hollnsteiner According toMontiel (1976), a few women enter directly 172 A Profile of FilipinoWomen EmpiricalData 173

TABLE IV-50: PROPORTIONS OF ELECTED MALE AND FEMALE OFFICIAY. 0 . 1971 ELECTION 0 Go 4C,D

N to C­ Females Males Both Sexes 4 N4cc4 toCA Lc0 . 0 rZ N % N 'a N 'a. -.

LOC) - 0 L- M N 8 .05 Senators 1 12.5 7 87.5 Governors 6 8.8 62 .5 68 .47 0 , .47 ; - Vice-Governors 5 7.35 63 .5 68 .47 .2 r- r- Q0 cD m0, c3" o 4 a > a. r- V En.- D w , Board members 14 7.04 185 1.36 199 1.38 Mayors 44 2.33 1,444 10.63 1,888 13.13 5-0' V c 4 r- M-so m ,(D D, o - ' - Vice-mayors 61 4.26 1,369 10.08 1,430 9.95 c Councilors 662 5.96 10,448 76.94 11,110 77.3

-o 0Q TOTAL 793 5.5 13,578 94.5 14,371 102.95 04 io 4 U~ 1w Go 40m- Mc 01

0 - . 4 , Source: Reports of the COMELEC, 1975. 0 £0 , 1!C,'0o~'04 o p, r -a L- co r-,.' cq cl

0 20 into politics to begin with. This is true not only in elective positions but also in high level appointive posts. - - to .- Table IV-51 shows that of 52,690 officers of the "a 2 E C u Samahang Nayon' throughout the country, 5.4% are women. The highest proportions are in Regions VI and 0-- N.C11-" . VII. Close to a majority of the women officers are secreta- -0 c-smcq N c 4 4 7 0E2 E -3_ .­ riesiTreasurers( %). Although the proportion of women 2 cC;0a a *- Z 3E ~~2 a~ N ~ va ~ ~ ~ officers is small, theirparticipationin this farmers' associa- 4,"Q C" tion may be consideredas significant and a recognition and to Go m to 0 Z acceptance of women as potential leaders. The secretarial E ac -0 m o , 0 v -- " 0 position held by most women is, however, one of the most .0 time-consuming in an organization. On the other hand, the , -= .0 4 a to .0 treasurer, a position of trust, is in line with women's t " G D cc traditional role as family treasurer. - ,z oD." ' " o oO

E E 5 E E o0 2 r, r - Samahang Nayon is a Pre-cooperative farmers' association at the vil 174 A Profile of Filipino Women Empirical Data 175 Mrs. Nora Petines, President of the Pambansang Kati- pharmacists, teachers, and similarly punan ng toga Barangay (a national association composed educated female leaders in the Basin. Second among thoce of leaders of 42,000 barangays or villages) reports who have gone into that politics, successful entry appears women are actively participating in community projects to have been facilitated by affiliation - consaguinal or throughout the country. Although not substantiated affinal - with a family of with politicians. At the outset, they facts, she also mentioned that women far outnumber were guaranteed some men support by their family's in regular attendance of "pulong-pulong" or town "lideres" (campaign managers) meetings and followers. Among those (Magsanoc, 1977a). Unfortunately, data are not who have excelled in civic available affairs, their acce-s to a clique either on the proportion of barangay women which is probably composed officers as of women ia the same profession well as the number and types of community projects imple made their rise easier, if not actually faster, coupled, of course, mented by or actively participated in, by women. with their potentials and interess to brcome leaders. Lastly, most, if not all, In Illo's study (1977) in the Bicol area (at least for the come from the upper-middle and business, one must be able to spendelite classes. To stay in five municipalities and one city covered in the third phase time and money to finance one's participation as officials in a number of affairs. of the study), only 4% of the 25 poblaciones and 119 barrio barangays have a female barangay captain; 19% of the 137 To summarize, women slightly barangay councilmen in the poblaciones, and outnumber the men in only 15% of voting participation in the 693 barrio barangay councilmen, are women. The mem- the national elections. However, a very small minority of women politicians achieve national bership of the Sangguniang Bayan in these communities is and local leadership positions. At the also male-dominated: 98 out of 107 members being male. barangay or village (Illo, 1977). level, even more women participate in local political meet­ ings. Inspite of this, they themselves persist in electing the About 63% of male and female respondents perceived men as their leaders. These two general situations, About63%omalearshi strumture responetshat ved clearly a male-biased leadership structure; 34% felt that women supported by statistical figures, reflect the F;!pinas' have as much chance as men to assume positions traditionalconcept of her status and role as subordinateto of autho- mens leadership qualities. rity. (Ibid). The above data indicate that while Men are generally women are at par "naturally, assume expected to be superior and, thus, with men in political participation, their authority positions". The presidency, leadership oppor- chairmanship, or tunities fall way below. The presence community leadership positions usually of a few wor-en in involve firm and high political positions may indeed decisive action (which contradicts the be impressive. However, image of women as stated by Green (1970), as being emotional or soft-hearted), time these women leaders usually to come from families of high socio-economic organize and coordinate projects and activities (women status which have to attend to housekeeping facilitated their acquisition of the necessary and the children), and expertise and sometimes entail connections essential for leadership roles in the Philippines. going out at night. These aspects of a leader's life conflicts with the crowded Nevertheless, these outstanding women .leaders comprise domestic schedule of a marriedwoman. Thus, the typical female leader the minority, both in reference to men leaders and thz rest who does emerge is either unmarried or a of the female population, mother with grown children. (Illo, 1977). Illo (1977) notes the following conditions for women's access to political leadership in the Bicol River Basin area. d. Government Service First, completion of some professionaleducationprior A study conducted by the National Manpower to entry to public life. There are lawyers, doctors, engineers, and Youth Council (NMYC) revealed that 54.8%of the 427,203 176 A Profde of Filipino fornen EmpiricalData 177 persors in the government service are women. Inspite classes. These associations usually of this slight majority ovez male undertake fvnd-raising governmeat employees, activities for varied projects only one cuttof20 women (5%) hold a supervisoryposition and other forms of social work. Other women's clubs are extensions of their in contrast to one out ofevery five male employees (20%). h-us­ band's organizations, such as the Jayceretes and (Cited in Role of Women in the Philippines.). Rotary Anns. The corresponding activities are usually dependent on the main body's objectives. (Role In a survey conducted jointly by the Civii Service of Women in the Philippines; Montiel and Hollnsteiner, 1976). Commission and the National Manpower and Youth Council in 1970, the s.apervisory ratio in the government service In Illo's (1977) study, was one female for every eight males. more of the elite-class women (Semina:/Worksliop are members of organizations (53%) on Working Women, 1976). than women of marginal (40) or lower class (30). The same pattern, as in elected positions, is also found The role of the lower class and rural women in the government service wherein female participation is more commonly defined as recipients of government and other slightly outnumbers the males. But when it comes to organizations' benefits. They are usually perceived as leadership and supervisory positions, women comprise a the very small minority. objects of development programs, such as health, family planning, nutrition, rather than as the initiating agents. 2. Social Participation (Montiel and Hollnsteiner, 1976). a. Extent of women's social participation Religious and civic activities, on the other hand, are commonly associated with beautification campaigns, food Women's social participation is relatively greater than and nutrition drives, their political involvement. In Illo's study (1977) one-third fiesta preparation, and similar thrusts viewed as mere extension of housewifely chores and of the housewife-respondents report membership in at interests. Furthermore, religion and related activities se least one formal organization. Urban women are more teret ed withem inin ancrns; spiital see active (perce.,tage of organization members, 42) than either to be correlated with feminine concerns; those Ln the poblaciones (40) or spiritual matters in the barrios (30); More- are assigned to women; secular over, probably related to automatic membership in work- (Ilo, 1977). or wordly affairs, to men related organizations, (40% ) are organizationsignificantly members morethan areworkingnon-workingwomen ones (25%). Although the wife isthe key person involved in her holdsparticipation in llo's in organized community affairs, most house­ study (1977) report that husband and wife Informal groups (e.g., neighborhood groups, friends, share in deciding he- participation. In the case of a husband's and cliques) are found to involve more women than do formal groups. Ninety percent of all Bicolano similar participation, however, the husband is left to housewives= decide by himself. It appears then that the man is given reported belong to one group or another (urban 88; greater leeway in deciding what he may do. This might seni-urban = 95; rural = 907). Agai.. rartly because of a be the result of the view of women's involvement innon. wider "social world, more working mothers are members of informal domestic activities as competing with the demands of her groups (93%) than nonworking ones (87%). traditional (Ibid) housekeeping role. Because of possible dis­ ruption in household routine which could result from her participation In general, niembership in women's social in non-household affairs, she feels that the organiz'a- husband should not only know but also tions is usuhily concentrated among the share in the deci­ middle and upper sion for her to participate or not. 178 A Profile of Filipino Women Commnit Nuriton rojctsEmpirical DataIN COM.179 b. Participation in Community Nutrition Projects ABLE IV-52: AWARENESS OF AND PARTICIPATION

Nutrition is one of the national program which has MUNITY NUTRITION PROGRAMS (OTHER THAN women, mothers in particular, as a principal target. In view PBSP'S) BY WOMEN FROM 5 LOW-INCOME COM- of this and the importance of nutrition in development, MUNITIES (N- 1281). this is one area where the extent and quality of participation of women is worth looking at. Aware Participated In preparation for the implementation of an applied N N % N % nutrition program in five low income communities, the Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) collected rban 820 13 19.9 baseline information from prospective target participants ural 461 164 35.6 92 11.2 between 1973 and 1977. Respondents were mothers of 90 19.5 malnourished pre-school children (up to 4 years of age) oIi 1281 327 25.5 182 14.2 and/or pregnant women. They were asked if they were aware of and had participated in nutrition programs of agencies other than PBSP. A total of 1281 respondents )urce: PBSP Nutrition Baseline Surveys. were interviewed.

Awareness of nutrition programs was reported by 26% of the total respondents (Table IV-52). Of those who kBLE IV-53: TYPES OF NUTRITION ACTVITIES CONDUCTED reported awareness,56%participated in activities conducted BY AGENCIES (OTHER THAN PBSP) AND PARTI. by these agencies. As a whole, only 14% of the total 1281 CIPATED IN BY WOMEN FROM 4 LOW INCOME respondents reported participation. COMMUNITIES (N-570).

There were almost twice as many rural women (36%) as urban women (207) who reported awareness of other Sta. Ana Banawa Sabang Baao TOTAL nutrition programs. Participation rate among those who tivities Conducted Manila Cebu City Pagsanjan Cam. Sur N % were aware is almost the same (55 to 56%) for both urban and rural women. ading Children/ ationing 39 23 62 42 When queried about the types of nutrition activities iching nutrition, they participated in with agencies (other than PBSP), ealth and sani­ women from four of these communities (N-570) made ition 8 14 4 7 33 22 149 mentions of the following activities: feeding/ration iking recipes 3 18 9 30 20 (42%) nutrition education (22%o); cooking recipes; we.ghing ighing children 10 10 6.7 children and teaching vocational skills (6.7% each) (Table Lching vocational IV-53). (ills 10 10 6.7 ching birth Records from two years operation from three low coaitrol 4 4 2.7 income areas where a nutrition program was implemented with PBSP assistance show that 697 of 2,098 mothers who 60 32 18 39 149 100 participated/completed a series of training on nutrition, e: PBSP Nutrition Baeline Survey. 180 A Profile of FilipinoWomen Empirica Data 181 ranging from eight to ten sessions of 1 1/2 to 2 hours 5.4% of the 52,690 officers are women. Almost half of rangingBSfroehtstouenteion ofthese female officers are Secretary-Treasurers, about 18% are auditors, and 12% are managers. As a farmers' The reasons frequently given for absenteeism and association, family heads are expected to form the member­ droppingout from the program in their order of frequency ship of the Samahang Nayon. Therefore, this present rate are: a) mother is working in the farm/earning a living; of participation is an encouraging sign that if properly doing household chores; b) no one to look after children; motivated, women could participatenot only as member­ child is sick; c) interested in income generating activity; but also as officers in a predominantly male organization. d) inclement weather; e) distant training site; f) opposition Following th3 Filipino housewife's generally established of husband. These findings indicate that if participationin repuatin as Filptreasuewfe'sgenerasugestbthat community projects is to be expected from women, they reputation as family treasurer, Hollnsteiner suggests that have to be helped first to ease up their burden of work at economic management in cooperatives is an area where home and in their jobs so as to enable them to find the Filipino women may prove to be efficient. (DEC-UNICEF time for involvement in community affairs. Seminar, 1976). c. Awareness and Utilization of Social Sources b. Other Economic Projects

Of 11 institutional social services included in Illo's The Department of Social Senices and Development study (1977), family planning clinics, rural health units, has been implementing the Self-Employment Assistance puericulture centers, malaria ccntrol units. rural improve- Program (SEAP) since 1972. This is a developmental inent clubs, Department of Sow.i Services and Develop- program whose main objective is to help the poorest 30% ment (DSSD) local ,ffices, adult education classes, Catho- of the population socially and economically by enabling lic Relief Services (CRS) local units, private hospital, them to undertake income-producing projects. (EDF, public hospital, and private clinics, an average housewife 1916). Tne project uses a rolling fund scheme which pro­ would know or be aware of about five (urban = 8.4; semi- vides financial assistance or cash grant for the client to urban = 6.4; rural = 4.5); has visited about three (urban ­ start an income-producing project. The client turns over 4.1; semi-urban - 3.5; rural = 2.2); has tried the services of the repayment to another client who will in turn repeat fewer than three institutions (urban = 2.9; semi-urban ­ the process. From 1972 to 1975, SEAP has assisted 3.2; rural = 2.0); still visit and practice, fewer than two 627,275 clients, representing 4.11% of its total target. (urban - 2.2; semi-urban - 2.0; rural = 1.3). Grants availableamount to F300.O0 for individualprojects andper capitafor groupprojects. Only 25%of Bicolano married women have ever visited social service institutions like hospitals, health and family Data from July to December 1976 from DSSD show planning centers. The few who are either members or that among the 71,609 out-of-school clients can be found amog the more urbanized, and among initially grouped for potential SEAP activities,youth 43.73% who were working women. (abid). females and 56.26% were males. Only 15.73%of both sexes eventually engaged in an economic activity ranging from 3. Participation in Economic Projects livestock raising, vegetable gardening, sari-sari store, bamboo craft, tailoring/dressmaking, handicraft, pottery to candy­ a. Cooperatives making. Unfortunately, no sex distinction was made of those who implemented projects. These data, however, Female participation in the 10,538 Samahang Nayons serve to indicate that women are interestedin and can be comprises a small minority. (Table IV-48). Out of 472,569 harnessed to avail of economic opportunities. That only members, only 10.4% are women. As stated earlier, only 16% of the initial members continued up to implementation 182 AProfileof ilpino Women V. LEGAL STATUS stage, indicates the need to examine ways of improving and sustaining participation in this and similar projects. 4. Participation in Church Activities

Data from the 1973 National Demographic S v-ey show that 83% of married females, 15 years and over, are Catholics. The rest belong to the Muslim sect and other minority Protes. tapt groups. There are more Catholics among the urban women SUMMARY' (86.27) than those in the rural areas (81.4%). More wives (20.6%) have had some Catholic education than husbands (15.5%). (Castillo, 1976). A. Constitutional rights:

Using attendance at religious services as an indicator of religiousity, rural wives may be considered to be less religious Upder the 1973 Constitution, two (38.7% non-attendance) than urban wives (23.4% non-atten. amendments favorable 'to women were dance). Wives tend to be more religious than hush- ,ids. Twenty effected:" one percent of husbands and 31.4% of wives attend church four times a month. The median number of times a wife 1. The Filipina mother, married to an attends religious services is slightly over once a month, alien, -can transmit her citizenship to her children. Castillo (1976) concludes that church attendance does not seem to be strictly adhered to by Filipinowives. 2. The Filipinawoman who gets married to an alien will not lose citizenship, unless she herselfrenounces it.

4. Several provisions in (he Civil Code are Llearly discriminatory to women:

>1. Marriage betueen a Christian female :and' Mohammedan or pagan male Jollaws the customs and4ritesof the male's 'ulture or religion.

2. A woman,'blow 23 year; of- age cannot leaa the prrentalhomewith­ ,out tlw'consen(ofher parents,except' to marry, exgrcise her profession' or when either parent"contracts a sub­ sequent marriage.' 3,. The choice of family residence determined by the husband, 183 1,-5

185 184. A Profile of Filipino Women LEaAL STATUS 4. In case of disagreement concerning parental authority, the husband takes control Filipino women barely know their legal rights. They only become conscious of their rights when in a dilemma, and generally, would rather decision-making. 5. The husband is the legal administra- leave such matters to the husbands, for Luzon are more for of the children's property. A YWCA report showed that women in Central to the women in the husband is the legaladministrator aware of their rights under the law as compared 6. The New Deal for RP Women of the conjugalproperty. Northern and Southern Mindanao Regions ("A Workers" Phil. YWCA, 1975). 7 The husband's consent is needed A. Constitutional rights and responsibilities of the Filipino Woman: before the wife can acceptexpensive gifts except those from close relatives. Under the 1973 Constitution, the Filipino woman has the right to: life, liberty and property; citizenship; education; information; law; work opportunities; form associations not contrary to to purchase equal 8. The wife has the right but she is things for the household, not allowed to make expensive pur- Her corresponding responsibilities include: loyalty to the without the husband'sconsent. Republic; defend th Philippines; rear the youth for civic efficiency chases and engage in gainful work. the right to object 9. The husband has been incorporated in the 1973 Con­ to the wife's profession, providedhe Several changes have provisionsin favor of women. can support hersufficiently. stitution in terms of citizenship 1. In the 1935 Constitution, a ch;ld is a Filipino citizen if his the 10. In court suits by or against fhe wife, father is a Filipino citizen. UP.Jer the 1973 Constitution of the husband'sinvolvement is general- Philippines, a Filipinamothercan now transmit hercitizenship ly required,but not vice-versa, to her children, who are thereby considered natural-born citizens.

11. Rules for legal separation are discri- A Filipina mar,'ed to a non-Filipino can transmit her citi­ minatory to womeit. Men can file zenship to her children only under the condition that the latter for separation from a single act of elect it upon reaching the age of maturity. adultery by the wife. The case of the husband's infidelity is much more However, inasmuch as the provisions of the Constitution may difficult to establish. apply only to those born after 1973, a Filipino woman have two sets of children, those born before 1973 and, there­ fore, not considered natural-born (a disqualification for certain cannot be given a marriage 12. Widows public offices) and those born thereafter who are considered until after300 days following license natural-born. the death of her husband, unless in the meantime she has given birth to a child. 2. In the 1935 Constitution there was no provision regarding the citizenship of a Filipino woman who got married to an alien. 186 A Profie of Filipino Women Legal St afu 187 Under the 1973 Constitution, a Filipino woman who gets As a public policy, married to at. alien shall not it is considered unlawful for an employer to lose her citizenship, unless she require as a condition herself renounces it. of employment that a woman employee shall not get married or to stipulate that upon getting married, she shall be (Source: "Rights and Responsibilities of the Filipino Women," deemed 1976) resigned or separated. 3. Rights of Working Women The tective New Labor Code has made certain revisions legislation: ("A new deal..." concerning pro- The Phil. YWCA, 1975). As early as 1924, the first woman and child labor passed by Philippine legislature. The 1935 law was Constitution pro- 1. The maternity leave vided for special protective legislation for women and minors, with pay period has been reduced from six weeks before and eight weeks after delivery to After the Philippines regained independence in 1946, Congress two weeks before and four weeks after normal studied proposals to update the old law, to keep it abreast delivery or abortion with with full say, and not just 60% modern trends in labor laws of the regular or average weekly and practices. In 1952, an entirely wage. new Woman and Child Labor Law was approved which was The maternity leave privilege has amended in 1954 to give them more benefits and protection, also been limited to the first four deliveries, in consonance (Tolentino, 1977). with the government's family planning program. Under the 1973 Constitution: 2. The regulation concerning the setting up of special facilities for women such The state shall afford protection of labor, as seats, separate toilet rooms, nurseries and promote full family planning services employment and equality, ensure equal work opportunities is no longer imposed indiscriminately as a requirement, but is left to the discretion regardless of sex, race, or creed of the Secretary and regulate the relations bet- of Labor. ween workers and employers (Article II, Constitution). Sec. 9 of the 1973 According to Presidential Decree No. 148, companies with Under the Civil Code, women are endowed 300 or more workers are required to provide a free family with special planning unit, with the rights andprivileges: assistance of the UN Population Fund (Phil.Daily Express, Nov. .q0, 1976). a. Right to equal pay with men for equal work 3. Night work is prohibited for women from 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 b. Right to administer her paraphernal property c. Right to go on a maternity leave with pay a.m. in commercial firms. 4. In agriculturalundertakings, ro woman shall be Pursuant to the explicit required to Constitutional mandate regarding work equal work opportunities, unless she is given a rest period of not less than nine con­ Presidential Decree No. 442, the secutive Labor Code of the Philippines, which took effect on November hours. 5. Women who work in nightclubs, cocktail 1, 1974, prohibits, the commission from acts which shall "dis- lounges, bars, massage clinics, etc., under the effective control of the criminate against any woman with respect to terms and con- employer, are considered as employees, regardless of whether they work with ditions of employment on account of her sex." The same Decree provides for equal payment of workmplof yeqbothruaar menvafuue. andth er women pro ibi for ed equalro mThe or without work of equal value. Employers are further prohibited from advantage ofcompensation. protective law s for w omen have been questioned. )o they serve more as obstacles to equality of discharging opportunity and treat­ female employees on account of marriage or preg- nancy or to prevent her from enjoying any of nent? Should labor laws apply to men and women the benefits orkshop on Working Women, 1976). equally? (Seminar! provided in the Labor Code or refuse her admission upon returning. 188 A Prorde of Filipino Women Legal Statue 189 Reid, in a study on women and labor ("Women's lib... ," Philip­ emancipated from parental althority and ishenceforth Jan. 6, 1976) says that protective legislation is a pine Daily Express, for allacts of civil life. However,adaughterabove because it creates barriers to their employment. qualified disadvantage to women cannot leave the parental example, limits women's work 21 but below 23 years of age The prohibition against night work, for mother except responsibilities which nece- home without the consent of her father or opportunities. Not all women have family her profession or calling, or sitate such arestriction. to become a wife, to exercise when either father or mother has contracted a subsequent Maternity, however, will always remain as a limited sphere in which marriage. (Article 403). women need protection. (Seminar/Workshop on Working Women, 1976). This restriction on the freedom of the fully adult understandable considering that she is B. Discriminatory articles in the Civil Code, with reference to women: daughter is hardly allowed to marry at the age of 14, two years earlier than the male: Castillo (1976) states that an unmarried woman in the Philip- pines has more or less the same rights as male citizens. It isprimarily The liberty of abode as stated in Article IV of the Con­ the married woman who is delegated to the status of a second- stitution is denied to the wife because upon gettingmarried, class citizen. Several examples maybe cited to support this state- the husband is given the sole right to decide where they will ment. live. Article l1G f the Civil Code states that the husband 1. Mixed Marriages shall fix the issidence of the family. The court, however, may exempt the wife from living with the husband, if he decides to live abroad unless in the service of the Republic. In Article 79 of the Civil Code the deciding factor in a marriage between a Christian and a Mohammedan or a pagan 3. Parental authority is the religion of the man. 4 of the 1973 Constitution states that Mixed marriages between aChristian male Article II, Section Article 79 states: the family as a basic social institution. or pagan female shall be governed by the State shall strengthen gneraland a Mohammedanprovision o the CivilCodebut mixe ma s byt It is the natural right and duty of parents to rear the youth general provisions of the Civil Code, but mixed marriages bet- for civic efficiency and for the development of moral character. ween a Mohammedan or pagan male and a Christian female may be performed under the special provision permitting marriages Both parents have the right and responsibility to raise their between Muslims or pagans who live in non-Christian provinces children. But discrimination against the mother is found in the to be performed in accordance with their customs, rites, or Civil Code. Article 311 states: "The father and mother jointly practices, if so desired by contracting parties. exercise parental authority over their legitimate children who 2. Residence are not emancipated. In case of disagreement, the father's decision shall prevail unless there is a judicial order to the contrary." Article IV, Section 4 of the 1973 Constitution states: "The liberty of abode and of travel shall not be impaired except In addition, the father is also assigned as the legal admini­ upon lawful order of the court, or when necessary in the interest strator of the children's property under the parental care. Only of national security, public safety, or public health." in his absence does this authority transfer to the mother (Article 320). An amendment (Article 17) to the rules of However, two specific provisions in the Civil Code hinder parental rights over the children states that in case of separation the liberty of abode to Filipino women: of the parents, no child under 5 years of age shall be separated As a general rule, any person who reaches the age of 21 is from his mother, unless the court finds compelling reasons to do so. 190 A Profde of Filipino Women LeglWStatus 191 4. Property parents-in-law and relatives within the fourth degree. No Under the law, the husband such prohibition is imposed on the husband. of the is responsible for the support wife and the rest of the family, while the wife manages c. Purchase of precious objects the affairs of the household. (Cited by Romero, Women's Rights ...." 1977). "Forum on The wife as household manager may purchase things necessary for the support of the family. She may borrow a. Conjugal property money for this purpose, if the husband fails to deliver the proper sum (Article 115). But purchase of jewelry and The wife has precious less rights than the husband over conjugal objects is voidable, unless the transactions has been ownership expressly or tacitly approved even though it may have been obtained through by the husband, or unless the price paid is from her paraphernal the common funds or property (Article 115). Article efforts of the husband and wife. 112 of the Civil Code states that the husband is the d. Separation of property administipulation in the marriage statements conferring the nistration admi- upon the wife. The wife may administer The separation of property may be asked property conjugal spouse for by a only in special cases, like: from the proper court on any of the absencegrounds: following ofcivil the petitioner'sinterdiction of the defendant's spouse, spouse, legal separation, 1) the husband has transferred the right to the abuse wife during of administration marriage; by the husband, abandonment of the wife by 2) there is an authorization from the court the husband for at least one year, and agreement for the wife of the to administer it; spouses. ("Breaking up." Expressweek, 1976). The 3) if the spouses may therefore husband had abandoned the wife without just agree on the 'oluntary dissolution cause for at least one year. of the conjugal partnership and enter into the separation doesof future not properties. agree, the otherIf, for whatever reason, one spouse spouse is help!ess. mentsA survey shows that a majority of the retail establish­ in the Philippines are actually operated and managed by In the the wife, but registered in the names of their husbands, case of marital separation, the husband remains This the administrator is one effect of the law which recognizes the husband of the conjugal partnership, except in as the sole administrator certain cises, and is still responsibe pina: A Humanizing. .. of" conjugalNational property. Media Production("The Fili- for the support of the shallseparated be met wife first and tfrom ro thethe family.lhe These Center.). conjugal property, thenexpenses from property.the husband's But capital and lastly from the if the wife, without wife's paraphernal In the case however of conjugal real properties, just cause, leaves the conjugal the wife's consent is required before the husband, home or refuses to live there, she is not entitled as admini- to support. strator, may sell or dispose of them. The proper court can only admonish, but cannot order her to return. b. Acceptance of gifts A wife abandoned by the husband for year is given the extraordinary remedies of "receivership"at least one Article 114 states: The husband's consent is needed before the wife can accept any gift from persons or administration by her of the conjugal property, other than petition after those closely related to her as her ascendants, descendants, with the 1,proper court. The separation of property ceases upon the reconciliation of the spouses, termination 192 A Profile of Filipino Women Legal Stat-s 193 of civil interdiction, appearance of the absent spouse, and the authorization by the wife for the husband to resume Adultery is defined as a crime of doing the sexual act with administration of the conjugal partnership upon the court's satifacion te f auseofnn-rpetiionof te ami-course another,withotheranother than theman, spouse. she commitsIf the wife has sexual satisfaction of non-repetition of the abuse of adultery, and thisinter­ is the admi- enough ground for the husband to apply for legal separation. nistrator's powers. ("Breaking Up," Expressweek, 1976). The crime of concubinage is much harder to establish than 5. Right of the wife to work adultery. While it takes just one act of infidelity on the part of the wife for legal separation proceedings to The wife is allowed to exercise her profession or be established, calling or it is more difficult to prove concubinage on the part of the engage in business only as long as her husbanddoes not object. husband. Concubinage is committed if: (1) the man keeps his This "veto power" is deemed justifiable if the husband's income mistress in the same house or the conjugal dwelling; (2) sexual is sufficient for the family in accordance with itssocial standing relations take place under scandalous circumstances, as in and if his opposition is founded on serious and valid grounds, public; (3) the husband lives permanently with his mistress outside of the conjugal house. (Note: for women's status under the Labor Code, see Chapter on Economic Role and Status). Such a disparity in rights tends to perpetuate the so-called 6. Court Suits "double standard" of moralityprevailingin Philippinesociety. Husbands are allowed to have mistresses while wives are strictly In case of a court suit by or against the wife, the husband's restricted from any form of extra-marital activities. ­ involvement is required as a general rule. There is no corres- 8. Widows ponding legal requirement if the husband is the one serving as party to a suit. No marriage license shall be issued to a widow until after 7. Legal Separation meantime300 days shefollowing the death of her husband, unless in the has given birth to a child (Article 84). No such Absolute divorce, which dissolves the marriage ties, kind of legislation applies to the widower. The article itself is not implies the reason for such a provision. The widow might legally recognized (See portion on divorce under "Women's be carrying a child by the deceased husband, and if she remarries Domestic Role and Status") but relative divorce or legal sepa- there might be confusion as to the paternal relationship of the ration granted after proper court proceedings is allowed. child.

There are two kinds of separation: separation in fact and legal separation. The former, that is, separation of the spouses without judicial approval, may be obtained under the following grounds: refusal to support the family, constant gambling, gross insults or maltreatment, barbaric demands for sexual intercourse and continuous illicit relations with others. ("Break­ ing Up,"Expressweek, 1976).

Under Article 97 of the Civil Code, a petition for legal separation may be filed for: (1) an attempt by one spouse against the life of the other; (2) adultery on the part of the wife and concubinage on the part of the husband as defined in the Penal Code. Vl.WOMEN INRURAL AREAS

SUMMARY

There are almost twice as many rural women (63.66%) thanurbanwomen (36.34%).

Around three-quarters of rural women regard their role in society as that of house. keepers. They spend at least 29 days a month and at least eight hours a day on theirmain activit which is housekeeping. In addition, they take on the subsistence part of farm work as unpaid family workers. They usually have no time left for recreation nor the oppor­ tunities tatintfractwith outside issues, 195 196 A Profile of Filipino WomeR1 Rural Women 197 The literacy rate of rural women is 77%, as compared to 92%of ation, is that the maority of rural women, regardlessof maritalstatus, urban women. Seventy-five per cent of rural women have attended ato doat wor. school. The majority, as of 1970, (44%) are found in the elementary have to do farm work. grades. Only 17% however graduate from elementary school, which indicates a considerabledrop-out rate. Those with elementary schooling (61%) - either started or completed, will probably go through their The median years of schooling of rural life without access to continuingeducation or with women in the labor force very limited oppor- is 4.6 years, which is lower than that tunity to practice the limited learning acquired of urban women (6.9 years). Rural ir. school. Although women without schooling have the counted among the literate, same LFPR as the higz schoolgra­ the extent to which they are functional duates. If their would be highly questionable. work is in the farm, as is true for the mjority of rural women, there may be no difference in theirearnings.Besides, both may Only 77o of ruralwomen went to or completed high school and 4% be considered as self-employed or unpaid family workers. A college degree, on the other hand, almost always assures employment to the attended/completedcollege. Higher educationin the ruralareasis usually rural women. not available. It is indicated that early marriagemay also ruin chances ofgoingon into highereducation. Vocational training has reached only 1.1% married ruralwomen. Over half of rural women are employed The average length of trainingis in the agriculturalsector 9.47 months. This is in spite of the fact (54%). Among these, that vocational training would seem 59%are farm workers in crop production. Com. to be the most practicaloption for pared with other industry rural women.. The nature and type of vocational groups, with the exception of domestic ser. trainingopportunities vices, the agriculturalsectorgenerates as well ab othersocio-economic reasonsmay be the lowest income. In 1975, the contributingfactors, average weekly cash earning of Media is another indirect, but pervasive means rural females in agriculture was only of educatingrural two-thirds that of the males. Since the women. Comic books and radio, mainly majority of ruralfemales in the for soap operas, are the more labor force are unpaid family popular workers, this figure may even be over­ forms. The key sources of news for the housekeepers are the estimated. barrio council members, radio and other personal resources. Whereas urban females tend to seek out information (as in family planning) rural The husband is the principalsource of income women on the other hand have to be in 45.3% of rural sought. The difference may be households. The wife is relatednot only to the level of a contributingsource of income for 43.8% of motivation but also to the lack of free the homes. The contribution time of ruralwomen, as previously noted. of ruralwomen to household income may be considered significant.Annual cash income amounted to P1,000 in 1972;non-cash income rangedfrom P500 to P'4,000. An action research on educationalprograms for women indicates the effectiveness of texible and informal means, of educating rural Different studies give different conc'usions women, with broad scope and content that meet their needs and regarding the wife's participation in home and work decision-making. In some cases, the availability. consultedhusband makes regarding the major decisions, in other cases family and business matters.Castillotheconcludes wife is often that Filipino wives are partners in decision-making with their husbands. The labor force participation rate of ruralwomen is only one-third. There is a need, however, to know the content and Among those in the laborforce, 967 quality of the deci­ of these women are employed, 4% sions made by ftze women. unemployed. The percentage of employed single Inspite of their heavy involvement in farming activities, most agri­ females is 38%, as compared to cultural programs are geared 53% of married women. This proportionis towards the men, with women relegated the opposite of the urban to home economic programs. However, situation, where more single girls women are often responsible are employed. It may be that rural for vegetable and livestock work can be easily combined with household raising;marketing of farm produce and act routine. Another explan- as family treasurers. Thus, develop theirskills in theirvarioustrainingroles programs and functions. should be provided to Rural Women 199 198 A Profile of Filipino Women of women's potential, and unequal opportunities for men and Rural women have a high degree of participation in social cctivities women. increasingparticipation'in civic activities, and minimal participation in 2. Low educational background;irrelevaunceof curricula;attitude political affairs, ofparents towards the education of girls;difficulty in combin­ ingschool, agriculturalandbhusehold work. Participation of women in the nation,.wide cooperatives develop. 3. Lack of training opportunities:modernization programs are ment program is minimal since they.only act as substitutes in the usually directed to men. absence of theirhusbands. 4. Early marriage. 5. Pooreconomic conditions. While agriculturalprograms are male-oriented, family planning 6. Lack of social services. activities focus primarily on females. This works against the achieve- 7. Lack of comprehensiverural planning. ment of program objectives since planning the family size involves and should be decided by the couple. There is scarcity of organizations directly involved in improving the condition of rural women. Thisshows the need for nationalprograms to be properly coordinated and filtered down to the community level where they are most needed. Although attendanceat barangayor town meetings ispredominanilywomen, there is still a need for the greaterinvolvement of rural women in decisio;­ making and leadership in barangays,social and otherpo, tical activities. Nan.participation of rural women in these activitiesmay be due to lack of time and interest and perhaps, some feeling of inadequacy of &,irg able to play on active role.

A survey conducted among rural women in Luzon reported the following stated needs. employment, food production, capital, sanita­ tion, road and schoolhouse repair,family planningand nutrition.

The women perceived their problems as due to external conditions andcircumstances.However, they felt :.at they had to personally strive to overcome the problens. Given the proper motivation, these women will learn how to mobilize themselves for reforms andsolutions of their problems.

The recommended solutions of the ruralwomen to theirproblems an4 needs emphasize the economic aspects. From these perceptions of and suggested solutions to problems by rural women, it would seem that the most effective answer to their needs and problems would be to provide them with opportunities for self-sufficiency.

