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Home , Africa, Asia

ASIA WITH Opportunities and Challenges

EDITED BY URVASHI ANEJA CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4 Urvashi Aneja

A Closer -Africa Partnership is an Opportunity for All 11 Ben Shenglin

Africa, and : A Promising Trilateral Partnership for Africa’s Industrialization 18 Mao Keji

Africa-Asia Economic Partnership: Unlocking Mutual Resurgence 23 Manish Chand

Cheap Energy, Manufacturing and ‘Backing the Winner’: Why African Leaders Should Listen to Asian Economists and Ignore Western Experts 30 Michael Shellenberger

Building Mutually Beneficial Partnerships for Energy and Natural Resources 36 Gareth Price

A Blue Partnership in the African Littorals 41 Abhijit Singh

Technology and Developement in Africa and India: Need for a New 46 Vikrom Mathur

Deconstructing India’s Peacekeeping Role in Africa 54 Kudrat Virk

Policy Convergence in Global Governance 59 Sanusha Naidu

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 65 INTRODUCTION suggests that the success of Asian economies and wealth creation, rather can be explained by the central role played than direct poverty-reduction through .4 URVASHI ANEJA by Asian governments in promoting The road map for financing the Sustainable industry and managing external aid around this Development Goals (SDG) developed in Addis objective.2 For Shenglin, connectivity, or the lack Ababa in July 2015 reflected this shift towards of it, in terms of , technology and finance, development effectiveness. While aid will explains a significant part of the divergence continue to a role, a large portion of the between Asian and African economies. In financing for the SDGs is expected to come contrast, most African states have been heavily from non-aid sources such as trade, export reliant on western aid for their development. credits, private sector investments, domestic tax Despite trillions in aid money to Africa, poverty revenues, and ‘smart aid’ that blends aid with levels remain high and growth rates remain low.3 innovative financial instruments to maximize its The past two decades have witnessed rapid The Time is Now While the reasons for the divergent economic potential.5 The growing acceptance of this model economic transformation in Asia. Asian Asia and Africa have a long history of trajectories of Asia and Africa are naturally as the new ‘development normal’ gives renewed economies, particularly India and China, are cooperation. While the first Asian-African more complex, there are perhaps lessons from legitimacy to the economic model followed by a increasingly looking to Africa to support their conference was held in 1955, the of the the Asian experience around the centrality of number of Asian states, particularly in Asia, economic growth and strategic interests. engagement has broadened and deepened over industry, , and trade, in a state-led and reinforces their potential contribution to Asia’s growing footprint has the potential the past 6o years. The outcome documents model of economic growth, than can be applied African development through trade, finance, and to contribute to African development and of the 2015 India-Africa and China-Africa to Africa. Shellenberger takes a clear stance on private sector investment. security. African states are also looking to summits are a testament to this, with ambitious the issue, arguing that the western model of Asia for new sources of investment and commitments made by both India and China aid for Africa has worked nowhere, not even in Third, there is a growing expectation that development partnerships. Asia and Africa are towards African development. Three macro- and ; African leaders, he south-south cooperation will play a critical role thus well positioned to build mutually beneficial trends make this an opportune moment to argues, should pay attention to the lessons of the in global development. At the Financing for partnerships based on the principles of south- analyze how Asian economies can support Asian growth story rather the solutions offered Development conference in Addis, northern south cooperation.1 Asia and Africa also face African development. by the west. donors made no new ODA commitments; comparable challenges of creating equitable and ODA has in fact been declining since the early sustainable growth, strengthening governance First, despite similar starting points, Asian Second, growing skepticism of the contributions 2000s.6 Two alternatives put on the table were and institutions, and negotiating a similar range economies have sped ahead of Africa in the of ODA combined with high growth rates domestic resource mobilization and private of traditional and non-traditional security past few decades. Fifty years ago, South in Asia, is leading to a shift away from ‘aid sector investments. Both these options work threats. The rhetoric of southern cooperation and Sub-Saharan Africa were at a similar stage effectiveness’ to ‘development effectiveness.’ well for middle income , but look less also obscures divergent, sometimes conflicting of ; today, as Michael Where the former refers to organizational inputs rosy from the perspective of the least developing interests. This collection of policy-oriented Shellenberger notes in this volume, and the internal coherence of aid instruments, countries (LDC) and fragile contexts, many of opinion pieces by leading scholars from around has a standard of living comparable to England the latter shifts attention to how non-aid which are in Africa; many of these LDCs do not the examines how Asia’s recent and and the . Ben Shenglin’s article instruments such as trade, investment, private have a broad enough tax base to fund necessary emerging outreach to Africa can contribute similarly notes that in 1970, Africa’s GDP per sector engagement, and global policy in areas economic and social sector investments and are to African development and security - how capita was similar to Asia’s and more than two such as taxation and migration, can contribute also likely to find it difficult to attract sustained opportunities can be capitalized upon and times that of China; today, Africa’s average is to actual development outcomes. Development private sector investments. The role of south- challenges negotiated. less than 30 percent of China’s. Shellenberger effectiveness also includes a renewed focus on south cooperation is particularly relevant in this

4 Asia with Africa Introduction 5 context - southern cooperation not just around the principle of mutual benefit, though there oil and minerals. For equitable development, facilitate this, as are plans for Chinese established trade and investment, but also for technology are a number of points of conflict as well. the building of domestic capacity and industry, special economic zones (SEZ) and industrial transfers and knowledge and skill building, can Trade between Asia and Africa, for example, and African peace and security, it is necessary parks in Africa. These SEZs and industrial play a critical role in meeting the post 2015 has primarily been concentrated in the primary to diversify this trade base. Manish Chand’s parks are intended to two of the main development agenda. Over the next 15 years, the commodities sector, which while contributing piece in this volume suggests incentivizing bottlenecks to African development – backward developing world is also expected to dominate to African growth can also perpetuate Africa’s African non-commodity exports through duty infrastructure and inadequate skilled personnel. global savings - by 2030, developing countries resource curse.8 The volatility of a primary concessions and preferential access. Chand also Shenglin’s piece similarly notes that OBOR is will hold 62 percent of global savings.7 The commodity-led growth model has only become notes the potential for Asian investment to intended to facilitate connectivity, in terms of newly formed New Development Bank (NDB) clearer in the context of the current global address the infrastructure deficit in Africa. Such trade and investment, infrastructure, technology and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank economic slow-down.9 Negotiating these infrastructure investments, Chand argues, should and people. OBOR has attracted some (AIIB) have been created to direct these savings tensions requires not just political principles, be supported by investments in resource misunderstanding, Shenglin notes, but it is an towards infrastructure development projects in like those of south-south cooperation, but also development - such as in higher education and opportunity not just for China, but also for the the south. These new regional banks can play a programmatic frameworks and operational skill development institutions. These investments world to advance its integration with Africa. critical role in financing infrastructure and other guidelines. acquire particular significance in the context of sectors neglected by the traditional Bretton Africa’s demographic composition, the world’s At the Third India Africa Forum Summit (IAFS), Woods institutions in the , including Papers in this volume consider these youngest . As Vikrom Mathur argues in India similarly pledged to contribute to the Africa. opportunities and challenges across multiple his chapter, Africa’s biggest strength is its youth - development of African manufacturing capacity. sectors including trade and investment, energy education and skilling are thus critical for Africa’s Keji cautions however that India is embarking These broader trends create the conditions for and natural resources, technology and blue future. on its own ‘Make in India’ program which, if Asia’s economic diplomacy in Africa to be built economy, security and peacekeeping, and policy successful, will increase India’s demand for raw around mutual benefit and contribute to African convergence in global governance institutions. Make in Africa materials and new markets. While this can have development. This narrative however obscures The rest of this introductory chapter lays out A wider trade and investment base alone is adverse consequences for the diversification of both the costs of high growth and the divergent the main themes and recommendations in the not enough. Mao Keji’s article in this volume India-Africa trade, the sizeable community of interests of southern states. A number of Asian volume. A caveat is in order – the ‘Asia with highlights the opportunities for China and Indian and industrialists in Africa can economies, such as India, have experienced high Africa’ narrative framing this volume risks India to contribute to Africa’s industrialization. help generate alternative sources of economic rates of growth but this has not contributed to over-generalization as there are numerous and Currently African countries occupy a momentum. equitable development. High growth has also significant differences within Asia and Africa. disproportionally low share of the global come with severe environmental consequences There is thus a need to examine the relationship manufacturing output that then leaves them Seize Development - respiratory diseases caused by high levels of from the perspective of specific Asian and reliant on the export of raw materials. Building Opportunities – Blue Economy, pollution is a growing cause of illness in African countries. The broader narrative on Asia a strong manufacturing base is thus key and Technology, and Energy and New . Corruption, poor governance, and Africa also tends to be dominated by China Africa, with a projected 62 percent of its Industrialization was a key driver of Asian and weak institutions also continue to stifle and India, Asia’s largest economies, a tendency population within the working age bracket success and it can become a cornerstone of development in a number of Asian countries. that is reproduced in this volume as well. by 2050, is well positioned to join the global Asia and Africa’s economic partnership. There are thus lessons to be learnt from the value chain. The slow-down of China is in fact But new avenues for cooperation have opened Asian model - not just of how to accelerate Diversify Trade and Investments an opportunity for Africa as China is looking up in the 21st century that can have positive growth, but also how growth should be balanced While Asia-Africa trade has been steadily to re-locate its lower-end and labor-intensive development outcomes. Blue economy, for with social equity and environmental impact. growing over the past decades, trade is mostly manufacturing capacities abroad. China’s One example, was a key theme at the Third IAFS. South-south cooperation is also premised on concentrated in the export of African crude Belt One Road (OBOR) strategy is intended to Abhijit Singh’s chapter highlights how India