Problems of rural women as identified by different authors are the following:

1. Traditional attitudes of male dominance, lack of recognition 200 A Profie of Filipino Women

The validity of this statement WOMEN has IN RURAL AREAS yet to be Ruralproven Women 201 ­ A. The Rural Female Population by studies. Sexdence. Nevertheless, In view differences may outweigh differences based of the large rural population urban-rural differences on area of resi­ rural development, and the present focus on remain a separate chapter that analyzes to be signi- of rural women is deemed the situation appropriate. Not too these studies many studies have been done The content, buttherefore, will on Filipino rural women. Taking alsoof includethis chapter will both sexes, the rural population general statementsbe based not only on accounts for 34.2%of and opinions the total Filipino population. of social scientists, (Table VI-1). The proportion and administrators. males (51%) is slightly higher of rural is true than the females (49%). The (53.8%) in the urban situation where reverse than males (46.2%). This is there are far more females due to the "urban pull" which leads B. to the migration of rural women Roles of Rural Women Taking to urban areas. the females alone from both areas, there are almost twice as many rural women One-half of rural women, Table (63.66o)than urban women ten yaars and above, VI-i: HOUSEHOLD POPULATION (36.34%). are classified as TableHOUSEHOLD 10 YEARS OLD AND housekeepers by type of activity, OURA TIN 10 OVER although close to three-fourths EARSOLDwoman (74%) regard themselves BY SEX, URBAN as housekeepers. An average AND RURAL, AUGUST 1975. undertakes her main married rural activity at home. She spends 29 days a month and at least eight at least Male hours a day on hermain activity Residence (N) Female which is housekeeping. N­ Both Sexes Although (N) the time devoted to % is more than that of a housekeeping Urban A fifth full-time job, she does not (4,696) 31.97 of the rural women state get paid for this. Rural (5,473) 36.34 (10,168) involvement in other (9,994) 68.03 34.18 aside activities (9,589) 63.66 from their main activity. (19,583) 65.82 time selling, farming or other This may take the form first two income generating activities. of part.­ Tots' (14,690) types of activities, For the 100.00 (15,062) she would usually 100.00 (29,751) be considered as an N - in thoutanda -00.00 unpaid family worker. Source: National Sample Survey A general of Households Bulletin, description of rural Series No. 46, Labor women in Luzon ("Rural Force, Aug. 1975. timeti in the fields. Thus, e n he fild.ihu, the general picture portrays part of farm he g neal pitue rural men taking on thework earning in addition role, orrasnurl e Rural women, therefore, whileto theirthe women take on comprise a fairly large home-making the subsistence Castillo majority. responsibilities. (1976) states that the urban Moreover, the majority female especially the Metro of women belong to the unpaid Filipino.Manila women Therefore, farm labor shouldin notassessing be treated the role category. must always as representativeof women, information be presented by a ofthe femzde rural-urban breakdown since In relation to the use "total national picture conceals a of spare hours, it has been more than what it rural women are generally observed that reveals". She time-conscicus and females,further statesbut thing as spare hurs there is no such ratherthat, "itthe isdisparities not between for them. (Ibid). between women the inequalityruralbetween and urban and in Metro Manila and the males and which comes out rest of the country Whereas most rural men (95%) as the most significant disparities." during are involved in political leisure hours, 95% of the activities or income-generating women are engaged in economic activities. Because of this, they hardly have 202 A Profil of Filipino Women

any time left for recreation (Rural Women ... 1975), nor the Runil Women 203 opportunities to interact with outside issues, (Hollnsteiner in Data presented in the UNESCO Conference, 1975). Chapter on Education show that 64% of females aged 6 to 14 throughout the counlry are enrolled in school. That only 17% of rural women graduate from ele­ C. Educational Status mentary school indicate the tremendously large percentage of attrition even prior to their completion of the first level of 1. Literacy Rate schooling. This is inspite of the fact that elementary education is free. Taken together, the proportion of rural women without The literacy rate of rural males is 80.% while that of females schooling(28%) or with some elementary is 77%. Rural women have a slightly lower literacy rate education only (44%) than totals 72%. As may usually happen, these rural men. Urban females have a literacy women may go rate of 92%, as com- through their life with very pared to 77% for rural women (Census limited opportunity either for con­ of the Phil., 1970). In tinuing education or this case, urban-rural differences are more significant to practice the very limited skills acquired than the ,nschool. This implies that while those differences betwen the s,:xes in wi!h some elementary the rural areas. educationthis education are counted is functionalamong would the literate, the extent to which be highlyquestionable. School attendance of rural males is 73.2%, which is slightly lower than that of rural females 7 ( 5.57). (Census of Population That only 7% and 3.8% of rural women either wgnt to or and Housing, 1970). This ratio is true only for the first level comp-eted high school and college, respectively, indicate that of education. As shown in the chapter on Education, more high school and -specially college education, are very women tend to drop out from elementary school so that remote the possibilities for a large majority of rural women. proportion is reversed in the secondary school. The Most students decrease would have to go to the city or provincial in female enrolment at the higher level is perhaps capital in order to due to social attend either high school or and economic pressures which are usually college. The factor of early greater on the marriage, in addition to economic females than the males of this age level. considerations, may also have an effect on the limited number of school attenaancz in the higher levels of education. 2. Educational Attainment 3. Vocational Training The educational attainment of rural women is as follows: (Cited by Aldaba-Lim. 1975 from 1970 Census) The vocational training of married rural women, 15 years and over, % Educational Attainment is limited to 1.1%. For the very few with vocational training, the average length o. training is 9.47% months (NDS, 1973). 27.76% This is inspite of the fact that a vocational direction No grade completed would seem 43.93% Elementary grades to be the most practical option for rural women. Although vocational training entails less expense 16.58% Elementary grade than college, completed it may also not be that readily available 4.9% High School to the majority of rural women. Furthermore, other socio-economic factors 2.25% High undoub­ School completed tedly come into the picture. 1.3% College 2.5% College completed 4. Media Media is another indirect, but pervasive, means of edt:ca'ing rural women. A study by Gonzales (1976) gives a description of media exposure of rural women. Only 15% read newspapers while 51% do not read them at all. Comic book reading is more 204 A Profile of Filipino Women Rural Women 205 popular as proven by readership levels of 34% of the rural national directors of public and private agencies. It was found mothers and 67% of the daughters. Rural women listen to the that there were few basic educational programs radio mainly for soap operas. designed Exposure to news on the radio is separately for rural women. Programs were mostly combined only incidental, for men and women, focused on ,teracy and utilized more traditional teaching methods such as lectures and drills. Barrio From 242 homemaker respondents, Agred (1965) found residents were subsequently interviewed. The majority saw that barrio council members were the key sources of news for education as moderately important in their lives. A much" the housekeepers. However, radio and personal resources were smaller number considered it very important. also considered as credible sources of homemaking information. Efforts to educate rural In a study to determine the women have mainly concentrated most effective media for pre- on such areas as needlework and cooking, thereby stereotyping senting homemaking information, Gomes et al. (1971) took a women's roles as housewives. Furthermore, the sample of 34 unmarried and 26 heavy workload married homemakers. More 'that rural women normally have, often prevents them from than two-thirds of the subjects had an elementary education. attending classes in specified locations or on a rigid schedule. Radio, combined with interpersonal communication, was The study concluded that more flexible and informal means of found more effective in disseminating homemaking information educating rural women have to be introduced. Creative planning to the rural women. These women were interested in radio is needed to broaden the scope and content of such programs, programs that dealt with topics on family planning, home to develop more effective educational strategies, and to management, evaluate food and nutrition, home industry, dresmaking, the effectiveness of such innovations. (Ibid). hair science, clothing and good grooming. As a result of the study, classes were conducted Another study on the radio by PRRM listening habits and attitudes at the time and location determined by the women. At their of 58 rural male heads and 52 rural female heads of households request, this was occasionally changed from one learning expe­ showed that they preferred to listen between 7:00 to 11:00 in rience to the next because of chores that the morning. Presentation the women had to do of information in dramatized form on various days. This system contributed to an open, was found more appealing. (Tetangco, relaxed 1967). atmosphere, and resulted in increased attendance and part­ .icipation (Ibid). In relation to family planning information, one interesting point cited by Castillo (1976) and brought out in the 1973 In another attempt to educate rural women, radio was used National Demographic Survey, is that urban females seek out as the means of instruction. From various towns in Albay, some such information while rural women have to be sought. This 300 housewives have completed the "School in the Air" nutri­ difference in level of motivation for information can probably tion course conducted by the Bureau of Agricultural Extension be generalized to other subject matters. The difference may be (BAEX). Participants were mostly rural housewives and related not only to the level of motivation but also to the lack members of the Rural Improvement Club. The six months of free time of rural women, as previously radio noted. course taught improved hiome management practices and applied 5. Educational Programs nutrition. Participants were required to undertake a nutrition project in their locality. These projtits were super­ vised and evaluated by BAEX home management The World Education and technicians the Philippine Rural Recon- as a prerequisite for graduation. Certificates were then issued struction Movement (PRRM) have undertaken research on by BAEX. Graduates were requested to teach the suL;ects they innovative non-formal education for rural women(Crone, 1976). learned to other housewives in the barrio. (The Times Ju-rnal, A review of educational activities for rural women in the Philip- October 21, 1975) pines was conducted through personal interviews with 20 206 A Profileof FilipinoWomen Rural Women 207 D. Labor Force Participation either -as unpaid family or self-employed workers. Although 1. Labor Force Statistics it has been stated in the Seminar/Workshop on Working Women that employment opportunities are gener,.ly for single One-third of the rural women are in the women, labor force. (Table this condition, so far, has not been investigated in the rural VI-2). This is slightly lower than the 34% female labor force areas. participation rate (LFPR) in the country. Conversely, 67%of The median years of schooling of rural women in the labor the rural women are not in the labor force. This is at least twice as much as that of rural males (28%). force is 4.6 years, which is lower t.ian that of urban women (6.9 years). Rural women without sc-hooling (51.5%) Among those in the labor force, 98% have as of the rural men are high an LFPR - high school graduates (51.7%). Although there employed and 2% are unemployed; 96% of the females are is no mention ,A the kind of work and amount of income employed and 4% are unemployed. The unemployment rate in derived from it, presumably there would be a difference bet­ the rural area is again twice as much for women than men. ween the earnings of those without schooling and the high school graduates, favoring the latter. However, this distinction may not be noticeable, if the work is in farming, which is true Table VI-2: RURAL HOUSEHOLD POPULATION 10 YEARS OLD AND for a majority of rural women. A college degree almost always OVER, BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND SEX, AUG. 1975. assures employment to a rural woman, as proven by an LFPR of 83.3%for degree holders. Male Female 2. Types of Employment Rural Population N " N % Over half of rural women in the laborforce are employed in the agriculturalsector (547); while 45% are in the non-agri­ Total Population 9.994 100.00 9,589 100.0 cultural sector. Of the female agricultural labor force, about In Labor Force 7,211 72.2 3,128 32.6 70% are in rice and corn production. They perform most of the farm labor activities such as transplanting, weeding, ferti­ Employed 7,066 98.0 3,007 96.13 lizing, harvesting, and threshing. It is for this reason that the Total unemployed 146 2.0 120 3.83 issue of labor-intensive technology poses a dilemma since it Not in th..Labor Force 2.783 27.8 is mostly the rural women who bear the physical burden which 6,461 67.4 goes with this type of technology (Role of Women in the N - in thousands Philippines). Source: National Sample Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46. Aug. 1975 The National Demographic Survey (1973) gives a more detailed breakdown of the employment of rural women (Cited Among rural women, the percentage of employed females by Castillo, 1976): who have no t married is 38.0% while % Occupation that of married women i 59.3 Farm workers ­ crop production 53% This proportion is contrary to the urban situation, where 18.44 Farmers and farm-managers 52% of females are single while 38%are married. According to 14.64 Teachers Perez (1976), the dominant informal activities in the rural eco- 13.38 Sari-sari store owners nomy characterized by less rigid working hours allows marrical 13.26 Maids, laundry women and nursemaids women to take part-time jobs or any occupation that they can 12.34 Basket weavers combine with their household routine. Another possible 11.39 Market vendors explanation is that majority of rural women, regardless of 10.23 Dressmakers marital status, have to work (at least seasonally) in the farm, 7.30 Sewers and embroiderers (not in fac*ory) 7.11 Salesgirls in wholesale and retail store 208 A Profile of Filipino Women Compared with other industry groups, with the exception Rural of domestic services, agriculture After analyzing Women 209 pays the lowest among the existing data on Filipino women, Castillo various industry groups. concludes that (1976) For full-time workers, the average the decision-making pattern in the weekly cash earnings of hold is Filipino house­ females in agriculture in 1975 was egalitarian. The wife participates in the P27.00 against P'40.00 household and management of the for males. The highest weekly average other family matters, this includes was P'95.00 for government other means farming and female employees. The national of livelihood. She points out, however, average for know the content to the need to both sexes was and quality of the decisions made reall, mean much to a great-P49.00. Perhaps by women. majority of ruralthese females data do since not the bulk The above results appear to be very workers (70%)of rural females in the labor force are unpaidfamily optimistic. However, the while 15% are self-employed. Only 15%are general picture still portrays wage farms the wives working very hard in the and salary workers. Nationally, with very little say in work matters only 37% of females (63%of and with hardly any males) are wage and salary workers; trainingon farming. workers (57% of males) 43% are unpaid family and 20% are self-employed (80% of F. Involvement in training programs males). "The role of Women in the Philippines" 3. Income notes that most agri­ to home economics cultural programsareprograms. geared towards men, with As to source of income, In agricultural women relegated in rural households, the husband is extension programs, the principal source of income for the agriculturist 453%of the cases. The wife works with the male farmer and the home is a contributing source of income ment technician works manage­ for 43.8% of the households, with his wife mainly on domestic type The NDS (1973) reports activities. It is relatively of that 92% of rural housewives rare for females to be included in earned less than -1,000 and corn production rice as cash income in 1972. Among those training programs despite the fact that who received non-cash income, of the labor input much 51% received less than cn- in production is contributed by females. and 12.4% received an equivalent are often responsible Women of P5o --P,999. The con- for vegetable raising and the care of tribution of rural women to household chickens, but they pigs and income may therefore are not recognized as produce or be considered significant (NDS, 1968). raisers. It is well-known livestock that Filipino women participate actively E. Decision-making in decisions affecting the farm participation at work and home (Hsueh-Yi Lu, 1968), and they are theyalmost have always in charge of marketing never been a farm produce. However, thao(1975) onducteda specific target clientele Chua suey on dhecisio-ma ingt for agricultural (1975) conducted a survey on decision-making regardingrean wheredevelopment they shouldprograms, also benor included in savings since and the investment programs, the amount of money to be wife is the acknow­ that almost half of the wivesspent contributed on the farm. Inspite of the to the family incomefact lde (NDS, 1968), ledged familyaiytesrr treasurer. the husband is still the major decision-maker use of family finances. The husband in the decision was the principal source of in 55% of the G. Social and Political joint husband-wife cases; th? wife alone Participation decision was arrived at 27%inof 18%the time.of the cases; In terms of participation In farm business decisions, the husband in community activities, the wife usually consulted the average more than half the time on the rural women, considering fertilizer, following matters: buying all aspects of community life, projects where to sell agricultural products, high degree of participation a engaging in a new in social activities, such as enterprise, weddings, funerals, baptisms, fiestas, varieties, buying a carabao, buying farm tools and etc. (Role of Women in the Philip­ buying farmand chemicals, changing rice cultivation practices equipment, pines). where to borrow (Hsueh-Yi Lu, money, adopting Rural women also show increasing 1968). new rice participation in civic activ­ munity ities, suchbeautification,as the "Green Revolution", cleanliness drives,nutrition programs, com­ puericulture center 210 A Profileof Filipino Women programs, and club membership Rural Women 211 (Ibid.). However, there were no datap;esentedon the extent stated by 3nd quality ofparticipationof women the subjects: employment, foo'" luction, in these projects. sanitation (specifically capital, Membership in the Kapisanan ng Kababaihang construction and use , toilets); school road and Pilipinas (KBP), for house repair; family planning and nutrition. (Reyes, 1976). example, is mainly composed of rural women. of theGonzales' causes ofstudy their (1976) investigated In the recently problems and their the women's perception launched nation-widecooperativesdevelopment suggestions: Themajority, program at the village level, which 85% of the mothers includes a compulsory savings and 69% of the daughters, felt that the program for capital formation, lems were due to external prob­ participation by women was only conditions and circumstances over which incidental. They were involved only they had no control. in the absence of their hus- Very few considered the problems as bands. (Role of Women in the due to their own personal being Philippines). inadequacy or the inadequacy of others. prevented66% of thesocial mothers mobility,and 76%but of the daughters felt that poverty Another point to consider is that that this could while agriculturalprograms be alleviated by are male-oriented, family planning activities education. The majority, focus primarily on 63% of the mothers and 78% of the females. Such a segregation in daughters, felt that they program targets immediately puts have to personally strive to overcome the a constraint on the achievement problems. Few of of program objective and may the women (5.8% of mothers and 2.8% work against total development efforts daughters) felt completely of the (Ibid.). After all, planning helpless or gave in to fatalistic solutions. the number of offsprings involves and It is interesting to note that should therefore be decided their hardly anyone suggested enlisting the aid ofproblems. the government This wasor some externa mentioned by onlyagency inorder to solve 2.9% of the mothers Another survey ("Rural women.. " 1975) revealed a scarcity and 2.8% of the daughters. of organizations that are directly of the fact that problems These findings are encouraging inspite involved with improving the themselves were attributed by conditions of rural women. respondents to external the The rural women interviewed could conditions. This means that given barely name any civic or government proper motivation the agency that they felt had these women will learn how to mobilize helped them directly. helves for reforms them­ There may be enough existing national and there is a need for external structuring help rural women to organizationalprograms, but there solve their own problems. be prooerly disseminated, is a need for these programs to to the community coordinated, funded and filtered level. down Aspirations to Some sources th com m nity evel.Gonzales' note that rural women have a minimal participat- rural women. study (1976) also investi .gated ion in political activities, sthese goals mainly reflect theirthe basic aspirations of who vote in elections (Roleas manifested by the proportion of economic of Women, 1976), Reyes (1976) statesthose needs. The that most rural women are not even aware women enumerated the following of the various piograms and aspirations: decent improved standards of living; income-generating activities inof barangaythe government. or town On the contrary, NCRW reports that attendance meetings is predominantly by women (Feria, and education. 1976). However, there is still a The subjects' attitudes need for the greaterinvolvement regarding the viability of their of ruralwomen in decision-makingand aspirations were also leadershipin the barangays, 3 investigated. Twenty per cent of as well as in other social and 2% of the daughters the mothers and political activities. According to felt that their aspirations will be fulfilled Gonzales (1976), possible reasons because they will personally for the non-participation of strive to achieve them. A slightly rural women in social and political greater number, 37% of mothers activities are lack of time and and 34% of daughters, relied on fate and God. Another 2 interest. 13% of the mothers and 1%of the daugh­ ters felt that their aspirations H. Problems and Needs as perceived will not be fulfilled. A survey conducted by rural women: by Leticia Paler among rural women in Luzon (Rural women . . . 1975), These findings reports the following needs as seem to indicate that women are resigned to their present generally roles. Therefore they need assistance in 212 A Profile of Filipino Women Ru Womn 213 clarifying their own perceptions of their status and roles and aspirations, 2. Low educational background (Ibid.) before engaging in developmental activities. a. Inadequate primary and J. Opportunities for self-sufficiency secondary education It seems that b. the most effective solution to rural women's Irrelevance of curricula for self-sufficiency. c. elementaryCost school needs and problems would be of education inspite of free tuition fo efsfiiny to provide them with opportunities d. Parental and fees in the eleentar disregardo of the education of girls and suspicion on its practical Preliminary surveys value. conducted by Crone (1976) in rural areas noted that e. Difficulty in combining school, programs that were oriented towards women agricultural and household with low work. educational levels tended to fall into two categories. 3. 1) Early marriage (UPPI, 1974) free programs offered at family planning facilities which focused 4. on providing information Poor economic conditions/poverty techniques on health practices and family planning and, 2) extension courses in sewing and homemaking skills offered at schools a. Unemployment (UNESCO Conference, fee. and technical colleges, usually for a small 1975) b. Inflation (Crone, c.b nlto C o e1976) Financial problems 9 6 in the family (Crone, 1976) 5. Lack of social services K. Problems of Rural Women as perceived by external agencies a. Absence The following are of child care services (ILO Conference, some of the problems that have been iden- 1975) tified by different authors b. Rural workers in relation to the development of rural are seldom covered by social legislation, e.g., rural women, especially the women. unpaid family worker or self­ otheremployed, legal rightscannot (Ibid.)avail of maternity 1. Traditional leave benefits and attitudes which are retained to a greater rural areas where modernization goes at a slower degree in pace (UNESCO 6. Conference, Lack of comprehensive rural'planning (UNESCO 1975). 1975) Conference, a. Male dominance a. b. Lack of recognition of women's Lack of creative leadership and skills (in c. Absence potential occupations and of equal opportunities for men and women organizations) b. Lack of basic facilities like water, electricity, transportation When the rural women c. Lack were asked to recommend solutions to techniqeseoof trained workers for rural areas their problems and needs, the d. Lack of interest ewoens majority emphasized the economic in community activities(iLudnConferna1975 (Gonzaljp 1976) aspect. Two barrios e. Agriculturs and xo ec supported the general idea of earning a living esnLu Coerni 'ati as a solution. More specific suggestions were f Lack of exposure to moder methods in Nieves, Nueva given like dressmaking of farming. Ecija (16%); piggery project (18%) and backyard 7. Lack of studies on knowledge, attitudes gardening (23%) in Barrio Mambangan. and practices of rural women and men (UNESCO Conference, 1975) VII. THE FILIPINO WOMEN IN THE CULTURAL MINORITY GROUPS

SUMMARY

The Muslims and other cultural minority groups in the Philippine. comprise 6 million, making up 15% of the totalpopulation. MUSLIM WOME1N

The Muslims in the Philippines number about four million and comprise 8% of the total population. They are the largest cultural minority group that has relati, ely been pre. served from Spanish and American colonial rule. Like the other. minority tribes, they have preserved their native culture and way of life.

Sons are " erred over daughters, for both economic and social reasons. Marriage is the goal of all Filipino Alusirn women. In the Muslim regions, the mean age at marriage is also the highest. One of thc main reasons for this is that a Muslim woman can gain status and power only by becoming the mother of many sons and one day ruling an extended fumily. Divorce Is allowed under certain specifications proscribed by the Muslim Code of Laws. 215, 216 A Profile ofFilipino Women CulturalMinority Women More educational opportunities are open to Muslim 217 males than in almost all tribes make the arrangements females. Muslim parentshesitate to send their daughters for the marriage of their to school for daughters.Inheritance is equally fear that they would end up marrying Christians. divided amongdaughtersand sons. Thus, the proportion Polygamy and divorce of enrolled are part of the marriage institution among Muslim girlscontinuously declines from the primary to high mino lyg amy Th wif e art ta e m ar e t t ut pona n d school level. Many women, however, are aware of the possibility of minority groups. The wife contributes a large losing educated Muslim men to Christianwomen. Therefore they strive share to the support and maintenance of the family. The wife's right to for higher education to increase their price in the marriage market. One- propery is equal to the hsbados. Husband-wife relationship is usually based on mutual eight of Muslim women are educatedin Muslim schools while one-third needs, especially of the man for the woman's serices. This leads, in some cases, join the public school system. to the subservience of the wife to the husband.

Very few Muslim women are educationally Infanticide and abortion are generally approvedpractices. qualified for employ. There is very little ment. regardfor the competence and authority of the Still, even those educationally qualified and who belong to a higher status do not generally seek jobs. All income derived by either women in public affairs. She plays a significantrole,however, spouse from separate employments in religious or business belong to that spouse ceremonies. exclusively. NEGRITO WOMEN Discrimination against Lanao Muslim women still persists as reflected in their secluded life; denial of educational opportunities; The Negritos are the original inhabitants of the Philippines. lack of legal personality;practice of polygyny and divorce and inheri- These tribes still exist and have retained their tribalcustoms and ways tancepractices. of life. The provision of social services in the Socialization and education Muslim areas has been very imitation of the routines are transmitted orally and through minimal or almost non-existant.The Muslims are in of everyday life. Negrito girls are trained for turn resistant to housekeeping and the care of younger some government programsfor selfprotection children. Sexual decorum among and economic advantages, young girls is enforced. The greatest obstacle to Muslim women's participation in the Courtship and engagement occurs as country's development is the distance from Manilaand other developing soon as the girl reaches puberty. Marriage is mainly through the mutual agrecment of urban centers. The NationalCommission on the Role of Women, the how- couple. A bride price is required of the man. ever, hasplanned specialprojects with this view in mind.An extension of the Commission in the Muslim egions is beingplanne.!. Negrito marriagesare generally monogamous, although polygamy Muslim women are currently very much involved in political and is sometimes practicea.The wife usually lives with the husband'sfamily. socialchangeswhich directly affect their interestsand well-being. Adultery is punishable; divorce and marriage are allowed. NON-CHRISTIAN GROUPS AsideHousework from this theyand provide child care indispensable are willingly taken on by the wives. farm help to their husbands. The non-christian groups, which number about two million, are The women's outside work consists ofgathering generally located in the relatively isolated highland areas. food, fishingand hunt­ In spite of ing. Occasionallythey even take employment colonization and Western influence, forextra compcnsationin these ethnic groups have generally other farms. retained their culture and tradition. In public life, Parentalacceptance does not discriminatebetween Negrito women are generally not acceptedas group the sexes. The leaders. Their social status mainly duties of the daughters usually cover domestic andfield chores. Parents depends on their zusband's social rank. However, they often play the role of informal mediators conflicting among as priestessesparties.or dancers. The women also participatein religious ceremonies 218218 WOMEN IN CULTURAL MINORITY GROUP Culturalclu MinorityMnrt o e 1 WOMENCULTURAL IhiNippi G Minoriys Women 219 A. Philippine Cultural Minority Groups in the pre-Islamic period of their history: the datuship the foundation of their has been political and social life. (Gowing & The term "cultural minorities" dominantly non-Christian has been applied to the pre- groups with varying degrees of cultural McA 1974)imis development, that The Muslim groups' subsistence 5s, the non-christians and Muslims. Taken patterns vary from wet or toge- dry ther, the Muslims and other minority agriculture, to fishing and occasional pearl-diving. making-up groups comprise six million, (Tenazas 15% of the total population. and Ramas, 1974). the highest birth rates These groups have in the world, representing a 3.5% annualone of increase. (Book of the Phil., In general, 1976). factor there are very little basic difference Christianof socialwomen class. between This chapter includes a report andNor Muslim are there women. differences Differences are niure group, on the women from the Muslim between a the non-christian groups and the Negritio women and women Muslim women. Although in cther cultural minority groups. Muslim the latter are also non-christians, elite groups have the advantage a separate description of their of access to foreign political characteristics and power connections. lifestyle is included. However, because of the ongoing revolu­ tion, political In view of the dearth bargaining power is also made available of studies on the performance of the to the various roles of women masses. (Interview with Mrs. from the cultural minority groups, the A. Lim, PCAS, June 27, 1977). materials 2. Non-Christian Groups 1. Muslims:included in this chapter are mostly descriptive. The non-christian groups, which are generally number about two million, located in the relatively In general, very few studies and isolated highland available concrete information are areas. about women (Tenazas and Ramas, 1974). significant social in Mindanao and and political changes in Sulu.the area, Because in the of lastthe The distribution of the minority groups is years, there isa as follows: definite need for studies on them. The Muslims in the Philippines number about four million, Northern Luzon: Apayao, and comprise about Iba]oy, Tingui, Kalinga, Ilongot, Aetas, 8% of the total population. They dominate Kamkamay, Gaddang, Bontoc, the western Kalangiga. out of the Philippines.and northern parts of Mindanao, the biggest They constitute the dominant societyisland in their areas of habitation. Central Luzon (Book of the Phil., 1976). : Aetas, baloy, Abellang,. longot, Ting­ uian, Bontoc, Kankanai, Ifugao. The Muslims form four large and distinct groups, the "Maranao", the "Maguindanao", namely the "Tausug", and the Southern Luzon: (Mindoro and Palawan): "Samal". There are a few other minor Muslim groups. ('Tena- Dumagat, Ramontado, Aetas, longot, zas, Ramas, 1974) Kankany, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalanguya, Mangyan, Tagbanua, Butok, Palawano, The Muslim group relatively been is the largest minority group that has Malbog,ma gbo ,and a few preserved from Spanish and American colonial ae wMuslims.M uslims rule. On the whole, they Bicol region have preserved their native culture and : Dumagat, - Aetas, Mangyan Wester Visayas way of life. Aetas, Sulud Montesque(Book of t Phil.,1976)

Their basic political and social institutions were developed (Book of the Phil., 1976) 220 A Profile of Filipino Women Despite foreign colonization and influence Cultural Minority Women 221 that have gradually Siasi, Sulu was conducted by Benton. (In Gowing affected their and external mode of existence, such as the use of McAmis, 1974 pp. 154-164). westenr clotaing and money, these ethnic groups have retained a way of life centered around their own specific cultures. They Manubul is a community of not more than 2,500 still maintain their own ways of undergoing people birth, marriage situatad on a small island of the Siasi group, in the Sulu and death traditions, and their specific sodial and work activi- Archipelago, about halfway between Zamboanga and North ties. In general, they have preserved the culture of their Borneo. ancestors. (Infante, 1975). On the whole, these non-christian groups live a serni-seden. In the village, fathers do not tary existence. With the exception of the Negritoes, most of the take their young daughters on long fishing trips. When a father has no son, his daughters other groups are dry, swidden farmers, cultivating their hillside may go with him but only on shorter excursions. clearings. In the Con­ Mountain Province, some groups practice sequently, girls know very little wet agriculture of the techniques of fishing. in rice terraces and irrigated fields. (Tenazas Women generally learn only torchlight reef fishing. (Tbid) and Ramas, 1974). At the time boys go on fishing trips, the girlsstay home, 3. Negritoes more often, helping their mother with the housekeeping and also learning more seriously some handiwork techniques Unlike other cultural minority groups such as weaving floor mats from dyed pandan leaves. which are usually Manubul women make mats with intricate designs, although concentrated in one place, Negritoes are scattered and can be on a very small scale and mostly for found in many parts of the household use. It takes country. Although there are no one weaver months to finish one mat statistics measuring two by on their exact count, it is estimated that they are next three meters. (Ibid.) to the Muslims in number. Among all Philippine tribal groups, School has a great deal to do with the scheduling of the Negritoes exhibit children's activities. Youn9 boys go about their the most distinctive physical characteristics. fishing and External influences girls their housekeeping and bandiwork in a desultory have affected part of their lifestyle such as manner of dressing fashion until they finish schooling, that is, compete the and lessening of nomadic tendency. For instance, originally sixth grade. (Ibid.) characterized as food gatherers, studies have shown Negritoes now practice thas shifting cultivation, thereby becoming In general though, until puberty, semi-sedentary, there are no signifi­ cant differences between the chores assigned to boys and B. Muslim Women those assigned to girls. (Ibid.)

1. In the Family b) As Wives a) As Daughters 1) The Marriage Form

Marriageis the goal of all Filipinos. In a Muslim-family, children are considered good invest­ ments for future security. However, sons arepreferredfor Muslim Women. It is also considered a religious both economic and social reasons. They also obligat. mean extra ion. In general, 70 to 90 per cent of women who are hands in the fields as well as support in old age. (Manuel of child-bearing age are married and only ter, per cent Tamayo, 1976). remain single. (Tamayo, 1976) A study on child-rearing among the Samal of Manubul, Compared to the national average, the Mindanao 224 A Profile of Filipino Women Cultural Minority Women 225 (through repudiation) at the time of the celebration The code defines a "Muslim" as a person whooftermrigoraewrdse testifies to the oneness ofof MharmadGod andTe thend lw ProphethoodrofesesIs~m. petaiingthe of theirmarriagemarriageherself, or afterwards,which becomesshe mayayislvfinaldissolve after of Muhammad and professes Wswam. The law pertaining three months, to divorce in the code applies only when the spouses are Muslims or when the husband is a Muslim and the (f) Divorce by faskh - Divorce of this type may be marriage is solemnized in accordance with Muslim law granted on any of the following grounds: or code. However, the Civil Code of the Philippines applies to a Muslim with a non-Muslim spouse who i) Neglect or failure of the husband to provide were not married according to the Muslim law or code. support for the family for at least six months; The code allows divorce only after all possible ii) Conviction of the husband by final judgment means of reconciliation between spouses have been sentencing him to imprisonment for at least one exhausted. Divorce may be effected by any of the year; following means: (a) Divorce by Talag - A Muslim husband may initiate iii) Failure of the husband to perform his marital (a)Msliivocehusandmayb Taag nitateobligation -A for six months without divorce through a single repudiation of his wife cause; reasonable during her non-menstrual period Curing which time he totally abstains from carnal relations with her. iv) Impotency of the husband; This repudiation becomes irrevocable after three months. However, a husband can take his wife back v) Insanity or affliction if the of the husband with an three months have not passed by simply incurable disease which would make continu. resuming cohabitation with her. No marriage is ation of marital relationship injurious to the needed. family;

(b) Divorce by ila - A wife may be granted divorce vi) Unusual cruelty of the husband. when her husband makes a vow to abstain from any carnal relation with her and observes such a Under the Muslim code, a husband is "unusually vow for not less than four months. cruel" if he:

(c) Divorce by !i'an - Where the husband accuses his i) Habitually assaults his wife wife in or makes her life court of adultery, a decree of perpetual miserable by cruel conduct even if this does not divorce may be granted by the court after due result in physical injury; hearing. (d) Divorce by khul' - The wife, after having offered ii) Associates with persons of ill-repute or leads an to renounce her dowry or to pay any other lawful infamous life or attempts to force the wife to consideration for her release from the marriage live an immoral lift; bond, may petition the court for divorce. In meri- iii) Compels her to dispose of her exclusive property torious cases, the court will issue the corresponding orpevs her o ernher le rpet divorce decree. overor prevents it; her from exercising her legal right (e) Divorce by tafwid - If the husband has delegated to the wife the right to effect a divorce by talag iv) Obstructs her in the observance practices, or of her religious 226 A Profile of Filipino Women Culturaminority Women 227 v) Does not treat her justly and equitably as en- joined by Islamic law. In Cotabato, for example, the figures in Table VII-1 of Moro school attendance clearly show th2 educational limitations among the Moro girls whc constitute only (Taken from the article "Divorce Among Muslims" by a small fraction (19%) of the total schuol population. C. Gating Inc. 25, 1977.) Mod Magazine, Vol. IX No. 288 February TABLE VII-i: MORO STUDENTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Among the Maranaos, divorce is unilateral.A man COTABATO DISTRICT. 1951-1952. may divorce his wife at will, but a woman may not Boys Girl divorce her husband unless he has treated her cruelly or Total N , N % N has left her alone without proper maintenance or has Pnmary 653 77 194 23 847 been guilty of any other similar offense of commission 66 Intermediate 217 88.6 28 11.4 245 or omission. And even in such a case, she has to give 19.2 H Scol 165 90.2 18 back the dowry that was settled on her upon marriage. 9.8 183 4.4 Tol 13 81.2 24 14.184 She retains this only if the husband initiates the divorce _1035To_ 81.2 40 8s.8 1275 proceedings. (De 99.6 pp. 235-241). los Santos, In Gowing & McAmis 1974, Many Moro children never enter school, and for a great majority of those who do enroll theprooortion of 3) Separation of Property girls continuously declines from the primary (23%) to high school level (10%). In the case of upperclass Moros All income derived by either spouse from any more of their children are likely to be enrolled, some employment, occupation, trade and fruit of his or her of whom would have gone on to college. Even among separate properties belong to that spouse exclusively. this group, there is still opposition to feminine educat­ (Bautista, 1977). ion and itis not uncommon for families to leave school after finishinggirls the of fourth high grade.status 4) Education (Gowing & McAmis, 1974.) However, they are given informal education and training in the home and in Although Muslim women are free and equal to men, exclusive Muslim schools. more educational opportunitiesare open to males. The One-eight of Muslim women are educated assumption is that Muslim men wl1 eventually handle in Mus­ lim Schools while one-third go to the "state affairs".and support their family (Ibid). public school system. (Bai H.F. Plang in Torrevillas-Suarez, 1976.) Even if they could afford to, Muslim par- 1c hesitate Many women however are aware of losing educated sending their daughters to school for " 3t they Muslim men to Christian women: they are therefore would end up marrying Christians.The conventional very eager to attain higher education elders prefer to keep their girls at home to increase their (Lu, 1977). price in the marriage market (Ibid). The strong attachment to their ancestral home also serves as a deterrent to the pursuit ofhigher education 5) Employment among the Muslim women ofSulu. After the completion Very few Muslim women areeducationally of the highest grade, they relatively seclude themselves qualified for positions of responsibility. Even if educationally at home (Arce-Mohammad, 1950). qualified, Muslim women who belong to higherstatus generally do not seek jobs. This may be explained by the men's refusal to let them work because they feel .228 A roleofFiliplno Women Inthat Torrevillas-Suarez, they should support1976) the women instead. (Plang: thetnlelwoman has no legal personality.roality she is ThroughoutWomen 229life more or less completely Part of the reluctance of Muslim attached females to seek to one male or jobs is due to their parents' insistence another to her fat, r or some other home that they stay 6 nearest kin and and wait for after she is married, to ner husband. of men. marriageproposals (Ibid.) The vcry few instances of fromworking the Muslimparents women occurs Discrimination Against because the husbands are incapable of Women. The practice of poly­ supporting them (Ibid). gyny and that of divorce suggests and that among the Lanaowomen Muslimas, which there is There amountsa differentiation to between men are relatively fewer working women in discrimination barrios Muslim against than in Christian barrios (Juliano, 1975). the latter. As a matter of fact, traditional Muslim Some Muslim law women work in farms with men. As such, in Mindanao draws a somewhat uncomplimentary are they pic­ free to keep the money earned from crops. ture of women, a picture that classified are ongaged Many them as less in trade and commerce either as enter. than men and in the same category as hermaphrodites. preneurs (Delos Santos in Gowing or in partnership with their husbands. Maguin- & McAmis, 1974, pp. 235­ danao women are 241). like mat aostly engaged in cottage weaving, loom weaving -- or asindustriesreligious teachers. (Plang: In Torrevillas-Suarez, Another 1976). article reiterates this halt-a-man's worth valuation of women in a provision which In the Muslim sets forth that working classes, women are held in a daughtermay high esteem if they are inheritonly halfas much as ason. (Ibid.) for strenuous good workers and strongenough subsistence work such as field planting 7) Participation in Development and fishing. In general the Muslim active and productive economically. womenAside are very major occupations from the of fishing and field work, rural The provision of social services in the Muslim women also has been very areas do artisan work, and handicrafts. (Inter- minimal or almost non-existent. In turn, the view with Mrs. idm) Muslims are very resistant to some government programs, such as family planning, becat: they highly 6) Status of Muslim value big families Wonen in General protection. for economic advantag, -id for self. While this view is changing, discriminationagainst wom en still pe rsists in Lanao Muslim However, Muslim women are that is society , a value ol ved M uslimiw mena lccurrently h ang e very hmuch uc reflected in a number of aspects of Maranao social life. The Maranao woman leads a more involved in political and social or less affect changes which directly secluded life. She their interests and well-being. (Interview with fluence, is ceprived of the broadening in- the educative Mrs. A. Lim) about. effect that soci-l A large proportion of Maranaocontactswomen bring are still denied the educational opportunitieswhich should It has been noted that the greatest obstacle be theirs. More Muslim women's to and more girls are being sent to the participationin the country'sdevelop­ elementary ment is theirdistance from Manila. school, but only a few finish high school those who get to college and constitute an exception. (Delcs The National Commission on the Role of Women Santos in Gowing & McAmis, 1974, pp. 235-241). hasFunds have been Another significant been devotingprovided special attentionto to Muslim fact is that in Maranao society establish an extensionwomen. the Commission in the Muslim of Hadja regions. Commissioner Fatima Bai Matabay Plang has been "pushing" 230 A Profile of Filipino Women Cultura on the program for orphans in Cotaoato and has gotten Minority Women 231 however, is not carried to excess. support from NCRW for this and other projects that Scolding or shaming are being worked out. of the child is almost always resorted to regardless of the sex of the child (Kalinga, Isneg, Bukidnon, Negrito). The special NCRW project on a live-in seminar for 3) Filial Respect and Obedience Muslim women leaders has been finalized and will be implemented. It was noted that more women in Min- In primitive danao (social workers, nurses, teachers) Filipino society, there is lack of filial are being respect mobilized in the drive for greater unity and peace. and obedience. The law of custom, however, (Reyes, 1976) requires the children to adhere to parental wishes on C. The Women in Non-Christian Groups' areas such as marriage and the fulfilment of obligations towards the aged, sick or deceased C The. milyNparents parents or grand- 1. In the family (Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga, Tinggian). In so tar as filial respect and obedience are concerned, there a. As Daughters are no manifest sex differences. 1) Parental Acceptance of a Female Child 4) Duties and Responsibilities Among the early Filipinos and non-Christian mino- Among Filipino rities (Mamanwa, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, Mangyan, non-Christian minorities, responsi- bilities of little Isneg, Bilaan), no significantpreferencesaremanifested girls and young women usually cover domestic and field either for a male or a female child. A gidl chores. She generally stays at home is accepted to take by the family with the same attitude as that given vare of her younger siblings (Tinggian, Ifugao, to a Kalinga), do bo. However, among the Negritos and some cultural some household chores, tote water and keep the house clean (Isneg, nir rities of the south (Bagabo, Subanun) there is a Subanun, Tiruray). She marked preference for male children. also has her share of field chores - like gathering forest products, catching fish, transporting woods and crops, With regards to ceremonies and practices connected etc. (Negrito, Bukidnon, Bontoc). As she becomes older, with children, equal consideration is given her assigned female role becomes more distinct to either sex specific. and (Mayoyao, Kalinga, Isneg, Sulod, Ilongot, Yakan). Similarly, thee is no indication of preference either 5) Prenuptial the buying and Arrangements and Courtship for males or femalesselling onof children.the practice of infanticide and Parents in practically all tribes make the arrange­ tint for the marriage of their daughters. 2) Parental Authority and Discipline The bride prce,parents which and is the property relatives of the bridegiven by the groom to the is a consistent feature There is generally a lack of parental discipline in among cultural minorities since children warital arrangements. are left to do Among as they please (Benguet Igorot, Tinggian, Ifugao, Northern Luzon mountain ethnic groups, Mang- with the exception yan, Subanun, Bilaan, Mamanwa). Some tribes whip of the Isneg and Tinggian, there is more equal sharing in the marriage preparations their children more than others. Corporal punishment, and feasts as well as a mutual exchange of gifts between the To date, the most comprehensive (1975). account on minority tribes is given by Infqnte The information from two contracting families. mostly from her book. For a this section on Cultural more detailed description ofMinority tribal customs, Groups theis takensame source can be consulted, Among the ethnic groups of Mindanao, such plu. the few other sources used in this chapter. as the Manobo, Bilaan, Mandaya and Bagobo, the girl's famly 232 A Profile of Filipino Women Cul'ul Mino fty Women 233 always makes a return gift of about half the value of the The other bride price to the boy's family as a sign that their h egroupsinindanao, daughter influenced by lamic is not being bought by the bride price. customs, permit polygamy although the actual practice of it is limited to those who can afford it. Bride service is practiced by many ethnic groups Dvorce is almost universally practiced, such that although it is not as generalized as the bride price. This even where monogamy is the rule, the stability of a meansof his bride,work duringis performed a pre-nuptial by the probaticnuryman for the parentsperiod, marriagemrig issntwratdada not warranted and an individualniiulmyesl may easily have several partners successively, if not all at once. Child betrothals or marriage exist in the majority Constant reasons for divorce of ethnic groups. Its rigid practice, however, it is found i n t an on the p ar are:e:of childlessnesshthw d e and and only among the high ranking families of the Ifugao, infidelity mainly on the part of the wife, and failure Kalinga and Southern Kankanai who want to keep their of either spouse to fulfill his or her respective obliga­ influences and prestige by means of convenient matches. tions towards the family. Among these people, much There is a tendency in many groups to allow for free- is expected of the women. dom of choice, or at least to consider the opinion of Divorce usually entails the young people involved. the return of the bride price by the wife's family if she is at fault, or the husband's Virginity in young girls before marriage is not v'lued loss of iny right to its return if he is at fault. Where among these people. An unwed mother, for the instance bride price is not a feature in the r.uriage, there is does not lose face iin the community nor lose her chances a mere separation of spouses and property. In both cases for a good marriage because she in fact has proven her there waky or may not be the imposition of added fines capacity for motherhood. This explr.ins the lack of on the guilty party. adult supervision regarding boy-girl relationships prior to marriage. The duty of marital fidelity falls more 6) heavily on Daughter's Inheritance the wife than on the husband. A wife's infidelity almost invariably merits her repudiation or divorce if she is not The early Filipinos and the non-Christian minority put to death together with her paramour. A husband's groups equally divide inheritanceproperty among their misbehavior seldom brings down upon him such severe male and female children. Distinction among the child- penalties. If fines are accepted, it is usually an aggrieved ren is based only on primogeniture and legitimacy. husband who collects, rarely an aggrieved wife. b) As Wives Although in some cases both husband and wife have 1) The Marriage Form and Divorce equal rights in this respect before the law, the impress­ ion is that in practice, it is harder for a wronged wife to On the whole, the early Filipinos practices either assert her rights. Besides, there is a polygamy in the more tendency to overlook common form of polygamy, or make little of a man's infidelities. or monogamy but with the acceptance of concubinage. The same may be said of the non-Christian ethnie 2) Division of Labor Between Husband and Wife groups. The Negrito, Mangyan and the Northern Luzon ethnic groups, except for the Isneg are generally mono- The woman contributesa large share to the support gamous. The Tinggian and Kalinga have a semi-legalized andmaintenanceof the family. She system of concubinage. performs the chores in the household which is her natural domain. These often include fetching water as well as tending of 22.# A Profile of Filipino Women chickens and pigs. Husbarxds generally supply the fire. c. As a Mother wood. -. As a Mother In the majority of cases, the woman bearm the burden The minority group woman as mother presents both a ofagriculturalproduction, once her husband has cleared negative and a positive aspect. the field, piowed or softened the earth, or built the Her practice of infanticide field walls. andabortion are both cases that imprint a negative mark on her. In the case of infanti­ cide, she is governed by custom and tradition. Abortion, Her typical activities include weaving cloth,spinning, and pottery-making. Sometimes she is involved on the other hand, seems to be practiced more for the sake in the of convenience since there are cases wherein the local trading of prcducts law of and wares, custom is pronounced against it. 3) Mutual Relatio-n3 Betweep Husband and Wife On the positive side, one notes that, once a child is welcome, a primitive mother lavishes on him the physical The existence of love between spouses cannot be care she knows how to provide, and imparts the instruc­ denied although one can more accurately say that the tions and training required by custom and tradition. relations between husband and wife are more basedon their mutual need for each other's services, specially The minority group mother, on the of the man or a woman's whole, has equal services. This leads, in some rights over her children as that of her husband. cases, to the subservience of the wife to her husband (Ilongot, Nabaioi, Blaan, Mt. Pinatubo, Negrito). The 2. In the Community more general impression however is that, whoever is the head of the family, the wife has a big say i2 the a. Preparation household decisions. for Adult Membership in the Community 1) Initiation into Adulthood Usually, widows and widowers are subjected to more or less the same mourning regulations. Sometimes Primitive Filipino communities however, the widow is found to be subject recognize without to restrictions distinction the eventual incorporationinto community not imposed on a widowei. This is true of the inhabit- life of both young men and women. This is accomplished ants of Lepanto, and in some cases, the Ifugao, Subanun, by special rites, or, as is more common, simply by Bukidnon, Tiruray and Manobo, where the wife is con- manifesting an external sign of maturity, unon the sidered to belong to the husband's family and is there- arrival of a boy or a girl at the transition point in the fore at their disposition. ordinary process of growth. 4) Wife's Right to Own Property 2) Education Ethnic groups generally recognize a wife's rights to The purpose of education is to property to be equal to a husband's. imbue the individual There are cases with the local customs and traditions in such though where a manner in practice, the husband or his relatives that this transforms press a stronger his entire existence in terms of claim to more properly, as among the koeg titudes and ehair. Kalinga, and in some cases the Ifugao. The several wives in a plural marriage usually nave Both boys and girls are generally exposed to equal claims in this respect. Only the Kuluman the are purposeful or indirect attempts of the older generation reported to bypass wives other than the first, to inculcate adherence to group customs and traditions. 236 A Poe k of lipino Women Cu o HMinor fty Women 237 The learning of a few skills are particularly directed c. Role in Religious Ceremonies towards girls. 1) Her Functions Following Responsibility trainingof the young girl is usually a Death by performance of the specific activities. She is initiated The primitive into many of the chores in and around the house. and minority group woman is asalient Imitation feature in the quasi-religious of adults is another principal means of learn, ceremonies surrounding ing. Her participation in dancing and community the dead. She is consistently identified as a wailer singing mourner. or most probably is the consequence of Furthermo-, among the early Filipino and this imitative several pro non-Christiar ethnic groups, she is noted to c ess, as is ex p lic itly ch aracte ristic o f the B on toc and s e e o f artia re o f t he is Isneg and implicitly of other groups where su ch children are take not barred from community feasts, charge of particular phases of the ceremonies such as dressing the corpse, or preparing the grave. On the other hand, weaving, noted to be an exclusive 2) youngwoman's girl under Her Functions as Religious Practitioner job in mostthe guidance ethnic groups,and direction is learned of an by older the .Female religious practitioners are an element woman, usually her mother. to be consideredprimitive femalein the primitivereligious Filipinopractitionerscommunity. These b. Aduit Membership in the Community have certain characteristics. They act on a part-time basis and they are usually called to office duringmiddle age. The said practitioners are not The personal worth of women is recognized identified with in a organizedreligious an positive and negative sense. It is considered group. Only among the Ifugao is an positive, incipient when belonging to the same community, they aretreated form of graded and organized priesthood with noted. it is in a certain deference and respect, and with a pro- this group where women oractitioners tective belong to a religion different from attitude. It is negative, when, not belonging to and inferior to that theequality by of the men's official religion. same community,those who theydo notare distinguishtreated with men a fromcold The generality of female religious women and children. practitioners claim powersthe ability either to establish by actual possessioncontact with the supernatural There is very little regardfor the competence or when and In many in a trance. authority of women in public matters, ethnic groups, there are more female religious such inter- and practitioners intra-community relations and the understanding than men because women ate believed to of be more prone customs, law and ancestry. and easily worked up into trances and fits of possession. 2) Her Functions and Privileges Female participation in ceremonies of certain tribes where religious functions are more specialized Data gathered about the non-Christian minorities is limi­ recognize the primitive Filipino woman ted to the minor today to be the household rituals. It may be said that prestige and influence of the female religious prac­ competent as a midwife. This seems to bea"profession" titioners rest chiefly on her power to communicate that is deemed proper for a woman. They however, are with the supernatural. In many cases she is ignored ard seldom recognized to have the authority to govern nor even looked down upon when, mixed among and to represent any cause or group on an official basis. exercising living as an ordinaryher powers.member -Many of the community, she is authors remark that thenot 238 A Profile of Filipino Women Cultural Minority Women 239 effort and work she puts into the exercise of her office In order are not compensated enough materially, to be able to wear earrings, the woman pierces her ears and earlobes. Others use a small patch of bark cloth as part of the decoration in the earlobe. On the hair, are worn flowers. Bamboo combs 1. Physical Well-Being with colored feathers. Such 1. Physical Chreristis ornamentation (earrings, necklaces, other worn during reunions heads) are usually a) Physical Characteristics to show respect for the occasion as well as the people present. The Negrito women and graceful, and where impressesthe former a viewer as being erect has been accustomedCetnchnsindeighaeourdtteost Certain changes in dressing have occured at the onset to carry loads, she displays agraceful curvature ofthe spined of outside Full development in bulk and height is attained influences. Presently, single girls wear their tapis at the age upwomen under of seventeen arethe still armpits, bare from thus the covering their breasts. Married and menopause occurs not later than forty, waist up. Many women wear the saya and jacket like the Christians, but there is usually The average weight of the woman ranges from 70 to 90 complete lack of any kind of underwear. With pounds. It is mentioned that the female has the higher the absence of a jacket, the breasts are covered with a capacity to survive from malnutrition and disease when piece of cloth which is tied around the neck at the back. compared with her male counterpart. The skin color vary from dark to sooty, with the lips Young girls very often imP ate the Christians of age by wearing an ordinary girl's dress; their having a purplish tinge. On the average, women and instead of an are usually undershirt, they occasionally lighter in color than the men. wear a kind oftapis, especially when their dress is thin and the girls in question are of a A variety of hairstyles can be enco ntered among the certain age, say, ten years. They also paint faces with red paper available in the Chinese their lips and Negritos. Some individuals trim their h .r very short giving stores. Some­ times, a plant, the juice of which gives a bluish tinge is used. them a mannish appearance, while others wear their hair in a huge, uncombed mass. The women often trim or clip the The presence of lowlanders front hair close to the scalp, making an artificial hair-line, and foreigners have caused much of the changes in clothing habits as evidenced by b) Clothing and Ornamentation the fact that children who are accustomed to run around naked put on clothes, including panties in case of little girls, when outsiders are around. The dress of a Negrito woman consists of a waist-wrap, a loin wrap of bark cloth or, much less frequently, of c. Puberty and Menstruation imported trade cloth. It is a piece of material wide enough t' reach from the waist to a point somewhat above the knees, and long enough to be wrapped once around Menstruation usually occurs at the girl who has arrived at the the age of seventeen. A body and to fold over far enough at the left side to keepthe age of puberty manifests the following characteristics: her hair becomes "oily" (glossier and fizzles more) and her system begins to secrete a peculiar No woman wears a loincloth, leaving the buttocks bare. odor which prompts her to have tecourse Some old women in the mountains, however, wear a to the use of bark fragrant seeds as necklets or cloth strip which passes between the legs waist pendants, or both. and attaches to a Several prohibitions string around the waist: this is an issue of much amusement are practiced when a girl is mens­ truating. She must not be aroused with harsh words, for the young ladies. in­ auspicious news or given cause for her to be shocked ­ this 240 A Noffle of Filpmo Women CuturalMioruy Women is due to the percep:ion of the phenomenon as a miniature 241 menstrual period. During courtship, the girl parturition. During this period, she also abstains from cer. pretends to keep uo an unwilling appearance until the end. She is tain a ct iv ities su c h as p lan t ing an d m at w ea v ing. It is also c oy an s w i nify e r a sent , a nd ib believed that at such a time, she must be careful not to coy and slow to signiy her ,sssent, and accept betel nut (prepared in the usual way) from any it is of.'y by maje such little attentions and under since lumay (love potion) might have been placed in it. the influence of her mother that she comes to give her consent. Lumay is considered to be most effective during this period. The presence of songs in courtship is inevitable. The love song (aliri) is sang Since the occurence of menstruation in alternately by the boy and girl. g-rls is a sign The girl sings while walking that they are ready for marriage, preparations arc conducted. through the forest, while sitting down, whether werking or Among them are scarification and the chewing of idling, while lying a sub. down at night; although in theory stance to create an ebony color of the teeth. Other girls these verses should have their noses bored. be sung only at night and protracted until the girl agrees to or at least seems impressed by the proposal of the 2. Socialization Process boy. A sign of permanence to signify engagement The Negrito children get enculturated into society mainly triangularscar on is the through mythology the right arm of each couple. (songs, poems, riddles). In lullabies proverbs which pass frequently in daily conversations, andthe It is taboo for a bethrothed girl to be too familiar mothers unconsciously inculcate honesty, truthfuless and with the parents-in.law, as well as the other domestic virtues. members of the male's local group. Games are also engaged in by the girls. They imitate the grown-ups by setting up house and housekeeping. This can be 2) Acquisition of aBride seen in the existence of very small pack baskets used by the young girls as they mimic the work activities of thtir mothers. There are several ways of obtaining a bride. One is Besides play, the daughters also conduct by mutual agreement that is, the couple either starts act~ul work since living together or they often stay with their final agreements are made by the mothers and help in the domestic groom's work, especially in the Lare of the younger children whom they family. Child betrothal is practiced to a limited extent and so is elopement. Wife capture tote on their backs or straddle on their hips. is rare. For­ nication, when discovered (since it is frowned upon by the Sexual decorum is encouraged when girls of nubile age sleep Negrito), could also lead to marriage. This holds true for rape, too. (This proves aiAder compared to the with elderly wido.'s of the group or with female relatives; the traditional practice of killing the rapes,.) littleyoungtst girls childhood.never sleep with their brothers except in the years of Another method capture. of acquiring a wife is through-flight The girl is pursued by the man 3. Domestic Role into the woods. Marriagereturn to isthe considered community consummated if both do not on the a. Marriage Form same day. In some cases, the girl is led home for the wedding ceremony. 1) Courtship and Engagement Once the woman agrees to a marriage, abride price has to be paid before the wedding can take place. As An ordinary betrothal takes place after the first soon as this is settled, the bridegroom, in most cases, stays with his bride's family to render them service - 242 A Pros ofl w &,AoVoomn¢ ,2 he present. himself to his future mother-in.law and CUIU1M"womIf 243 helps her fetch water, pound rice and do other chores Sct ntmarges are charecterzed by the free choice indicated by her. This is rssorted to especially by risn of mate, "'the couple are p2rtners not only inlove but who cannot afford a good bride price. also i the sociaJ, economic and religious aspects of their lives" There is a A higher once Ls constant interchange of reciprocal Liven for i young marriageable goodwill and affection. woman than for a widow or a divorcee. If the bride price is already LIsen and the -xim s,-eks marriage with The wife accompanies another woman, he must forfeit the brde her husband everywhere. price in favor Both share burdens (e.g.. canying of the of the parenLs of the fir.tbride-to-be. children -­ In case of divorce, though the mother usually prefers to apart of onde price is returned, bear the yoLAgeC child; preparation of the betel nut). and other work 3) Wedding Ceremony such as weeding the farm plot, cleanng.diang planting corn and rice, hi..vesting crops and gatheringcamote. The. wedding ceremony is tsually held in the house vegetables. food and honey. of the oride. It is officiated by a native priest and Se-x between husband and wife is ducussed freely. attended by the parents of both couples as well as their kin. No intercourse may be attempted without the wife's free offer and con.sent - the act may be lengthened. interrupted or discontinued at her bidding. It isreasoned Th., man and the woman are considered maried out that the "wife conceives at the time the feels more after b.),h share food or drihik from one container. The desirous of intercourse" food c,)jld bc any of the following: water. wine. Wat. heart of a wild pig and honey, meat and a rice ball. Though monogamy is common, polygamy issome. times prc(ticed *rho wife's consent. An atmosphere of festivity prevails during which is rarely tl'e given. may be asked. Both the wife and children retain weddir., feast It is an occasion for dancing by all. possession of the hut in ca.e the husband leaves to set except the bride. The groom er es the women folk of up house with his concubine's. the gir ad has to bear up %%hth.. "..erry outspoken Adulter is reatly shunned as evidenced by the thestns" o. the females There exists a ritual whereby fact that the husband may kill both hiswife and her lover in case he catches them in the act. Other Aft. r the wedding. -oun.sel is given by ;he fathes- punish. ments for .dultery are whipping and the payment of in-law I he marriage is consummated dutwg the fust fines. settiemi-nt.night, and the honeymoon isheld in the bride's Dwr¢cnhpe ne the following conditions. uncoopefativeness on the part of either spous-e;cruelty, usually on the part of the huband; barrenness of the 4) Married Life wife; lack of food (very rare); infidelity. laziness of the Negro marriages newly rmarried counle arelive generallyfor a short monogamous time withi The h..I:,and; and :ncompatibility. The divorce retuns to the her people and awaiLs a bndew s lmarri d oup, l ve or short ti b t deinhee roomlo usy are har bored (e.g.,suitor d No resentment and jea. bride's local group, later they join the bridegroom's ivorced moth er can visit the children at her exhusband's encampment and in cw family group so th;.t ultimately th-: m.-'raie IspattiloceJ of sickness, tend incharacter. The girl even goes to the extent of severing them). aI reelbions %h the members of her own groups as to be close u)her husband who may come fr"rr a far remo.ed place fsatmrrwgc s allowed. Widows remarry with neo. by her islaws. She cannot mary a 244 A Prortle of Filipino Woman Cutumal H AOJy WOama 245 relative of her deceased husband since in-laws are con. 3) Birth and De,ery sidered to be within the range of marriage prohibition. When birth seems to be imminent, the husband and b. As Mothers perhaps the midwife stand by to help the wife deliver the child. In cases where there are no midwives, the 1) Conception and Pregnancy Negrito woman delivers the baby with the aid of the older women prewnt in the settlement. It is believed that the soul of an ancestrzl infant who died in the first moon of life is contained within a cer- With the onset of labor, other members of the tain variety of wild dove which enters into the expect- family and the neigl.bors offer their help by gathering ant mother. Thus, pregnancy occurs. medicinalherbs requested by the midwife. During labor, the mother lies on the mat in the corner of her hut. The Negrito woman, on the average, gets pregnant The lower part of her body is covered with an old flour at the age of seventeen. Special privileges are allowed sack or a blanket. She keeps herself covered and not pregnant won,an - one of these is the double share she even the females assisting her look under the blanket receives in everything since, they claim, she is two in or cloth. The mother's feet are tied to a log fastened to one. the floor to aid her in her exertions.

The conceiving mother, in turn, observes certain Delivery of the child is done in a sitting position. prohibitions. She refrains from carrying two identical While in labor, she leans against one of the posts; then, things at a time; otherwise, she might give birth to twins, she finally lies down at the moment of delivery. Only Food prohibitions consist of the following: meat of women surround the parturient, although the husband monkeys, pythons, monitor lizaras and the dwarf deer. stays nearby in case of emergency, or to provide some Breaking the taboo may cause the child in the womb article that is needed. to suffer from ulcers, peevishness and ill-temper later on. After delivery, the mother receives attention - she is made to rest ("lead a tranquil life"). Roots and herbs 2) Contraception and Abortion are boiled in water and she is made to drink aconcoction called pamoghat. Food taboo is again practiced so that Certain contraceptive practices are employed by the mother's milk will not turn sour. the Negrito woman. These consist of the following: drinking of the water from boiled malunggay(horsera- c. As Housewives dish tree) roots for temporary control; drinking of water from boiled roots of three varieties of trees; "Womenfodk bear the biggerbrunt of the day's toil due drinking of oil pre-scribcd and applied with the super- to the woman herself She loves to patter and putter around vision of a medicine man; and observance of an infer at all kinds of unnecessary trifles and seems to find pleasure tility ritual. even in drudgery. It is the idea that a woman's destiny, pri­ vilege and prerogative is to attend to her children and to her Abortion is resorted to by the following means: husband, and the woman seems to acquiesce in this area." putting pounded malunggay roots on top of a mother's belly for nine consecutive dayq and massage which is Together with disciplining the child, which is the task usually not desired due to the difficulty and excessive mostly left to the mother, cooking is in all cases women's pain it causes the mother. Thetask, husband,except on wife special and occasionsthe children when then the all men contribute take over. to 246 IProfre ofFiipi o Women C,,tu.d minoitY women 247 the work. Men generally assist their wives build the fire. Some Negrito women cultivate their own camote pat­ The food commonly prepared by the women are tubers ches which they themselves harvest. They generally remain at their village working the clearings and protecting which they "clean" from poison. The young girls pound the crops. This is also in consonance with the woman's function rice. Mothers also cut up meat into smaller pieces (cutting of childbirth and responsibilities of child-rearing. up of bigger parts are done by the husband) to cook for the children (men usually attend to roasting large game). Presently, in one resettled Negrito community, the women The Negrito woman often puts up the wind screen can be seen planting gabi, beans and ornamental hut plants in their yard in the early mornings (the dwelling) without the husband's help. and late after­ noons. For thosp housewives who would like to cultivate a larger plot for the vegetable The implement used by the wife is the bolo which she needs of the family, the settlement management has provided a plowed and cleaned carries with her hand rather than tucked in her waist. She also makes use of a general utility knife. When traveling to area where a wife may claim a plot to cultivate. The more common vegetables planted are tomatoes, eggplants, gabi gather food, moving the household, or when packing the and native onions. "kaingin" harvests back to the dwelling, she carries her pack basket. b. As Food Gatherers Presetly, women can beseen using needles for patching The women are often engaged in gathering torn clothing and replacing lost bottons. Cutting thread food and is small animals in the nearby forest, rivers done with the teeth, there being no scissors available, and streams. The latter consist of fruit bats, frogs, tadpoles, crabs, grubs. This search for edible snails and plrants, seeds, roots, fruits and 4. Economic Role tubers is left mainly to the woman. a. As Farmers Besides the plants and animals usually gathered, medi­ The wife considers the role of farm assistant a sign of cinal herbs are also prized for their usefulness. being faithful. She is the indispensable labor assistant to the husband in the farm - her absence could result in tre- Women have considerable endurance as mendous economic loss to the couple. Her absence reduces they can dig yams for hours with no complaint of fatigue. Digging the total labor force in the farm by around one-third indi- up of a large tuber from a depth of several feet out cating a similar amount of %'rmwoik loss. This would of the soil of a virgin forest is a formidable task and takes hours mean a corresponding 33% decrease in production since and hours every so many days. However, this is considered farm production is largely contingent on labor rather than as oppor. tune time for social chatting, which is continued on techrology. From the time a wife conceives to the time during the preparation of the wild tubers for cooking (preparation she gives birth, she resigns from farm work for about four consists of washing, peeling, grating and rewashing). months. c. As Fishermen The role of the women and children in the farm is the The woman is also trained to fish, thus driving away of predators. To prevent crops from being she can be expected to be skilled in the use of hooks, nets, traps stolen, the woman first plants some seeds in the comer of and poisons. However, she is not allowed to handle the bagyay the field with her eyes close4, believing that a .hicf will not (fish gun). Instead she uses the fish spear. She has be able to see the mature crops. Light tasks such as planting cultivated the ability of catching small fish and crustaceans. and weeding are undertaken jointly by the family. 24 8 A ANr fl o f Fi pin o Wome n C tu raj Minory Wo e n 24 9 d. As Hunters Women oftheadwoan In ome instances, a woman may attain the position of through the influence of a recognized indivi­ drive the game toward a line of hunters. The women hold da the dogs until the proper moment when the latter are a leader of released. The females, as well as the children also the group. assist by A specific case occurred making noises to drive the animals to a wanted direction, among aNegtogroupresidig in Surigao. The municipal government (not a recognized In certain groups, women learn to hunt with bow and headman) chose a woman arrow as teenage girls - some who are considered to be barangay captain since she skilled, had land, property hunt quite frequently and are proud of their ability. and was to some extent literate. Cur­ Thisrently, appointment, she is the settlement'showever, official barangay is contrarv to the captain.Negrito The Negrito woman feels repulsion at the sight and requirements touch of the blood - it is feared that this might for leadership in a local goup. Thus, while to gestation, cause harm the matriarch geniture and genitory functions. Thus the men is obeyed by her ow, children and some of attend her immediate consanguine to hunting, hauling and cutting up of the game. relatives, her leadership is not recognized by all the family heads of the settlement. e. As Wage Earnert b. In Religious The Negrito Ceremonies woman presently cleaning hires herself camote fields, or as domestic help. The outformer for c.nsists Women can partake of weeding while the latter is only possible when in ceremonies sometimes aspriest­ esses (women shamans the hiring farfily lives near the settiernent. are considered lower mediums) and often as dancers. 5. Public Participation The following write-ip by an anthropologist shows the a. i polticsparticipation of the Negrito women: a. In politics "Among the Aeta of eastern Bulac,:.n, when Kadal, Women, the do not, as a very general rule, take part in the settlement thunder god, is angry of disputes between men or between men and at adultery and other wrong and women. thunder comes, They may sit around and listen and even express blood is taken from a cut in the leg; it their is mixed with water opinions occasionally, but their influence is not and later thrown in the direction at of the thunder, par with that of the r, an. "No Negrito man considen while a little of it is put on the pound women as having brains for such matters." for the wife of Kadai. Thesacrificeisoffered by women, but when the storm becomes worse the mtn cut them- selves, too." However, it is the wife of the "influential women man" that in trouble or in grievance first visit. An ethno­ grapher, in ageneral statement, says that a woman to have seems a certain standing in the community that depends on the influence ofher husband in the group. As mentioned initially, the grievances are first reported to the headman's wife by the women of the offended party, since men are said to excite easily and when they do an armed clash may result. VIII, CURRENT ACTIVITIES AND PROGRAMS

SUP4MARYfl

Current activities and progrw8n directif" affecting women include:

in the domestic area, a divorce 'aw; basedt on egalitarian groundfor petition I being pro­ posed by the UP Law Center and the fational, Commission on the Role of Womeq (NCRIW). Public reaction to the issue ispresently being gauged.

The Dephrtment "of Social Services and Devielopmenc isextendirg social assistance to young unmarried mothers.

In education, instructional module. on abomen's rolt have been developed, to be applied to all educational level. In the economic sector, labor legislation has provided for regional employment policies and compensation towards women workers. Maternity leave expenses have been transferred f'rom thr employees to the Social Security Systencr Legal and social welfare assistance are also' being extended to disadvantaged working women's groups such as prostitutes and do­ mnestic workers. Fentmle participation in labor unions is being encouraged.

251 252 A Profile The Bureau ofFilipino Women of Women and Minors under Current Activities and Programs 253 theThe Department ureatueof LaborWome specificallyapeeMinoner concerns The membership of the Katipunan women.itself with the needs andproblems of working gong Pilipina (KBP), comprising mostlyng Ba.of The National Manpower and Youth rural women, has grown to 10,000 since its Councilwoun. ThesProvides atioalapiowr tanigY h occupational training. A organizationin 1975. Its goals are the involve­ course evaluation, however, of its training ment of women in nationaldevelopment with. p rograms show s that these in the context of economic aretomainlymndirectedserthe tha woenself-reliance independence, togrme rathe tha woe aemployment f r l a c andan equalityeq li y withwt menm n inin law,a , The Institute for Philippine Culture, with and the home. It has initiated seminars on assistance from UNICEF,EAPRO, has started organizationand management of to organize community low-income women s groups to organizationsand leadership. develop their self-reliance and enhance their The National (NFWC) has Federation of Women's Clubs participation in nationaldevelopment. These approximately 1,263 chapter women will decide on their own specific pro- clubs undertaking projects closely identified jects to undertake and will evaluate theirper- with family needs such as sponsoringofsemi­ formance themselves, nars andworkshops for nursery class teachers, functional literacy, youth development, nutri- Various women's organizations have their tion, home industriesandconsumereducation. own specific programs geared to the develop- They are also engaged in community beauti­ fication. ment of women in the different aspectsof life. Its experience with Muslim women is that they are very cooperative but they The NCRW in collaboration and private with public agencies, serves as the national usually back out when men are included in the activities. Membership organization that will carry out locally the consists mainly of objectives of the InternationalWomen's Year. teachers and businesswomen. Rural The NCRW has so far have also joined, women concentrated most of usually in groups. its efforts in the appointmentof more qualified wome inpolicy-making bodies or decision- The Young Women Christians' making Association level positions and the elimination of (YWCA) alsohasnationwide discrimination affiliates.As early in the areas of legal rights and as 1950's it started reaching education. out to the rural It has yet to come up with a long areas to enable rural women range to activelyparti­ plan of action with specific objectives cipate in community development. and programs Its present that is based on a systematic thrust is the intensification of the and conscious leadership evaluation of specific problems trainingprogram to enable local associations of the majority of Filipino women and in to take a more active role in nationaldevelop­ accordance with the national development ment. plan of action. tion Theprovides Concepcion assistance Felix Memorial Founda- to the social The Civic Assembly ofWomen of the Philip. needs of ment of more qualified women female detainees. pines' (CAWP) major concern is thein appoint-policy- The Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC) making bodies and top level decision-making psi dis awomen. volunteeractivitiesare usuallyspearheaded positions. by Majority of its volunteers andperson­ nel are women. 254 A Profile of Filipino vomen "TheInternational Institute for Rural Recon. struction (IIRR) Current Actiuit and Proisau 255 runciaities(IR has apilta pilot project in two ptet in to nity projects, given the opportunities r,-ndin. munici4alities of Cavite to stitutional test ural social support. Using variousstrategiesof assistance such patterns. Although its Peoples S:hool as community organization been on-goEng for severalyears has pro,,idinebasic and nutrition, etc., trainingin sillsneeded hv groups most of the women's the barrio, women's have branched out to involvement in Novembe,involvement has been minim activities other than what they initially 1976, that a leadershipal. It was seminar only in c i te d The ha n w a the i it yparti­ t o forNromer, women cipated 1976,was conducted,c t atedership attended seminaimplement by 43 in. They have displayed the ability to women. which serve communitytheir needs Financial and cultural blocks to anddevelopment provide oppotuni­ projects ties for grassroots leaders to praclic women's participationhave been identified. acquired skills. Responses of gr uaps, even those coming The Population Center Foundation then e ecoy p (PCF) from the same communities, to similar p roposed oovi mi ingappreciativero e o w o inputs tw o p rojects. The first w ill de velop ofap community c it oworkers r e r differ.s i e Groupso thattaat the economic role of women by providing of and responsive to organization­arei o n ­ fnancial and technical assistance to groups of al traininghave been observed to be more rural u'omen to supplemeit suc­ their household cessful in initiatingand implementing commu­ nity projects with more active and thatearnings from secondary sustained will take them outsidesource the home of andincome will be in a form other participation ,lian the traditionalagricul- identified whichby preventtheir themembers. full participation Problems turaloccupation. The secondproposedproject of women revolve around their availability will explore because of conflict with theirrole performance work experiencethe andrelationships fertility. between female as o f n d with theiror kan as mother and "v sewife and their work the farm in or other economic need involvement. The Kapisanan to develop more income The n.- Kababaihang Pilipinas generatingactiv­ (KKP) has various developmental goals for itiesite is indicatedwome n since thi's i's apri.maryconcern women. of the women. Since itsorganization in 1971, ineBuits forganiaonin1971, the Philip. s trP p.a Comprehensive being legal reforms are presently proposedby the University of the Philip­ pine Business for Socia l Progress PBS p r ovid ed te c h nical and f i n ancial as s itanP)c e htaspio n e L awR oe of Wo mm ssion about 18 4 int egr a La nt r d th N t o al C m s ted p r oj e c ts that c at er to th e r o l e f vo abl i c re actionie ton the sp eci f by ceatng oraniingtime, ic need s of low income c om munities warnes, moivaing t h e r is e lao uesbl. n e fmen ­ by creating awareness, motivating, organizing hou'ever, miscellaneous legal reforms and training the residents to enable them to have been implemented in the governmen poverty.act t. on theirAlthough problems these and projects lift themselves are generally from oenrty. Athoug tente romity, A multi-disciplinary study open to the a gh ally proposal has entire community, (both males been am on th act ve arti ipa tsform presented by the Philippine Center for and females) , w omen 's group s are us u ally Agriculturalor iutu Researche Institute (inothen R oleandth e oftheWomAgrarianAen g rinrinR Rural Re-u ­ among the active participants. Development. An analysh of seven -PBSP-assistedprojects show the capabilityof women to act on their problems and actively participatein commu- 256 A ProAk of FiUpino Wo. TABLE VIIl-: REFERENDUM SCORE ON DIVORCE HELD IN 257 10 CITIES IN 1976.

A. Domestic Yes No Total Divorce Davao Cagaan33 d Oro21 125 40Philippines58 A proposed decree which has generated controvery in the Cagayan Philippines isLaw the Center provision presented which allows absoluteby the Univecsity divorce of the Tacloban 23 ain ground At present, Philippine on cer­ 36 59 Law merely allows legal separation or relative divorce which does not dissolve Cebu 26 the mar­ 13 39 riage ties. Husband and wife are simply lloil from each allowed to live separately 67 7 145the other. This legal separation may court on such be granted only by Iloilo 67 grounds as adultery on the part of the wifc Bacolod 32 78 145th or 20 52 and concubinage on the part of the husband, or an attempt by one spouse against the life of the others. Naga 31 (Civil Code Article 97). 45 76 Legaspi The proposed 62 • 89 decree would allow absolute divorce, Baguio 151 andthe severing that is, 22 not the liberalof the matrimonialkind ties based on restrictive Metro Manila 27 49 which prevails inthe grounds, 77 24 spouses would be free West. The divorced Metro---nila-77101 to get married a year after the divorce 24 ondecreed an by tie courts. In order is equal footing, insofar to place the husband and wife Total as the bases for 394 376 770 divorce are con­ cerned, the following are 51% 49% specified as the grounds for absolute divorce: (1) adultery or respondent having a paramour committed by the in any of the ways specified in the Revised Code; or (2) Penal an attempt by the respondent against the life cf the petitioner which amounts to attempted patricide Revised under the Penal Code; or (3) abandonment of the petitioner the respondent by without just cause for a period of three (3) secutive years con­ (Forum on Women's Rights n Phil. Law, 1977).

As anticipated, the proposed amendment on divorce has met stiff resistace from certain sectors the Catholic population of society, especially which forms a majority umthe pines. Opinion Philip surveys from different population have given varying results. (Ibid.).

Bulatao's (1977 nationwide st',ry on of women included the status and role a question on the legalization of divorce. The majority of both ale and female respondengs said "no" (78%); only 22%were in favor. 258 A Profile of Filipino Women CurrentActiuities and ProgrQUm 259 A survey by the Institute of Philippine Culture of middle A Committee has been created by the DEC to study the follow­ and lower class groups which included 357 respondents from ing additional reforms proposed by Commissioner Valisno: the Metro Manila area came up with the following proportion: 46% for and 54% against divorce (Cited by Hollnsteiner, - raising the literacy level of women and providing opportu. Forum on Women's Rights in Phil. Law, 1977). nities for continuing education. Several forums on women's rights have recently been con- - the appointment of women in the National Board of Educa. ducted in ten cities all over the country. Table VIII-1 shows tion (the education policy-making body) and mnre women the tabulation of opinions of those who attended the meeting in top level decision-making positions consiouring that which resulted in 51% "for" and 49% "against" divorce. It approximately 80%of the teachers are women. should be noted however, that the samplepopulationwas highly selective. Attendance in the forums comprised only those who C. Economic were actively interested in the issue. (Forum on Women's Rights in Phil. Law, 1977). 1. Employment Policies for Women 2. Unmarried Mothers The Department of Labor, with the NCRW, has prepared a draft of the proposed Presidential Decree amending the Labor The Department of Social Services and Development Code, specifically covering equal rights of men and (DSSD) provides social assistance to unmarried women for mothers of 24 employment, and the rights of working people (NCRW, 1975). years and below and their children. This is being done through the help of hospitals, and placement agencies. (Mrs. Gutierrez, DSW Program Analyst). Following the Constitutional provision regarding equal work opportunities, the new Labor Code (Nov. 1, 1974) pro­ hibits the commission of acts which shall "discriminate B. Education against any wonan with respect to terms and conditions of employ­ ment on account of her sex." Following Commissioner Mona Valisno's (NORW) proposal on the elimination of sexually-biased materials in the curricula, a semi- On remuneration, provision is made for equal pay to both nar-workshop on "optimizing the potantial of the Filipino women as men and women for work of equal value. Employers are further men's partners in development" was conducted in 1976 sponsored Prohibited from discharging women employees due to marriage by the Department of Education and Culture (DEC) and UNICEF. or pregnancy or refusing her admission upon returning The result was a set of instructional modules dealing to her with separate work for fear that she might again become pregnant or discharg. topics such as women's legal rights, women and education, women ing her to prevent her from enjoying any of the benefits provided and the law, etc. The materials ranged from the simple to the more in the Labor Code (Cited by Romero, 1977). detailed, the ranlge of difficulty adjusted to the elementary grades to college students. Based on the results of the evaluation of their As stipulated in Article 135 of the Labor Code, it is consi­ use in pilot schools, their adoption in the school curricula for the dered unlawful for an employer to require as a condition of three levels has been recommended (NCRW Annual Report, 1976). employment that a woman employee shall not get married, or to stipulate that upon getting married, One cannot help but wonder whether this she shall be considered is not just an addi- resigned or separated from the company (Ibid). In accordance tional requirement to an already crowded curriculum, where pupils with this article, it was ruled illegal for the Philippine seem tc devote less and less time to learning the basic Air­ skills of read. lines to dismiss stewardesses who get married. Such a policy, ing and writing. Has there been an analysis of the present curriculum according to Labor Secretary Bias Ople, not only violates as well as the capacity of the pupils to absorb additional subject Article 135 but also Article 134 of the Labor Code. The latter matter without sacrificing the acquisition of basic skills? article prohibits employers from discriminating against women 260 A Profile of Filipino Women Currnt Actiuities and Programs 261 housing loans offered by the Social Security System. This with respect to terms and conditions ot employment on account legal opportunity has led to the organization in October, of her sex. This ruling is a significant step in the national effort 1976 of a cooperative aimed at upgrading the entertain­ to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of em- ment profession and the social standing of its members ployment. (Ibid.). as well as their acquisition of legal benefits. ("QC hospitality 2. Equal Pay for Equal Work girls.. .", 1977). Mayor Adelina S. Rodriguez of Quezon City has initia­ Presidential Decree 985, entitled "Budgetary Decree on ted a project to establish a cooperative credit union for the Compensatioi ?-id Position Classification of 1976", provides a girls in order to give them economic stability, particularly government salary standardization and reform plan based on when they are too old for the business. Under the scheme, equal pay for equal work. This covers all positions in appropriate the hospitality girls will contribute to a general fund as clOsses and grades. The standardization of salaries is based on savings and borrow from that fund without collateral for the nature of responsibilities and the qualifications that the investment. job requires. The policies cover government employees and government-owned or controlled corporations. In addition, a The Quezon City Chamber of Commerce and Industry, salary-rating plan for teachers is included ("Government sala- an ties.. .," 1976). organization of some 120 business corporations and individual businessmen, has pledged to render its services in managing and supervising the organization of hospitality 3. Maternity Leave girls in the city who presently number about 2000 from some 100 establishments.

Another important reform involves the maternity leave withbenefit. pay,Outonly of six million women entitled 300,000 are actually enjoyingto maternitythis. Women leave was InconductedIsabela, ain one-weekorder to preparetraining and on givefood theand hospitality nutrition witpary , only 300,00r a ctualy e this. eofenWenefit girls better opportunities upon retirement rarely go out of their way to claim from the enter­ this benefit because of the tainment business and to develop their initiative in looking prospect of losing their job, natural timidity, and the lack of for other jobs ("Hostesses . . .," 1976). support from male-dominated unions (Seminar/Workshop on Working Women, 1976). As mentioned before, the high cost b) Domestic Help of this benefit prevents many employers from hiring women. As a solution, the Department of Labor has recommended the Recognizing the need to professionalize the services of conversion of the maternity leave benefit into a social security domestic helpers, the Bureau of Women and Minors had a scheme. This will relieve employers of the administrative costs special project in order to: a) inform them of their tights and thus eliminate employment discrimination. (DOL to imple- and benefits under the existing labor laws; b) inform them ment. . .,1976). A Presidential Decree signed on May 1, 1977 of their corresponding duties and obligations to their em­ has recently transformed the maternity leave benefit in the ployers; c) enable them to render better service to their private sector into a social security benefit ("Signs 7 decrees ...", employers 1977). and d) improve their status in society. The assis­ tance of other government agencies was solicited in setting up a "Workers' Welfare Center." This provided free training 4. Disadvantaged Working Women's Group. to qualified applicants who were awarded a certificate of training upon its completion. (Professionalism of House­ a) Prostitutes helps ... , 1972). 5. Female Labor Union Participation Presidential Decree No. 442 declares that bar girls are categorized as professionals and should enjoy working It has been mentionod that working women are relatively benefits such as sick, vacation, and maternity leaves and indifferent to participation in labor unions. Recognizing the 262 A Profile of Filipino Women Cun'wnt Activities and Programs 263 need for female participation and leadership in the trade union A listing of its non-agricultural skills training program and field, the Department of Labor sponsored a trade union wo- the number of trainees (in parentheses) for 1976 is as follows: men's seminar in 1973, with the cooper'tion of JSAID. The conference included 12 labor ministers in the Asian Region 1) Furniture technology (21) and qualified women nominees from the community who were 2) Youth re-seaman's training also active in their labor organizations. The seminar focused on 3) Handicraft skills practical aspects of population planning and development with. a) shellcraft in the reach of women workers. The seminar project has built-in b) cococraft (31) some limited follow-up activity into its design. (Cited in Role 4) Restructured Manpower Training Program of Women in the Phil.). a) automotive (31) b) basic electricity (22) 6. The Bureau of Women and Minors c) machine shop (10) 5) Skills Upgrading for Industry Workers The Bureau of Women and Minors was organized within a) television servicing ( 7) the Department of Labor to institutionalize the rising priority b) barangay electrician course (19) for women workers in the policies of the government. It is c) lineman course primarily concerned with the promotion of the general welfare 6 In-Plant Training Programs of women workers. Apart from safeguarding (30) the women work. al industrial sewing course (29) ers from possible exploitation, they also should be helped to "b) auto-electricty & tune-up course (12) cope with their enormous responsibilities at home and in their place of work. (Ibid.). Total (335)

To service the working youth, including young girls, the Following the pattern of sex-typed segregation of vocational bureau also works for the establishment of working youth cen- courses, it may be concluded that most of the NMYC training teiz in both urban and rural areas. These centers emphasize programs are primarily for males. training Only two .-­ ities: the handi. for the gainful employment of young girls. Such train- craft and the industrial sewing course ing programs, however, can so far are geared to women.. be done only at token levels. No data are available on male-female participation. Assum­ Tthehe biabor ureau force, hepes especiayto in tensify amng the trainin the out-of-schoolg of y ou ng w omyouth,en inma ingin thatat men a enand and women iwo men apply l for esex-typed­ tpea course-training,r ain ing , through such institutions as the National Manpower and Youth only 82 or Council, and the newly creited Department of Youth and 24% were females who belonged to the handicraft and sewing projects. Female participation in skills programs Sports.may ities gearedbe restricted due to the limited number of training activ­ to their present interests, which ultimately affects their LFPR. 7. NMYC Industrial Training Programs

The National Manpower and Youth Council (NMYC), D. Public Participation under the Department of Labor, initiates, supports and con­ ducts projects for youth development in coordination with A research plan was submitted on Dec. 29, 1976, by the Insti­ governmental and non-governmental agencies and educational tute of Philippine Culture (IPC) Ateneo de Manila University to and vocational institutions. (Phil. Atlas, 1975). With World the UNICEF-EAPRO (Eastern Asia Pacific Regional Office) Bank assistance, in it is establishing a nation-wide network of 12 connection with UNICEF's Programme on the regional Enhancement of manpower training centers. Women in Development in the Philippines. 264 A Profle of Hilpjno Women CurrentActilitles and Pr°rm=M 265 The research plan is focused on low-income women, both in b) Cebu: three organizations, with a total rural and of 300 members, urban areas. The specific objectives arc: were established. 1. Improving the capabilities of low-income women in organ- 1) Barrio Alaska - raising of fresh fruits and vegetables ized groups to identify priority needs, utilize existing re- and lamp-making projects. sources, negotiate and implement plans, and evaluate and monitor projects; 2) Barrio Campusao - the group has been organized, but 2. Increasing he contribution of low-income women towards no activity has been decided on. raising the le-'el of living of their families and communities 3) Barrio Luz - poultry-raising. by involving them in community activities, e.g. better health, nutrition, education, and other opportunities to c) Catanduanes: earn additional income; Trainors have been sent to train government workers in the area, who in turn, will organize and train the women. No organization has yet been identified or 3. Developing awareness and appreciation of women's role in established. community actions and their self-confidence and self-reli­ ance in assuming responsibility for managing community d) Legaspi: A group of prostitutes has been organized, al­ affairs; though no activity has been decided on. 4. Creating linkages between and among women's organiza­ tions or community groups, on the one hand, and govern- All these women participate in the chosen activity as a group, ment and private institutions, on the other, in order to and not as individuals. Part of the training of these women is on keep community organizations viable. the evaluation of their performance and effectivity by themselves. The main current problem involves that of getting research A significant feature of the project is that the low-income information from the groups of women. Since women would participate directly in the they have organized evaluation of the program, themselves, they have become aware of their They will be trained political bargaining to articulate their own data needs and to power. The IPC needs to evaluate establish a simple data-gathering analysis and the training program constantly storage system. All - however, the groups themselves refuse to give this they will manage themselves helpful informa­ with only minimal guidance from tion without corresponding financial remuneration community organization workers. Those from the fund­ who have the appropriate ing agency. (UNICEF-EAPRO and from interview skills will serve as with Carmen assistants on the broader sociological survey Santiago, IPC Project Director). under the supervision of a social scientist. The lack of cooperation of the women possibly reflects their It is not the success or failure of community actions that is the level of self-awareness, their understanding on the role of research concern of the project, but the participation of women for national and the need for their training in problem-solving. development. E. Organizational Programs The first phase, the exploration of the project, has been 1. National Commission on the Role of Women (NCRW) completed. Four demonstration sites have been established: The NCRW may be considered as the most comprehensive a) Kibawe, Bukidnon: consists of a para-medic team for eleven national women's organization. It was established by Presiden­ barrios. At present, there are 300 participants. tial Decree 633 on January 7, 1975 as the national women's 266 A Protile of Filipino Women CurrentActivities and Programs 267 organization to carry out locally the objectives of the Interna. involvement of women in local politics by having them tional Women's Year. Its full operation was effected in October elee o oe in l evelpoin s 1975. In order to reach all the possible sectors involved with elected or appointed to decision-making level positions and essential in carrying out Filipino women's activities, it in the barangays. works in collaboration with the following agencies: (1) Univer. sity of the Philippines Law Center (for legal reforms); (2) Kati- d. Commissioner Adelina Rodriguez is working towards punan ng Bagong Pilipina (for the integration of women in the establishment of models for community develop­ development programs); (3) Bureau of Women and Minors (for ment wh,..' women can be involved and integrated. the survey on the distribution of women in various positions); Pilot models have been in operation in the province of (4) University of the Philippines Population Institute;(5) Nutri- Rizal. tion Center of the Philippines; (6) Human Settlements Commis­ sion; (7) National Media Production Center (for a study on the e. A study is being proposed on "The Attitude of Women image of the Filipina in media). In addition to these major on Government Programs." (De Leon, 1976). governmental agencies, it hopes to involve the private sector for the implementation of their programs. (NCRW, 1975). 2. Civiz- Assembly of Women of the Philippines (CAWP) The NCRW reports some achievements in its first two years The CAWP is a non-government organization of profession. of operation. Although the NCRW has reportedly formulated al women which, for the past 30 years has been the coordinat.

a five-year plan of action, this is based on the world plan of ing body for 67 affiliated organizations all over the country action and does not seem to be based on a systematic and con- working for women's rights and greater involvement in nation­ scious evaluation of specific problems of women in the country building. and the national developmental plan of action. The CAWP's major concern is the appointment of more One major goal of the NCRW is the elimination of discrimi. qualified women in policy-making bodies and top level decision­ nation against women, particularly in the areas of legal rights, making positions in the government and private sectors. It has employment, and education. Some of its on-going activities are: succeeded slightly in opening the way for the appointment of more women into top positions. (NCRW, 1975). a. The NCRW has an on-going evaluation study of "Women's Performance in the Government Service." 3. Katipunan ng E-Ing Piipinas (KBP) (NCRW, 1975). The study is of two parts: a) the ratio of women to men in supervisory and administrative The KBP was organized in OctobEr, 1975. Its membership positions and b) the performance rating of women and has grown into 10,000, the majority of which are rural women. men in government service. Upon completion, the study will be extended to private establishments. Itstgos goals areethinovmtofw the involvement of womenennnaonldeop in national develop­ ment, within the context of economic independence and self­ b. NCRW Commissioners Cecilia Palma and Minerva Lau- reliance, as well as the promotion of equality of women with dico have been working closely with non-government- men in law, employment dicoabenizawiokng ose wthe npon-goment oKBP- has a National Executiveand the Council, hIme (Reyes,Provincial 1976). Council, The alligned organizations for the appointment of more MncpladBri onis qualified women in policy-making bodies and top level Municipal and Barrio Councils. decision-making positions in the government and private For the year 1975, KBP reported that at the national level, sectors, it has established membership in 17 provinces from Luzon and c. Commissioner Nora Petines, President of the Katipunan Visayas. In June, 1976, it launched one of its peace campaigns ngomga Barangay, has been working for a more dynamic by collecting signatures for the abolition of U.S. military bases. A total of35,000 signatures were collected. In September, 1976, 268 A Profile of Filipino Women KBP participated in the fund drive for the Mindanao quake Current Activities and Programa 269 victims. From the experience of NFWC, It has also started organizing the Katipunan ng Batang Muslim women usually Pilipino back out when men are (Association of Filipino Children) which they intend included in the activities. The Muslims never considered women as leaders. to fully accomplish in Jun, 1977. It may be worth noting, however, that Bai M. Plang, an outstanding female Muslim In the educational area, KBP has conducted 35 of ted 117 seminars its target. leader, has organized on the following topics: how to organize and 45 town clubs in Mindanao. There is sufficient participation too among women manage community organizations: community leadership KBP in is also upgrading the knowledge and political minority groups, particularly in the Igorot consciousness of and region, Cotabato, Lanao. Among them, the spirit of cooperation prevails, the people. In the past referendum -plebiscite, it launched several and for campaigns, disseminated n the e th of opea n r e tods . to reading materials and equip the voters with proper information. Theseposition campaigs papers were Between May 1974 held in the remote villages in the provinces of Bulacan, and April 1976, the NFWC engaged in Nueva activities to promote family Ecija, Tarlac, Pa panga, Cagayan, locos Sur, Isabela: responsibility, nursery classes, proper nutrition, community Cebu, Bataan, and Quezon. beautification and environmental sanitation, home industries, functional literacy, youth develop­ 4. National Federation of Women's Clubs (NFWC)metancos ment, and consumnereraai. affairs. Though its integrated program revolving The NFWC is an association of women's clubs throughout around family the country needs, the federation involved in civic activities. It implements its goals sponsored during this period several semi­ through nars and workshops: (1) nursery teachers various committees whose projects are closely identi- attended lectures and fied with family needs. discussions for eight successive Saturdays on music, drama, language, physical fitness, folk dancing, and home gardening; The chapter clubs include approximately 1,263 women's (2) resolutions from a nutritional campaign workshop clubs, NFWC on-going projects, became puericultur center, and family planning centers. one of which is "Operation Timbang" All (weighing of pre-school these were originally established as women's children) and the provision of a series main focus clubs, with the of seminars of activity depending on the needs of the respective on the nutritional value of food; (3) sessions on home industries graduated persons now engaged areas. in gainful occupations related to the skills they learned in (e.g., 75 women and girls from dressmaking thew sessions Membership at the NFWC is approximately 300,00). and tailoring classes; This 40 from food preservation). includes a cross-section of the female population, the of which are teachers. The businesswomen, however,majority are the The NFWC sustaining members of the organization. also helped plant trees around Plaza Dilao in Paco, Manila. sponsored an essayIt organized contest nursery classes outside Metro Manila, Participation among children on of rural women is not on an individual basis. the green revo­ They lution, participated in usually join in groups, when given the proper incentive. the survey conducted by the Bureau of Affiliation Women and Minors on is through the town clubs which extends into the working youth in school, and joined the in discussing the proposed barrio or village Consumer's Code (a project of the visor, clubs. Ms. Mendoza, the National Field Super- notes that barrio participation is greater when the Consumers Federation Groups) pres- camps and other places and its provisions in army dent of the local where consumer education is very chapter is the wife of a local official. She ch ndeu seems to be better able span to recruit local members due to a wider of social influence, and better access to means of much needed. commu- The local chapters nication and transportation, in other areas specialize in their own activities: In Negros, they manufacture food preserves; in Ma­ 270 A Profile of Filipino Women rinduque, they CurrentActivities have organized tourism facilities such as beach andProams 271 tion on a national scale and as pilot resorts, souvenir stores and projects to test the validity gao, and Iloilo, they tour guide service; in Bontoc, fu. concentrate on handicrafts; in Barrio San of the training scheme designed for this purpose. tion has met major The organiza­ Joaquin in Pasig, Rizal, difficulties in funding the training and pilot the NFWC in cooperation with the projects. PRRM and the local clubs, and has established community swine and poultry raising; the Rizal chapter gardens very active is especially 6. Concepcion in the area of education. Felix Memorial Found-ion Mary Mendoza). (From interview with Dr. Minerva Laudico, chairman of the Concepcion Felix 5. Young Women Christians' Association (YWCA) Memorialance to the Foundation, basic and special has underlined the need to give assist­ needs of the Correctional Institute The YWCA started in Manila in 1926. It has since organized the following then for Women. constituencies: 9 city associations, Services provided by the Foundation to rural cbds, 18 detainees of female rural clubs, 27estuent27 student Y(Clge ) 5Y otenhih the Manila City Jail are educational, vocational, Yrecreational, shoo), dation and geared to special has effected the separation ofneeds. men Inand addition, women the Foun. Membership20 Y buds (e leme ntary a prisoners is around 6,000ge 9 towomen. 1 2) an dIn 5 Metrocomm Manila,unity g roup s. there anda d thet eemployment are already 2,500 e p o m n of f policep l c women.o e ("Laudico.. " members. The majority of the members are .( L u i o . . . ,1976). 1 7 ) in Luzon and Visayas (Iloilo, Dumaguete, 7il Mindanao has Bacolod, Cebu). 7. only 2 local clubs, with less than 200 members. Philippine National Red Cross The PhilippineNational The aims of YWCA are: a) to build a Red Crass has involved the partici­ and girls; b) fellowship am ong women p ofationwomss in the to develop their social consciousness; c) to pa r and enhance their develop pation of appreciation and understanding of all people; women in the achievement of its goal of looking and d) to help them the health, safety after understand Jesus Christ. The programs of and welfare of the people. The success the YWCA organization has achieved consist of community development, leadership in the past years could largely be training teers and christian education, 9 in its fold. reached out As early as the 1 50's, the YWCA has to the rural areas of Pangasinan, Ilocos Region, Cebu and Mt. Province Records show to enable the rural women to actively that the greatest numberofRed Cross Volun­ participate in community teers are women, development. There are some female although, it would be difficult to quantify members how many have from cultural minority groups in Nueva participated in its activities over the years. Cotabato (approximate Vizcaya and Among number is not known). (Interview with its personnel, 79%of its service heads and Lily Cruzada, administrators are ch-pter National YWCA Administrative Office). Limited women. In the rank and file, womet, com­ funds have prevented prise 70%, Women the organization from its full and com- reportedly take the lead when it comes to munity-wide scale active participation in implementation of the projects. They relied the organization's humanitarian under­ on members and volunteers takings as in social to carry out the programs. Thus, work, nursing, blood program, disaster relief most operations, specialized volunteer projects of the YWCA are pioneering and service and hospital work. left to the corn- (Interview munity to continue. with Mrs. Baquirin). been is when An indication of how successfu! it has the members themselves extend the same services 8. Philippine Business for Social Progress to nearby barrios or outlying areas. The Philippine Business for Social Progress profit foundation established (PBSP) is a non­ In its 1974 national convention, a resolution in 1971 to provide assistance for was passed to social intensify the leadership training program of the YWCA which development projects which ainm to hep would help local associations take a more active o m i esoaeveet e Phiipp i toh el lows itincome i st­ development. role in national communities A three-year plan was drawn-up for implementa- all over the Philippines. PBSP channelits areance existing through agencies communitybse hassist engaged din proponent social development organizatio work which and 272 A Profile of Filipino Women equipped with CurrentActivities and the experience and expertise required for project Progrwm, 273 success. The In seven sitios where houses projects themselves are varied in scope and nature, are congested, the mothers but all resorted to are integrated programs that cater to the specific tin can gardening. Twenty four mothers are of the communities need involved in and that motivate, train and organize their the nursery program by preparing snacks. Eight residents to lift themselves sitios organized up from poverty. In the past five nutrition -ommittees and elected officers. years, PBSP The sitio officers has been deeply involved in 184 self-help projects, in turn formed the Banawa Nutrition benefiting low-income communities in the Cotivi, the officers of which are undergoing .mi39 provinces rural and urban areas training in and 21 cities all over the nation. On i motivation, leadership and organizational skills. ities include follow-up Their activ­ PBSP has also initiated two big prototype projects. of nutrition participants; conducting One of the nutrition is the lessons for other mothers; tapping resources. Applied Nutrition Project, which is now being two rural and two urban areas. An urban resettlementtested in in Carmona project assisted by PBSP also has nutrition as a component. Other trained nutrition mother leaders include munity Nutrition 15 Coin­ rated Aides (CNAs) who completed an integ­ Seven training in nutrition, organizational and leadership projects assisted by PBSP both technically and cially were finan. skills. Only analyzed to determine the extent of participation eleven are functioning because four later found by regular employment. women in tie projects. It is to be noted that Another 20 volunteer mother leaders in these participation trained projects is generally open to the entire community, as community nutrition educators (CNEs). have conducted They follow-up lessons in nutrition to 99 mothers a. Banawa Community Development and Applied and initiated Nutrition be a nutri-agri-industrial fair which turned Project (Banawa, Cebu City) - managed by a total community effort. The women undertake out to the Good She- projects other pherds Training Center, Inc. such as referral of malnourished preschoolers hospital maiwards, to This educational field trip, fund raising to is a unified development program (directly benefit- ing 600 families) which integrates nutrition finance their projects. Because of their inability education with and to read community organization, family life education write recipes, 27 participants who were illiterate augmentation and income pressed ex­ aimed at developing self-reliant families an interest and were provided with non-formal and education. All communities. have completed the first level consisting of 24 sessions. Records show that after 2-1/2 years of operation of first (end Participation quarter of 1977) mother's groups have been formed by the Banawa women in the project is in eight (out affected by their of ten assisted sitios) sitios numbering at least jobs and household chores, thus, atten­ 200 mothers dance in meetings or who have completed a series of nutrition les- similar activities is only 519a Drop­ sons. Another ping out or absenteeism 20 had training in health education and may also be due to interpersonal running are conflicts, distance the Banawa Health Center with technical assistance of training site and transportation prob­ from lems at night. volunteer doctors and medical/nursing schools. For their economic projects, problems are As a related primarily result of to lack of capital and limited market. in nutritiontraining in food trades and using recipes developed classes, 46 nutrition "graduates" are engaged in income b. Baao Applied Nutrition generating activities (in food trades). Another Program (Baao, CamarinesSur) ­ managed by the Archdiocesan Social Action 82 women Secretariat. in livestock/vegetableare earning through handicrafts; 21 are engaged production or vending while 15 tailors. are Thiis In addition to economic skills, training has a unified development program of low income provided to also been communities business management.these groups Office. in problem-solving hlave been elected. and small-scale consistin ofufive barrios, integrating commu­ economicnity organization and Christian with nutrition education/rehabilitation, provided Formation. Direct assistance is to 16 groups with 485 members, most of have participated in integrated seminars on self-awareness,whom 274 A Profile of Filipino Women CurrentActivities and Programs 275

motivation, group formation, leadership, nutrition, swine, pate in group activities due to household chores or work, raising, cooperatives and Christian Formation. Thirteen of poor interpersonal relations; poor health status of children, these community groups are women's groups, need for family planning, lack of materials like seeds, medi­ cine. For their income generating projects, the members Each barrio organized a "Samahan ng mga Ina" (Organ- verbalized the need for more training in managemert and ization of Mothers) and have elected sets of officers and formulated organizational policies and objectives. Initiated accounting. In general, the groups need more training in as nutrition groups, they continue to conduct regular meet- project planning, implementation and evaluation. Also, ans ntriionegro shecontuereditoonduct armet- more economic projects have to be developed since this is ings and solve problems encountered in the management of a primary concern of the majority. their nutrition rehabilitation centers or other projects like swine raising. Thirty mothers (Community Nutrition Aides) have been provided with the first two phases of leadership C. Kaunlaran Multi-Purpose Center Program (KIPC) - man­ training and they take charge of the regular weighing of aged by the Philippine Province of Good Shepherds, Inc. preschoolers, food rationing and follow-up of participants.

The membership of the mothers' organizations in the This is a unified development program for the Sta. Ana different barrios range from 31 to 95 members. Some mem- low income communities being implemented by the Kaun­ bers from each barrio have organized into smaller groups laran Multi-Purpose Center (KMPC) with assistance from (selda) for swine raising, rabbitry or other income generat- PBSP. ing activities like food trades. To date, nine swine raising seldas and four rabbitry groups have been formed and are Of the 33 groups directly assisted by KMPC as of mid­ regularly providing additional income to the mothers. To 1976, 11 are women's groups, consisting mostly of mothers cite one case, the first selda organized with five mothers with membership ranging from 9 to 30 for a total of 28 built a communal pig pen and borrowed money from the members. The women's groups were organized with initial Rural Bank for the operating expenses after having been activities centered mostly on nutrition education and trained on swine raising and simple management. Their rehabilitation of malnourished preschoolers. They have financial operations for the third cycle (prepared by the developed an awareness of their social responsibilities and group) show a monthly income of -P86.84 per participant have been involved in motivating other residents to partici­ or an income augmentation of at least 25 L At the end of pate in community projects, dissemination of information, its fourth cycle, the group will have completely repaid their training of others in economic skills, weighing ofprescre!­ Rural Bank loan plus they will own a sow. This group has ers, mobilization of other agencies for resources, take charge also been given additional training in financial management, of nutrition center operation, construction of Iasketball group building, leadership and organization skills. It serves court, land fill project and follow-up of land title. As they as a model to the other community residents and has been gain more skills and become more involved in projects, providing technical assistance to others. they themselves are able to identify family and community problems. The groups' interest has focused primarily on Other community projects undertaken by the mothers' income augmentation. Some of the women are members of organizations include fund raising for the improvement of various economic groups such as crochet workshop, and the chapel or assembly hall, or other community building; food trades. recruit and motivate others for the nutrition education and swine raising seminars; tap resources for road construction; As a part of the nutrition component of the KMIC and participate in cultural activities and backyard gardening. program, volunteer community nutrition aides (CNAs) and community nutrition educators (CNEs) have been trained. Some of the problems encountered or expressed by the Eight CNEs and 19 CNAs (all women) have remained active women are: inability to attend training seminars or partici- among those trained to provide services and training to the 276 A Profile of Filipino Women Curment Actiitesand Progrns 277 community. More specifically, the CNAs motivate other One of the CNAs/CNEs stands cut in particular. residents to participate in the nutrition Ame­ program by creating lita Corsino is a high school graduate in her late teens. In awareness on problems related to food, nutrition and health; addition to voluntary work as nutrition educator/aide, she collect and analyze data; conduct meetings to disseminate is also a youth leader, a Block Rosary leader, a choir mem­ nutrition information and motivate the people to solve ber and is skilled in embroidery. She has been trained as related problems (through nutrition education/rehabilita- research aide and collects part of the tion, economic research materials activity) and follow-up of participants, needed by PBS in the project documentation. Her training inputs include leadership, training as nutriLion aide/educa­ The CNEs have been conducting the series of nutrition tor and researcher, trainors' training. lessons to groups of community residents (usually mothers) consisting of nine lessons (about 1-1/2 hours each) on food selection, preparation, service, health and sanitation, nutri- d. Carrona Urban Resettlement Project tion monitoring. (Carmona,Cavite) ­ These CNEs have also been invited by managtd by the Tahanan Foundation, Inc. (TFI). other agencies to conduct nutrition orientation/education to other grassroots groups or even college students in uurs- Tl . Carmona Urban Resettlement Project ing and midwifery fulfills part schools and among community orguniza- of the main objective ofTFI and PBSP of assisting fio- tainees (professionals). depressed In effect, these leaders have and poverty-sticken communities in the Philippines by been trained and have taken over gradually the activities of developing social and economic opportunities. A review of the professional community nutritionist. its operations in 1976-77 shows that out of 31 groups directly assisted, 20 are women's groups. With the exception The nutritionist is being pulled out from the project by of one group, all of the women's groups were mid-1977. Her organized as functions have been assumed by the CNAs part of the applied nutrition programn with nutrition and CNEs who have joined educa­ a community nutrition council. tion and rehabilitation as their initial activities. The The main 20th function of this council is to plan, implement group was organized for an embroidery project. and evaluate nutrition and related activities in the commu­ nity. The council members are presently undergoing train- The nutrition program has been turned over to its parti­ ing but at the same time they are already being engaged in cipants in early 1976. All expenses to continue the program solving nutrition-related community problems. An example are now being undertaken by the Carmona residents. is a current problem of coordination The with an outside agency support of Tahanan to Ciese local nutrition groups has been regarding the rehabilitation of malnourished preschoole in the form of monitoring and consultancy, facilitated in the community. through the community workers program. The groups have shownof thesatisfactory social development results in It is noteworthy that except for two, the 25 CNAs and terms of their ability to actually sustain such projects as CNEs are actively involved with other community groups community drugstr, s (2); day care nurseries (2); straw like group of landless people, Barangay Women's Auxiliary embroidery cotta_ -raft; poultry/swine seldas or groups (as officer or Board of Director), officer of youth group or (4) and credit union. other community groups, nursery teacher, and economic project. The educational attainment of these leaders is The leaders of these groups have been trained in leader­ follows: ten with elementary schooling, nine with secondary ship, community organization; business management, education, aside five with college education and three with voca- from their technical training in nutrition, handicraft tional training. or live­ Constraints to volunteer work that have stock raising. Most of the mothers' .,ups have developed beenhouseholdidentifiedchores,by care these leaders are: economic of children and husband activity,c recordsa core of(of nutrition weights teachers/motivators;of preschoolers); mobilize are able res6urces to. keep and plan projects, including economic ones. 278 A Profile ofFilipino Women Current Activities and Programs 279 The embroidery industry has been turned over to the the rate paid by the sub-contractor. Board of Directors (consisting The women's groups of Carmona residents) to from the four barrios organized continue themselves into a federa­ operations of production, marketing and person. tion which nel supervision. Tahanan coordinates their activities and takes care of continues to provide supervision fiber processing, quality of financial management. control and contractual arrange­ ments. Although these women's groups have their own sets of officers, training inputs In addition to the above groups, were very minimal due to about 50% of the 45 the amount of time spent on tikiw groups or individuals to which financial weaving. This causes and technical assis. interpersonal problems within the tance groups, affecting their have been provided by the Small Business Assistance productivity. Program are women working as individuals, in partnership or as groups. The problems of the groups are primarily due to their work in the farm and their children (mostly The membership of one mothers' group went down toddlers) who have to be attended to. Some of the women are losing from 200 to 50 since the ration in nutrition was cut. The interest in weaving due to "rejects". The need for a quality group felt that this is better since the 50 members are more supervisor has been identified yet no one wants to assume concerned with the group's activities rather than with the this responsibility because it means less earning. ration. For this and the other groups, there is further Some of need the officers have shown a lack of interest to learn to strengthen the members and groups through leadership tne man­ agement of the project. The members are so busy with and organizational-skills training inputs to the leaders. The weaving that development of other skills necessary group members also expressed difficulty in forming for groups social development has been overlooked. Training for income generating activities (IGA) inputs which delay their to improve interpersonal relations, organizational loan applications. On the other hand, and plan­ other groups still need ning skills are indicated to solve some group-building skills since they of the groups prob­ have weak organizational lems. It has been observed however, structures. The IGAs need more stable markets that among the 'our and addi- groups, the women are active where they have tional financial/marketing training of member is indicated, their hus­ band's support for the activities they are involved in. e. MRMF-San Simon Swine Breeding, Education and lrriga- Botolan ConsumerStore tion Project(San Simon, Pampanga) and Community EducationPro­ - managed by Mother ject (Botolan, Zambales) - managed Rosa Memorial Foundation. by the Sta. Monica Social Action Center (SMSAC). This is an integrated program which seeks to accelerate Since its establishment the total development three years ago, the SMSAC has of four barrios by providing rural undertaken the organization community groups of Homemakers Club (IvICs) with leadership and problem-solving in five low income skills to enable them barrios of Botolan in order to enhance to undertake socio-economic projects the education of the primarily tlrough women through cooperative activities. community education and business Presently there are management training inputs. five existing HMCs (one from each bar­ rio) which have organized themselves into a buying club or consumer cooperative with A women's group has been organized a membership of 378. At the in each barrio, end of the second year of the project with membership ranging from 10 to 50 members, (1976) the Buying totalling Club has increased its capital from -P7,000 to 110 women. They are actively engaged in tikiw (a kind P20,354 of worth of capital share. The buying club's primary concern weed used as weaving material) weaving with sustained is its registration as a pre-cooperative with the Department market outlets in Manila and other export firms. Each of Local Government and Community Development worker earns an average of P50.00 per week. This amount (DLGCD). The Board members are all aware of their duties goes up to -P100 if weaving is full-time and depending on and responsibilities. There is however a need to involve 280 A Profile of Filipino Women members in cooperative. the different committees Current Activitiesand Programs 281 of the consumer need,production. Aside from their simple most of them have branchedmain concern of economic community projects out into specific All of such as gardening, and the five HMCs have a core of about 20 members community who can plan beautification, nutrition and implement group activities. Group cohe. - to enable them to practice siveness could acquired skdlls and be observed in all the groups. The core group at the same time provide opportunities expressed the for group formation and the development interest tor more skills in planning and in. of concern for plementing income community issues. been trained generating projects. Four leaders have and are able to conduct seminars in their area. The Federation own Problems of H711C Officers have attended leader- which affect participation by the women their seasonal axe ship seminars but they need more inputs to develop work in the farm which affects their avail­ plan. ability for leadership training and continuity of their pro­ ning, organizational and problem solving skills. jects; too many children to care for; "rejects" of theirprod­ ucts; tion Otherof resources activities and undertaken by the HAICs are: lack of markets for products - all these coordination in relation to mobiliza-their day the members. Agricultural discourage care project, land for women who spend skills training is being initiated fill "I'ambak", communal gardening and time in the farm;products with more viable markets are being tailoring; income generating project identified. ments and communal gardening project.such as making gar. Women are also actively involved in eight Cooperative There Credit is a trend to involve male family heads in the Unions. Out of the 338 women members, are officers; the rest 12 (4%) activities of the are members of different committees. HMC which used to be dominated by women. g. Laguna Rura Development Women are also active in 13 Barrio Councils and Prototype (LRDP) - (43 bar- Development Councils. Barrio ment structures at the grassrootsThese constitute the self-govern­ rios in Loguna) - managed by PBSP. level. Twenty-eight per­ cent of the 75 women members are officers. LRDP is a prototype project for rural seeking development to test the use of the community organization The community development projects such approach (CO) scribed as those de. as the main external input in the development above have provided PBSP with very rich 43 contiguous of experience barrios into self-reliant communities. and insight into the various aspects and variables the Out of in the involved 88 core groups assisted, 21 are women and management of integrated development girls groups, madewhere programs awarewomen of aretheir active participants. After Five groups needs, these having been participated with 75 members in three barrios have women were in a series of training in nutrition, food preser- organized and trained motivated, lems. Most of to enable them to act on their prob­ them have branched out in interest from the vation, food trades, basic C.O. skills and tion. Seventy income augmenta- the activity they initially particpated in. With strong moti­ percent of the members are engaged in income vation, intensive generating activities. Twenty six potential training on technical skills; organizational, identified leaders have been leadership and problem-solving skil' as well as follow-up, from these groups and are undergoing in-depth the groups of women training as community nutrition aides. have displayed the ability to plan and implement community development projects which The not only serve their needs but remaining sixteen women's groups were organized also provide opportunities for grassroot mainly with economic activities as entry points. leaders to practice acquired skills. from embroidery, These range Comparing the different groups in the same sewing, to food preservation and livestock community, their performance differ regardless of the similarity of in­ 282 A Profile of Filipino Women Current Activitica and Programn 283 puts by the community workers. It has been observed that The People's groups that are appreciative of and responsive to organiza. Scho., provides basic training for barrio schol­ tional ars in skills which the barrios need. There training have generally succeeded in initiating and are presently 30 course offerings under four im plementing general areas: health, livelihood com m unity projects; the participation of edurseo na nd afourn e l o r e n group members is also more active and sustained, t education and culture, and self-government All the groups are primarily interested in and are asking After training, the RRC and makes sure that the trainingsupervises the scholars' activities for income generating projects. gained can be properly disse­ This usually serves as the minated binding to other barrio people. element for the group. Howover, the earnings from the income-genrating rate activities are often not commensu­ tc the time and effort devoted to the activity in view of some problems that have yet to be In the past, women's involvement in the People's School met, e.g., lack of has been minimal. quality control, irregular market, etc. Between economic In November 1976, a women;s leadership seminar was conducted attended by projects that provide low remuneration and farm work, two female representatives chosen by the RRC from each barrio. the women would rather do farm work. This is perhaps matter of necessity rather than by choice, since a farming A total of 43 activ.ties by the women can provide as much as a third women have undergone leadership training. of Most of them are 40 years the family income. This is also important in preserving of age, married, with an average of 5 children, have completed an elementary harmonious relationships between husband and wife. education, and belong to the lower class. As noted, absenteeism or dropping out from the The women's projects have been maily due to the need to fulfill respon, project falls under the training area of self­ government. The main objectives sibilities at home and in the farm or other are community leadership economic involve, and the mobilization ment of the women. Difficulties in mobilizing of the citizenry. Organizational and leader. resources ship skills are taught. have also been experienced so that alternative solutions One of the concrete objectives is the pro­ identified motion of income-producing projects such to solve basic needs and problems could not be ina- as poultry, piggery, plemented, such as the provision food-processing and preservation, and consumers' cooperatives of accessible and potable stores. water supply. (PBSP Projects Documentation). The women have been found to be even more responsive and 9. The International enthusiastic than the men in project promotion. These Institute forRuralReconstruction (IIRR) is women have started to organize themselves into groups. a private organization operating in the barrios of two munici- In the other training palities of Cavite. Its main purpose is to establish and areas, female participation is still mini­ test rural mal and limited to youth social patterns for extension at a nationwide programs, nutrition, literacy training level. and music groups. Financial and cultural problems have been The IIRR established the People's encountered. School or "Paaraan ng Cultural The former involves capitalization of projects. Anak Pawis" as a joint project with the barrio people. blocks are varied such as lack of awareness by the The IIRR women of thefr potentials provides the training staff and facilities for free. The for activities other than domestic; barrios, objections by the husbands on the other hand, to the wives' participation in activ­ have established the Rural Reconstruction ities outside the home; scheduling of activities in the home Committee (RRC), the member of mwhich were selected barrio council. The committee by the fields and the determines the specific needs of for social participation; and reluctance by the barrio and chooses the scholars to be sent to the people's women (those over 55 years of age) to participate in older ing and in community activities. the train­ school. They also take care of the scholars' domestic needs, for example, transportation educational and and meals, and Future plans surveillance over their property while they are away. for women include more in-depth leadership training program for officers of existing women's organizations 284 A Proftle of Filipino Womten explore the relationship CurrentActivities and who can in between female work Progarma 285 turn train their own members. The integration experience and interbarrio women's o fertility of women organization is projected (Interview wit in the Philippines by examining the sequen­ tial or simultaneous relationship between female Atty. C. Custodjo and Miss A. Tayao, June 23, 1977). work experi. ences, current work status and fertility. Data will be collected 10. PopulationCenterFoundation on the work histories of currently responds to married women, which cor­ the fertility history supplied in a pregnancy roster. The Population CenterFoundation(PCF), recently formu. 11. Additional lated a project Agencies Working with Rural Women Utilization, Jan. proposal (Womanpower Development 15, 1977), which considers women in theirand The following are additional eco nomic ro le as labor force particip ant. T agencies or programs focused components. he project has two the dolo win a tr ural aen . or wa s n o cv e The first is a policy research component which focuses on the on the development of rural women. analytical and empirical relationships among Data was not available tion of these programs. the determinants of female labor force participation, and fertility behavior. The second component earnings program is an action which will develop two pilot projects a) The biggest group of rural women's organizations to increase the Philippines in the is the RuralImprovement Clubs (RIC), earnings and labor force participation of women in the rural numberedsup which areas. The proposed project will give direct t o 40ra so v rez, 195) . hi r women assistance to rural in setting up and running small and numbered up to 4,000 as of 1975 (Alvarez, industries medium-sized activities 1975). Their that would involve a number of women include: the establishment of feedir; centers homes. outside their children for These are intended to supplement household of indigent prents; production of prious by providing earnings of preserved kinds a secondary source of income other than the more foods to be sold in their own cooperatives; traditional production of home industry forms of agricultural occupation (PCF, Jan. articles; training of rural 1977). 15, women by the home management technicians of the Bureau of1815 Agricultural home Extension and establishment economics classes in 1974 of This for rural organize project assumes that economic inputs are sufficient wives. and sustain women's group. Some of the points to the that b) The Kapisanan project should include in its documentation ngKababaihansaPilipinas(KKP) has the are: Consider- following ing developmental goals: the total implementation rolesthat women are still expected to perform their domestic fo agowin e fo m inspite of economic involvement, what would en olvem entti o n effect of be the of agrarian a planned attempt to take them outside their refod, the involvement of women in coopera­ to work, homes tives, mass in terms of marital relationships, fulfillment life-long education program, raising the salaries tional housekeeping of tradi- of teachers, and child-rearing activities? How provision of free secondary school education, the would a broad scholarship other members of the family be motivated program on the collegiate level for de­ part to take-over serving of the household responsibilities of the wife youths, the training of women in all fields to enable her citizenship, including to assume satisfactorily (without guilty feeling) leadership, consumerism, management, What her new role? tre, agricul­ is the level of income that they should earn science and technology, the extension of economic from such social health and project to make them opt for it over fanning7 services, improvement of working conditions successful How women, for would the project be, without the social the protection of working conditions for women, that will education the protection create the awareness among the women, of their rights, and the elemination of motivate racy and ilite­ them poverty through the organization of cottage to organize for an economic project and indus­ organizational management and leadership skills? train them on tries, providelivestock employment and vegetable raising projects which In Bulacan, the Kapisananand additional income. can Another ng Kababaihan study proposed by the PCF (Female Work Experi- sa Pilipinas has 100 members. ence and The organization has specific projects to Fertility in the Philippines, May 16, 1977) aims to 286 A rofile of Filipino Womn CurrentActuities and Programs 287 help its members become better off financially. As an e. Parents shall have equal rights example, some of the members have gathered and duties in matters relating sewing ma. to their children. In all cases, chines under oe roof to provide the interest of the children labor opportunities for shall be paramount. its members. (Reyes, 1976). f. Women shall have equal rights with men to seek for and c) The NCRW has established ties witji the Bulacan Faners' obtain dissolution of the marriage bond.(Source: UP Law Training Center for the training of rural women in modem Center). agriculture techniques and cooperdtives.