6 Asia with Africa Introduction 7 can build effective partnerships with Africa Align with African this volume notes that India is one the largest governance arrangements and multilateral in fisheries and aquaculture, renewable ocean Development Priorities contributors to UN peacekeeping missions in forums. Mathur argues that India and Africa energy, seaports and shipping, and bed- Chapters by Chand and Singh both emphasize Africa, but the change in UN mission mandates need to work together for a new politics of . Here, India and China can work that Asia’s contribution to African development from peacekeeping to peace-enforcement is at technology. In particular, he draws attention together, directing finances from regional will ultimately depend on the extent to which odds with India’s commitment to the principle to the Agreement on change, the financial institutions like the AIIB and NDB it is able to align with the Africa Agenda of non-interference. This poses a particular Agenda for , and the towards building African capacity for blue energy 2063. Aligning economic diplomacy with challenge for India as African states are WTO agreement on TRIPS and argues that projects. African development priorities is thus key if themselves asking for more robust peacekeeping societal action on planetary threats such as the partnerships are to be mutually beneficial. - the Africa Union’s (AU) mandate for example and the prevention of health Technological collaboration for ICTs, health, However, as Price argues, the principles of stretches far further than that of the UN. Virk crises should not be held hostage to the ability energy, and , as Vikrom Mathur south-south cooperation, particularly non- thus argues that the challenge for India is to re- to pay for technological royalties. India and highlights in his chapter, is also an important interference, can lead to genuine risks being think its approach to peacekeeping not merely Africa must thus come together and build sector that should be further developed. overlooked. Development objectives can as an aspect of its global diplomacy, but as policy convergence around these issues for their For Mathur, meeting the SDGs in both India be undermined by political agendas, and a component of its Africa policy. What mutual benefit. Sanusha Naidu’s piece however and Africa requires maximizing the potential environmental standards and labor rights might remains to be seen however is whether India cautions that such policy convergence while of technology. He cautions however that the be overlooked. Price thus suggests that corporate will be willing to step out from under the UN important will be compromised by the needs introduction of new technologies must be social responsibility should be mainstreamed umbrella to directly contribute to AU-run of individual states to maintain adequate policy accompanied by a focused consideration into Asian private sector investments in Africa; operations through for example, the training space to address domestic concerns of poverty, of access equity and social impact. building mutually beneficial partnerships will of forces, supply of equipment and even troop inequality, and unemployment. To overcome this, require that communities, not just governments, contributions, to safeguard its own economic Naidu suggests that states need to consider ways The chapter by Gareth Price also highlights benefit from external investment through, for interests and African security. Abhijit Singh in which to ‘nest power’ within various global the importance of collaboration around example, the creation of local jobs and provision also argues that the biggest impediment to the governance institutions by developing multiple renewable energies. Such cooperation will of local training opportunities. However, as a development of a blue economy in Africa is the areas of engagement, both big and small, and help African countries not only in diversifying number of contributors to this volume argue, absence of a legal framework for managing the focusing efforts on state branding and public from extractive industries but also in meeting the responsibility is finally with African leaders commons. Singh thus suggests that India should diplomacy. their own demands for electrification. Mathur to manage economic partnerships with external help African states evolve rules and norms to similarly highlights how technological actors in a manner that they align with African manage its maritime resources. Bound by a shared history, Asia and Africa cooperation between India and Africa priorities and contribute towards sustainable and now have the opportunity to chart a common can expand access to energy by developing equitable development. Build Policy Convergence in future. High growth rates in Asia combined with decentralized and localized renewable Global Governance Institutions increasing skepticism about the role of aid, the energy solutions. Shellenberger however Invest in African Security A global policy environment conducive to the growing emphasis on development effectiveness cautions that renewable energies such as and Institutions priorities and needs of Africa is the backdrop and new forms of development finance, and solar and wind alone will be inadequate for Trade, investment and finance alone will not against which trade, investment, technology, increasing trade, investment and development powering industrialization. Manufacturing, be enough for African development. Shenglin combined with domestic security and institutions, partnerships in the global south, make this he argues, will require cheap reliable power, argues that peace and security are necessary can contribute to African development. The an opportune moment to consider concrete whether from hydroelectric dams, thermal pre-requisites, a factor that is often overlooked conversation about African development pathways through which Asian economies can power plants or nuclear in comparisons of Asian and African growth thus must extend beyond bilateral discussions contribute to African development as they fission thermal power plants. trajectories. Kudrat Virk’s contribution to between Asian and African economies to global pursue their economic and strategic interests

8 Asia with Africa Introduction 9 in the continent. The chapters in this volume the Future (Washington, D.C: , 2013). A CLOSER ASIA-AFRICA PARTNERSHIP taken together suggest that building mutually beneficial partnerships will require multiple levels 8: Jeffrey D. Sachs and Andrew M. Warner, ‘Natural IS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR ALL of engagement across political, economic and Resource Abundance and Economic Growth’, NBER security realms, along with strong leadership and Working Paper No.5398, 1995. BEN SHENGLIN political vision by Asian and African leaders alike to navigate divergent interests and ensure that 9: John Campbell, ‘Africa Rising’, Council on Foreign shared growth strategies contribute to equitable Relations, January 29, 2016. development.

1: For an overview of SSC principles, see: Sachin Chaturvedi, Thomas Fues and Elizabeth Sidiropoulos, Development Cooperation and Asia and Africa are similar in many ways: Big and growing populations, large developing Emerging Powers: New Partners or countries, rich and diverse cultures and of foreign occupations. However, the Old Patterns? (London: Zed Books, 2012). similarities seem to end there. Their recent economic fortunes and growth trajectories have been as divergent as one can imagine, with Asia being considered the poster 2: For the factors explaining Asian economic success of development and Africa falling behind further. What are the key factors behind their see: Homi Kharas, Koji Makino, and Woojin Jung, divergence? Though peace and security are crucial factors that set them apart, connectivity Catalyzing Development: A New Vision for Aid factors such as trade, finance and technology have played differentiating roles as well. (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011). Building a stronger Asia-Africa connectivity will benefit not just in the development of Africa, but also that of Asia and the rest of the world. China’s recent rollout of the so-called 3: See for example: Dambisa Moyo, Dead Aid: Why One-Belt-And-One-Road (OBOR) strategy has further sharpened its traditional focus on Aid is not working and how there is another way for African friendship. Its intensified effort to play a leading role in the Asia-Africa partnership Africa (London: Penguin Books, 2009). has caused some international concern and stimulated some healthy competition for geopolitical alliances and African partnership, which is an opportunity the world should 4: S Bilal, and F. Rampa, ‘Emerging economies in seize to make not just Africa but the whole world a better place. Africa and the development effectiveness debate’, Discussion Paper 107, Maastricht: ECDPM, 2011. Why nations prosper and fail have fascinated Bank) being the most recent endeavours. one and all, from ‘development economists’ to 5: Gail Hurley, ‘ A crucial year ahead: development historians and cultural experts, from social and In the world of ‘development economics’, there finance and the need for fresh perspectives’, political scientists to political leaders. Various has been increased and particular focus on Asia Development Progress, February 9, 2015. initiatives have been undertaken to unlock and Africa not only due to the importance of the growth potential of developing countries, these two in terms of population (See 6: Vivan Sharan, ‘Trends in Official Development including the establishment of multilateral Fig 1 below) and poverty, but also because Assistance: Financing Sustainable Development’, -- both regional and global -- institutions, with of Asia’s perceived successes and strategies in ORF Issue Brief 125, January 2016. World Bank possibly being the most prominent contrast with Africa’s pitfalls and the possible example and AIIB (Asia Infrastructure lessons for Africa to realise its untapped 7: World Bank, ‘Global Savings in 2030’, Capital for Investment Bank) and NDB (New Development potential.