These proposed changes are presently being tested at public F. Legal forums. After an adequate sampling of public reaction, the final draft will be submitted by the UP Law Center and NCRW 1. Proposal for legal reforms to the President of the Philippines for appropriate action. As a result of an analysis of !aws affecting women, corre- So far, women in nine major cities have overwhelming support for the move to give indicated their sponding recommendations have been proposed to equalize them equal rights with men, particulary in laws involving marriage, the legal status of women with that of men. A draft amending inheritance, acquisition and disposition of property, the rearing and/or deleting discriminatory provisions for women in Philip. of children, and support of the family. ("Womenm back equal pine Laws, is presently being prepared rights.. by the University of the Bulletin Today, 1977). Philippine Law Center in cooperation with tie National Com. mission or the Role of Women. In 1976, these proposed legal reforms were taken up at Proposals to accord equal rights in law to women include thepublic sampling forums conducted in 11 cities in the country. Results of the following: survey indicated unanimous approval of the pro­ posed legal reforms except for the proposal on absolute divorce. a. In order that the rightful status of women in tme Filipino Therefore, the temporary exclusion of the absolute divorce provision from the caft of legal reforms to be covered by the wayproposed Presidential Decree isbeing considered by the NCRW obstacles to a shared and equal partnership between Filipino inorder to facilitate itsissuance men and women, all in1977. laws and provisions of laws which af. ford unequal treatment to women as regards their personal rights shall be repealed. 2. Miscellaneous reforms b. All appropriate measui-es shall be taken to ensure to women While the more comprehensive the rights to enter into the marriage state on equal draft proposals are still being with men. studied, only piecemeal reforms have taken effect. The majority of legal reforms for women have been centered around labor c. Women shall have equal rights and responsibilities during laws (See Economic Role and Status of Women). marriage, particularly with regards to the support and ma n- In other areas, a few reforms, tenance of the family. of very specific nature, are the following: d. Women, married or unmarried, shall mieistn o r ,aq njuieoy, haveddmip osequal of rightsan d i nhwith rita . Starting this ye ar, 1 977, the Burea u of men to acquire, administer, enjoy, dispose of and inherit Internal Rev enue is issuing separate income tax forms for property, including property acquired during marriage, husband and wife (Husbands, wives. . .,"Phil.DailyExpress, 1977) 288 A Prore of Filpino Womns Carrent Actbvitia wad Progrums 289 b. A former provision of the Civil Code stated that a wi. Development." Subjects that encompass dow who remarries would loose her authority over women's socioeconomic her status and role are the following: children, unless the deceased husband had provided his will that he allows his widow to marry again andin 1. A study of the employment, role expectations could continue exercising parental authority and aspirations children. over their of rural women: a. To ascertain the attitudes of the rural husband on their This discriminatory provision has been superceded by Article 17 wives' farm and non-farm employment. of the Child and Youth Welfare Code or b. To Presidential Decree No. 603, which took effect on June 10, 1975. From this date on, the surviving parent c. To determine the employment satisfaction of the rural - whether father or mother - .s given the right toexer. cise parental authority over the children ("Rights and women and how it Responsibilities.. .", 1976). relates to some attitudinal factors. 2. Women in farm and non-farm family decion-making: c. Until recently, the recruitment of members of the a. To determine the extent Women's Auxiliary Corps has been limited to unmarried of women's participation in decision-making related to farm women whose employment will be terminated in and non-management, case specifically on: various phases she gets married. Legal reforms have led to the cessation of production; use of inputs/ facilities; use of credit and income; savings/capital of the automatic termination from service of a "WAC" format. tion; selling crops/petty trading. who marries after five years o service (1teyes, 1977). b. To determine thesacio-economic comrlates ofparicipation d. Under Republic Act 3835, creating the Women's Auxil. i farm and non.farm activities. iary Corps (WAC) as a reserve component of the armed forces, 3. Womer a WAC member could only be promoted to the rank of major. Under Presidential Decree 1043, rank 3. Wo a. To study the savings and credit.related restriction to WAC members has been lifted, attitudes and prac­ and the tices of rural women. position of general is now open to women. (Cal, 1977. b. To determine the nature and extent of involvement of e. A Presidential Decree was signed on May 1, 1977, trans, women in institutional and noninstitutional creditdelivery ferring maternity leave pay to the Social Security systems in rural areas. System for those employed in private establishments. It is hoped that by doing so, more business workers. c. To establish a socioeconomic Previots to this, employers paid the maternity profile of women involved leave, in institutional credit systems. (Bulletin Today, May(Buleti 2,2 1977).d.T197).d. Tody, ay To find out ihow rural women may contribute more capital to rural formation and the development of efficient rural Proposed Study on "Role of Women in Rural Development" credit delivery and use. To make up for the lack of systematic studies on rural a multi-disciplinary women, 4. Women in agricultural marketing: study proposal has been presented by Philippine the a. To determine the Center for Agricultural Research and the Agrarian Re- participation of women in marketing form Institute farm products in the rural areas: as part of UP Los Babos on the "Role of Women in Rural of the labor force; and in the management of product dispoal. 290 A Profi of Filipino Women IX. REG b. Te womenevolve a plan of action to employ the potential of for greater marketing efficiency. BASED ON EMPIRICAL DATA ON THE 5. Participation of rural women in rural organizations: STATUS A OF a To establish WOMEN the socio-economic profile of women involved in the cooperative movement.

b. To determine the extent of their participation in coopera. ives.

c. To find out their involvement, expectations, experiences, and attitudes towards the cooperative mov- -nent. d. To evolve a plan of action so as to maximize their participa. tion in the cooperative movement.

6. Women in the implementation of Operation Land Transfer: a. To define the role played by women in the implementation of Operation and Land Transfer. b. To ascertain the interest of women in implementing the Operation Land T'ransfer. 7. Participation of rural "vomen in rural organizations: a. To ascertain the mocwa:on of rural women in joining and participating in govern;n.idtal field programs. SpJjIA RY b. To identify the variables women to participate. influencing the propensity of wome topartcipte.,.regions rural n ie of hegaigd pertaining to she statusp rti anda roleo gth of . c. To determine the nature and extent of their participation. lpd base on prild erevl 8. Participation of Rural Women in Politics: discused. Variables related to the vrious a. To ascertain the level of political awareness of rural women. domestic, aspects of economictheir live andiLe., public physical part'icipat well-being,'ion) b. To determine the attitudes of rural women toward political were broedo b egont The exist. participation.g conditions for women for each ren c. To determine the influence decisons of the family,iht of rural women on the political wie deciionsof te faily.Following othregioeohe n t e the eicompletion n of the regional d. To find out the nature and extent of political participation Drofes, the regions were ranked accordin to of rural women inthe communittheof ura wmenin hecomuniyby selectedexisting contiointdicators 'per'aor women .O a shown 292 A Profile of Filipino Women 293 REGIONAL PROFILES BASED ON EMPIRICAL DATA i.e., mean age (it marriage, fertility rate, atti- ON THE tude towards family planning and family size STATUS AND ROLE OF FILIPINO WOMEN preference; attendance at childbirth;house­ keeping time; migrationrate;literacy rate and NCEE mean score (General Scholastic Apti- REGION I: METRO MANILA (MM) tude); proportion in farming or working as unpadabo fore fmilyworer; prticpa-The unpaid family worker; labor force participa­ mean age at marriage of MM women is 24.5 as of 1973. Thtis tion. Each indicatorwas given an equalweight. is the second highest in the country. The average was arrived at by summing the ranks per region divided by the number of The main activity of 65.5% of married women i housekeeping. indicatorsused. The regionswere rankedto de- This is below the national average of 70.7%. Majority of the married termine thepriorityregions fordevelopment. women (54.6%) spend at least 8 hours a day, 29 days a month on their main activity of housekeeping. A slightly higher proportion of MM mar­ The regional profiles and their ranking are ned women (28.5%) than the ational average (25%) consider work as considered significant in view of the varying their main activity. conditions andneeds of women that arepecu­ liar to each region. This is in accordancewith The fertility rate as of 1968-197. was 4.08, the lowest in the the trend of the government to go into region- country. Corresponding family size preference (FSP) as of 1973 was 3.6 al planning and the identificationof priority children, also the lowest in the country. Family planning attitudes of areas for development. The regional profiles married women under 45 years (1973) were the most favorable among and their relative rankings could therefore all the regions. The correlation between attitudes, preferences, and serve as guidelines in the selection of priority actual fertility rates comes out favorably in the MM area, the most regions and in the planning and implementa- urbanized section in the country. tion of programs that would meet the develop­ mental needs and problems of women in each The previously mentioned late age at marriage plus the fact that a region as well as maximize the utilization of lower proportion of the married women remain as housekeepers may limited resoures available. contribute to the lower fertility patterns of Manila women. The ranking and weighted averages of the regions are as follows (The region with Considered as the medical center of the country, it is not surprising rank number one is considered the most that attendance of childbirth in Manila is done mostly by physicians "depressed" in terms of the women's existing (87%), compared to the national average of 24.6%. The rest of the conditions): deliveries are attended mostly by midwives (12%).

Rank I Cagayan Valley/Batanes 3.66 MM has the most number of female migrants.The main reason for Rank 2 Southern Mindanao 3.71 leaving the previous residence is marriage for 50.2%of the women, and Rank 3 Eastern Visayas 3.96 work for 12.5%. The reasons for choosing Metro Manila as their present Rank 4 Northern Mindanao 4.07 residence are mainly for family reasons (47.8%). Work reasons are cited Rank 5 Ilocos/Mt. Province 4.79 by only 5%. Rank 6 Bicol 5.65 Rank 7 Western Visayas 6.46 The literacy rate of married women (1973) in Metro Manila is the Rank 8 CentralLuzon 6.6 highest in the country (90.2%). The area also has the least proportion of Rank 9 Southern Luzon 7.57 women (4.5%) who had no schooling and the highest proportion of Rank 10 Metro Manila 8.55 college and doctoral level graduates (1.8%). The proportion of those 294 A Profle of Filipino Women R8 ionadPro le.s 295 who had finished only the primary and intermediate schooling (41%) is The only less than the national average data on hand regarding public participationis the mee­ (60.4%). bership in the Samahang Nayon (1975). The percentage ofManila female participation of 8.7, falls below the national average of 10.4. The In the NCEE subtests in 1973, Manila female students had the per. highest centage of female Samahan Nayon officers is 4.2, also below scores as compared with females in the other regions. In English the national average of 5.4. From this data, it would seem that and in the General Scholastic Aptitude tests (GSA), they scored the public participa. higher tion of Manila women is not very outstanding. than the Manila male students. Vocational trainingappears to be very limited. In the 1973 NDS, REGION I: ILOCOS AND MOUNTAIN PROVINCE Manila had the highest vocational percentage of married women (5%) who had training, although the duration was only for an average of The mean age at marriage of women in 9.47 months, this region is 22.6 years, which is relatively early, as compared to the national average of 23.7 The labor force participationrate in Manila was the highest among years. the regions in 1975 (19%); the national average was 34%. The least proportion of women reporting housekeeping as their The main activity (59.6%) is in this region. 1973 National Demographic Survey gathered specific data on the work patterns of married women. In Manila, 42.2% had worked Fertilityrate (1968-72) since marriage and 56%had not worked. At is below 5.52 the national average of 5.89. the time of the survey, two- The family size preference thirds of the married women (63.2%) were of 4.9 however, is greater than the national working. This figure, however, mean of 4.2 Favorable falls short of the national average of 66.7%. attitudesof marriedwomcn under45 towards A very large majority of family planning (64.5%) Manila women were employed in non-agriculture is slightly higher than the national average types of job (88%) com- (6i.9%). The region falls pared to the national average of 57.4%. The largest below the Manila area, as far as fertility pat­ proportion (25.7%) terns and attitudes are concerned. of Manila women were sales workers followed by professional/technical Nevertheless it is still more favorable than the national average. There is a congruence workers (17%); clerical workers (15%) and military/service/sports between family plan­ work- ning attitudes and actual fertility ers (14%). Sixty-one percent rates. was were salaried employees. This proportion very much greater than the national percentage (27%) of salaried employees. The place The majorityof childbirth cases are attended to by unlicensed mid­ home. This ties of work of the majority (63.9%) was away from up with previous information in which a lower propor- wives (36.2%), followed by licensed midwives (24.6%). The manner attendance of a fifth of all deliveries are either unstated or are attendedof tion of Manila women engaged in housekeeping as the main activity.The by persons other than health personnel or "hilot." majority of these women (65.8%) were not workin, in family enterprises. As to migration behavior of married women in this region (1973), As of 1973, the total cash income of the majority of women was less 41.7% report marriage as their reason for than 111000. This includes 70.7% of Manila women. This figure, leaving their previous resi­ dence, while 6.7% cite work. Both of these however, is less than the national average of 85.8% and represents percentages are below the least percentage of women in this income bracket among the national average of 44.7%and 12.5%, all the regions, the present residence are family rearonsrespectively. (35.7%), otherReasons reasons for choosing (19.5%) The highest income bracket (i10,000 or more) includes 0.7% of Manila and work reasons (3.7%). All these percentages also fall below the na­ women, the highest proportion among all the regions. Twenty-six per- tional mea~s. A large proportion (41.1%) had "no information." d cent of married MM women earn between P1,000 to'10,000. For non­ f re cash income, 66%of the women received less thantS50 higher than the The literacy rate of married women in this ar regionr optin (1973) is 68.8%, national average of 50%. the lowest in the country. It also has the biggest pn 19.%) e women without schooling (26% v.s. national average on." majority of married women have either no schooling (26%) or have only 296 A Profile of Filipino Women Regional Profiles 297 primary schooling (25.6%). The proportion of married women with REGION II: CAGAYAN VALLEY AND BATANES intermediate (29%), high school (11.3%) and college education (7.5%) fall below the national average of 31%, 14.6% and 9%, respectively. The mean age of women at marriagein Cagayan Valley and Batanes The proportion of females 6 to 14 years attendingschool (1970) is is 20.1, the lowest in the country. This may be a significant variable for 66.2%. Although this is reduced by more than one-half for the 15 to 24 bearingfertility years. determination, since early marriage lengthens the span of child­ age group, the 32.5% female enrolment in Ilocos region is the second highest among the regions and is higher than the national average of 28%. The fertility rate is 5.98, slightly greater than the national average of 5.89. Family size preference (4.6) is also slightly higher than the national figure (4.2). The NCEE scores of Ilocos females fall slightly below the national Approval of family planning is given by 50.3%of the female married population, much lower than the national average average, except in science, symbolic and verbal relations, and general of 62%. Thirty-one per cent of the women disapprove of it. scholastic aptitude. Compared with Ilocos males, the females scored higher in English, science, and GSA. The largest percentage of childbirths are attended by unlicensed midwives (42%). Another Only 1.9% of married women in the area have vocationaltraining, third (35%) of the deliveries either have no information on their manner of attendance or are attended for an average of 10.6 months, again lower than the national percentage to by other of 2.3%. non-health personnel. Both indicate a generally low level of development. In this region, we also have the greatest proportion of housekeepers (81.6). This may also influence the high fertility rate. The labor force participationrate (1975), 319, falls short of the national average of 34%. Fifty-two percent of the married women have The extent of female migrationin the area is worked, the biggest proportion among the regions. Although the area is not very big. In choos­ ing the present residence, the women in the area cited family predominantly rural, a greater proportion of married women reasons are in the (35.7%). This figure is lower than the national average. labor force ­ greater than the national average. Moreover, the region has the highest proportion (65.3%) of women employed in agricultural types The literacy rate of married women of jobs. At the time of the survey, 61.3% of the married in the region is 79.99, slightly women were higher than the Philippine mean and the second working, which is below the Philippine average of 66.7%. highest among the re­ Most of them gions. Ranking the regions in terms of women are under the category of unpaid family workers withoutschooling, Caga­ (39.5%) and self-em- yan ranks fifth from the lowest ployed workers (36.6%). Already these present a contrast with a figure of 13.5%. This is slightly to the LFPR lcwer than the national average of 14.6%. profile of urban Manila. The place of work for the majority is away The highest proportion of women (35%) have intermediate schooling, the second highest among from home, possibly in mne fields. The majority, 55.1%, are working in the regions. This same ranking holds true in terms of women with high the family eterprise, which is expected, since most of them are unpaid school education. However, this region has the lowest famly workers. " proportion of women with college education (4.9% vs. the national average of 9.15). A large majority, 92.3% have an annual cash income (1972) of less In the than P1000. For non-cash 1973 NCEE subtests, the scores of the girls in the region are income, 50.1% get less thant500. This figure lower than tallies with the national average. the over-all female averages. It ranks third from the lowest among the regions in the general scholastic aptitude score. Vocational training involves only The only data on hand regardingpublicparticipation 1.6% of married women (1973), which is lower is the member- than the national mean. ship in the Samahang Nayon (1975). The percentage of participation of Region II women is 8.4, which falls below the national average of 10.4. The labor force participation rate of women is 289, the The percentage of female officers is 3.9, also below the national average second of 5.4. lowest among the regions and very much below the Philippine average of 34%. The proportion of married women their first marriage is the lowest among the regionswho have(28.5%). worked Thus, since the 298 A Profile of Filipino Women RegfonalP-to- 299 70.4% who have not worked at all represents the highest proportion which is Manila. This may be due to the high proportion among all the regions. This may be tied up with the fact of rural wo­ that the largest men who combine housekeeping with farm work, prdportion of housewives is in this area. since Central Luzon is largely an agricultural region and is considered the rice granary of However, at the time of the survey, the highest percentage (75.8%) the country. of working wives were in this region. Since the 'areas are predominantly The literacy rate of married females in the region rural, the highest proportions of women working in agriculture as unpaid is 77.8%, very slightly below the national mean. A third of the women have interme­ family workers can be found in Cagayan Valley and Ilocos regions. The diate schooling, the third highest among the regions. A similar ranking place of work is mainly away from home. The biggest proportion of is achieved for the proportion of women with college education. In the women (61.5%) working in the family enterprise (presumably farming) NCEE subtests, all the scores fall below the national average. Vocational is in Cagayan. Possibly related to the unpaid family worker category is training includes 4.7% of the married women, twice as much as the the fact that the highest percentage (96%) of women among all the Philippine average of 2.3% and the second highest among the regions. regions, that are in the lowest (cash) income-bracket (below 1,000 in 1972) is in this area. Thirty-seven percent were receiving less than T500 The advantages of proximity to Manila are seen in these figures. annually in non-cash income (national average was 50%). The laborforce Participationin the Samahang Nayon is 3.5% (1975) in member- participationrate (1975) is 33%, almost equivalent to the national mean of 34%. Two-thirds of the women have ship and 2.4% in leadership which are among the lowest rates in the not worked country. since marriage. This is the second highest among the regions. The lowest proportion of women (58%) against the national average of 67%not working during the time of the survey is also in this region. The REGION IV: CENTRAL LUZON highest proportion of women workers in Central Luzon (39%) are sales workers working mainly away from home. Their averageself-employed cash in­ The area is about 30%urban, come (1973) is less than "P1,000(for 83.2%). The non-cash income of The mean age of women at marriageis 24.4 years, the third highest 37% of the women is in among the regions. The the lowest category (less than tSOO.00) while fertility rate is 5.75, less than the national another 21% earn from -500 to'3,999. average of 5.89. Family size preference corresponds exactly with the national mean of 4.2 children. Attitudes toward family planning are Participation in the Samahang Nayon generally favorable, with 71%of married is very minimal.- only women under 45 years approv- 3.9% of the membership are females. ing, the second highest among That only 1.8%of the Samahang the regions and higher than the Philippine Nayon officers in average. In this case, Central Luzon are women (the lowest among the we see a positive relation between attitude and regions) is indicative practice. of the poor participation of women in this region in community leadership positions. Majority of childbirthsare attended either by a midwife (35%) or by a physician (17%). With the exception of Manila, the lowest propor­ tion of deliveries by unlicensed midwives is in this region. This is almost REGION V: SOUTHERN LUZON equal to Southern Luzon. These ratios are clearly related to the proxi­ mity of these regions to Manila, the medical center of the country. The main activity of the marriedwomen is housekeeping, as report- The mean age of marriage of women ed by 75%of the women. This figure is higher than the national average in the region is 24 years, slightly higher than the national average of 23.7. Fertility rate and is the third highest among the regions. The women in this region (5.23) is lower than the country's average (5.89) while family size preference rank third (45%) from the lowest among those who spend at least eight (FSP) (4.3) closely corresponds with the national mean of 4.2. Approval hours a day on housekeeping. Another third of the women spend from of family planningis given by 66.8%of married women, higher than 5 to 8 hours only on housekeeping next to the highest ranking the region national average and the third highest among the regions. 300 A Profile of Filipino Women Regional Profiles 301 Majority of attendance at birth is performed either by licensed of 66.9% of the women were working during the survey period, which midwives (30.5%) or physicians (26%). With the exception of Manila, the lowest proportion of attendance at birth by unlicensed midwives is almost equal to the national average. These figures are positively can be found in Southern and Central Luzon.age proportion of married women of women and the high with college degree in this region. The All these factors: late age at marriage, relatively low fertility rates majority are self-employed sales workers. Their place of work is usually and FSP, acceptance of family planning, and childbirth attendance by away from home. health personnel may be a reflection of the high level of development The overage cash income of 80.6% of the working women is less in the area. Apart from Metro Manila, this region is the most urbanized than 1P1,000.00. This percentage is lower than the national average and geographic unit and the advantages of its proximity to this urban center is the second lowest among the regions. However, the 17% who earn are clearly indicated. ?1,000.00 to P10,000.00 is the second highest, next to Manila. Only 25.7% have a non-cash income of less than ?500.00 - which is half the Two-thirds of the married women in the area claim housekeeping national average of 50.1%and the lowest among the regions. to be their main activity. This is lower than the national average of Participationin the Samahang Nayon - 8.7%for membership and 70.7%and the third lowest among the regions. However, the proportion of women who spend at least eight hours on housekeeping (55.7%) is 4.2% for leadership is slightly less than the national figures of 10.4% and much higher than the national average of 49.6% and is the second high. 5.4%, respectively. est among the regions. A fifth of the women claim to have other activ. REGION VI: BICOL ities besides housekeeping. These may consist mostly of the rural wives who combine work in the farm since agriculture is also predominant in The region is predominantly rural (81 per cent). areas outside of the urban centers in this region. The women in the area marry at a very late age, 24.6 years - re­ There is a high rate of female migration into the area. The percent. presenting the highest age at marriage in the country. ages of women citing family reasons and marriage for migration (50%and Despite ihe reported late age at marriage and the second lowest 57%, respectively) represent-the highest figures in the country, family size preference (4) among the regions, the fertility rate in Bicol is 6.25, higher than the national average and the fourth highest among The literacy rate of married women in the region is 84.8%. This is the regions. This may be related to a rather low percentage of married highei than the nationalhighe.which average of 78.3%and the second highest among womeni.s wholower have than a favorable the Philippine attitude average towards of family62%and planning the third- lowest53.4% the regions. This is one of the regions with the lowest proportion of among the regions. This may in turn be correlated with the religiosity married women withot schooling. An equal proportion of married wo- of the people since this region is considered to be one of the more reli­ men completed either the primary or intermediate schooling (30.1%of gious regions in this country. Less favorable attitude towards family each). Southern Luzon ranks next toManila in the proportion of married women with at least college degree (11.1%, vs. the national average of 9.1%). The NCEE scores are either equivalent to or slightly lower than the Philippine averages. In the area of symbolic and verbal relations, the Considering that the area has a generally lower level of develop­ aend edo by ule em ii s( the iggest r female scores are eventionl higher tainng1.% than ofthemariedwomn, ncldesonlthe over-all female average.muh lwerattendedVoca- to by unlicensed midwives (53.6%) -- the biggest proportion tional training includes only 1.5% of the married women, a much lower throughout the country. Another fifth of the deliveries are either figure than the nationai average of 2.3%. attended by other non-health personnel or their manner of attendance than the are unspecified. Female labor force participationrate is 39%, a lot greater over-all percentage of 34%. This region has the third highest proportion of married women (45.6%) who have worked since theirmarriage.A total activityThe is proportion71.5%slightly of marriedhigher thanwomen the withnational housekeeping average of as70.7%. their main 302 A Prortfe of Filipino Women RegionalProfl" 303 One of the biggest outflow of f-.-..les is from the Bicol region. REGION VII: The WESTERN VISAYAS most often cited reasons for choosing their present residence marriage (45%) and family (38.5%). These figures are the national averages.Th are slightly lower than The average aerg age at marriage of females in this region (1973) is 23.1, slightly ag atm rig of em esi thsr i n 97 )s23 , less than the national average of 23.7. The literacy rate of married women is 78.3%, which corresponds exactly with Comparison of fertility patterns and attitudes the national figure. This region ranks second from the towards family plan­ lowest ning with the national mean resulted in among the regions (next to Manila) in the proportion of very small differences. Fertility women without married rate (5.91) is slightly higher schooling. It has the highest proportion of married than the national average (5.89). Family women who size preference (4.1) is almost equivalent completed intermediate education. However, the lowest to the national means. Appro­ val of family planningby married women proportion with high schooi education is in is slightly less (60.4%) than Bicol. The percentage of de overall average. married women with college degree (6.8%) is much tional average of 9.1%. This is inspite lower than the na­ of the reported presence of 41 Attendance institutions in Bicol offering collegiate education. at childbirth is 27.9%by physicians; 25.5%by licensed midwives and 29.4% by unlicensed midwives. The former is the second In the NCEE examinations the scores highest while the latter !s one of the lowest among in Bicol are either slightly may be attributed the regions. This lower or higher than the national average. The girls in to the presence of a number cf educational institu­ this region scored tions for health personnel higher than the over-all female population in English, in the urban centers of the region. sciences and In this region, there general scholastic aptitude. Vocational training is relatively is a slightly greater proportion of married good, with women whose main activity 3.7% of the women having availed of it, is housekeeping (72.1%), compared with which is higher than the national the national rate and the third highest among the regions. average of 70.7%. Slightly less than half of the married women (48.8%) are involved in this Labor force participation rate activity at least 29 days a month is 35%, slightly higher than the (almost national rate of 34%. Among the married women, everyday). This is the second lowest among the regions. only one-third worked also one of This is after marriage, much lower than the national the regions with the lower proportion of women with activ­ average of 40%. This is ities besides their correlated with the lower proportion of women main activity (12% vs. 16.7%national). Twenty three who completed higher percent report levels of education. work as their main activity, compared with the national During the mean of 25%. These figures indicate the potential of time of the survey, 70% of them were working, the the married women third higiest of Western Visayas for involvement in community activities among the regions. Th- highest percentage are in other than ture (26.2%), agricul- housekeeping and work. followed by production process workers (21%) and sales workers (18.8%). These women are mostly There is minimal female'migration into the area. engaged either in farming are due to That migrations family or marital reasons are cited by a third of the married (since Bicol is an agricultural area) or in handicraft m anufacturing and a e heo l o re gion citg sales, a predominant industry in this region. wst th r d o f rma i on vajority of the women are women, the self-employed, the highest proportion second lowest region citing thesmr asons. No information among the regions. One-half of or reason the women work away from home, the lowest is given by almost half of the migrant women. figure among the regions. The literacy rate of married women in the region is 76.3%, slightly The total cash income of the married women is less thanl1i,000.00 less than the or 85.3%, which is almost equal to the national figure. national average. This region has the highest proportion The average among the regions, with non-cash income is less than P500.00 for married women who completed only their 46.5%, below the national primary education figure of 50.1%. (37.1%). Together with those without schooling,half of the married women in Western Visayas can barely be considered lite- Membership in the SamahangNayon is rate. The 11.2% women in this region who finished high school is 8.4% while for leadership it in rank (to second is 3%. Both figures are below the Bicol, with 11% high school graduates) from the bottom. national means of 10.4% and 5.4%, Likewise, respectively, this is one of the regions with the least proportion of married women with college degree (5.9% vs. 9.1%) scores national mean). The NCEE of the females in the region are all below the national averages. 304 A Proft ofFipino Vocational Woman training is available to only 0.4% of the married women, Regional Profiea 305 one of oetheteo lowesttiof t perngs aailablton There is a lower percentage percentages in the country.the, . wkeeping 70.1%. (66.7%) of married women with hourme Closeas their to maina third activity, The of the marriedas compared with the Philippine mean labor force participationrate of the women in this of to the Philippine women (34%) isequivalent region (30.8%) mean. The majority of married port work as their main activity, re­ not work women (56.1%) did the second highest among the after marriage.This is slightly lower This is one of the regions where regions. of 57.7%. than the national inean the married women spend less days Sixty eight percent were working hours on housekeeping - third and The at the time of the survey, and second lowest, respectively, among highest proportion (42%) are in agriculture the regions. Aside from their (since most of them main activity, the highest ratio of women reside in rural areas) as self-employed who report involvement in other activities workers (45.5%) working away is in this region (26.3%vs. from home (66.1%) in family enterprises national average of 16.7%). (45.6%). One of the biggest outflow offemales is from Eastern Visayas. One­ The average annual cash income of married women is less than t1,000.00 for a big majority - 91%. third of the married This region has the highest propor- women chose their present residence tion of married women who earn an marital reasons, the lowest for family/ of estimated annual non-cash income among the regions which cite these less than P500. for migration. The larger reasons popui,ion of married women who othernities inreasons urban or give no information, either cite center, migrated to seek better opportu­ Participation in the Samahang Nayon, in particular, since however, is outstanding Manila. membership is 22.5%, more The literacy rate of second than the national avera 'e and the married women is 78.2%, which just highest among the regions. The mates the national average. approxi­ percentage of fer.ale leaders is This is the second region with the highest among all the regions (13.3%). proportion of married women the highest relate These figu-es positively cor- who completed only up to the primary with the greater availability of the level of education.Together married women of Western with the unschooled, they make up Visayas for married women who would 52%of activities other than housekeeping and work, be potential participants of non-formal education programs. This region also has the lowest proportions of mar­ ried women who completed their intermediate high school training. Although education or had post the percentage of women who obtained at least a college degree (7.9%) is lower than the national average (9.1%), REGION VIII: EASTERN VISAYAS nevertheless it is the fourth highest among the regions. mathematics,The -CEE scores abstract ofreasoning, females from Eastern Visayas are symbolic and very low. In This is one of the least developed regions in verbal re!ations, the Philippines. general and scholastic aptitude, the scores are the The mean lowest among all the age at marriage of women in this region regions. Vocational (1973) is 22.7 a trainingis available to 1.1% of years, less than rate lower than the national mean. the married women, the national average of 23.7. Labor force participationrate includes Fertility rate is greater than the national 30% of the women, and is the third average (6.33 vs. 5.89) a per­ highest among the regions. Family size centage lower than the country's - 4.1 however, preference (FSP) second average of 34%. This region has the approximates the Philippine mean. highest proportion of married towards family Favorable attitude women who have worked since planning(66.6%) exceeds the national marriage (52%. vs. 39.8%national). In this case, mean of 61.9%. It also ranks the second highest region there is a congruence between in the proportion of married women attitude. FSP and family planning working during the survey period Actual fertility rate, however, is much (73.6% vs. 66.7%national). The higher than expected. highest proportion of the women are agriculture (46.2%), whic'h is in not surprising since the principal means Childbirth attendance is 42.87%by of unlicensed midwives, the fourth livelihood in the area are farming highest among the regions. The other 4 of these women are self-employed and fishing. The highest proportion 0%are attended either by a phy- (43.3%) working away from sician or (71.3% the second highest home licensed midwife. among the regions) in family enterprises (48.4%). 306 A Profie of Filipino Women Regional Profiles 307 Total cash income of the married women is less than P1,00t for women's reasons for migration into this area are: family (42%), and 89% of the women, higher than the national mean of 85.8%. The esti. marriage (44.6%). As noted in the Philippine Atlas (1975), there is a mated non-cash income is less than "500 for 56.4%, the third highest high rate of migration into this region from the Luzon md Visayas. among the regions and higher than the national mean of 50.1%. The literacy rate of married women is 74.9%, lower than the na­ Female membership in the SamahangNayonis 8.7%, slightly high. tional average of 78.3%. Twenty-two per cent of the married women er than the national average while leadership position are occupied by have no schooling, the second highest among the regions. When added 2.9%of the women, only half as much as the national mean. to the proportion of women with primary education, half of the married women in Northern Mindanao may be considered as barely literate. This REGION IX: NORTHERN MINDANAO region also ranks second from the lowest in the proportion of married women with post high school or who completed college education. The