10 Asia with Africa Shenglin 11 Fig 1: Asia & Africa account for 75% of which is still increasing 1 Fig 2: Per Capita GDP, of Asia and Africa2 Note: ’s GDP per capita in the graph is its actual divided by 4 for better illustration. Both the are expected to continue • In 1970, Africa’s GDP per capita to lead in , due to increased was similar to Asia’s and more than two times The Three Dimensions sharp deterioration of its position in the global availability of improved health care, positive of China’s; today Africa’s average is less than 30 of Connectivity value chain of trade and its ‘connectivity’ with demographic trends and recent relaxation of the percent of China’s; China and Africa were at par The Asia-Africa gap represents both, the huge the rest of the world. one-child policy in China. in terms of GDP in 1970, today China’s GDP is progress that Asia has made in its development fi ve times that of Africa. efforts, and the signifi cant opportunities for In contrast, Asia has expanded its role of world Asian Success and African • During the same time period, India was able Africa. Various studies have been undertaken to trade, taking 32 percent of total global exports Potential to narrow its gap in nominal GDP with Africa identify the key factors behind Asia’s success and and imports, respectively, from a more modest While the vast diversity of Asian and African from nearly 50 percent to about 20 percent what can be replicated to Africa. 13 percent and 8 percent in 1948. It is no wonder nations means the risk of generalising today. that Japan, the four Little of Asia (Hong the analysis by simply focusing on the • In terms of life expectancy, and While there are various key non-economic Kong, , South Korea and ), and two aggregated regions to draw the broad South Africans lived longer than Chinese and factors behind the vastly divergent economic China have all successfully pursued the export- conclusions, this over-generalisation is partially Indians in 1960; today a Chinese can expect performances of the two regions, connectivity or led growth strategies, according to World Trade mitigated with the inclusion of Asia’s Big Three to live nearly 5 years and 20 years longer than the lack of it seems to explain a signifi cant part Organisation data. (China, India and Japan), and his Egyptian and South African counterpart, of their divergence. Among the various elements in our analysis given their signifi cance, diversity respectively; an Indian can expect to live 10 of connectivity, trade, technology and fi nance Technology and data availability. years longer than a South African. The gap appear to have played pivotal roles. Though data on the regional level and many between a South African and a Japanese in individual African countries is not available, Fig 4 It must be hard for many to believe the following terms of life expectancy has also doubled since Trade shows users as a percentage of the total salient points: 1970. Considering South Africa is among the From Fig 3, what is striking is that Africa’s role population in different countries and regions. • In 1970, Asia was a bit more than fi ve times more developed nations of Africa, we can in world trade has declined signifi cantly since It is noteworthy that China had a relatively of Africa in terms of nominal GDP, today their safely say that the gaps between some other 1948. Its share of world exports and imports fell late start and was not able to catch up with the gap has doubled with Asia to 10 times of African nations and Asia are even wider and from 7.3 percent and 8.06 percent in 1948 to 3 world until 2009; today China is well above the Africa discomforting. percent and 3.44 percent in 2014, representing a world average, with over 50 percent of Chinese

12 Asia with Africa Shenglin 13 Fig 3: Trade connects the world: Asia, Africa, China & Japan 3 Fig 4: Technology connects the world: Internet penetration ratio iv connected to the internet. social justice. equality with the developed world. The mass The Opportunities for Asia- market customers, or the so-called microfi nance Africa Partnership What is equally striking is that South Africa In terms of number of bank accounts and customer segments, have been unbanked or After making strides over the past decades, China has played an excellent catch-up and its credit cards per 100 adults (age 15 or above), under-served by the traditional fi nancial services and many other countries in Asia are facing the internet penetration ratio is now comparable China and South Africa are leading the fi rms due to effi ciency constraints. They will challenge of ‘middle income trap’. Politically, the to China’s. Egypt has also improved fast and is ‘fi nancial inclusiveness’ index, with India falling now have access to similar, if not the same, much-needed intra-Asia cohesiveness is sorely now ahead of India, though below the world substantially behind the world average and Egypt level of fi nancial services thanks to FinTech’s missing; Asia is now home to some of the most average. The mobile technology probably failing miserably in the ranking. Those who are cost-effectiveness and decentralised business dangerous hotspots of geopolitical tensions represents an unprecedented opportunity for excluded from the formal fi nancial system are model. Developing countries like China provide in the world. What has helped Asia achieve ‘latecomer’ Africa to leapfrog many of the now missing out on the opportunities, which in turn a fertile ground for applying such innovative economic growth includes the general peaceful outdated technologies. The disruptive nature and constrains the government’s ability to facilitate solutions without the powerful incumbency of environment and security arrangement in the equalising effect of the new technologies means entrepreneurship and cultivate broader base for the traditional fi nancial sector and some of them for the past few decades - a point that literally that the world is fl at and Africa, for the taxation. appear to be leading in this new arena. many people may have forgotten. The lesson that fi rst time, can be as easily accessible and visible on the as any other nation or region. The cure to this problem may lie in China’s ‘internet fi nance’ (better known as FinTech Finance outside China), a combination of technology Technology and fi nance are considered two and fi nance thanks to the exciting progress pillars underpinning the development of made in the Big Data and cloud computing countries and corporate successes alike. How powers. The much talked-about developments inclusive is their fi nancial system is an indicator in FinTech space such as blockchain promises of both the level of social development and how to revolutionise the way fi nancial services are strongly fi nance empowers the people and thus provided and are probably the best for Asia their nation to achieve the economic success and and Africa to achieve fi nancial inclusiveness and Fig 5 Financial inclusiveness: Bank account and credit card penetration ratio5

14 Asia with Africa Shenglin 15 Africa must learn in order to achieve sustainable and investment, infrastructure, technology The author wishes to thank Jiamin (Jaime) Lv Eddie economic development is that security and and people. This means improving intra-Asia Brient, and Sadar Usman PhD Students at Zhejiang stability are prerequisites for economic growth, cohesiveness as well as strengthening inter- University for their research assistance to this article. even before technology, fi nance and trade. regional connectivity, such as and Asia-Africa partnerships. To support these and 1: Population Division. World Asia-Africa partnership is fl ourishing and is encourage alternative development paths, China Population Prospects; United Nations Statistical expected to gain additional momentum given the had led the launch of AIIB and NDB with a Division. Population and Vital Statistics Report sharper focus placed by Asia, in particular China, particular focus on infrastructure. NDB has (various years); Census reports and other statistical India and Japan. While Japan started investing in even planned a regional offi ce in South Africa, publications from national statistical offi ces; Eurostat: Africa earlier, it is China that has moved faster. signaling its commitment to foster closer Asia- Demographic Statistics; Secretariat of the Pacifi c Despite being a latecomer, China has so far Africa ties. China’s proactive OBOR policy has Community; Statistics and Demography Programme, invested USD 32 billion, three times the total of attracted some international misunderstanding, and U.S. Census Bureau: International Database Japanese investment in the region. In terms of closer scrutiny and even competition, the trade, China has quadrupled its export to Africa latter of which is probably unintended but is 2: World Bank national accounts data, and OECD over the past 20 years, exceeding $100 billion nevertheless good for Africa and the developing National Accounts data fi le each year in both 2014 and 2015, while imports world in general. The rollout of OBOR as from Africa saw a fi ve-fold growth in the same China’s vision for inter and intra-regional 3: WTO Statistics Database time frame. Japan’s trade with Africa is dwarfed partnership, and AIIB among the alternative by China’s, with exports and imports totaling $27 funding vehicles to support OBOR have helped 4: International Telecommunication Union, World billion in 2014, according to data from World the world, including India, Japan and the United Telecommunication/ICT Development Report and Bank and the World Trade Organisation. States to sharpen their focus on closer inter- database, and World Bank estimates regional partnership with Africa. The world and China has launched the OBOR initiative, which Africa in particular, should welcome and benefi t 5: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database is expected to cover most of Asia, Europe and from closer partnerships. extend further into Africa. One of its particular 6: World Bank data, WTO Statistics Database focus areas is ‘connectivity’, in terms of trade

Fig 6: Asia-Africa Connectivity: Investment & Trade6

16 Asia with Africa Shenglin 17 AFRICA, CHINA AND INDIA: But, given the vastly different sets of political, however, the word ‘industrialisation’ was not economic and cultural assets, how can each side even mentioned and ‘industry’ appeared only A PROMISING TRILATERAL factor itself into the formula? Admittedly, China, once in the first policy paper of 2006.4 India and Africa have competing — if not PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S conflicting — priorities on various economic and Notably, Beijing highlighted special economic INDUSTRIALISATION political matters. However, when it to the zones (SEZ), especially industrial parks, as question of industrialisation in Africa, it appears the key policy vehicle to facilitate ‘industrial MAO KEJI that each of them has something significant to capacity cooperation’ with African countries. contribute and a lot to reap at the end of the Featuring business-friendly management system day. As the three’s interests and vision are largely and improved physical infrastructure, SEZs aligned, a robust and sustainable international are designated geographical spaces to deal with mechanism dedicating to industrial development local difficulties andcapitalise on global capital, At the recent Asian-African summits, industrialisation was singled out by Beijing and, to a in Africa may be formed in the future. technology and talent for industrial development. lesser extent, by as a key measure to bring about sustainable and rapid growth in These special zones are part of Beijing’s promise Africa. Although China, India and Africa have competing — if not conflicting — priorities The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation to address the ‘two major bottlenecks impeding on various economic and political matters, when it comes to the question of Africa’s (FOCAC) convened in last year development, namely, backward infrastructure industrialisation, each of them has something significant to contribute and a lot to reap was a bit special. In Xi Jingping’s inaugural and inadequate professional and skilled at the end of the day. As the three’s interests and visions are largely aligned, a robust and speech, he announced a trailblazing ‘China- personnel.’5 sustainable partnership dedicating to propel industrialisation in Africa may be formed. Africa industrialisation programme’ as the first of the 10 initiatives composed to bring What China has enthusiastically touted happens The concurrent reemergence of China and India economy, by which they can not only navigate new dynamics to the Sino-African economic to be what many African countries have been marks a geopolitical event with far reaching through the current financial hardship, but relations.1Aiming to be the ‘most reliable partner’ after. As Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma insightfully implications. This meteoric dual renaissance, hopefully break away from the haunting shackles for Africa’s journey to industrialisation, this noted shortly after she became chair of the undoubtedly, owed much to their productive of joblessness and poverty. programme will include ‘Chinese investment, in 2013, ‘Industrialisation cannot integration into the world economic system as building and upgrading industrial parks in Africa, be considered a luxury, but a necessity for the well as their rapid market-based industrialisation It was at this critical moment that two Asian- as well as helping to further educate 200,000 continent’s development.’6Currently, African at home. However, as the limps African summits took place in tandem. While African specialists and a quota of 40,000 trainees countries together occupy a disproportionally ahead with feeble growth, the two Asian giants India invited the leaders of 41 African nations to in China.’2 low share of the global manufacturing output. increasingly look to Africa to tap its tremendous New Delhi in October last year, a major China- This largely bogs African countries down in economic potential. Africa summit was arranged in Johannesburg Moreover, Beijing has also attached an the vicious cycle of raw material dependency, in early December, with Chinese President Xi unprecedented importance to industrialisation leaving them exposed to inequitable domestic However, many African countries have been Jinping and many African statesmen attending in its second Africa policy paper, which was development and hazardous exogenous shocks. buffeted by severe economic headwinds in the event. Among other topics, industrialisation released to coincide with the summit. In the the wake of the global commodities slump. was singled out both by Beijing and New Delhi, policy paper, industrialisation was assigned to Actually, Africa has a great potential to make Without dynamic industries to add value to as a key measure to bring about sustainable and lead the section of ‘deepening economic and inroads into industrialisation. Undergoing a primary materials, many African countries have rapid growth in Africa. A promising trilateral trade cooperation’ — the section that often major demographic transition, Africa is the undergone a major crisis. They turned out partnership revolving around the lynchpin of carries most weight, given China’s largely world’s youngest continent in which the working- desperate for an industrialised and diversified industrialisation looms large. economic-centric tendency.3 In comparison, age population currently occupies 54 percent of

18 Asia with Africa Keji 19 the total and the percentage will further grow to abroad. The latter part of the scheme was into macroeconomic consideration, they may especially southern and eastern Africa. 62 percent by 2050.7 This demographic dividend actually epitomised in China’s high-sounding release tremendous economic value when put may amount to comparative advantages for a ‘Belt and Road’ initiatives, which stress on in the proper situation. The above examined ‘Indian circle’ and labour-intensive manufacturing industry and industrialisation in to infrastructure. expatriate industrialist group are just two render it competitive in global trade. Behind this In this way, by setting up new SEZs in Africa, Underneath India’s rich soft power assets in examples of India’s enormous hidden process, the great productivity boom powerfully Beijing will be able to best accommodate Africa, there are many hidden albeit valuable fortunes in Africa. The SEZs and industrial reduces dependency levels and frees up resources Chinese industrialists in their African ventures. factors. For example, the Indian diaspora parks that China sponsored in various countries for further economic growth and investment. communities — which are famous for their across Africa may provide a crucial platform for This story, after all, is all too familiar to the Asian If what mentioned above amounts to a perfect commercial talents and work ethic — may India to tap the great economic momentum in developmental states. match between China and Africa, how can India provide decent commercial facilities across its hidden fortunes. For example, many Indian — whose manufacturing sector is still largely Africa. According to Chinese scholar Tao entrepreneurs find Chinese industrial parks For decades, however, most African countries at the stage — factor itself into Africa’s Duanfang’s field research, after decades of attractive not only in physical infrastructure, have achieved only limited success in diversifying grand journey towards industrialisation? As a careful management, Indian diaspora has but also in regulatory environment and policy its economy from resources extraction to matter of fact, the India-Africa import-export formed a sophisticated for small regime. So, they simply move to take advantage manufacture.8What’s worse, even the little relation has evolved to be something like a businesses.12Within this ‘Indian circle’, daily of these favourable platforms. The ‘Indian circle’ gains in this ‘slow and volatile’ industrialisation miniature of the Sino-African pattern, featuring operations including wholesale, retail, consulting, may bridge the industrial enclaves with the local have often been reversed quickly in the face of raw materials as major exports from Africa auditing, financing and all can be business communities, lubricating the interaction rocketing commodity prices.9 Undoubtedly, the and manufactured goods as major imports to promptly performed. More importantly, this between the locals and the newly arrived ones. Asian giants’ tremendous appetites for African Africa.10 If Modi’s ambitious scheme of ‘Make system not only covers different , but also Having established a visible presence in Africa, raw materials more or less affected the latter’s in India’ takes off, India’s demand for raw functions beyond the of the countries Indian professionals — lawyers, accountants, industrial base. Without appropriate institutional materials as well as supply of manufactured and even the continents. engineers and technicians — may also find it structures and reforms, large-scale commodity goods are bound to rise significantly. Admittedly, a great opportunity to extend their business export is not only ineffective in reducing poverty this development may emit unfavorable shocks Another example is the sizable group of Indian into the burgeoning industrial zones. as it demands minimal unskilled workers, but it to Africa’s economic diversification, somehow industrialists in Africa. Although India’s domestic also discourages hard productive activities as it backfiring on India’s pledge of ‘developing industrialisation is still at the infant stage and For sure, India can contribute greatly to accommodates the reliance on the ‘easy-money’ Africa’s productive capacities and moving up theoretically not ready for massive outwards Africa’s industrialisation, not only through siphoned from resources sales. However, this the global value chain’.11 relocation like what China is witnessing, many joining the Chinese initiatives like industrial dismal scenario may well come to an end. Indian entrepreneurs have gone to Africa to set parks and SEZs, but also its own splendid However, macroeconomic parameters alone can up their businesses. For them, India’s neither programmes. In the 3rd India-Africa Forum As the world economy is experiencing a never fully define India’s unique role in Africa. comprehensive nor complete economic reform Summit (IAFS), Modi revealed that India will dramatic downturn, China also decisively Common historical bitterness formed during the left major barriers. Perennial issues like land work on 100 capacity-building institutions moves away from its time-honoured export- colonial era, widespread and prosperous Indian acquisition, labour regulation, taxation regime are and develop manufacturing capacity, health oriented manufacturing. In this grand scheme of diaspora communities, similar social and political nightmares for small-middle business, especially infrastructure, public transportation, clean economic restructuring, China on the one hand frameworks, plus fewer and cultural these in manufacturing sectors. Discovering energy, , and agriculture across Africa. strives to climb the value chain by readjusting its barriers between the two peoples, all extend many African countries are of similar In the same vein, China may play a constructive industrial capabilities towards high-tech products, India’s influences beyond the economic front. cultural-political settings to India, but far less role in the Indian programmes as well, charting while on the other, relocates its existing lower- While these people-to-people connections and restrictive to businesses, many aspirant Indian another trilateral partnership with India in the end and labour-intensive productive capacities emotional linkages can hardly be directly taken entrepreneurs have ventured into the continent, driver’s seat.