The mean age at marriage of the women in this region (1973) is NCEE scores in the region are some of the lowest, especially in English 22,3 years, less than the national average of 23.7. and Science, where the scores are the lowest among all the Vocational trainingamong married women is also the lowest amongregions. all The fertility pattern in this region represents the other extreme as the regions (0.2%). compared to Manila. Birth rates are high and regional attitudes corre­ spond .with this. Fertility rate (7.4) is the highest in the country. Corre­ spondingly, the Family Size Preference(5) is also the highest. Approval of family planning is given by 57.9% of the married women, a figure that The laborforce participationrate of married women is 33%, slightly is lower than the national average of 61.9% and the fourth lowest among lower than the Philippine average. The majority of married women in the regions. Twenty-one per cent express epproval, the second highest the area (61.1%) have not worked since marriage,a figure higher than among the regions. the national average of 57.7%. During the time of the survey, less mar­ ried women (64.3%) in this region than the Philippine average (66.7%) A large portion of childbirths are attended to by unlicensed mid- were reported working. A third of these women are concentrated in wives (45.87%), the third highest among the regions. Slightly overa third agriculture (33.7%), followed by an almost equal proportion (15.4% and of the deliveries (39.3%) are attended either by a physician or licensed 15.6%) in saleswork and craftswork. The highest proportion of women midwife. workers are self-employed (46% vs. 42% national). These women are undoubtedly in agriculture, since the regional economy is still basically There is a greater proportion of married women in Northern Min- agricultural. danao (73.9%) who report housekeeping as their main activity, when compared with the national average (70.7%). One-half of the married Half of the women work away from home, the second lowest pro­ women (the third lowest among the regions) report spending at least portion among the regions. Less than a third work in family enterprises 29 days a month in their main activity (housekeeping). Less than half (30.4% vs. national average of 44.1%), the second lowest among the (46.7% - the fourth lowest among the regions) spend at least eight hours regions, although the percentage of salaried married women employees on this activity. These women can afford to spend less time oa house- is one u" the lowest (11.3% vs. national average of 27%). What appears keeping inspite of the large family size presumably due to the Iresence to be con.radictory data seem to indicate that most married women of older children (daughters in particular) who assist in the perfnrmance work in tht. farm owned by others on a seasonal basis and may therefore of household chores, at the expense of missing their education-i oppor- not corsider themselves as salaried employees. tunities. The total annual cash 'ncome for 86.5% of the married women is The region has a high rate of married female migration.Presumahy, les than P1,000.00, almost equal to the national average of 85.8%. The these are the women who follow their husbands since the population estimated total non-cash income of one-half of these women is less than stream to Mindanao reportedly is dominated by males. Hence married P500, an almost equal proportion as the national average. Another 18% 308 A P koeof Fitipino Wonwe eg l Pna Us 309 of the women (the third highest among the regions) earn non-cash income tion. The proportion of married women with at least colege education of P500 to P3,999. is 7.4%, lower than the national mean of 9.1%. The NCEE scores are all lower than the national average scores. Vocational training in the area Female membership in the Samahang Nayon is 7.3%; those occupy. (2.2%) approximates the national avenge. ing leadership positions comprise 4.9%. Both figures are lower than the Labor forc total means of 10.4% and 5.4%, respectively. 27%, the lowest among aLl the regions. Two-thirds of the women have REGION )L SOUTHERN MINDANAO not worked since their marriage. AL toe time of the survey, 67.5% of the wives were working, a figure slightly higher than the national average The people of this region is comprised of a mixture of Mudim of 66.7%. Their area of activity are concentrated in agriculture (45%) tribes, Pagan tribes and Christian migrants. followed by sales work (20.6%). Forty-five per cent of the women are self-employed (national average was 42%). For 60%, the place The average age at marriage (1973) of work is 22.5 years lower than the is away from home. Half of these women worked in family enterprises. national average of 23.7. Although the family size preferrrce (4.1) coY. Total annual cash income of the mared women is less tan P1,000 for responds with the national mean, the fertility rate of 7.01 is nevertheless 90.4% of the women (vs. national mean of 85.8%), total annual non-cash the second highest in the country. The latter corresponds with the low- income is less than P500 for 45.8%of the population group. est proportion anong the regions of married women with favorable attitude towards family plarning (43% vs. 61.9% national mean). Ano- Female membership in the Samahang Nayon is the lowest among ther 26% of this population group expressed no opinion about thei all the regions (3.3%). Those in leadehip position is also relatively low attitude. (3.8% vs. 5.4% national figure).

Majority of childbirths in Southern Mindanao are attended by unlicensed midwives (51.7% vs. 34.3% national), the second lowest among the regions. Slightly over a third of the deliveries (39%) are attended by either a physician or licensed midwife.

The second highest proportion of married women whose main activity is housekeeping is in this region. Only a fifth report work as their main activity. This is the third lowest among the regions. Majority o,4 the married women speaJ at least eight hours (54.7%) a day, 29 days a month (60.7% vs the national average of 49.6% and 56.8%, respective­ ly) on housekeeping and are among the highest for te regions.

Migration into the region is also relatively high. Just like in Nor­ thern Mindanao, the married females migrate to this region for family (40.5%) and marital (43.8%) reasons, presumably with their husbands in search of better economic opportunities. Literacy rate of married females is 70.7%, lower than the Philippine average of 78.3% and the lowest among the regions. The proportions of married women without schooling and who completed primary educa­ tion, are the third highest among the regions. Together, they account for half of this population group. This region has the second lowest pro­ portion among the regions of married women with intermediate educa­ X. RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

Two types of recommendations are includ­ ed inthis section:

- Specific projects proposed in 1976 by Philippine organizations to an ESCAP eonaultant for a Regional Five Years Action Program on the Integration of Women in Veueiopment.

- Gtb getneral recommendations by various orgauiation or indididuals concerned upL4,4frgtck'ctopmtpt of

Both j~lcs ,,Ircwattw.naadlons cwi be better caluatcd IifAnqswr.t'an~e of refer­ ,~ner 5' protiihti by entiZPJan of action.

3u1 A.312 SpecificA o FJile of Fiipino Projects ProposedWomen to ESCAP in 1976 by various Philippine Organizato:b. bW Momecu t Study of Women C1oi Development-DLGCD).Managers of Agricultural Cooperatives 1. Non-formal education "Innovative (Department Non-formal Education of Local Government and Community Women" Project for Rural - Philippine Rural Reconstruction c. Training Resourcesgrams, e/o Dr. Josefa Movement, Human in Cooreratives DevelopmentMartinez, PRRM, San for Rural Women Enggd Leonardo, Nueva Agro-based i.0:1dicraft in Center, Non-Formal d. Technical Industries (DLGCD). Ecija, Education and Management Assistance Philippines. Pro. to Producers Coope- 2. Economic Projects Production, etc.) MASICAP, Department of Industry. e. a. Women Food Processing and Nutrition and Youth Involvement in Project in the Magalang Project, Economic Development Department of Agrarian Cooperative Reform, Quezon City, Settlement Project, Philippines. Department of Agrarian Reform, Quezon City, b. Philippines. Impact of Entrepreneurhip 4. Trade Workers National Manpower and YouthDevelopment Council (NMYC)Program on Women of the a. Training in Leadership for Women Trade andLabour Education Center). Unionists (Asiii c. Impact of Self-Employment Assistance Program Department of Social Services of the and Development on Mothers b. Training on Labour and One-Parent Laws and Legislation for Families. Workers (Mobile Courses Women - Asian Labour Education Center). d. Study of Impact of Entrepreneurship of the University Development Program of the 5. Agri-skills Philippines Institute of Small Industry (UPISSI) and NMYC on Rural Women, Scale corn production where worren e Training of are most active). of the Philippines,Women managers and Entrepreneurs UPISSI). Institute of Small (University Scale Industries -6. a.Legal Development of Mass-Media Materials f. Training to Disseminate Infor. of Women in Small industry Management(UPISSI). mation re Legal Rights g. Impact of Skills Training to Rural Women. and Vocational Programme 7. Health Preparation of the National 3. Cooperatives Manpower Youth Program 3. on CoperaivesHealth). a. Study and documentation of World Bank-assisted for Training of Project a. Production Rural Women as Midwives and Marketing Cooperative (Department of Buhi, tamarines for Women in Sur, c/o PBSP, 4th b. Evaluation Floor, Yutivo Bldg., Study of the Impact Educators of Women as Health Dasmarifias, Manila, Philippines in Rural Areas (Department . of Health). 314 A Profile o Filpino Women 8. Social Services Recommendation' 315 a. Technical Assistance to Strengthen on theJustice Status School Program and Improve the Pre. Lourdesof Women, Paredes, stated in a meeting with the Commission of NGO's Women's Organizations (NFWC). existinglaws the need for a serious on unmarried mo:hers and their children. study of ly, the law requires that paternal filiation Present­ b. Assistance to Multi-purpose Centers be established, which selling, Legal for Vocational Coun- Aid, etc. at the Municipal Level. is extremely difficult according Theautomatically to the given rules of evidence. burden offallssupportsolely - both moral on the motherand financial - so far C. Inter-Departmental (Ramos-Shahani, nomic Committee/Unit in the National Authority, on services for Women. Eco- 1972). 9. Cultural Mincfities/Disadvantaged Groups The following a. Handicrafts Production general recommendations Project amongT'boliTribal Women, to improve the educational status and role Lake Sebu, of Filipino women have been given: South Cotabato, c/o Passionist Priests. - Make education b. Functional Education relevant to the times, Project Amorg Muslim Women, cio based on the socio­ Dansalan College, Marawi City, Lanao cultural and economic del Sur. conditions inherent in the commu. nity; change attitudes in the direction c. Functional of development, with Education Project Among Igorot Women, c/o men and women in a partnership Archdiocese distinctions in the curricula. for progress; eliminate of Mountain Province, Baguio City. - Include d. Training in Organizational a literacy programs, especially Leaership Management for in the rural areas, basic lessons on citizenship, Muslim Rural Women. family life, nutrition, and community dynamics, ensuring e. Training of Rural that their presentation is Tribes Women from Muslin-, Areas and Ethnic consistent with the enhancement as Para-medics (Department of Health). goals. of women's status and - Set.up multi-purpose f. Study of Handicapped centers for vocational Women in Rural Areas (Department training, coun­ selling services, of Social Services and Development) legal aid, health and nutrition assistance, and resource materials which women caa avail B. GENERAL of. (The RECOMMENDATIONS by various organizations individuals concerned or Role of Women... with the development of Filipino women: ) 3. Economic 1. Domestic Family planning experts in the Philippines a. The National have urged the pino Women Workers,Tripartite Conference on the Status of Fili- Role of Women in held on April 25-27, 1975 (Cited liberalization of the law on abortion on the following grounds: the Phil.) made the following generalin a) when the recommendations: health and not only perilled by pregnancy, b) when conceptionthe life of a woman use of contraceptive; occurs despiteis theim­ c) when the mother is 1) Integrate labor financially unable law and social legislation in the school to support the unwanted curriculum starting at the high for legalization is not child. An outright recommendation school level. recommended due to continued objec- tions from the church, the 2) Have Philippines), lack of dta on abortion (in the the Department of Labor retain exercise the reluctance of most docLrs diction of juris­ to perform it, and over cases covering all workers includingprofes the "national conscience." sionals, rather than (Magno, 1977). transfer them to the Department of Education and Culture. 316 A Proli of Filipino Women 3) Place the supervision of teachers, nurses, and Pecommendation. other tunities for both men and women and 317 %yorkers employed by private institutions, the orientation of whether both sexes on the positive aspects prfit or non-profit, under the Department of broadening women's of Labor, options. These are expected to contribute with respect to terms and conditions of employment, to the evolution of more favorable opinions and attitudes towards working thir rights to organize themselves, bargain collectively, women and preserve harmonious domestic relations. and with respect to the adjucation of cases arising therefrom. It has been pointed out earlier that employment of 4) Hav, the Department of women may be an alternative to early marriage. Labor exercise strict super. served, for example, It is ob­ vision over the that unmarried women have more display of advertisements which are opportunities discriminatory to women. for employment than married women. Em­ ployers signified their preference fo- applicants who are single 5) Create a body to undertake a study of in 36 out of 40 positions. (Cited in Seminar/Work. all laws which shop,on Working Women, 1976). impose outright restrictions only on women but not on Uncrowded occupations present employment oppor­ men. tunities in which women's employment should be encour­ aged. These occupations, specified 6) Women should be allowed to work at night at their by a statistical table option, thus the presented by the Presidential Technical Staff, need to amend Article 129 of the New (bid). are as follows: Labor Code.

b..Training and Education b. Tainng nd Eucaionfields. -- Engineerng and related professional and technical Sandell .1972) points out that the burden of the risk Medical, dental, and related of providing training professional and technical for women can be shifted away from occupations. firms to appropriate public institutions. This can lead to a reduction of inequality of pay per unit of time, although it - Managers, administrators, and proprietors, wholesale may not lessen the possibility of discontinuity of work for anagetaie women. Therefore, the smaller market income earned by and retail. females would be due to reduced number of hours worked, - Farm managers, administrators, and overseers. rather than to lower pay per unit of time. In this case, the smaller income might be considered as a socially acceptable - Collectors, ticket sellers. inequality. (Cited in Mangahas-Jayme-Ho, 1976). The Seminar-Workshop on Working Women (1976) - General clerks, correspondence clerks, record clerks, proposed that steps be taken to org.aize a special program time-keepers, office agents, and related workers. of adult education for women workers with low educational attainment. They may be reach through their trade unions. - Wholesale and other saleswomen and related workers. It was however noted in another chapter that membership - Weavers of hats, mats, baskets, and related products of women in trade unions is very minimal, including broom workers, nipa hut workers, and other

c. Employment occupations.handicraft workers; spinners and workers in related

Developmental programs for women, according to lo- Food, beverage, and copra workers. (1977) should allow for the creation of employment oppor- Fod - Factorybeverp workers. 318 A Profled of Filipino Women Income Rcommendationh 3e9 There is required,The establishment has been an indifference by the public to equal but is generallyof service left centers for working women Secretary of to the discretion of the pay as an issue in Labor. It has been suggested that the respon. life. The need for the integration of women in economic educational campaigns has therefore sibility for the establishment been recognized be transferred from the of nurseries and service centers to promote the implementation of equal employers to health authorities or pay for. women civic groups (Role of Women in the Phil.). remind workers and for publicity campaigns to employers of their full obligations in this respect g. Disadvantged women's groups (Seminar/Workshop on Working Women, 1976). 1) The school teacher: The school teacher is the Measures have been recommended lowest discriminatory treatment in social securityto eliminate all particular schemes, in paid of all the professionals. Although concerning the payment of benefits, to phe oaaorityofes pionh femalesav comprise the position review the been lare of heads of families and single persons majority of teaches, promotions have been largely regards to entitlement with way of ofsocial benefits.(Seminar/Workshop improved salaries and increased chances of promotion, is needed. If teaching on continues to be an Working Women, 1976). cruitment unattractivewould suffer, profession forthus women, negatively the quality of re­ e. Promotion affecting the whole educational system in the country (Castillo, Hollnsteiner (PhiL. Daily Express, March 3, 1976) proposes 1976). an extension of women's domestic role as treasurer and their corresponding ability to handle family well, as agemnt fian,.s" 2) a good basis for their promotionpsitinswomen to financial Castillo (1976) further suggests that the welfare man- domesticin the upper of agement positions, helpers shouldand middlebe the sectorsconcern of of society. employed She also suggests that it would be interesting to study the f. Working social mobility (horizontal women's dual responsibilities helpers. and vertical) of domestic Several alternatives to ease the working wife's respon- 3) A proposal has been made sibilities at home and at work have been proposed to legalize prostitution, Seminar/Workshop by the on Working Women (1976): restrict the number of prostitutes,and register well as the men who hire their services ("A themway as 1) of Provision of part-time work or flexibility working time. controlling prostitution", 1976). 2) De%, lopment of and training in the use of time and labor-saving devices at home. In the 16th anniversary celebration of the Bureau ofin Womenthe Hospitality and Minors, a z. Industry"'ninar was on "Trade Unionism Undersecretary, Amado conducted. Labor 3) Alow some time off for faily emergencies, G. Inciong called on social entertainers to organize themselves as trade unions and The National Commission on the Role of proposed Women enhance the following: 1) the granting of paternity leave women's equality with men in work. Catalino and 2) the putting up of neighborhood Doronio, assistant secretary general nurseries instead of hospitality workers of the Trade Union Congress of the Philippinesto cooperate (TUCP) also called nurseries in factory sites. in propagating infor­on mation on the numerous benefits and rights of workers in this industry. The Bureau of Women and Minors 320 A Proffe ofFilipino Worten Reeommendationa 321 the hope that the Director, Lucina C. Alday, expizsed trade union of hospitality workers would become an (2) Amend the article which gives the husband affiliate of TUCP when its membership reaches 10,000, the sole prerogative to choose the family resi. a requirement of the TUCP for its affiliate ("Organize dence, in such a way that both husband and for better pay ... , 1976). wife decide for the best interest of the family.

Illo (1976) recommends that a condition for the (c) Parental auLnority smooth integration of women in the market economy calls for a change of attitudes among the males toward Equalize legal parental authority between housekeeping-sharing; womei,'s training for a well-pay- both parents regarding the care of children and the ing job; and their assurance of greater access to both administration of the children's property. institutional and non-institutional social services. (d) Property 4) Legal (1) Revise the article which makes the husband As a result of an analysis of existing laws affecting responsible for the support of the wife and women, the following recommendations have been the rest of the family, and the wife responsible proposed to equalize their legal status with that of men: for managing only the affairs of the houshold. Rather both spouses should be made co-respon­ (a) Marriage sible for maintaining family livelihood and managing household affairs. (1) Raise the age of consent to marry to 18 years for both males and females. (2) Revise the article with regards to the adminis­ tration of the conjugal property so as not to (2) Set the contracting capacity of the male and vest it automatically on the husband. female into marriage without parental consent at the same age, 23 for example. (3) Delete the article prohibiting the wife from acquiring any property by gratuitous title (3) Regarding mixed marriages, revise the article except from her close relatives. which supports male dominance as far as the choice of religious customs and rules is con- (4) The wife's consent is required before the hus­ cerned. band may sell or dispose of the real properties. Inasmuch as personal properties may be as (4) Revise the laws on citizenship concerning the substantial and valuable as real properties, if marriage between a Filipina and an alien. This not mors so, the consent of the wife should is only partially solved in the New Constitution likewise be a requisite for their disposition. (1973). (b) Residence (e) Women's right to work Give women equal freedom as the men to (1) Revise the rule which restricts the daughter's exercise their profession or engage in business. right to choose her place of residence below the age of 23. 322 A Pole of Filipino Women Xl. IMPLICATIONS FOR ACTION (f) Court suits PROGRAMS ' Since both husband and wife might eventually be held answerable for damages to their conjugal properties, it is more equitable to require that each spouse be enjoined in all suits against the other except if the subject matter is either the wife's or the husband's exclusive property or if the complaint is incidental to the profession in which either is engaged.

(g) Legal separation

(1) Revise the discriminating laws on annulment and legal separation, giving the women the same rights as men in this regard. (2) Allow divorce in certain cases (Note: Divorce proposal in Women's Domestic Role). (h) Widows

Revise the article which requires a widow to wait for 300 days before she can be issued a license for new marriage. A medical certificate can serve as proof that the applicant is not pregnant, and thus avoid confusion about paternity.

(Source of recommendations: Role-of Wa-men in the Philippines).

SUMMARY

... Based on insights gained from an analysis of empirical data on the status and role of Filipino women, some of their basicproblems and needs that prevent their effective partici­ pation in their own development were identi. fled These problems then served as the basis for formulating action recommendations for programs that should be given priority by decisionmakers andprogramplanners.

323 324 A Profie ofFVipino Women Implicationa forAction Prova"M 325 A. Conceptual Framework mental programs for women. This will prevent the planning and implementation of many well-intentioned programs that are un­ fortunately not attuned to the needs and problems of The phrase "development of women" is used in this report the target population. Rather than enhance, such within the context of creating the awareness of women to programs may deprive the the women of opportunities for self-development. need for their contribution to society and their potentials this; to do motivating them to develop these potentials; providing them the opportunities, B. Roles of Agencies capabilities and will to organize themselves to participate actively on a sustained basis in activities and projects that promote their development and meet their problems and In the formulation of needs. This includes the reduction or eaing up recommendations to meet the develop­ of the burden of mental needs of various their traditional tasks so that more time is created for theirinvolve- groups of women, considerations were given to the types of assistance ment with new economic and social activities; become functionally ually provided by USAID (agency which initiated the development literate, educated and self-reliant and consequently achieve greater of t profile), as well dignity as other possible organizations and institutions and status. An essential component of programs for that would enable the achievement of objectives for the improvement of the status women would be training, the center of which should be related farmto the and various tasks that they have to perform and of women. as community members. in the home, in the The ove Tegovrnment,t trough.thu itaiusits vario agencies,an' wuldwoul natural play the aua lead role in the development of women primarily the formulation through Efforts to develop women affect of policies, goals, objectives and plants of action not only the women, but also and budget the men. Therefore, planners allocation in the national development plan, for this of developmental programs for purpose. women should consider the women's Each government sector would then be in a position to characteristics and lifestyles incorporate prior to planning projects for women. objectives and programs in their respective plans. Such women's projects Legal reforms should then be integrated with those would require presidential action, but their imple­ of men in all sectors, rather mentation than isolated. This is also a recognition would be monitored by the respective sector charged of the need to change with males' roles in the process of enhancing the specific area of concern. For example, the practice the females' roles. The equal of development of women also requires employment opportunities would be the domain of the an integrated effort of the Depar. different sectors of the government ent of Labor. On the other hand, the Deparment of as well as non-government Education organizations in view of the complexity and Culture is the lead agency when it comes to the of the process that should formulation permeate and mobilize all levels of society, of guideliness, initiation and implementation on a nationwide basis of formal and non-formal education programs. If women are to become effective partners of men in nation- building, The National Commission on the specific strategies need to be developed to enable the Role of Women (NCRW), as the national machinery for policy formulation majority of women to assume more productive role. This and program plan­ majority ning for womei. should be is characterized by rural women living in relatively poor conditions in a position to formulate a national plan for women (with specific objectives whose need for assistance in terms of provisions of opportunities and activities) based on a systematic analysis of the and institutional support is much greater than priority problems and needs of women urban women, in relaticn to the Towards this end, recommendations are made as specific as possible national development plan of action; propose legal reforms to the different government and place greate emphasir on the development of rural women, sectors, coordinate efforts of the government and non-government organizations Some of the recommendations are in the form of innovative (NGOs) toward the development of women and provide and technical support to NGOs guidance projects for implementation with full documentation, the results designed to assist women. It has so far concentrated its efforts in proposing of which will serve as basis for the formulation of realistic legal reforms, in the develop- areas of educational curricula. 326 A Profile of Filipino Women Implication for Action Programa 327 The NCRW would be in a position to establish and activate the burden of women in the performance of their traditional a national clearing house for data on women. For example, a study role through the development of appropriate technology as this could easily be conducted if such will a clearing house exists, allow time for their active participation in developmental Financial and technical assistance might be provided by interested activities. international agencies with expertise in developing such a clearing 2. Functional education and training house and research function. The NGOs, in line with the national policies, programs and Provision of technical priorities for women's development, could serve and financial assistance for the as catalysts and implementation with documentation of innovative functional vehicles of change through the implementation of various programs education and training programs, the content of which will for women. The development and testing of innovative schemes relate to motivation activities to raise the level of conscious­ in specific geographical areas or with specific groups of women ness regarding their rights and responsibilities to the various could be another major contribution, tasks women have to perform in the home, in the farm and as C. Program Areas Recommended for Implementation community member: a. education and skills training for effective 1. Appropriate Technology community participati.on such as inter-personal relations, problem solving, leadership and organizational development and Development of and assistance to projects which apply management work simplification methods on activities of rural women at home, in the backyard and in the farm, including the appro- b. home management - work simplification, budgeting priate technology to lessen their domestic burdens, improve and lighten their household and farming activities. This would c. child also entail a survey of existing care appropriate technology for the d. food and nutrition - selection, preparation various and service tasks perforrrxd by rural women (including those from of food; monitoring other developing countries); determine of nutrition and health status of the how they can be family especially pre-school children: scientific production adopted locally and transferred to the target population. of high yielding and nutritious vegetables and livestock; Subsequently, training schemes should be developed and food preservation tested (with documentation) for the transfer of these skills to women and determine how these improve the fulfillment of e. basic health care - first aid, treatment of simple ailments, their different roles, as housekeeper, in child rearing; as farm propagation of common medicinal herbs, hygience and worker or as self-employed worker (e.g., managing a sari-sari store). sanitation f. family planning The need for this program is justified by the fact that women spend at least eight hours a day fulfilling their house- g. farming-scientific techniques of soil and fertility conserva­ keeping and childrearing activities. Often, the needed assistance tion, improvement and recycling of resources, use of appro­ is provided by girls who drop-out from school even before priate modernized tools completing their elementary education inorder to devote full­ time to household chores and help in the farm. The most h. economic skills - management of small scale business; frequently stated reason by rural women for absenteeism or preparation of feasibility studies dropping out from community projects is their work at home, in the farm or other income generating activities. Thus, easing i. legal rights and duties; citizenship training 328 A Prore of Filipino Women Implications for Action Programs 329 This program will also develop and test appropriate in. and problems, role and participation of rural women in such structional materials to enhance the effectivity of the non. overall developmental efforts (e.g., resettlement areas, land formal education program considering the use of multi-media reform areas); raise their level of consciousness on these pro­ and varied teaching techniques that have been found effective blems and needs; develop their potentials through motivation in training rural women in various skills, and training to actively participate in their solutions, consider­ ing their life-styles and characteristics. The training will equip This program is justified by the very limited education them with the basic knowledge, attitudes and skills to enable attained by most rural women, which is usually confined to them to organize for socio-economic development on a elementary education. Although counted among the literate sustained basis. It is envisioned that such a scheme will integrate population because of the possession of basic skills in reading various components as community organization, non-formal and writing, the functionality of these skills may be question- education; appropriate technology; training in home manage­ able. ment, health, nutrition, family planning, child care, farming and other income-generating skills. At the same time, services 3. Agricultural skills training and facilities for credit, social services and other institutional support will be provided

Provision of technical and financial assistance to imple­ ment and document projects training rural women in niodem This project will also study the extent and quality of scientific farming, on management, cooperative formation and participation of rural women in this project. What are the home management to enable them to combine efficiently reasons for their non-participation or participation; how can work in the household and farming their participation be enhanced; what are the types of organi­ zations and associations to which rural women belong; what is In rural areas, the majority of women also have to work the socio-cultural-economic profile of women who participate in the farm as unpaid family workers. Thus, marriage and more in community affairs compared to those who are simply family life necessarily have to be combined with daily farm engaged in domestic role or combination of domestic and work routine. However, the teaching of modern agricultural worker roles; what is the relationship between levels of parti­ methods have so far been directed to men only, thus creating cipation in community activities and variables such as fertility, a big drawback to the development of rural women's economic economic and educational status. participation. We have also seen that participation by women organi­ in developmental programs have been affected by their house- This program is justified in view of the dearth of hold and farm work. Through training in modern scientific zations that actually develop women as well as the need for agri-skills and home management, women will not only improve more factual data on how to improve their community parti­ their productivity but will also have more time available for cipation. If women are to become effective partners of men in involvement in other community activities. development, opportunities and institutional support should be provided for the enhancement of their potentials, consider­ ing the obstacles that have for a long time prevented their active participation in activities other than their traditional 4. Integrated rural development project ioles.

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Philippine "The Professionalization of Househelps, Taxi Dancers, Hostesses, Business for Sc-cial Progress (PBSP) Nutrition Economic Waitresses, and other Similar Callings." Bureau of Women and Survey Reports. 1977. MinorsDigest, v. 1, no. 4 (June, 1972), pp. 13-15. Philippine Business fer So.a: rc,jess (PBSP), Projects Documentation, "Quezon City hospitality girls Co-op 1973-1977. not labor union, mayor assures firms," Phil. Daily Express, v. 5, no. 281 (Feb. 10, 1977) p. 8. Philippine Center for Advance Studies, Interview with Ms. A.R. Lirm, "Quezon City hospitality girls to form cooperatives,"Phil. Daily Express, July, 1977. v. 5, no. 349 (April 1977), p. 9. 4 4 4 ~j.-

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.0> 4~~~C ''4 22 350 A Profde ofFlpinoWomen "Sixty.three countries Bibliogrph 351 relax abortion laws," Philippine Daily Express, Tidalgo, (August 30, 1976). R.L.P. "Wages and Wage Structure in the Philippines(1951­ 1959)." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Smith, P.C. "Philippine Nuptiality in the 20th Century," Population Institute, University 1975. of the Philippines, Research Paper SeriE Thorson, No. 73-3, April, 19 73a. I. ' Objectives for 'he Education o Women in the International Development StratF, for the Second Development Decade. Proceedings: Smith, P.C. "Assortive Mating on Education: Asian-South Pacific National Councils of Women. Urban and Rural Tables "Maximizing Women's for 1968." Research Note No. 2, University of the Philippines, Contribution to National and Regional Development." Manila, September 23-26, 1971, pp. 77.99. Population Institute, December 19, 1973b. Smith, P.C. "Births Averted vs. Marriage Averted: Some Preliminary Times Journal,(March 27, 1973), p. 1. Results from the Economic-Demographic Model," Research Note es Journl No. 4, 1974a. (Feb 1 1973) a, ruary , 9 Smith, P.C. "Demographic Profiles of the Filipina: An Approach to the Times Journal,(December 31, 1972) Analysis of Life Cycles," Population Institute, Philippines, Research University of the Note No. 9, June 8, 1974b. Tinker, I. "The Adverse Impact of Development on Women," in I. Tinker and M.B. Branson, Smith, P.C. "Distribution of population by age, sex, and marital status, eds., Women and World Development (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976). May 1973, urban-rural and regional patterns," Research Note. 19, University of the Philippines Population Institute, 1974. Tolentino, A.S. "You've come a long way, baby," Mod, v. 9, no. 232 (January 14, 1977), Social Indicators, v. 2, National Census and Statistics p. 42. 1970. Office, Manila, Tore, Nestor Jr., Manila Chronicle, March 11, 1972, p. 14. Stoodley. B.H. "Some aspect of Tagalog family structure." American Torrevillas-Suarez, D. "The doughty princess of Arakan." Philippine Anthropologist, v. 59 (1957), pp. 236-249. Panorama, (August 8, 1976). "Success of RP's family planning program cited." Philippine Daily Torrevillas-Suarez, D. Up the education -adder." Express, v. 5, no. 272, (February 1, 1977), p. PhilippinePanorama, 8. (January 26, 1975), pp. 8-9. Tamayo, M.B. "Muslim wives have come out of their sliellb?" Bulletin "A trend reverses: RP population now 41 Today, (August 20, 1976). million," New Philippines, V. 39,no. 1 (March 1976), pp. 34-35. "Ten Year Average growth rate of local employment hit 3.2%" Philip- "Two ladies speak on women's lib." Mod, v. pine Daily Express, v. 5, no. 209 9, no. 282 (January 14, (December 2, 1976). p. 12. 1977), p. 43. Tenazas, R.C.P. and Ramas, L.L. "A map of the better-known cultural UN "Regional consultation for Asia and the Far East on minorities of the Philippines." Philippine Quarterly of Cul:ure integration of women in development with special reference andSociety, V. 2, no. 1-2 (March-June 1974), pp. 3-4. to population factors:" Bangkok, Thailand, May 13-17, 1974. "These students prefer vocational courses." Philippine Daily Express, UN Pruject June 15, 1976. Document on a Regional Five-Year Plan on the Integration of Women in Development. ESCAP. Bangkok, Thailand, 1976. 352 A Profile o Filipino Women

UNICEF, BiblioPhy "Women and Development: Implications for UNICEF." 353 "Women's lib: the myths still die hard," EAPRO PlanningNewsletter, no. 8, (June, Philippines Daily Express 1974). (June 6, 1976) "Working Woman is making progress UNICEF. btsilhsaln a og. Women and Development: the UNICEF Perspective. Con- ference but still has a background paper for the World Conference of the Inter- long way to go." national Women's Year. Mexico City, Ph-ippi ' Daily Express, (January 8, 1975). June 19-July 2, 1975. Zaide, G.L. Republic of the Philippines, (History, Government and Valladolid, A.C. "The liberated Filipina: Redefining a difficult role." The Times Journal,(July 5, 1975), Civilization), (Manila: Red Book Store, 1963). p. 35. Zosa, I. "The Phil. Labor Force in the year 2000." In Wo.rkshop on Varias, "Determinants R. "Problems of unwed mothers." Sunday Times Variety of population growth in the year 2 000,"1POPulazion Center Foundation, April 21, 1977. (July 30, 1967), p. 15. Velez, M.C., ed. Images of the Filipina:a bibliography.Alaala Founda­ tion, 1975. Van-Furer-Haimendorf, C. "Hill Tribes of the Philippines and Northeast India: A ccmparative essay." In Modernization: Its Impact in the Philippines, V. Atineo de Manila University Press, Institute of Philippine Culture Papers No. 10, 1976, pp. 169-184. "A way of controlling prostritution," Mod, V. 9, no. 275, (November 26, 1976), p. 15.

Woman's Home Companion, January 10, 1974, pp. 8-10.