20 Asia with Africa Keji 21 1: “Backgrounder: 10 major China-Africa tonyelumelufoundation.org/articles/industrialization- AFRICA-ASIA ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP: cooperation programs proposed by Chinese africa-can-continent-make/ President ,”Xinhua News Agency, UNLOCKING MUTUTAL RESURGENCE December 4, 2015,http://news.xinhuanet.com/ 8: Ron Sandrey and Hannah Edinger, “China’s english/2015-12/ 04/c_134886479.htm Manufacturing and Industrialization in Africa,”African MANISH CHAND Development Bank- the Working Paper Series (WPS), 2: Haitao Ding, “China aims to be most reliable No 128- May 2011, p. 6. partner for Africa’s industrialization,”Xinhua News Agency, August 1, 2015, http://news.xinhuanet. 9: Ibid. com/english/2015-08/01/c_134469126.htm. Also see “Backgrounder: 10 major China-Africa cooperation 10: Tang Xiaoyang, China-Africa Economic programs proposed by Chinese President Xi Diplomacy and Its Implication to the Global Value Jinping,”Xinhua News Agency, December 4, Chain, The World Knowledge Press, 2014, p.329. The intertwining of the narratives of Asian resurgence and are 2015,http://news.xinhuanet.com/ english/2015- intersecting more closely, with the rise of India, China and East Asian economies in the 12/04/c_134886479.htm 11: Lily Kuo, “In the race for Africa, India and China continent remapping economic partnership between the two growth poles of the world. The aren’t all that different,” Africa, October 27, China slowdown, which has adversely impacted commodity-exporters of Africa, could spur 3: “Full Text: China’s second Africa policy 2015. ongoing efforts by African countries towards trade diversification and structural economic paper,”Xinhua News Agency, December 4,2015, transformation. The road ahead is fraught with many pitfalls and challenges, but if both http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015- 12: Tao Duanfang, “With the conclusion of Asia and Africa seize the chance and show foresight and policy flexibility, they can firm up 12/04/c_134886545.htm Indo-African summit, will India surpass China in a template of lasting mutual resurgence, with transformative impact on the mutating world Africa?,”Thepaper.cn, November1, 2015,http://m. order. 4: Shannon Tiezzi, “The New China-Africa Relations: thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward _1391152 4 Trends to Watch,”The Diplomat, December 6, The narratives of an unfolding Asian resurgence The inter-dependency of Africa and Asia has 2015,http://thediplomat.com/2015/12/the-new- and hopes for an African economic renaissance been brought to the fore compellingly by latest china-africa-relations-4-trends-to-watch/ in the second decade of the 21st century are economic statistics and projections. Sub-Saharan intersecting, breeding new opportunities and Africa, which has been growing steadily at 5: “Full Text: China’s second Africa policy challenges for the two continents to remap the a healthy rate of 5 per cent for the past few paper,”Xinhua News Agency, December 4, 2015. contours of their multi-faceted relationship, years and has been touted as the home of six http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015- with the overarching objective of fructifying of the world’s fastest growing economies, is in 12/04/c_134886545.htm their combined economic potential. The global a grim mode of introspection, with prices of economic slowdown, especially “the new commodities, including minerals and crude, 6: Kingsley Ighobor, “A new burst of energy in normal” Chinese rate of growth, has called plunging to new lows, making a deep cut into industrial activity,”United Nations Africa Renewal, into question assumptions that underpin these revenues of resource-exporting countries.1 August (2013), p. 20 twinned narratives. However, there is much to hope for and raise the bar for the burgeoning China Slowdown: Impact on 7: Lawrence Mbae, “Industrialization In Africa: economic engagement between the two growth Africa Growth Story Can The Continent Make It?,”The Tony poles of the world. The slowdown in China, which has emerged as Elumelu Foundation, 4, 2014, http:// Africa’s single biggest trading partner and largest

22 Asia with Africa Chand 23 buyer of its commodities and oil, is rightly seen and investment across the African continent and volatility, which is seen in the current change in emphasis by their external partners. In as a key factor behind the subdued economic and the growing interest of capital-rich Gulf depressed state of economies of major resource- this regard, given their burgeoning engagement prospects of the African continent, triggering countries to scale up their economic involvement reliant African countries. The Chinese slowdown with Africa, Asian countries, including China, full-blown financial crises in many of Beijing’s in Africa point to a marked enthusiasm by Asian has hit resource-producing countries the most; India, Japan, ASEAN and West Asian countries, principal partners in Africa like , South economies in tapping the Africa opportunity. East African economies like and , with their respective core strengths and Africa, and Equatorial . The ASEAN-Africa trade has been on an upward which focused on bolstering manufacturing and competencies, can play a transformative role. imports by China from Africa, have sharply trajectory, climbing to $42 billion in 2012. service exports, are doing relatively well. plummeted by 40 per cent in 2015. The success stories of East Asian countries like Looking at Asia as a whole, and its key growth Against this backdrop, key Asian partners of Singapore, and could show China’s slowdown and its multifarious impact centres, the Asian hemisphere has the potential Africa should make conscious policy changes the way for Africa. Besides building the requisite on Africa’s economic situation however is an to influence policy choices in Africa to rekindle to expand the share of African non-commodity infrastructure, industrialisation also depends opportunity. China, for all its new normal the narrative of Africa Rising. Asian and African exports and locally made products in their trade on “three closely related drivers of firm-level growth rate, will continue to be the preeminent economies will need to take into account the basket. This can be done through incentivising productivity—exports, agglomeration and firm player, possibly changing its focus, policies following factors, and back it up with concrete African non-commodity exports through duty capabilities,” which have been largely responsible in Africa to diversify its trade basket , which policies and actions on the ground, for continued concessions and preferential access. In this for ’s industrial success, points out in turn could compel African economies to mutual benefit. regard, India has provided duty-free preferential a commentary by James Page on the website embark on a game-changing structural economic access to products from more than 33 LDC of the Brookings Institute. 2 “Putting policies transformation, with suitable policy changes Fixing Asymmetries/Trade Diversification: African countries. in place that promote manufactured exports, and course-correction. The current crisis in fact Currently, Asia’s trade with Africa, as is the case encourage the development of industrial clusters seems to be a passing phenomenon. We need with Western powers, is focused primarily on Upscaling Manufacturing and and attract more capable foreign direct investors to thererfore look at the big picture and have a extractive resources and hydrocarbons. In this Industrialisation: Manufacturing and outside of the natural resources sector are longer view of the Africa opportunity and its trade configuration, Africa is seen as primarily accelerated industrialisation, as prioritised by the essential first steps in reversing Africa’s industrial organic links with an emerging . a provider of resources and crude oil to feed African Uion in its Agenda 2063, holds the key decline,” says the commentary on the Brookings the growing economies of Asian giants and to a lasting economic transformation of Africa. website. The experience of India, with a similar Asia-Africa Economic Connect Southeast Asian countries. In this context, the China slowdown could prove development trajectory, also offers a roadmap for The excessive focus on the China slowdown to be a blessing in disguise for Africa as China, Africa. While many Indian companies are setting also detracts from African countries’ efforts at The focus on resource-based trade has led to an forced by rising labour wages, moves low-cost up manufacturing facilities in Africa, India’s moving away from commodity dependencies over-reliance by key oil and resource-supplying manufacturing to African countries, taking manufacturing potential remains untapped. The and the marked upsurge in trade and investment African countries on exports of commodities, advantage of Africa’s demographic dividend in Modi government’s Make in India campaign, from other vibrant growth centres in Asia, adversely impacting the development of local terms of its young population and cheap labour and the enthusiasm it has evoked in the global including India and ASEAN. Asia has emerged industry and manufacturing. The illusion of force. community, could be seen as an example by as the largest continental trading partner of plenty in some African oil- producing countries Africa to launch a concerted Make in Africa Africa, with bilateral trade in the range of $350- has ended up enriching the elite, fattening the Currently, the manufacturing scene in Africa campaign to re-brand Africa and attract foreign 400 billion, which surpasses the combing trade bureaucracy and accentuating the ‘resource is dismal, with the continent’s share of global investment in its non-commodity sectors. of the US and with Africa. curse,’ with the elite in African countries manufacturing falling to less than 2 per cent in Increasing investments by ASEAN countries benefiting the most, with not much visible 2013. The glum manufacturing scenario in Africa Moving Up the Value Chain Through like Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, South trickle-down benefits for the poor. The resource- needs to be addressed on a war footing by radical Training and Skilling: The economic Korea and , Japan’s accelerating trade dependency has exacerbated financial stability policy interventions by African states, and a resurgence of Africa can be spurred and