"Womanpower Development and Utilization," Population Center Foundation. (Project Proposal) 1977. "Women back equal rights move." Bullatin Today, v. 51, No. 26 (February 28, 1977), pp. 1 and 4. "Women Comm,--ion cites first year gains," Times Journal,(January 13, 1976). "Women in poll campaign," The Times Journal,(September 16, 1976).

"Women professionals outpacing the men?" PhilippineDaily Express, (January 7, 1976). 354 A Pwffie ofFdr..o Woma Bibliogaphy 355 BIBLIOGRAPHY: ON NEGRITO WOMEN BIBLIOGRAPHY: PHILIPPINE CULTURAL MINORITY GROUPS Cadelifia, Rowe V., "A DemographicArsessment ofShifting Cultivators Anima, N. Courtship in Negros Island, Philippines." Mimeographed. and MarriagePracticesAmong Philippine rbes. sity,Research, 1977. Extension and Dumaguete: Quezon City: Development Division, Silliman Univer- Omar Publications, 1975. Fernandez, C. and F. Lynch. The Tasaday:Cave-Dweling ers of South Cotobato. Food Gather­ Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo "Notes on the Beliefs and Practices of Contemporary Negritos and the Extent of Their Integration with the Lowland Christians de Manila, 1972 (Mimeo). in Keith, G.P. "Women's Life in Benguet Southern Negros." Philippine Quarterly Province". The Times Journal of Culture and Society (April 6, 1976). 2 (1-2): 47-60, 1977. Estioko, Agnes A. and P. Bion Griffin. "The Ebuked Aeta of North- Monroe, R.E. 'The Kalingas eastern Luzon." Philippine Quarterly and Betrothal" Bulletin Today, (June (1975), pp. 237-244. of Culture and Society. V3, 18, 1976). Padilla, T.M. "Kalinga woman - a beast of burden." Bulletin Today, Fox, Robert B., "The Pinatubo Negritos: Their Useful Material Culture." The Philippine Plants and (April 21, 1976). JournalofScience, V81, No. 34 Padilla, T.M. Kalinga women do most of the work." Bulletin Today (1952), pp. 173A14. (April 22, 1976). Garvan, John M., The Negritos of the Philippines.Eaited by Hermann Rosaldo, M.S. and L. Lampher, Hochegger. (Wien: Verlag Ferdinand Berger, 1964). eds. Women, Culture, and Society. Stanford University Press, 1974. Headland, Thomas N., "The Casiguran Dumagats Today and in 1936." VanFurerHeirendorf, Philippine Quarterly of Culture andSociety, V3 (1975), C. "Hill tribes of the Philippine and North­ pp. 245- east India: a comparative 257 essay", In Modernization: Its Impact in the Philippines. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Institute Maceda, Marcelino N., "Culture Change among a Mamanua Group of of Philippine Culture Northeastern Papers, No. 10, 1976, pp. 169-184. Mindanao." Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, V3 (1975), pp. 258-276. The Culture of the Mamanua (NortheastMindanao) as Compared with that of the Other Negritos of Southeast Asia. (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos), 1975. Vanoverbergh, Morica, C.I.C.M., "Negritos of Northern Luzon Again." Anthropos, V25 (1930), pp. 1-565. 356 Soc -ono , ko f 357 government tract of land,officials, was givenand to religious SOC1~NOM~ Ec PR FI E OF H until now, Filipino andgroups, partially retired military and HILppINES is one of the Spanish families. This system contributedJ tocountry's the most blems. unequal distributionserious agriculturalof land which, Probably the pro- The Philippines Spanish rule was most significant is one of the largest archipelagos the introduction of Christianity.and longlasting with approximately in the world In 1960,effect over of 7,100 islands and a land 80% of the Filipinos square kilometers. area of 300,090 were Roman Catholics, Only about 5% Muslim. 3W Protestant, and Eleven of the largest islands1,000 of (The Phil.: Priorities. constitutethese 95%islands of the total ,1976). (The Philippines:Priorities are populated.area. and ProspectsforDevelopment, Opposition to Spanish 1976; rule was present, but 1898 that the Philippines it %as only in was liberated from Spain, over to the Americaan. and handed Although American rule was ialatively B. Culturalh.ulturlIn Influences s anda BriefBshort Historical Background compared with that of the Spanish, it had The main impact on the social, a significant sources of Philippine culture economic and political life of the country. within the are the native culture One of archipelago, the Asian continent, extensive, its major contributions was contemporar the West, and the free, public, nonsectarian schoolthe establishment international scene (Ibid.). ually became system. English event­of an the sole medium of instruction language was relegated and the Filipino The original about 40%.of the as a minor subject of study. inhabitants of the islands population could speak In 1960 migrated thousands were Negritoes who English, 2% Spanish, Borneo, Sumatra, andof years ago and about 44%Tagalog, the Malaya. However,across landthe majority major Filipino dialect. population.isof Malay origin, bridges connectingof the The Phil. got her independence expected, from the U.S. in 1946. the cons'tity:tion was As modeled after that of the U.S., Islamic and Hindu traditions than much with a presidential government, and Indian merchants of the rest of Asia, Arab checked by the judiciary and a the first century B.C., began trading with and in the 14th centurythe Philippinesthe around Islam to Mineanao Arabs brought and the C. Regional Classification began trading with the PhilippinesSulu archipelago. of the Piilippin were over a thousandThe Chinese, years another important cultural influence. whoago, predominantly Western influence was The National Census and from over 300 years of pines Statistics Office classified the Philip­ almost Spanish colonial rule and into the recognized ten geographical half a century of American occupation 1972. regions from 1967 (The Phil.:Priorities The criteria used in this classification to the take into account varied considerations of geography, •..,1976). culture, economic condi­ The major political contribution tions, population, integration of the Spanish was and political administration. of the self-contained "barangay the into large "or villagecommunities In October, 1972, the Philippine municipalitiesto facilitate revenuecollections, Decree, government by Presidential law and order, maintain promulgated a reorganization and focus the local community regionalization plan which effected a new church. (Area Handbook; around the parish scheme for the country. Corpus, 1965). Another neation still classifies The new regional deli­ development under important the country into 11 geographical Sp h rule was the "encomienda" tive regions, but several administra­ The forerunner of the "haciendas" system, alterations were made. The or land o ..iership, which classification is included 1972 regional came to dominate rice later in Appendix B. (Phil. Atlas, and sugar cultivation. The "encomienda", Since most of the given 1975). a studies cited in this report were on the regional classification based prior to 1972, a detailed description 358 A Profile ofFilipino Woman Socio-Economi ofg 359

of the old classification win be given: REGION 2 ­ flocos Region and the Mountain Provinces REGION I - MANILA 25,766Northwestern km. and a Luzonpopulation represents of a total are of approximately The Manila Metropolitan are includes the 3,254,117 persons Manila. chartered cities of population in 1976. The Caloocan. Pasay. Quezon. and the municipalities density as of 1970, of the province registered Makati, of persons per at 71 Navotas, Malabon, San Mateo, Marikina, Pasig, sq. km., is low compared to the national density San Juan, and Pateros, of 122. The Mandaluyong. 1970 Census reported an urban population of 17.69% andNorte a andrural population of Manila least in the 82.30% Urbanization is highest in Ilocos has a total population of 1,330,788 on its land Mt. Province. of 39 square kilometers area Two distinct cultural (1970 Census). The city population is groups inhabit the region: the Ilocanos about 4 %of the national population. Manila md the Igorots or mountain people. Migration is the most 'rom the of the Ilocanos west has brought about the assimilation of most densely of the populatedpartof the country. nountain tribes in recent years. Among the 62 cities in the Philippines, Manila has the heaviest concentration Inspite of the relative of urban population. It is 100 per cent urban. scarcity of suitable land for cultivation, The population inc!udes iorthwestern Luzon 638,409 males and 685,021 females, is primarily an agriculturalregion. Rice is of which approximately 60% are within the he leading cash crop. The region 24 years and below iver ranks second to the Cagayan age bracket. Valley in the production of Virginia. leaf tobacco. pecialized The climate of the Mt. Provinces allows for the growing The literacy rate of the population is highest of many varieties of midlatitude vegetables a in Manila with riostscattered of the in region'sthe hills export which account for rating of 96% compared to the national average and valleyearnings. of Abra. Cattle On theand coastallivestock-raising total of 83%. Of the if Ilocos provinces population, 43% have attended or finished elementary Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union, fishing and salt-making school; re major occupations. 12% have gone Weaving is an important home industry to secondary schools; and 19% have pursued higher education. hroughout the region. Tagalog is the principallanguage of Manila (98% ) but English is also widely spoken (66%). EGION 3 - Cagayan Valley and Batanes The total population was 930,686 in 1976. The region is Manila residents are predominantly Catholic (94% redominantly rural ). Some 2% reas. Urbanization with only 15 per cent living in the urban belong to the Phil. Independent is highest in Isabela and least in Batanes. Kristo; and 2% to other denominations.Church; 2% to the Iglesia ni Agricultural is the main source of economy and the region Because of the industrialand commercial inks first in concentrationin the log production within the Luzon area. However, the city, 98% of the city's population are engaged ch resources of the region have not been fully occupations. in non-agricultural 'acts exploited. Large Major manufacturing establishments are scattered of arable land remain uncultivated and a vast area widely nd remains unexplored. of timber. in the city. The principal industrial plants in Manila The slow development of the land are­ include chiefly attributed coconut oil mills, sugar refineries, to the lack of transportation facilities. plants. A rapid rice mills, and hemp and cordage increase of industries producing consumer goods, such as flour, EGION 4 - Central Luzon been noted in textiles, canned goods, drugs, plastics, cigarettes recent years. Assembly plants for cars, trucks andhas The region occupiesr small steel products have also been established. toi land area of 23,646 sq. km. Its neral climate is characterized by two distinct seasons: dry from 360 A Profle of FWipino Women Socio-&onomie P'off 361 November to Aril and wet the rest of the year. The region lies The other is Pantabangan Dar, a infrastructure complex in the pathways of many typhoons so that it is usually devastated inaugura­ ted in 1974 which had increased the irrigation system for the by the strong winds and floods brought by the heavy precipitation. agricultural areas besides providing potable water for the settle­ The total population of the region is 4,321,018 in 1976. Four ments as well as electric service to many towns ii the region. ethno-linguistic groups have settled in the area: the Tagalogs, REGION 5 - Southern Luzon and Islands Ilocanos, Pampaguenos, and Pangasinenses. Almost 29% of the population reside in urban areas. Urbanization reported highest in B l acan and le as t in Bataan .T The region encompasses a total land area of 46,119 sq. h rei n e c p a s s a t t l a d a ea f 4 ,1 9 s .km. i. with a population of 6,827,377. Next to Manila, Region 5 is At the center the most urbanized of the region is the country's most expensive development geographic unit. Proximity to Manila and the area of lowlands known as the Central Plain area where of urban centers within the region contributed to the major the higher degree of urbanization. The agricultural activity of the region has been concentrated. inhabitants of the region A majority are basically mono-ethnic, except, for of the land is planted the possible exception of to "palay" (rice grain), the staple food of Palawan. the country. The region produces one-third of the palayproduction. country's The region has a fair share of mineral, forest, and marine There are scattered mountains in the resources as well as suitable land for agriculture. Central Plain area which rich fishiig grounds, and forest Mineral resources, provide logging operations and mining and quarrying. products have made a considerable Forest pro- contribution to the region's economy. duction, however, has been declining since the timber rescurces have been depleted through years of cutting without reforestation Outside the metropolitan areas, the region and the "kaingin" (forest-burning) system. Other forest isstillpredominantly product agricultural with rice, coconut and sugarcane such as bamboo and fruit trees as the important have earned revenue for the mvgion. agricultural products. Mining is a developing industry. The majority of metallic REGION 6 - Bicol Region deposits are found in the Zambales mountain mainly composed of chromite supplemented by copper deposits from the mines in The 1976 census reported a population Bataan. The majority of mineral reserves are non-me..llic of 3,178,615. This materials represents a population density of used for construction. Ceramics and refractory 168 persons per sq. km. The minerals and in- peninsular provinces are more populated dustrial materials are also found in all the provinces. than the insular provinces. Camarines Sur is the most populated (948,436) Catanduanes is the least populated (162,302). Four major rivers have provided areas for agriculture as rice The region is predominantly rural with 81%of the population residing in the rural areas as of 1970. lands, melon patches, and fishponds. In the coastal areas, fishing industry has augmented the inland fishpond production. The cultural environment is essentially homogeneous in cha­ racter, except for Masbate, A diversity of manufacturingindustries have been which serves as a kind of bridge between established the region and Eastern Visayas. Bicol because of the region's proximity to market centers is the mother tongue of in Manila. 77% of the population. Educational opportunities These include rice mills, sugar controls, lumber are good, having mills, and various 41 institutions giving collegiate education. handicraft industries. Two major projects, among others already operational, are The region has comparatively little mineral resources, but this expected to increase the economic productivity'of the region, is compensated by a largearableland area, extensive and rich fish­ One is the Mariveles Free Trade Zone in Bataan which will house ing grounds, and large coconut and abaca plantations.There are industries from large-scale to medium to cottage types in one area. several volcanoes in the region, the most famous of which is 36Z A P'ofleof Filipino Wonsan Sodo-EconomicProt 363 Mt. Mayon, which has the reputation of being the world's most perfect natural cone. The presence of several active volcanoes rose-colored and are much in demand for building monuments. suggests that it may be possible to harness a geothermal source of energy in the area. The volcanic portion of the terrain contri. REGION 8- Central Visayas buted much to the stability of the Bicol lowlands. The economy The is basically oriented to subsistence agriculture, with coconut and region is one of the most densely populated with a popu­ abaca as the leading commercial crops. Fishing, logging, sawmilling, lation of 3, 363,416 in 1976 and with a density ratio of 203 and handicraft are the major economic activities of the region. persons per sq. kin. The majority of the population as of 1970 Cattle-ranching is a major activity in the island of Masbate. were rural dwellers (72%), only 28% reside in organized areas. The physiography of the region is characterized by highlands REGION 7-Western Visayas stripsdominating of arablethe interior of the provinces with narrow coastal land. Bohol has a unique topography, with the The people of Western Visayas form one of the eight ethno, agricultural areas concentrated in the central interior of the linguistic groups in the Philippines. In 1970, the population province which is a plateau. numbered 4,135,911. Most of these people are distributed on the coastal lowlands. The mountainous interior provinces are either The lands of Central Visayas are characterized by sparsely limited populated or uninhabited. The majority of the population arable areas, sufficient grazing lands and some tracts of timber­ reside in the rural areas. Only 26% live in the urbanized towns, land. The narrow coastal plains of Cebu Within and Negros Oriental, the region, a good deal of seasonal migration to Negros and as well as the pla, of Bohol, have restricted crop cultivation. other sugar areas occurs especially during the peak periods of the The majority of araule land is planted to commercial crops such sugar ir.'ustry. The average density of 175 persons per sq. km. for as sugar and coconut. Corn and rice production have decreased, the whole region exceeds the national average. making the regiondeficient in staple food. As of school year 1972-1973, there was a total of 64 colleges The livestock and poultry industry is an important activity and universities that serves the higher educational needs of the of the region. Ranches and poultry farms population, have boosted the animal population. The logging industry is undertaken only by Negros Oriental, since most of the mountains Except for the more remote areas like Antique and Aklan, denuded of forest covers and are composedof of thesecondary other islands growths. arm Western Visayas is one of the richest economic regions in the Philippines. Agriculture is the dominant activity, mainly rice planting. The cultivation of sugar, however, is what gives the The waters that surround the island proV ices of the region region its special character. Sugar is one of the Philippines' primaY are rich fishing grounds. Offshore fishing and fishpond production commercial crops, and Western Visayas in the center of the sugar are important economic activities of the region. Of the natural industry. As of 1971, 22 of the total 35 sugar centrals inthe resources found in the region, mineral deposits earn the highest industry.ns of 1971,22fctheats in the income. Actual production includes the mining of coal, Philippines manganese, were located in the region. copper, gold, salt, and limestone for cement. Oil exploration has Fishing is an industry of tremendous importance in the region, also started in the province of Cebu. both from offshore fishing grounds and those harvested from the extensive inland fishpond grounds. Fish processing is a major Central Visayas serves as an ideal location for many manu. home industry. The region has an ample area of commercial forest facturing firms that obtain their raw materials not only from the that is still partly untapped. Mineral deposits, though not of Visayas islands, but considerable size, are sufficient encr'gh to justify commercial also from Mindanao. Mining companies, exploitation. The most fertilizer plants, sugar centrals, rice and corn mills, and other large important of these are the large marble enterprises are some of the large-scale industries. Cottage industries deposits of Romblon which are high in quality, beautiful and include hat-making, mat-weaving, food processing, and woodcraft. The products from the manufacturing enterprises are also provided 364 A P ore of Filipino Women with immediate transportation to various Socio-&onomic region market cen'ters since the Profle 365 has several excellent ports that 20%o of the total vessels cater not only to inter-is2d regional population. They but to foreign ships as well. Lanao del Sur, are predominant in loading These ports also serve as un. accounting for 94% of the provincial points for foreign goods and inter-provincial In Lanao del Norte, population. trade, they constitute 21% of the population. rest of Northern Mindanao, In the they compose only an average REGION 9- Eastern Visayas of less thanThe 1% ofregion the population.has vast As in most of the other provinces timber and of in the country, the majority mineralresources. the population in Eastern Visayas 67% consists A total coastal are concentrated in the the alienable or disposable land of areas and river valleys. Most the remaining and timberland while fishermen. of them are eitherfarmers or 33% is urzlassified public forest. In 1976, population in the abound with commercial Its coastal waters 2,585,797 region was approximately species of fishes and persons. The Leyte provinces ducts. The extensive other marine pro­ are the most populous, lowland plains of the Agusan and account for 60% of the the wide level provinces and is urban population. Eastern Visayo highlands of Bukidnon provide one of the least developed regions agricultural the region with its in the Philippines. Most of base. The presence of inland the region suggests bodies of water within it is still rural;only 197. potential source for hydroelectric of Mie populationshad been urbanized power. as of 1970. and corn The region is primarily as the leading dependent on agriculture, The regional economy foodis stillcrops. basically constituting the main agricultural food crops The comparativelyagricultural with rice product. Rice and corn climate provides ideal conditions cooler are the such for the growing of cash crops principal staple crops but the as coffee, cabbages, onions, in these region has not attained self-sufficiency pineapples, potatoes, jackfruits, staples. It dependes and mangoes. levels. Coconut, abaca, and on imports sugar are cultivatedto meetasconsumptioncash crops. Coconut is the principal export Several crop of the region, provinces exhibit very little such as the industrialization. In some, Misamis provinces, Bukidnon, and Fishing is both for subsistence the Agusan provinces, and commercial purposes. The several industrial region contains one of the of settlement. concerns are reshaping the best fishinggrounds in the country, The major industries are mining,land and the patterns logging, food processing, Thef cattle-raising, and paper manufacturing. The region resegi nreouresh s rch hich are mosly on-industrial Several major has rich forest resources giants (piaper, steel, centrated in the interiors of which are mostly con­ pineapple) are located in the region, the islands. The inadequate overland road REGION Leyte'ssystem, exports. however, renders most 11 - Southern Mindanao and Sulu inaccessible. Lumber of the commercial forest areas products account for a major The people of Southern Mindanao portion of tribes,pagan are composed of Moslem tribes and the REGION 10- Northern Mindanao Christianmigrants. Wih a total rctonal population of 3,563,844 in 1976, the region is still sparsely popu­ lated. The majority The region extends of the population live in rural reported in the over an area of 39,845 km. Total population as of 1970 was 80% areas. Rural persons 1976 Census was population of the regional population per sq. km. The population3,521,423, remained with the urban residents comprised 20% while predominantlya density ofrural 76 (2,402,821), as of 1970. Percentage distribution of constitute religious affiliation in the region show that 21%;the majority the remaining major force in are Romanpercentage Catholics (67%); the Moslems the cultural mixture in this region is divided in-migration of various linguistic is the Christian into the other Visayas. groups from Luzon. and the sects and non-Christian denominations. The Muslim population is the other regions, Compared with small, accounting for only Southern Mindanao has the of Roman Catholics, lowest percentage but the highestpercentageofMoslems. 366 A Pofile of Fmipino Woman Socio-Economic Proffe 367 The mountains provide the forest areas for the town proper) and about 20 or more barrios surrounding the town. logging industry of the region. Mining grounds also ex In matters of local administration, services, and the like; the no extensive geological surveys have as yet determini poblacion completely dcminates the municipality. mineral reserves of the region. Alienable and dispe comprise 38%of the regional land area. 1. Provinces

The production of agricultural crops is favorable because of the fertile alluvialtol ando the The provincial governments have responsibility for the mild climate, collection of taxes, the construction famunse ofte pled ti odicropslsthemildc and l of highways, bridges, and farmmnds are planted to food , public buildings, and the supervision of the municipal crops such as corn and p ments. Administratively, the provinces have a governor,govern­ vice­ governor, provincial board, treasurer, assessor, district auditor, Many of the manufacturing companies provide j, registrar of deeds, Court of First Instance, superintendent of nities for the economically active population of 1,675, schools, district engineer and health officer. Except for the scale industries (sawmills, latex processing plants, etc.) provincial board, however, most of these officials are not scale industries (food processing), and cottage indusl under the executive authority of the governor but are repre­ found in the area. sentatives of departments and bureaus of the national govern­ ment. (Source: Phil.Atlas, 1975) 2. Municipalities D. The System of Local Government in the Philippines The municipal government Js much smaller than the For administrative provincial. It has only a mayor, 'vice-mayor, council, treasurer, purposes the Philippines is divic secretary, justice of the peace, and police force. Before provinces, 61 chartered the cities, and approximately 1,44( development of barrios or barangays, as functionin- govern­ lities and municipal districts; the latter include some 34, mental units, the municipality was considered or barangay. The chartered the core of local city, unlike the municipali, government in the Philippines. With control over the local nistratively independent from the province in which ii police force, local markets, public morality, and public works, and linked directly to the national government, as show the municipal government came into closer personal contact with the Filipino people than any other level of government. Central government The provincial government has traditionally been considered the intermediary between the national and municipal govern­ ments with supervisory authority over the municipalities. The municipality stands in a similar relationship to the barangays Province Charte but appears to have more direA control over local affairs, for each municipal councilor has been traditionally responsible for the supervision of a barangay. Recently, attempts have been made to give the barangays, through tneir captains, more Municipality Barrio influence in the municipal councils. i Barrio 3. Chartered Cities

Each province has jurisdiction Cities have usually been created from municipalities which over an average of 2( were relatively heavily populated and had comparatively high lities, and each municipality is composed of the pob incomes, although there are no fixed standards for granting 368 A lror of city chapters.pino WomnThe new consttution (January 1973) states that only highly urbanized the municipal Socio-Economi Profii 369 cities will be allowed to become council but had virtually no iadependent of their provhices. code power. In 1955 The new local government was amended to provide for an elected code establishes detailed sisting of barrio council ties.mbly,cnteria for defining highly urbanized a barrio lieutenant, one or more vice-lietenants cities and for creating, abolishing, merging, itig councile or altering bounda. representation n one or give tie-piers, three counchnen. Themn the municipal level ies. council was given oftl egovernment, powers of authority o pass resolutions affecting the expenditures Cities are goverved municipalities by their charters, while provinces and are governed by the provincial arrios funds. codes as amended and municipal by several acts and decrees: Four years laer, in 1959 the Administrative the Revised Barrio Autonomy Act re­ Cede 11917), the Local Autonomy ized the barrio as a legal entity and and the Decentralization Act (1953), expanded its power to Act (1967). These acts inc.-2ased the ide limited taxation for the development functions and powers, especially m ted of the barrio and taxing powers, of all lecal t lof orthe I n o6th act government units, including cities. -nactmbn t of local and Because of the highly ordinances. In 1963 this act was reised particularlycentralized governmentthe president, structure,exercise assemblies were organized however,considerable national power officials, at all which could elect a bari , lopnijentsin a sixofodelected-councilmen levals. councilsfor anda four-year limited localterm. autonomy, With the 973 potentialthe Barangayfor Atrengtnening the barangays The provision- or Citizens was increased. regarding city departments or offices Assemblies are genei'ally the same *r were created in all city charters. They cover the Presidential Decree 86 with the ;dea mayor; vicb-mayor; municipal city of further increasing board or c.-y council; and participation in the affairs of government. different city departments, tariat A barangay hicluding those of finance, engi- was established under the Department neeing ana public worka, 'rnment of Local law, health, police, fire nd assess- and Community Development (DLGCD) m,;.nt3. The main difference uary 1973 in among cities relates to the number to handle matters concerning the barangays. rce: The Philippines: of dapartments. For example, only Manila has a Department Priorities.. 1976). of Public Service specifically established in the charter. Cther offices E. m and agencies rent'ering services in the of national cities are extensions city auditor government bureaus and offices (for and tile city suverintendent of schools).example, the a tentative National Census and Statistics Office report 4. Barangays lation . .. , 1976), the Philippine population 2 million. The yearly population is presently Initially the barangays growth rate is greater or barrios were settlemonts of 30 to 100 families located primarily one of along the coast and rivers. They the hghest in the world. The population are believed to have been independent, tributed is un­ similar to the ancient throughout e islands. The majority, Greek city states. With Spanish colonial are in the rural six out rule the barangays areas. The urbar population is con­ in the Greater Manila area. (Phil. were confederated and placed Atlas, 1975). cabeza de barangay. The colonialunder a revenue official, the became administration gradually centered in towns or pueblos, six per cent of te and the barangays population is under 15 years of age, ars that a little less subsequently declined in than half are dependents. Filipinos colonial administration theimportance. barangay Under the American began to emerge as a Uy have large 'ationalDemographicfmilies, Survey. with an average size of recognizedThe ­ though still nominal ­ 6.4 in Revised Administrative Code setform up of local government. by a barrio barrio coutcilsheaded lieutenant, the members of which pid population growth, were appointed. due mainl to the persistence of ly high b"'kh rates and by falling death i the country. The rates, is a major accelerated growth in population has 370 A Profile of Filipino Woman ~~~Soci-Econo nicP ro ¢ 37 slowed PrJfd. down economic development and prevented the standard 371 of living from rising (Ibid). graduates. The PresidentiQ] Commission to survey Education Philippind (PCSPE) found that almost one-half of commerce or The latest available statistics on male-female and regional law graduates from 1964 to 1968 were employed breakdown of the Philippine population cial, non-legal occupations, and that even scientistsin non-commer. tional is from a tentative Na- were and engineers Census and Statistics Office (NCSO) report (RP population. frequently employed in nori-technical jobs. The Ranis .., 1976 (Sharing in Development, Report (Table A-1). As a whole the male-female proportions are published by the NEDA, 1974) said more or less equivalent. According to "this exemplifies the high degree of substitutability regional breakdown, it is graduates-employers among college only in Regions I, IV and VII where there are appear to value their perfectly general more females than and communication social males. skills, irrespective of what they have studied." The PCSPE noted, besides, "an oversupply of sizeable number of F. Education Profile college-trained manpower" and recommended "cutting down collage enrollment", through "-creditation of schools, selectiveof The avetage literacy rate in the country is 83%. To&al school admission and collection and dissemination labor and educational markets." of information on the population in school year 1972-73 was estimated or 27% of the total population of 39 million. Theat 11 million teachers number of The over-expansion reached 344,855, the biggest commitment of manpower of education appears to have resulted in the low utilization of manpower. in a single enterprise; te budget for education amounted to P1 peoplewho In 1969, of the 1,007,133 billion or about attained 4 to 5 years of college, 61% were employed. 30' of the total national tures or more government expendi­ than 2% of the GNP. This amount does not include some P500 million Economv non-government spent by parents who send their child.an to schools, and appropriations' of local governments for education. Since 1946, the Philippines has had an economic growth rate f 6% a year in real terms. After the population growth rate of It is estimated that of thc country's active population Lbout 3% a year is 10-65, some aged er capita income taken into account, the average growth rate in 54% have had at least 5 years of primary education, is around 3% only. This has increai 1.5 times 8% had some n 30 years, a satisfactory college education, and 4% had completed college, rate, except that it has provided no basis There is, however, or self-sustained, long-term a disparity, between literacy rates in the city development. The distribution of the Penefits of growth has been unequal (The Phil.: and the rural areas. In the urban areas, Priorities... 1976). schooling completed the minimum years of is 6, in rural areas, 4. Thus, in spite of the high literacy rate, Income and Expenditures levels, still education, especially the secondary and college remains a luxury. A college diploma in the rural is considered areas The average a status symbol, family income was P3,736 in 1971 and the average family expenditures was P4,479. This puts the average family In school year 1964-65, 109 cf 0population nine outinofa tenworse regionsthan insubsistence level standing. 7-12 yeats were the country spend moreFamilies than in in they can earn. The situation is even wo-. what enrollmcntelementary school. The exeyss of 100c of population for rural families. of over-aged children. Thirty-five percent ofirdicates population school In 1971, 13-16 years were in high school; 18% of those only families in Manila earned more (P7,785) from than Iheir average 17-20 years were in college. expenditure (P7,763). Except for Manila, Cagayan Valley and Batanes (R-3), all the regions in the country Distortions are present in the distribution of college courses increased their deficit taken. For instance, in spending against income. (Phil. Atlas). business administration there is an ovenrupply of commerce graduates and an inadequacy of agricultureand ductedThe byFamily the Income and Expenditure Bureau of the Census andSurvey Stz'istics of 1971(now con­the 372 A Profile ofFilipino Women Socio-Economc Proffle 373 National Census and Statistics Office) revealed the unequal pality in the country was completely sewered. Many districts distribution of income within regions in the Philippines. At rely principally on individual septic tanks, pits, and the direct the national level the so-called "bottom 40 per cent", of the discharge of untreated sewage into nearby watercourses. Well­ families received about 12% of the total family income in planned and maintained drainage systems are non-existent, and 1971, whereas the "top 20 per cent" received about 50% of low-lying parts of many urban areas are subject to flooding te total. The regions with the largest absolute numbers of low each year. Because of population growth and the larger quan­ already high risk or contaminating private people were Eastern Visayas and Southern Mindanao. tity of sewage, the income every year, especially during incidence of poverty - that is, the propor- wells and boreholes is increasing But in tenns of the flood periods. of the total regional population in the botton 40% - tion Province, and Cagayan Valley, Eastern Visayas, Ilocos-Mt. Bicol stand out. (De Guzman and Zablan, 1977) The prevailing method of solid waste disposal in the Philip­ 2. Quality of Public Services pines is open dumping, coupled with burning and scavenging, which introduces health hazards such as rats and vermin and Water Supply the pollution of air and water. Because of inadequate sewage disposal facilities in the Metro Manila Area, raw sewage is The present infrastructure for water supply, sewerage, and discharged !ito Manila Bay. With no other way to dispose drainage is inadequate throughout the Philippines. The most of industrial waste, companies are obliged to locate their recent National Health Plan (1975-78) cited poor environ- plants near waterways, thus contributing to the incidence of mental sanitation as a major factor in the high incidence of disease and pol.ution. communicable diseases in the country. Potable water is cur­ rently available to less than half of the population in the Philip- Dwelling Units pines. Only about 16.9 million people are estimated to have had an adequate supply of water in FY 70; 3 million of these were in the Metro Manila Area. More than 1,000 barrios, 800 Table A-1 lists the quality indicators of dwelling units and municipalities and 6 cities are currently estimated to be with- the extent to which they are met in -the Philippines and in out water supply systems. Moreover, existing systems require urban and rural areas. In urban areas 38% of households are improvement and rehabilitation to meet tile needs of a fast- estimated to own both their houses and lots, compared to growing population. The growing demand, t'.2 age of tile 54% in the rural areas; one-fifth of urban dwellers rent both systems, and the high leakage rates have oradually reduced house and lot, compared to 0.3% of rural dwellers. water main pressure throughout the distribution systems; • consequently the majority of those served receive an inadequate One-third of urban dwellers have water sealed toilets supply. while another one-third have either cement bowl or closed pit toilet facility. The prevailing facility in the rural areas There are few public faucets in many urban areas. Those is closed pit (29%) followed by open pit (21%). Almost half not served by the public supply obtain water from springs, (40%) do not hLve any toilet facility and depend on "wrap wells, streams, and rivers, or from vendors who sell water in sse"wihwudms ieyb ipsdi abg cans or trucks. The absolute number of households with and system" which would most likely be disposed in garbage streams. without "adequate" pipe water service has grown at about dumps or rivers and the same rate as the total number f households. Electricity is available to close to two-thirds (63%) of Sewerage and Drainage urban dwellers; it may be considered a luxury among rural to only 6% of them. Almost three­ Sewerage and drainage facilities in the Philippines also dwellers, being available depend on kerosene lamps as need improvement and expansion. In 1975 not a single munici- sourcefourths of (72%) lighting. of the latter 374 A Profe of no Women Ov',r half of urban dwellers (56%) depend on water works Socio-Economic Profile 375 TA196 A71. QUALITY INDICATORS OF DWELLING UNITS, as source of drinking water. An equal proportion (14% each) All depend on either communal or private drilled wells. One-half Indicator Philippines Urban Rural of rural dwellers utilize "n.tural" sources of drinking water like open well, spring, creek, river; 27% are fortunate to have Lighting Used acces to drilled wells, either communal or private. A small Electricity 22.9 percentage (9%) depend on waterworks. 62.8 5.8 Keroaene presure lamp 14.2 10.7 15.8 Other kerosone lamp Other 57.7 24.1 72.1 5.2 2.3 6.4 Not reported 0.1 0.1 Total I00.00 100.0 100.0 Source of drinking water Water works 22.9 Communal 56.2 8.6 drilled wells 15.9 13.7 16.8 Private drilled well, Closed .11.4 13.5 0.5 well with pump 11.5 6.7 13.5 Open well 21.3 6.9 Soring 21.4 11.5 0.8 16.1 Creek. stream river irrigation 1.3 1.5 1.2 TotalRainwater 100.4 100.0 100.0 Toilet facilities Water sealed' 12.8 34.0 3.7 bowlb Cement 7.2 14.1 4.2 Closed pit 26.9 21.4 Open pit 17.6 29.3 Public 9.4 21.2 toilet 1.7 3.8 0.8 Pail system 0.3 1.1 None 33.2 16.0 40.7 Not reported 0.21 Total 0.1 0.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 Type of tenancy Both house or building & lot owned 49.3 House or building owned; 37.9 54.2 letfree or squatted on 28.9 17.4 House or building owned; 33.8 lot rented 11.1 18.6 7.9 Both house or building & lot free of charge 4.6 6.7 3.6 Both house or building & lot rented i,.0 19.3 Not reported 0.1 0.1 0.3 Total 0.2 100.0 100.0 100.0

a-namel or cement bowl with seat %Set level with the floor, without seat Source: "'Living Quarters in the Phil." Journal ofPhil. Statistics, VoL 19 No. 3 (July-Sept. 1968). pp. ix-xxilL 3 7 6 A Pro f go f Fpi o W om, 3. Labor Force -c 3.n Laor Frce:growth is not evenly spread among the cities, x Manpower buto concentratedo .o, n7 resources are enormous, both in the skdled and a few unskilled categories. The availability locations. The Greater Manila area, for example, ties has led to a high literacy of educational opportui, has 12% of drop-out rate in the country. However, the national population rates in education has also the (Ibid.). aggravaziligagrean gt oh unblsuem led to unskilled manpower The average family income the countrys unemploymentlyemsanndremly $1,500) in urban areas was P9,500 and under-employ. in 1971. Table A-2 shows (US enturban for urban families. Food accountsthe distribution of expenditure f'or a large proportion of thc Another major budget (47%). constraint in increasing productivity scarcity of capital. In is the the urban areas, tne high rates The large and growing employment has a downward of inder. housing shortage in the urban pressure on wages. In agriculture the Philippines has been caused areas of it has led to the subdivision by anumber of interrelated factors, of small of lid among a growing number including the low level of household farmers and possibly an increase of incomes, high and rising landless laborers in the number of land and construction a shortage cots If.(The TePhil. UranPriorities..., inactive of credit, and relatively Sctorareas,1976). public rctor involvement in Although the construction and financing. Theinflow it is particularlyhousing shnrtage acute appears to housing shrtage in the Manilaexist ..tea in becauseall major urban of migrantswas I concentratedhas of'the been estimatedin tat 50 of the national The urban population this area. A large of the Philippines was about proportion in 1970, increasing at an 10 million average growth rate of 4%. This of low-income households urban in rapidly growing areas is squatting living in dwelling units without or adequate access to services or Table A.2. Distribution credit to improve their housing conditions. of Expenditures for Urban Families TheAlmostRural Sector threequarters of the ?,pulation in the Philippines lives Percentage Distribution of Family in the rural areas, where Expenditures Characteristic social services are poor, economic activities Expenditure limited agricultureof productivity Philippine agiculturlow and under employment high. 1971 are the dominance Food small farms and of 48.9 the pervasivenes of tenancy, particularly Clohlng rice and corn among 6.3c farmers. To remedy its past neglect, ClothingAlcohol and tobacco the national 6.37ur4.7 govemnment is giving high priority to the ConsumerConsutier duals2.6durables rualaras economic development of 26.3rrlaes HousingHosingl The proportion of the population 12e.5 in rural areas of the Philip. Utilities 12.5 pines Medicalre . has declined from about 19 . 71% in 1975. During this period 78% in the late 40s to about EOd tin an average rate of 2.7% 4.0 a year, from 15 million in 1948 to it 30 Other s.8 n 4ae.0 million in 1975. As in other of developingtheaiorura countries,pouato the naturalinrasda urbanpopulation areas; growth in the Philippines rate in 1970, for example, the israte higher of naturali;n rural than in Taxes and1. increase among the rural population Total was about 3.2 100.0 ro Sou re: B S, atUy Income and E p~nditure Survey for the relevant y aM . NA4A( US 6 0 r a o t 7 o h ai n l a e a e i c 378 A Profik of Fi7pino Woman

1956, however, there has been a deterioration in the distribution ofincome incomes going among to familiesthe rural 379 withpopulation.the lowest Theincome share .f reported 40%) fell sharply, from (the bottom the share of families 18% in 1957 to only 13% in 39APPEND11 with the highest incomes 1971, while (the top 20%) 1972 REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION: LIST OF REGIONS, PROVINCES increased from 46 to 51%. These AND CHARTERED CITIES cf the families figures suggest that the income in the lowest 40%were growing very slowly Region 1: Northern Luzon/Locos less than one percent - by Provinces: Abra a year in real terns. Because incomes Cities: Baguio frequently understated, are Benguet City however, it is not clear what were Dagupan actual.trends. the Ilocos City Norte Laoag City Ilocos Sur Table A-3 lists the distribution of expenditures for rural families. At least three-fifths of the La Union family budget goes to food which i much higher than what urban families spend. Mt. Province Pangasinan Table A-3. Distribution o£ Expenditures for Rural Fanilies RegionalRegion Center: San 2: Cagayan Fernando, La Union Valley Provinces: Batanes Percentage distribution of Cagayan Family Expenditures Ifugao Isabela Expenditure 1971 Kalinga-Apayao Food Nueva Vizcaya Alcoho and 61.5 tobacco 5.9 Clothing Regional Center: Tuguegarao, Consumer 6.3 Cagayan o uringdurables 2.1 Region 3: Central Luzon Housing .1 Provinces: Bataan 6.8 Bulacan Cities: Angeles City Utilities Nueva Ecija Cabanatuan City Transport 3.6 Olongapo City 2.0 Pampanga Palayan Tarlac City Medical care San Jose City Education 1.7 Other services Zambales 6.33.1 Taxes and Regional Center: San Fernando, gifts 0.7 Pampanga Region 4: Southern Total Tagalog 100.0 Provinces: Batangas Cities: Batangas City Cavite Cavite City Laguna Marinduque Caloocan City Oriental Lipa City Mindoro Lucena City Occidental Mindoro Manila Palawan Pasay City Quzon Puerto Princesa City Riblo~ Quezon City Romblorl San Pablo City Tagaytay City Trece Martines City 380 RegionalA ProlieCenter: of Filipino Women Region 5: Bicol Manla u"Region Reio 9 egionalCk~irwafn 38, reginc5: Bco 9: Western Mindanao Provinces: Sulu Camarines ur Cities: Legaspi City. Basilan City Camarines SurNorte Cities: Iriga City Naga City Zamboanga del SurNorte Dapitan City Dipolog City Catanduanes ZrbagPagadian City MasbateSorsogon Zamboanga City Regional Center: Zamboanga Regional City, Zamboanga del Center: Legaspi City Region 10: Sur Nothern Mindanao Provinces: Agusan del Norte Agusan Cities: Buturnn City Region 6: Western Visayas del Sur Provinces: Aklan Cagayan de Oro Antique Cities: Bacolod Lanao del Norte Banao City Gingoog Lanao del Sur City CapizAntiq eCity Iligan City BagoCadiz CityCity Misamisisamis OccidentalOriental IloioIloilo MarawiOroquieta City Negros Occidental City City RoxasLa Carlota City City Surigao del Norte Surigao deldilyu Sur Tangub City San Carlos City Tangub Regional Center: Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental Silay City Region 11: Regional Center: Iloio City, Southern Mindanao Iloilo & Sulu Region 7: Central Provinces: Cotobato Visayas Cities: Davao del Norte Cities: Cotobato City Provinces: Bohol Bais City Cebu City Davao Oriental Davao City General Negros Oriental Davao Cetalt Santos Cebu Danao CitySotCobaoiy City C u tyD Dunaguete City avao del Sur Regional Ge e S n o Center: Davao City, Davao Canlaon City del Sur Lapu-lapu City Mandaue City Tagbilaran City Toledo City Regional Center Cebu City, Cebu Region 8: Eastern Visayas Provinces: Eastern Samar Cities: Calbayog Leyte City Ornoc Northern Samar City Tacloban City Southern Leyte Western Samar 382 TM APPENDOA WOMEN'S ORGANIZATION 1. Altrusa Club List of Women's Orm .qf Greater Manila has volunteer teams tiffons 383 program of - It is presently intensifying doing services in several public rehabilitation for drug addicts its hospitals in the by providing a "home" Manila Metropolitan zationfor them and it is being 7. Dietetic Association Area. isth also involved inmanaged by a competent of the Philippines "ilsan WstngPakan"the campaign forproper nutritionstaff. The organi. - It is active in the proper the "Kilusan ng Wastong through nutrition drive Pagka.n Lipunan.nan LieLikewise, of itthe gives Kilusani ng Wastong 2. Associacion de Damnas it giessscholarship ghoast grants, Pagkainas well assa Bagong de Filipinas ­ The organization grants to qualified P research ing an stituti3n is maintai8.rants students and dieticians. known as the "Settlement facilities for children House" providing awe and mothers. Among 8. Inner s research offers abse ndnelctdhlden the services that it Club of the Philippines are: temporary institutional a a doned involved Inc. - The association care for abandonediorp he;and in civic work such as is actively handicraft orphaned lation of manually the solicitation of blood abused and makingneglected for mothers incooperation operated pump wells donations also children; dayof the care institutional with the Philippine Nationalin several waterless barrios serving as the training ground for normal children.ch~ildren; !t is Red Cross, the instal. forstudents doing apprenticeshipand and the establishment work and Participating n h salsmn of a Book Bank to initiate in the Youth Civic Action libraries and reading centersfaBo Bn the setting up of 3. Catholic Program (YCAP). and to contributeoiiit additionalh etn Women's League - who bookspo to patients It maintains clivics, wherein have already opened. receive, aside from free the medicines. consultation, free treatment 9. Inner Wheel Club of Its members are also and Quezon City ­ The association religious instruction. giling spiritual guidance the "Community Center" is maintaining In addition to medical and offering services such vocational clinics, it maintains clinic, free pharmacy, free as free medical in schools which clinic. dental clinic as well as dressmaking tailoring,trainthcooking, youngpeople It is also managing a self-help family planning carpentry, bagmakinLand cosmetology cooperative credit union. electronics and the like. adults to be 10. It also maintins free schoolsskilled Jaycerettes - The association young is maintaining a ntirsery children. It also occasionally school for for the illiteras and for the very young.undertakings. helps caritable institutions 4. Church Women United - It is an organization belonging to different of church women denominations and 11. Kababaihang evangelical faith. communions of the Rizalista, Inc. - The deserving Among its activities centers main activity of the association qtudents include scholarship aid to on the propagation of as well Rizal, ideals of the national hero, as disaster among the women of the Dr. Jose the needy. and relief contributions land. 5. Club de Damas de Manila - to The association is primarily 12. Manila Women's Club in civic work. Every engaged - The association is granting gifts year at about Christmas skills through vocational scholarship to to the patients time, it distributes courses. It also Tala Leprosarium, at the placements looks for possible job and needy people the PhilippinePhilippine Mental for those who have soliciting for help. OrthopedicHospitai and other poor completed the course. Hospital, 13. the 1 . NationalN to Federation of primary a e eai n o Women'so e Clubs of b. D,,ughters of Isabela aim of the associaton ' l b ftthe ePPhilippines ii pn - The - It is engaged in charitable is the promotion s - h giving financial aid to projects like of social welfare. indigt enaptints, distributing All its underprivileged at Christmas gfts to the efforts are geared towards in time and giving materiad, goals in cooperation the achievement of national times of emergency to help with government and or in kind, to 14. Pan Pacific private welfare agencies. churches,Likewise, cathechetical it and Southeast Asia Women's continuallygroups and orphanages. It Association of the Philip­ gives aid, pines financialto herp - The association aims with women from to foster friendship and other countries of the world. goodwill A Profile of Filipino Women 384 List of Womea 15. Pi Lambda Theta OrgmiFgoe 385 - It is an honor professional women in education. association Its purposes are to recognize women forof 21. Quezon City Ladies Association-Thelorganization ismaintainig superior scholastic achievement and high potential for professional a leadership; foster creativity and academic puericulture center in Quezon City.a It idiusually gives excellence at all levels; gents aid to of the community either in cash or in kind. support, extend and interpret the power of competence in the knowledge unique body of 22. Rizal Federation to the profession; stimulate, conduct and utilize of Women's Clubs, Inc. - It has been instrumental research; accept in the training and job placement of many responsibility for evaluation and improvement of youths in Rizal.Through the profession arrangement withirms of teaching; contribute to the solution of edu- in need of skilled workers it trains unem­ cational, ployedyonth in skillsneeded by the rms. concerns;social and cultural problems of national and international and promote professional following and cooperation as a means 23. The Salvation to positive action, Army Home League - Its objectives are the personal improvement of the individual, the advancement of spiritual life 16. Philippine Association of in the home University Women - The organization is and the betterment of the community, the country conducting and the world. researches andrelevant semninars, conferences, conventions nation at large, publications for the benefit of the membersas andwell as the 24. Soroptomist International clubotmsItrainlo of the Philippines (SIP) - a classified service club tePiipns(SP -ac~e for women whose 17. The latest project Philippine Ilome Economics Association - It is "Alay Bahay" is an association a mosgue and of home economists, for the 1976 earthquake and tidal wave victims principally most of whom are home economics teachers, of aimed at strengthening the role of home economics Cotabato. in meeting 25. University of the the challenges of the times and participating Philippines Women Lawyers' Circle (WILOCI) - actively It is an associntion in thme developmental projects related to Ilome of women lawyers who graduated from the Economics. University of the Philippines. It is providing legal counselling 18. Philippine Medical Women's Association - Itis an association professional of services for f''ee to women in the medical field. Among its activities the needy. include 26. Woman's Auxiliary the holding of scientific seminars, educational of the Philippine Medical t saociation -The campaigns association in nutrition and health and sanitation and also is very much involved in civic the maintenance of maintaining he charity clinics for the idigents. mrdical clinics for the benefit of the barrio people. Medicines as well 19. Philippine as the medical services rendered are free. It is Women's University - It is an institution of learning for women. also conducting seminars The major thrusts in the University program include: and lectures on Nutrition and Hygiene Family Life with emphasis on baby and child care, prevention Education, Development Education and Human of diseae Environment. Community and cleanliness. fied Services have been continually intensi­ and highlighted by the participation of its students. researches in natural Basic 27 Women's and physical sciences, applied researches Inteaxational League - The association's activities have been include the entertainment of foreign guests and carried out and results shared nationally and participation in inter. international events nationally. 20. Philippine Women's Christian Temperance Union - The asso- ciation's 28. Women's Management major project is the Abiertas House of Friendship Association of the Philippines - The serves which association as a home for the unwed mothers. It is also desseminating conducts meetings and seminars for the benefit information its members of on good health habits and the bad effects with the subjects attuned to the call of the of alcohol and at times and cigarettes. which efforts were always taken to promote camaraderie andtopics professional of interest todevelopment the members. by inviting speakers to discuss 386 A Pboftle of Filipino Wotan Lkt ofWomens okganajt 29. Women's Rights 387 Movement of the Philippines - It is presently conducting 48. Manila Ladies Civic Group literacy classes for free. Out-of-school children ing the classes are also taught handicrft making. attend. 49. Military Nurses Association 30. Zonta Club of Manila - The permanent activity of the club is the 50. Muslim maintenance of the Manila Women's Association vocational training Aquarium. Among its projects a. free classes and free medical clinic for the indigents. It 51. National Development Corporation is also involved in campaign against drug addiction. Women's Club 31. Association of Women Educators of the Philippines

32. Batangas Province Ladies Association 53. Panitik ng Kababailian 33. Bulacan Ladies Association 54. Philippine Navy Officers Wives' Association 34. Busines and Professional Women's Association of the PLilippines 55. Rotary Anns 35. Camp Aguinaldo Women's Club -56. Rural Improvement Club of the Philippines 36. Centro Escolar University Women's Club 57. Women Dentists Association of the Philippines 37. Council of Deans and Heads of Home Economics of Private Schools, 58. Women Lawyers Colleges and Universities Association of the Philippines 59. Women's Auxiliary 38. Department of Commerce to the Manila Medical Society and Industry Women Lawyers Club 60. Women's Auxiliary to the Philippine Opthalmological Society 39. Federation of Junio Women's Club 40. Federation of Women's Civic Organization of Quezon City 61. Womens Auxiliary Service 62. Women Chemical Engineers 41. FIDA (Federacion International de Abogadas) of the Philippines 6. W m nsM ng m n soito 42. Fort Bonifacio Officers Ladies Club 64. Women's Welfare Movement 43. Girl Scouts of the Philippines 65. Young Ladies 44. Gold Start Mothers Association of Charity and United War Widows and Orphans Asso­ ciation, Inc. 45. Headquarters Philippine Constabulary Officers Ladies Club 46. Inner Wheel Club of Manila, Inc.

47. League of Women Voters 388 A Pro flkof F4i Table IX-I. Mean &gea pw Wo at marageen by sex, urban-rural relidence and r g ...... Tale IV-17: Desied Number Tal IX-1Dsrd.ubr of Chldreu Per cuenty fCilrt Married" meJ Ad

Total Urban 15-44 by Selected Chacteraicr, 1978. Region FeaeMale Rural Total Urban Ruru- Aged Philippines cteri-ta 23.7 25.2 astrsit 93 22.3 26.7 27.3 24.8 ----- h R u r a egoCh rOfa c Residencet ri si csM I. Metro Manila 24.5 ean DesiredNo . of Children IL Ilocos and 24.5 -I. 3 27.6 loco & Mt. Province I27.6 Lu& on 4.2 II. CagayanMt. Province 22.6 11. Cagayan Valley-Batanes and BatanesValley 20.1 25.9 21.7 24.9 29. 4.9 21.8 20.3 23.6 29.9 24.o Central Luzon 4.6 23.6" 23.4 IV. Southern Luzon IV. Central Luzon V. 24.4 26.1 23.8 26.0 Bicol 4.2 & Islands VL 4.3 V. Southern Luzon 24.0 25.8 22.4 Western Visayas VI. Bicol 24.6 25.2 27.826.8 24.026.5 4.0 28.0 23.3 2 VII. Central Visayas VII. Weastern Visyas 2. 2. I F.estern Visays 4.1 23.1 25.2 20.4 X. VIII. Eastern Viaays 26.2 27.2 25.9 tern Mindano 3.9 22.7 23.8 22.1 . IX. Northern 25.2 27.1 24.6 X. Northern Mindanao Mindanao 22.3 24.6 21.6 25.2 27.2 X3 Southern Mindanao 4.9 X. Southern Mindanao 22.5 25.0 26.2 21.5 25.1 26.9 XII. Metropolitan Manila 6.0 Source: 24.6 UP Population Institute, . Education3.6 4.1 Research Note by Age, Sex. Marital No. 19, Distribution Peter Smith, 1974.Status May1973: Urban-Rural and Regionalof Popdcticn Patterns NoSchooling o ln 4.2 Table IX-2: Total Primary fertility rates, per woman, Philippines and by region. Intermediate 4.25. Coghegeh.64.2 4.6 1968-1972 e College o. 3.7 Region C. Urban-Rural Residence Period 1958-1962 1963-1967 1968-1972 Total Philippines RuralUrban 6.46 4.2 6.30 5.89 D. Occupatin4.5 3.7 I. Greater Manila II. Iocon 3.86 4.40 - and Mt. Province 6.36 4.08 6.44 5.52 TypeTotal42 A III. Cagayan Valley 6.49 B 4.2 IV. Central Luzon 6.38 7.18 5.98 3.7 V. Southern 5.94 5.75D4. VL Bicol Luzon 6.09 C 5.92 5E. 6.95 3.7 VII. Western 7.01 VIII. Eastern Visayas.Viaayas 6.25 6.316.30 5.87 6.38 6.335.91 E. Religion CatholicCTol IX. Nothern Mindanao X. Southern Mindanao 7.50 7.76 7.40 4.2 Source: 7.61 7.30 UP, P1, Research Note 7.01 Protestant No. 13, "Changes in Aglipayan 4.2 from the 1973 NDS," Period Fertility as Gleaned 7.01Igleia by M.B. Concepcion, ni Kristo 4.0 1974. From Castillo, 1976. Others Source: Nartatez .0 and de Guzman5 UPPIPREPF 6.0 Research Note No. 73 SA-Profesdonal, Technical and Workers; B-Directors Related Workers, Government Miners, Managers and Working Officials, Clerical Quarrymen and Proprietors, Sales Workers; Communication Related Workers Workers C. Craftmen Production in Transportation and sports Process Workers and Related Workers; and laborers Service D-Farmers Hunters, Workers Loggers and Relatid TABLE IV-19: Attitudes ofmarried women under 45 toward family planning and perceptions of their community's approval of it.

Southern Central Southern Western Eastern Northern Mindanao Manila Ilocano Cagayan Luzon Luzon Bicol Visayas Visayas Mindanao & Phil. Urban Rural Sulu REGION

1 11 III IV V Vi VII VIII IX X

Attitude toward family planning a) Approve 61.9 74.8 56.3 79.5 64.5 50.3 70.9 66.8 53.4 60.4 66.6 57.9 43.1 b) Disapprove l1.0 9.4 16.0 4.5 16.5 30.8 10.7 13.0 16.1 15.9 13.2 21.0 12.1 c) Depends 10.2 7.1 11.6 6.3 9.1 10.7 9.6 5.8 9.9 12.8 8.6 12.7 16.4 d) No opinion 12.8 7.3 15.2 7.8 8.9 7.8 7.6 12.9 20.4 10.3 11.2 7.2 26.4 e) No information 1.1 1.4 0.9 1.9 1.0 0.4 1.2 1.5 0.2 0.6 0.6 1.2 1.4

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Perception of barrio's approved family planning a) Approve 42.7 53.9 37.8 61.9 37.8 39.9 49.6 45.4 27.3 42.2 42.8 43.0 32.0 b) Disapprove 6.4 4.6 7.2 1.1 6.3 17.2 3.1 5.3 7.2 9.7 10.4 5.1 4.5 c) Depends 6.2 4.9 6.7 3.6 7.4 19.4 3.4 6.1 4.7 7.8 6.1 7.2 0.9 d) Do not know 35.3 25.8 39.4 20.1 40.9 18.6 33.3 37.0 49.5 27.2 33.0 35.0 49. e) May be approve 8.2 9.1 7.8 11.1 6.6 4.6 8.9 4.7 11.1 12.3 7.2 8.4 8.2 r) No information 1.2 1.7 1.0 2.1 1.0 0.3 1.7 1.6 0.2 0.8 0.5 1.2 1.3

1O0.J 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table IX.5: Average Annual attendance at birth by region (1970-1972)

Total Regis- Percent Attended by:

Region tered Births Physician Midwife Nurse Unlicensed Others Not Stated

Midwife

Philippines 966,298.66 24.65 24.7 3.8 34.24 7.57 5.03 Manila & Suburbs 89,376.67 87.13 11.97 .4 .07 .37 0 Ilocos - Mt. Province 50,838.67 14.1 24.57 5.67 36.17 8.07 11.43 Cagayan Valley - Batanes 46,865.67 2.5 17.77 3.07 41.7 15.27 19.7 Central Luzon 162,125.33 16.97 34.57 4.87 28.6 9.83 5.17 Southern Luzon & Is. 196,779.66 26 30.53 3.4 28.7 7.03 4.33 Bicol Region 74,255.67 8.63 14.9 2.1 53.57 12.67 8.23 Western Visayas 58,491.33 27.93 25.5 5.8 29.4 7.3 4.07 Easterh Visayas 127,511.66 18.9 21.9 3.83 42.87 8.37 4.13 Northern Mindanao 64,461.67 14.93 24.37 5.6 46.87 6 3.23 Southern Mindanao & Sulu 95,058 18.37 20.53 4.37 51.73 3.77 1.23

Source: Philippine Yearbook, 1975, National Census and Statistics Office, Manila, pp. 181-183.

101 Table IV. 23: Main activity and time spent on main and other activities by married women 15 years or over by region, zralurbn. 1973.

Phil. REGION Urban Rural I II II IV V VI VII VII IX X

1. Main acuviLy Percent a. Working 25.1 30.4 22.7 28.5 34.2 16.1 19.2 b. Housekeeping 70.7 30.5 24.2 23.2 30.8 22.5 19.5 to 64.1 73.8 65.5 59.6 81.6 74.6 C. Studying 0.3 66.0 71.5 72.1 66.7 73.9 77.7 0.6 0.2 0.7 2.3 0.0 d. Nothing 2.9 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 3.8 2.6 4.4 2.2 1.9 4.0 0.2 e. Other 0.7 2.8 3.5 3.9 2.0 2.7 1.9 0.9 0.6 0.5 1.7 0.3 1.4 f. No information 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 a 2. Where main activity takes place a. In the household 79.9 75.2 82.1 77.9 69.5 83.8 83.9 b. Outside the household 19.7 76.6 85.5 82.8 77.8 77.6 24.4 17.6 21.5 30.2 16.2 82.2 C. No information 0.3 15.7 23.2 14.2 16.6 21.9 21.8 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.4 17.6 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.2 3. Days spent on main activity last month a. 0-14 days 12.2 7.6 14.4 5.0 21.7 6.9 12.4 b. 15-12 days 11.0 10.3 12.1 14.5 17.5 16.2 7.4 9.6 11.7 11.0 14.4 12.0 7.6 c. 22-28 days 19.4 8.6 17.1 14.5 12.6 14.2 1i S 21.7 18.3 27.7 26.9 7.6 22.1 d. 29 days or more 56.8 14.4 19.1 21.5 16.2 17.7 1U.6 60.6 55.0 55.7 36.7 73.1 57.3 e. No information 0.6 66.2 61.2 48.8 53.2 50.6 60.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 -0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.8 4. Hours per day spent on main activity last month a. Less than 2 hrs. 4.0 1.8 4.9 b. 2-4 0.6 9.3 0.7 4.5 2.6 hours 16.1 11.7 18.2 1.2 2.8 6.9 7.7 3.1 c. 5-8 8.4 20.0 14.3 16.2 12.1 hours 29.7 31.3 29.0 19.2 17.2 20.9 17.6 16.5 d. More than 8 hours 35.7 33.9 22.4 34.0 29.2 24.8 49.6 54.5 47.4 54.6 35.9 30.2 30.2 26.7 24.9 e. No information 0.6 62.2 44.9 55.7 54.5 49.2 41.4 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.4 46.7 54.7 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.6 1.3 0.8 5. Have other activities besides main activity a. Yes 16.7 10.6 19.5 4.4 b. No 22.1 9.3 18.5 19.0 10.9 12.0 81.5 88.1 7A.5 94.3 77.0 90.7 26.3 21.0 14.7 c. No information 1.8 77.5 30.1 85.6 86.5 71.2 77.2 1.3 2.0 1.3 0.9 0.0 4.0 85.1 0.9 3.5 1.5 2.5 1.8 0.2 8ource: National Demographc Rurvey, 1973, U.P. Population lnsitute.

TABLE IX-7: MIGRATION BEHAVIOR OF EVER-MARRIED FEMALES 15 YEARS AND OVER BY REGION, NDS 1973

In Percent Philip- pines Region I-H IV V VI VI VIII IX X

1. Reasons for leaving previous residence a. Marriage 44.7 50.2 41.7 48.1 b. Work reasons 12.5 39.2 57.4 45.1 34.3 33.4 12.5 6.7 17.2 6.5 13.8 44.6 43.8 c. Other 13.2 8.0 5.5 8.7 19.1 18.1 18.1 12.7 7.8 11.9 12.6 d. No information 29.6 6.2 11.4 11.8 14.7 12.9 19.2 38.9 26.9 42.4 16.2 40.7 48.8 46.1 21.6 25.2 2. Reasons for choosing present residence a. Work reasons 6.9 5.0 3.7 8.4 3.5 b. Family reasons 41.6 7.6 7.5 3.0 5.7 12.2 47.8 35.7 47.4 39.6 49.7 9.4 c. Other 21.8 38.5 33.3 32.8 42.0 405 26.0 19.5 17.3 15.5 26.6 d. No information 29.7 14.6 17.1 15.5 23.4 24:9 21.2 41.1 16.9 41.4 16.1 39.4 46.6 46.0 22.4 25.2

to 0to Table IX-8: Education, vocational training, abilityNational to readDemographic and write by married females, 15 years Survey. or over, by region, 1973

Phil. Urban Rural R e g i o n I II Ill IV V VI VII VIII IX X . In Percent 1. Highest Grade Completed a. No schooling 14.6 7.3 11.9 b. Primar, 4.5 26.0 13.5 12.7 11.8 o. 29.5 16.7 35.5 10.9 12.3 16.2 21.6 c. Intermediate 30.9 12.6 25.6 28.5 30.1 19.9 28.0 32.2 27.9 28.8 30.1 28.7 37.1 35.7 28.5 d. High School 35.1 34.7 30.1 41.5 30.4 14.6 25.5 9.8 30.2 31.6 26.9 30.1 27.3 e. Post High School 11.3 15.8 12.7 15.0 0.6 1.5 0.2 1.8 11.0 11.2 13.0 14.3 f. College - doctoral level 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.8 13.4 9.1 20.1 3.9 22.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.2 g. No information 7.5 4.9 8.9 1 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.9 6.8 5.9 7.9 5.3 0.2 1.8 0.5 1.1 7.4 0.5 1.5 0.2 0.0 0.9 2. Able to read and write a. Read and write 78.3 88.0 73.8 90.2 b. Read only (not write) 68.8 79.9 77.8 84.8 4.2 2.5 4.9 2.0 78.3 76.3 78.2 74.9 c. No 2.6 5.2 6.9 4.5 70.7 14.0 5.7 17.8 4.8 7.0 2.6 3.7 1.3 d. No information 25.5 13.1 9.8 7.2 4.3 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.0 12.5 18.1 15.4 17.7 21.2 3.1 1.8 5.5 3.4 2.2 3.0 2.7 6.1 3.3

Table IX-9: Mean acore&of males and females in the 1973 NCEE subtestsby region. Symbolic General Enlsh __MathemaUcs ______Science Abstract and Verbal Reasoning Relaions Scholastic Male Female Male Female Aptitde Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female I. ManUsk and suburbs 487.97 495.99 510.32 493.03 471.04 468.32 605.78 581.57 11. iloena. 519.74 508.65 18.7 509.11 Mt. Province 445.61 465.31 586 1,7591 and 464.72 459.30 433.72 Betanes 428.36 446.12 440.48 571.66 555.53 IV. 448.71 443.77 417.66 489.83 489.54 480.71 Central Luton 427.66 445.56 424.01 572.48 552.76 481.63 V. 457.26 450.74 421.90 470.28 468.66 467.10 Southern Luzon 436.65 455.87 427.74 569.73 554.45 466.67 VI. 465.96 457.95 430.37 478.88 476.74 470.69 Bicol 458.22 477.21 436.13 577.86 559.36 470.66 V11. 469.69 457.04 434.71 488.76 486.09 479.50 Western Vlsayu 441.73 455.61 438.94 566.74 553.68 478.68 VIII. 457.16 447.65 423.49 481.15 479.03 481.83 Central Vlsaya 461.58 479.60 428.32 570.99 550.80 473.39 480.76 474.51 466.97 433.46 437.89 471.04 472.96 470.29 X. Northern 584.12 564.10 499.92 497.18 IX. Easterh VLtaja 426.39 490.32 488.75 444.46 445.59 434.94 4 .1 7.4 5 .1 46 .4 4 Mindanao 429.58 411.61 415.41 567.64 545.18 .0 4 200 459.41 XLSothenao 443.57 447.88 437.96 411.46 465.24 459.08 412.90 496 415.23 570.57 548.74 Mlndanso 4.7478 472.20 467.30 466.94 462.17 443.75 456.91 458.00 445.79 419.38 422.45 572.23 551.80 Phlippines 478.60 474.02 473.99 469.80 447.95 463.45 469.22 459.06 433.02 436.66 578.92 559.45 488.07 483.04 483.04 480.07 Source: Fund for Asslstan"e to Private Education, Sex Difference in Performance In the NCEE, RDR No. S. October 1974.

to 396 A Frofie of Flpino Wom tI 0-O n .o C1 I 0; 014 - ri Table XX-10: Vocational .... 9 7 Training by married females 15 years V t- 0 2 or over by region, 3aUonat emogrrhic Survey. n. 110 10C; o r" CZC4 - • • 0 • 0' 1, "

C1 0 IT R- -5-1 10C - 01 r0 r01 Had Vccational Training Region Yes No Average thosema-ednumber of moo. >. 0 0 1 0 C1 '1004 1004 tong Y e s N o a,m 0 01o 1 0 a 0 4C 9- ! C!0 CRCO r-.ti 0 Philippines -011 those 01005 0 2.3 97.8 10.7 Urban M to 0 M03 4.9 95.1 11.2: 10 0 01! 0C ! 0 Rural L, M 1.1 98.9 C4 a5.0 95.0 9.47 9.5 10 a 0 o 04- IIII -Cagayan-Ilocos/Mt. Prov. 1.9 98.1 10.6 04O. Valle/Batanes C4 IV -Central Luzon 1.6 98.4 ,.. 4.7 95.3 11.312.1 V -Southern Luzon 0 1.5 98.5 13.4 !Wro I VI -Bicol w CA n 3.7 96.3 7.6 " 0"m .- M w . 05 - . VII -Western Visayas 0.4 99.6 8.7 '4 0 i 0 o. 1 1 - 0. VIIIIX -Eastern Visayas 1.1 98.9 15.6 ' R "" -Northern Mindanao 0.2 99.8 13.4 X-Southern Mindano vi 0 or 13 2.2 97.8 6.5 -0O C 10 IR Ci C Vo 0 C4~~ ~wt-L ~ LOC4t-

10 1:1 -!a l c Table IX '.I: Pers ,.sin the Labor Force, by sex, by rgion, August 19 ,;Z. W 10 00 a.­ -O 0o 04 10L

Both Sexes Male Female (N) (N) % (N) % Philippines 15,161 9,993 66 5.168 34 Z t w C W - . . Ilocos Province 1,134 Cagayan Valley #78 69 356 31 Central 653 468 Luzon 1,483 72 184 988 67 494 28 Southern Luzon & Nila. 33 -. u-1 3,747 2,279 61 1,469 39 -. a! R a 9 04 Bicol 1. w0ell 1,162 751 65 411 35 %a CentralWestern Visayas 1,347 893 66 455 - Visayas 1,337 806 34 Eastern 60 531 40 Visayas 948 654 70 284 30 { - Western Mindanao 718 528 73 190 27 41 40 Idorthern Mindanao 1,377 . B 0 0 919 67 458 33 I - Southern Mindanao 1,254 919 73 335 27 ._ 0 . E 0 - E uo,.2

,- in thousands) 0 1 i r " & Source: National Samnple Survey of Households Bulletin, Series No. 46 Labor Force, August 1975. 4" Z1 Jd C Za4 >4~ Z . .Z ,,' 0

0 0 0 11AlT1.8( 01 1 Table IX-12 (co-it.)

PHIL. URBAN RURAL Regions I II In IV V VI Vll VIII Ix x 4. Class of worker a. Wages or salary (employee) 9.7.0 46.5 17.1 b. Employer 60.8 16.4 12.2 30.9 1.2 2.6 0.4 31.4 16.2 25.7 22.9 c. Self-employed 2.5 0.8 3.9 1.4 16.3 19.1 c 42.0 36.1 45.0 1.6 0.0 0.4 0.9 d. Unpaid family 25.1 36.6 28.4 45.9 0.3 1.1 ,orker 19.8 5.0 41.9 55.1 45.5 43.3 46.0 27.2 4.2 39.5 45.8 44.8 5.2 14.7 20.6 16.3 status 26.8 25.5 23.3 2.0 f. No information 1.0 2.5 0.4 2.2 8.0 1.3 3.0 1.3 1.9 2 8.8 7.7 7.0 3.4 2.6 0.0 .b 5. 4.5 8.4 13.6 9.1 6.2 Place of work 8.7 3.5 11.9 9.2 a. Home 28.4 25.2 30.0 b. Away from 24.0 28.0 17.7 23.7 home 64.9 67.0 26.7 43.5 28.3 25.8 c. No 63.9 69.9 67.5 76.8 40.2 31.5 information 6.7 63.8 66.0 49.9 66.1 7.8 6.1 6.1 4.5 71.3 51.6 60.0 5.5 12.5 7.3 6.6 5.6 2.9 8.2 8.5 6. Working in fainly a. Yes 44.1 34.4 b. No 49.0 27.0 55.1 61.5 47.4 56.3 40.0 42.4 50.5 45.6 c. 42.9 65.8 40.1 48.4 30.4 50.7 No information 8.5 30.1 44.5 48.7 41.7 9.3 8.1 7.2 47.0 47.7 55.0 40.7 4.7 8.4 15.5 8.9 7.8 7.4 3.9 14.5 9.3

Source: National Demographic Survey, 1973, U.P. Population Institute.

'anlilu uo!lvlndod "d'l-1L6t £-aLnS 3!tldeaowaU Iuo~lBN :a.,noS "LC 9"6Z 9-69 3-9i; 6"1,C 1"19 1"6C Z'39 0"j 9"0Z 0.0 6'9C 9"I C W'IT VO 0"0 00 0.0 uoRieuojw ON "1 0.0 C0 0.0 TZ 0'0 V*1 6*0 0.0 1.1 Vo 6'0 0 0.0"0 9"1 0'0 V. +0009..j -P f"91 6"LI 9TI 'L 0*0 8.0 9.0 6 6 6 9"9 VO0 L'0 '1 8.0 -000' 8'9 1t'09 V99 L'L9 931 901 L'II l"tI ,.d"o 9"91, L'su" C'Lt OT 6ET 666'-a - Z'LC 1,09 6"99 6'09 009.d 'q 0"9t, 1.09 009.d auoau!qwi,.uou paA.aza ueq 29a, "e oqM luawzad 61 qil10 ZL61 ui aujoau qa-uou patuutS '0 6"0 R'0 9.0 t.0 -Z $'8 8"1 9'0 9"0 0.0 1O CO CO 9*z 8.0 t' ' 0.0 I'O0 'O 0.0 uoewOom oN . " '9 I', ' 9'0 VO 'o L'O 0"9 8 L'9 C1 C'0 +000'014 9" Z', 9"9 0" ! 8" "p 6"9 8'' '8 I'0 V1 8"9 666'6.d- 00'.4 V06 9"98 0"68 00" t* Ft Ott 'a 6"06 C'98 9"08 Z'C9 9"I' Z' 6"9 666'Z-d 0"96 £'*6 L'OL 16 - 000'1.4 "q C'ZL 8g 000'I.4 ueql ,1 "e L61 ul auoaul qna MoL "I x X] IlA hA IA A s Al u o I11 II ! af I I nN uvqj .l ilqd L 1 'usqtn put punr 'uohz Aq S-lA1l3a JUD~)Opui £FI[Al Uj19WaUo"Op 5ia,( gi aiWa j pawuwt-Jaa, £q pauiua awoau! pus puads , :CI. alqL

Co 00 Table IV-51: Female Membership and parUcipation IS officers in the Samahang Nayon. by egloa and postlion held n of D Nov. 30, 1975 (p. 233) 40 No. Percent of No. of No. of retwt of Mor. No. of REGION- No. of of SN Of­ h SN SN Women bers SN Members Women fleers Members remeje reed. Vies- See. Offlcers Ofncer. Women I. loc. dent Free. Trees. 1 Auditor Mmuwr It. Cagyan 46 65.104 5.490 Veley 8.4 7.345 II. Central i44 30.028 1.042 298 3.9 Luzon 1.180 3.5 2,720 22 37 150 IV. Merro 58.411 2,329 66 2.4 49 30 Manija 1,068 3.9 5.900 2 17 25 46.299 4.012 108 1.8 12 10 V. BIcol 8.7 5.340 7 18 52 795 34.910 226 4.2 15 16 VL Western Vtmy9, 2.964 8.4 19 47 1.281 49,197 3.975 121 103 29 28 VI. Central 11.052 22.5 3.0 9 Vlayas, 922 6.406 855 20 58 22 VIII. Eastern Vhsayu 37.858 9.067 13.3 66 183 12 6?7 22.786 23.9 4.610 384 166 IX. Western 1.977 496 10.7 104 Mfndanao 8.7 3.385 . 100 35 80 228 X. Norther 296 12,792 1.066 2.9 11 94 59 Mlndanao 1.196 8.4 1.480 16 51 13 XIL 58.884 4.296 74 5.0 9 outhenMindanao 7.3 5.980 29A 6 9 39 XII.369 741 38.885 3.969 4.9 19 10 10 3.3 3.705 44 147 52 17.935 1.718 140 3.8 9.6 1.345 11 18 64 TOTAL 94 5.1 28 19 10.538 8 12 49 472.869 49.002 16 9 10.4 52,690 2.859 5.4 215 451 Percent 1.352 506 335 of women officer ineach pOetion: 100.0 7.5 15.8 473 17.7 117 Source: DLGCDRN Data Pool. National Compufter CM CaRMPAguina.do. D.C. Tabulauon of data was done by Ar--d Neidoza end hi. wi