24 Asia with Africa Chand 25 sustained by upscaling investment in human India’s developmental assistance and Lines enhance investment in banking and financial together multiple stakeholders across resource development and enhanced investments of Credit are also geared towards shoring up services, logistics and communications, hotels the agri- value chain from Africa and India. by Asian countries in setting up higher education infrastructure, with transformative projects in and tourism, airlines and other related areas in China has also been ramping up investment institutions, training and skill institutions. If plants, thermal energy and railways. Africa. in agriculture sector in Africa, providing new African economies need to move up the value There is a compelling case for Southeast Asian high-yield technologies to African . chain, sustained investment in training and countries like Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand Modernising Agriculture/Green Expanded across-the-spectrum cooperation in skilling of the work force is urgently required. to leverage their capital and expertise to scale Revolution: Africa’s economic prospects will agriculture between Asian and African countries Asian partners of Africa can play a pivotal role in up their investment in the infrastructure sector. not be fully actualised without a multi-pronged has, therefore, the potential to become a driving this process by upscaling the training component Leading Asian economies should individually transformation and modernisation of the growth engine of the continent, and can also in their economic engagement with African and jointly come together to contribute in continent’s agriculture sector, which provides spur Africa’s industrialization through agro- countries. India and China, the two leading addressing Africa’s massive $100+ billion annual employment to 60 per cent of the African processing and agro-business. Asian partners of Africa, are proactively engaged infrastructure deficit. In this regard, the Program population.7 There is a stark anomaly here, across Africa in setting up training facilities and for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) which needs to be addressed by the continent’s The Road Ahead promoting education through scholarships. , a joint initiative of the African Union, the New policy-making elite: Africa has 60 per cent of the The rise of Asia in Africa, specially a marked Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) world’s , but remains a net importer upsurge in engagement of India and China Given India’s core strengths in knowledge and African Development Bank (AfDB), is of food. with the continent, has opened up new avenues industries, India has rightly focused on capacity an ambitious Africa-led initiative to plug the for Africa’s development and actualisation building and training as key components of its continent’s infrastructural gap in sectors such Asian giants like India and China have of its huge untapped economic potential. Africa engagement. In a signature initiative, over as energy, ICT, integrated transport and trans- considerable experience and expertise in In the process, India, China and East Asian the two summits held with the African continent boundary water networks.5 Asian partners of transforming their agriculture sector, and economies have also opened up a policy space in 2008 and 2011, India has pledged to set up Africa should explore avenues to partner PIDA. they can leverage it to stimulate a lasting and provided alternatives to engaging and doing over 100 training institutes encompassing diverse green revolution to promote the growth of business with Africa. Broadly speaking, one can areas.3Currently, around 20 of these training Enhancing Services Trade: The growth sustainable and resilient agriculture in the discern three distinctive templates or models of institutes are at a take-off stage. Given Africa’s graph in the services sector in Africa has shown continent. Enhancing agricultural cooperation engaging Africa, albeit with some overlapping urgent need for skilling, India should fast- a steady upward trajectory, and underlines a has been one of the major themes in the three features: the Washington-EU consensus of free track the process of setting up these institutes. potential high-growth area of collaboration editions of India-Africa Forum Summit held market and prescriptive structural ASEAN countries like Singapore and Malaysia, between Asian economies and Africa. Top since 2008.8The follow-up actions since the development programmes, the Beijing consensus too, can pitch in with skill enhancement training Asian economies, with their well-developed and summit have been positive in this area, with of authoritarian free animated modules in African countries. growing services sector, are uniquely poised Indian companies being encouraged to consider by value-free no-strings attached approach to to partner in this flowering of the services investing in Africa for production of pulses and aid and trade, and the New Delhi model of Fixing the Infrastructure Deficit: sector in the continent. Asian investors in oilseeds and to forge joint ventures in setting up democracy and non-prescriptive development, Infrastructure remains the most forbidding Africa need to study UNCTAD’S 2015 report food processing clusters in African countries. driven by human resource development and constraint for Africa’s accelerated industrialisation on unlocking the potential of Africa’s services India is also looking to provide extend Line capacity development. There could also be a and economic growth. 4China has played a major trade6 carefully, and help African economies to of Credit (LoC) to Least Developed African Southern consensus or the Asian consensus role in upgrading infrastructure across Africa, upgrade regulatory and institutional frameworks countries for joint venture business initiatives way of engaging Africa, which leverages core specially building roads, and bridges. Japan, for growth of infrastructure services sector in agriculture sector.9 To catalyse cooperation strengths of Asian economies in catalysing too, is becoming active in providing quality in Africa, which will enable them to integrate in agriculture, the two sides have set up the sustainable and balanced development of the infrastructure in the continent. in global value chains. Asian economies can ‘India-Africa Agribusiness Forum’, which brings African continent through enhanced trade and

26 Asia with Africa Chand 27 investment, developmental assistance and a re- triggered by the rise of radical Islamist groups Development in Africa Report 2015, UNCTAD. It calibration of policies. in and the . But if shows that growth in services has been vibrant in both Asia and Africa seize the chance and show Africa, at more than twice the average rate for the The key to the success of the Asia-Africa foresight and policy flexibility, the narratives world during 2009-2012, generating almost half of covenant will be in how Asian economies can of Asian and African resurgence are set to be Africa’s GDP, 49 per cent of the economy and 32 per align with the Africa Agenda 2063, and pursue intertwined more closely in years to come. cent of employment. multi-faceted economic engagement in terms of the ideals of South-South cooperation by 1: The International Monetary Fund, for instance, has 7: Makhtar Diep, “Foresight Africa 2016: Banking eschewing predatory and mercantilist impulses, lowered its growth estimate for Sub-Saharan Africa on agriculture for Africa’s future,” Brookings Blogs, both in approach as well as in practice. In this for 2016 by 0.3 percentage points to 4 percent and Jan 22, 2016. a cautionary note which should be factored into account by Asian economies looking to 2: John Page, “Made in Africa: Some new thinking 8: See: IANS, “Modi pledges to help Africa’s scale up their engagement with Africa. “China’s for Africa Industrialization Day,” Africa in Focus – agriculture sector,” Business Standard, Oct 29, and India’s growing engagement in Africa can Brookings, Nov 19, 2015. sector-115102900386_1.html > ”Africa has 60 per Asian giants from a stronger and more informed cent of the world’s arable land reserves and just platform. In the absence of deliberate and 3: Manish Chand, “Skill, scale and speed to give a 10 per cent of the global output. India will help to proactive African action, the outcome of China fillip to India-Africa links,” Asian Age, Oct 29, 2015. develop Africa’s agriculture sector,” Mr Modi told and India’s involvement in Africa could turn out

28 Asia with Africa Chand 29 CHEAP ENERGY, MANUFACTURING natural resources into manufactured goods. DC, fairly characterised as the most influential Peasant farming requires only biomass — mostly development think tank in the US. AND ‘BACKING THE WINNER’: dung and wood. Manufacturing requires cheap, reliable power, whether from hydro-electric How to Become WHY AFRICAN LEADERS SHOULD dams, thermal fossil power plants or uranium a Manufacturing Nation LISTEN TO ASIAN ECONOMISTS AND nuclear fission thermal power plants. The most famous of the generation of Asian development economists is Ha-Joon Chang, a IGNORE WESTERN EXPERTS This pattern is so obvious and easy to Korean economist and Cambridge University understand that it has taken great effort and large professor. Chang was a star student of former MICHAEL SHELLENBERGER donations from European nations to persuade World Bank chief economist and African leaders that instead of developing like winner Joseph Steiglitz. In two books, Kicking China, Korea, Japan, the US, and Europe they Away the Ladder (2002) and Bad Samaritans (2008), Imagine for a moment a nation — let’s call it repeated in East Asia. What Korea did used to should instead pursue a model of development from which the X anecdote above was Country X — where eight years after a bloody be called the ‘Japanese Model.’ Today it is called that has never worked anywhere in the world. adapted, Chang writes with a polemical and civil war, its annual per capita income is still less the ‘Chinese Model.’ These more recent models The diversion of development funding and entertaining to construct a counter-narrative than a dollar a day. Where there had once been aren’t very different from the development credit from Western institutions to African to the triumphalist picture of free markets factories now exist only molder ruins. Three- models pursued by the United States and nations — from power plants to more efficient painted for generations of Western development. quarters of the railways destroyed have not been European nations before it. wood stoves, from roads to rural , and The books describe the protectionist measures re-built. The country produces few manufactured from mechanisation and fertilizer to organics and taken by supposedly free market nations, goods and its main exports are fish, tungsten, In the years after 1961, South Korea permaculture — has been an important factor in including England and . and other raw materials. The rulers of Country implemented the same basic recipe for economic the stagnation of African economies, buoyed in X can no longer easily blame their former development that has worked around the globe the last decade only by higher global demand for Chang is the most explicitly protectionist of colonial masters, who left half a century before. for 200 years to lift nations out of poverty. She raw materials. the three authors, though Chang like Dinh and Corruption is widespread and nothing seems to built power plants for factories to manufacture Ramachandran reveals a large set of measures work. A blunt analysis by an official at the United products. She mechanised agricultural African leaders, policymakers and scholars governments have taken through the centuries States Agency for International Development production to accommodate the migration of should ignore most of the advice being offered to support their embryonic manufacturing calls Country X a ‘bottomless pit.’ peasant farmers to the . She built steel, by the West, especially by its most famous and industries develop before competing globally. Of automobile, chemical, machine, electronics and influential experts, and instead pay attention to the three authors, Chang is the least willing to You are forgiven if you imagined Country X other factories. There were serious hardships, to a new generation of Asian economists. Here I concede to some of the problems experienced is in sub-Saharan Africa. In reality, it is South be sure, and increased pollution. But over the focus on the research and ideas of three brilliant by African and Asian governments, most Korea — but in 1961.1 That she back then so next half century, per capita income grew 14- Asian economists: Korean economist Ha-Joon notably India, in the 1960s and 1970s, from clearly resembles the Democratic of fold, and achieved a standard of living Chang, professor at Cambridge University; import substitution and the propping up of the Congo, Nigeria, Kenya and many other ($26,000 per capita GDP in 2013) that took Vietnamese economist Hinh Dinh, former Lead unproductive industries. Chang’s most important African nations today may seem uncanny, but England two centuries and the US 150 years to Economist at the World Bank, now a consultant contribution has been to broaden mainstream the uncanniness is also cause for inspiration: achieve.2 to African governments; and Indian economist economic development conversations to What South Korea did can be repeated in Africa, Vijaya Ramachandran, also a former Lead consider more closely the role that states play in just as what Europe did was repeated in North It is impossible to speak of energy separately Economist at the World Bank and now at the insuring that national industries grow. America, and what North America did was from the process of physically transforming Center for Global Development in Washington

30 Asia with Africa Shellenberger 31 Of the three, Ramachandran has the most policy,’ she said. ‘Economists are cautious vaccinating the . You can’t leave system should focus more on secondary and mainstream credibility, working at the because they worry protectionism doesn’t that to the market. tertiary education. In this way, the investment Washington DC-based Center for Global make firms competitive, and doesn’t result in programme aims to create both the demand and Development, which is funded by Bill Gates and growth. You just get subsidised firms that ’t Solving it requires some amount of collective supply of workers. others. Ramachandran worked directly for the want to let go of subsidies. But that just means action, but vaccinating cows falls far short of Secretary General of the United Nations from that you also have to have export orientation. penalising imports with tariffs or taxes. Another The Truth About Cheap Power 1999 to 2001 working on the development of Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, and example Dinh offers is his recommendation Today, over one billion people around the world the Millennium Development goals, and spent China all pursued industrial policy but with goal that Vietnamese government help garment — 500million of them in sub-Saharan Africa, 2001 to 2004 at the World Bank. Ramachandran of increasing exports. The places that failed, like manufacturers improve their quality so that they another 700 million in India — lack access to is unequivocal that nations must manufacture if India and American countries, pursued can contract directly with multinational . Nearly three billion people cook they are able to develop. I asked her if resource import-substituting industrialisation, not export- retailers like the Gap rather than sub-contracting over open fires fueled by wood, dung, coal, or rich nations like oil-rich or -rich oriented one, and created bloated industrial to contractors. . A recent report by the World Health were exceptions to that, she told me: sectors.’ Organisation found that 4.3 million people die Dinh emphasizes the empiricism of his approach each year from household .3 Not really because they often suffer Like Ramachandran, Dinh believes industrial — identify the barriers to manufacturing, and from the resource curse. What that policy should be export-oriented and goes overcome them, but he also has a theory. There All nations need cheap and reliable electricity means is that if you have a lot of oil you further, arguing that states should not ‘pick’ is a manufacturing ‘escalator,’ Dinh explained to to develop. But in recent years, the UN, World tend not to be manufacturer because industrial winners but rather let industrial me, where nations start with low-skilled garment Bank and others in the West have promoted your revenues make your currency over- competitors compete and then ‘back’ the most and shoes and overtime do electronics and then small-scale, decentralised, — appreciated. This undermines one of successful ones. (Dinh’s forthcoming book with automotive. This pattern has worked in nations technologies that cannot power factories and the necessary pre-conditions for nations Cambridge University Press is Backing the Winner.) all over the world, and the role for states is thus thus cannot meet the needs of nations seeking to become a manufacturing force. As Dinh notes that many things governments can intuitive: They should help national firms rise to escape poverty.Meanwhile, African nations such, nations with oil resources have do are not protectionist at all. Ethiopian ranchers the escalator upward, towards higher skilled and are seeking to build their hydro-electric dams, a hard time generating broad-based lose much of their cow leather every year to a more highly valued labour. just as the US, China and India did before them. growth. Oil rigs and energy don’t parasite that could be eradicated or controlled Africa is set to increase the amount of electricity employ a lot of people…. Dubai has with a vaccine. He said: For example, investment in human capital it gets from dams five-fold, and greatly expand tried to diversify away from oil and should be devoted to producing the right kind how much of its oil and gas it produces — and became competitive in trade logistics, US AID did a study and found that of workers to supply the domestic industries and consumes. With larger reserves of natural gas like management, transport with four vaccinations a year they could not to produce university graduates who cannot than even the US, Africa today produces one- , services, and even eliminate 95 percent of the disease at find the right jobs and have to migrate abroad. quarter as much as the US.4About half of the gas developed an entertainment industry. It a total cost for country of $11 million Thus one could envisage a situation where African nations produce is sent abroad, while the is trying to get away from oil. — that’s nothing in terms of what during the first ten years, the focus of public US and Europe consume more oil and gas than Ethiopia could produce, which could be investment in education should be on improving they produce. Like Chang, Ramachandran embraces state $200 to $300 million in leather goods. the enrollment and quality of primary education support for infant manufacturing industries, but The individual isn’t going to be and vocational education. As the economy grows Cheap power for urbanisation, industrialisation she emphasizes the importance of an export interested in fixing the skin disease for and moves up the development path, emphasis and transportation delivers large environmental orientation. ‘I can’t find a single country that has the guy next door. That’s why it’s up to of public investment should be shifted to higher benefits. Using liquid gas instead of developed its manufacturing without industrial the government to go out and fix it by value-added products while the education wood for cooking almost completely eliminates

32 Asia with Africa Shellenberger 33 toxic smoke and can saves hours a day. As we time, but the question is at what pace. unit of energy basis. Both require 100 times Poor countries shouldn’t be expected to be able move from wood fuel to fossil fuel our forests more land as fossil and nuclear plants. And wind to train hundreds of nuclear reactor operators can return and become habitats for . Because solar and wind cannot generate power and solar require five times more concrete and annually. Recently, India was able to protect her Himalayan 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, their value to steel, respectively, than coal, nuclear and natural forests by subsidising the substitution of liquid developing nations that need cheap reliable gas plants, according to the US Department of The lesson of Country X is that cheap power, petroleum gas (LPG) for wood fuel. Something power for their factories and cities is highly Energy. manufacturing, and ‘backing the winner’ are similar could be done in sub-Saharan Africa, limited. As solar and wind become a larger all elements within a single pattern that is as where battles over charcoal have led to the amount of the electrical grid, their value declines, Renewables Not the Only effective in Ethiopia today as they were in killing of endangered in the as Germany is discovering. That’s because solar Answer Korea in 1961 and in England in 1776. These Democratic . and wind create power when it’s not needed and To the extent there is energy leap-frogging in lessons have been available to African nations don’t create power when it is most needed from India and sub-Saharan Africa it will mostly for 200 years, just as they were to Korea for 150. Factories and cities create more air pollution 5 pm to 9 pm. be from wood to natural gas to hydro-electric Nations, like people, only change when they at first but over time become cleaner and dams and nuclear — not to solar and wind. want to change. Civil wars must end so dams greener. Rising societal wealth allows for The great emphasis put on an energy source that Intermittent renewables can play a role but and factories can get built, but for the dams and pollution controls such as catalytic converters cannot support industrialisation and urbanisation should not distract nations from the main factories to get built there must be a clarity of and smokestack scrubbers. And dust is reduced is not a coincidence. Environmentalists in India event of accelerating energy transitions national purpose — a long-term commitment by by paving roads, improving mining and land and the West have since the 1960s promoted for environmental progress. Said Vijaya the society to develop. African and other poor use practices, and tree-planting. In the US and the romantic idea that low-energy consumption, Ramachandran: nations today seeking to develop thus have at Europe, conventional pollutants have been rural subsistence living, and renewable energy are hand a model of economic development proven in decline since the early 1970s, and best for people and the environment. And since There are a lot of people in the public to be a winner. All they have to do is back it. emissions for the last ten years. Rich nations the 2000s, they have been promoting it to sub- sphere saying sub-Saharan Africa should can afford to move from coal to much cleaner Saharan African leaders and policymakers. only invest in renewables, and while 1: The Country X anecdote is borrowed from Ha- natural gas, which generates a tiny fraction of hydro is renewable, that community Joon Chang’s Bad Samaritans, The Myth of Free the pollutants of coal, and half the carbon The last 50 years shows how wrong this idea has argued against large hydroelectric Trade and the Secret (2007). emissions. is. Economic growth remains tightly coupled dams, like the Inga…. But small-scale with energy consumption. A recent analysis of renewables aren’t going to be enough to 2: World Bank data, 2014. In the US and Europe, major oil and gas 76 countries found that Indians and Chinese meet the demands of African business discoveries were key to shifting from coal to earning $50,000 per year consume the same and citizens. 3: “Household (Indoor) Air Pollution,” World Health natural gas and reducing pollution. amount of energy as an American and European Organisation, http://www.who.int/indoorair/en/ natural gas in deep waters reduced Europe’s does when earning the same amount. Ramachandran is right: It makes no sense, for reliance on coal starting in the . In the US, example, to lump “renewables” — solar panels, 4: “BP Statistical Review of World Energy June it was natural gas from shale, a rock formation Where European, US, African and Indian tidal power, wind turbines, and hydro-electric 2013,” BP, 2013, http://www.bp.com/content/dam/ one mile underground, starting around governments put great emphasis on off-grid dams — into a single category. Only large dams bp-country/fr_fr/Documents/Rapportsetpublications/ 2007. China and India both have significant solar in rural villages, historically most people can generate the quantities of power needed statistical_review_of_world_energy_2013.pdf reserves of natural gas and oil in shale, but gain access to LPG and electricity by moving to — 24 hours a day, 365 days a year — to power lack the workforce, drilling rigs and pipeline cities. Solar and wind are promoted as energy factories, and drive development. It similarly infrastructure. Africa is in an even lower phase sources with little negative environmental impact makes no sense to hand-wave about ‘leap- of development. Those things will develop over but both have large impacts measured on per frogging’ and ‘disruptive innovation’ in energy:

34 Asia with Africa Shellenberger 35 BUILDING MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL are dominated by minerals and natural resources. Asian sides. The change in government from In this, India and China are little different than Obsanjo, whose failure to administer the scheme PARTNERSHIPS FOR ENERGY AND other importers of African natural resources. was exposed as corrupt and mismanaged, to the incoming Yar’Adua government’s transparent NATURAL RESOURCES The political postures of non-interference and rule of law-centred approach, resulted in the stressed by both India and China, along with reappraisal of several of the previously awarded GARETH PRICE the absence of a colonial history, has clearly Indian and Chinese oil contracts.2 engendered a positive reception from many governments in Africa. In particular, African Second, India more than most should be acutely governments have welcomed the willingness aware of countries’ demands for their own of Asian investors to offer lines of credit1and electrification before allowing exports to other invest in national infrastructure such as roads, countries. Neither Nepalese hydro-power nor This paper highlights the challenges for India and China in building mutually beneficial rail, refining and power systems, which had not Bangladeshi gas has been developed to any partnerships, particularly in the extractive sector. Extractive companies should not use proven attractive to Western companies. But this significant extent. The development of both poor governance as an excuse if partnerships are to be mutually beneficial. Corporate positive political engagement should not mask resources requires a sufficient market – India social responsibility should be mainstreamed into the extractive sector, and locally owned. a series of challenges by which their (or others’) – but in and , public opinion On the African side, it is important that resource-rich nations are encouraged to promote engagement in Africa may not necessarily be has demanded that domestic needs are met good governance and develop appropriate economic and energy policies to enable positive mutually beneficial. before the country considers exporting.While diversification of the country’s economy over time. Finally, there is an opportunity, which India’s relations with countries in Africa lack must be seized to expand engagement in renewable energy services. This will help African Challenges in Building Mutually the particular political edge of its relations countries in diversifying from extractive industries and also meet their own demands for Beneficial Partnerships with its South Asian neighbours, demand for electrification. First, while China and India claim not to electrification is no different. The electrification interfere in the sovereignty of their African rate across Africa is 43 percent, and is as Engagement between India, China and Africa countries in the . partners, this can lead to genuine risks being low as 1 percent in some rural parts of Sub- is viewed through a number of discrete overlooked. Chinese and Indian firms are no less Saharan Africa. This compares with national prisms. External analyses often focus upon the Indian assessments of its engagement in Africa immune from the challenges of political risk than electrification rates of 100 percent and 81 expanding trade interdependencies between fast- frequently stress cultural and historic ties. their Western counterparts. This is illustrated, for percent in China and India, respectively.3 growing and resource-poor Asian economies and The Indian Diaspora provides a cultural link example, by the case of Nigeria in the late-2000s. resource-rich African countries. Western critiques between India and a number of countries in Several oil deals failed following a change of According to the International Energy Agency, of the willingness of India and China to work Africa. While Chinese engagement with Africa is government in 2007. The failed deals included the current level of investment in sub-Saharan with undemocratic governments in Africa are long-standing, economic ties have strengthened proposed projects from both India and China electricity systems is only about US$8 billion a widespread. But equally, there sits the counter- over the past three decades. In the 1990s alone, which, following Western reluctance to fund year, but must reach 46 billion US$ a year over argument – that countries like India and China trade between China and Africa increased by infrastructure projects in Nigeria, were caught the next 25 years to meet the demand. In order take a less judgemental approach than the West 700 percent. China and India both run marginal up in President Obsanjo’s oil-for-infrastructure to reach the required levels of investment and and treat countries in Africa as equals rather than trade deficits with sub-Saharan Africa, but in scheme. This scheme compromised the meet the growing demand, international, as well subordinates and respect their sovereignty. This both cases exports are significant. However, the transparency of various oil licensing rounds as domestic, investment is needed. Both India argument is reinforced by Western countries’ obvious headline in the composition of trade is and several projects were undermined by and China, can play a role in helping African close relationships with a host of undemocratic the extent to which their imports from Africa political agendas on both, the Nigerian and countries improve their electricity access by

36 Asia with Africa Price 37 investing in the use of resources for the home benchmarks to monitor environmental and social expectations thereof is increasingly uncertain. and South Africa and solar projects in Kenya country’s domestic use, rather than export. impacts of their companies operating overseas. As Chatham research has shown,5 it is and South Africa.6 But there is significant scope Environmental protection may be threatened vital that resource-rich nations are encouraged to for both countries to develop renewable energy Third, Chinese companies working in Africa are by poor governance systems in place in host promote good governance and develop strong much further.India’s experience in off-grid power often perceived to be behind when it comes to countries. They also increase the risk for foreign institutions, if they are to sustain sufficient levels generation and China’s in wind and solar power, issues regarding labour rights, safety standards companies operating there as they may be held of economic growth in the long run. This should in particular offer major opportunities. Both and levels of pay. Although Chinese practices liable for done by national government come hand-in-hand with the development of countries have invested a significant amount in may, in reality, be no worse than those of or local groups.4It is in the interest of all parties appropriate economic and energy policies to domestic renewable energy in recent years. In firms from other countries, more should be to ensure that resource extraction activities in enable positive diversification of the country’s 2014, Chinese investment in renewable energy done to improve practices on the ground and Africa become a mutually-beneficial, sustainable economy over time. Without this, it becomes by almost 40 percent and India’s by 16 communication of standards.A specific criticism endeavour and serves to improve, not worsen, impossible for governments to sustain their percent. The potential for solar and wind power of Chinese companies is their failure to hire local governance. import and government spending requirements development across Africa provides a major workers, even for casual, unskilled positions. when either market price or production begins opportunity for China and India. As with other Instead they have hired a majority of Chinese In short, poor governance should not be to fall. Careful planning is thus required on both industries, the key for earning long-term right- staff. While it may be unrealistic to expect used as an excuse by extractive companies the sides of the resource extractor and supplier to-operate will be in finding mutually-beneficial locals to take up highly-skilled positions in such if investments are to be genuinely mutually- in order to ensure for example that investment ways to share technology, provide local jobs and companies, it is clear that increased efforts beneficial. Corporate social responsibility in the sector also benefits other sectors of the enhance national market development. should be made by foreign companies to employ should be mainstreamed into the extractive economy and that the way that fuel enters the local workers in management and administration sector, and locally-owned. Opportunities to domestic market discourages the lock in of 1: Gareth Price, “For the Global Good – India’s positions and to put in place training schemes benefit communities – not just governments inefficient systems. Developing International Role,” Chatham House whereby local content can be increased. – lie in areas such as training and in ensuring Report, Chatham House, May 2011,

38 Asia with Africa Price 39 Chatham House,November 2013, A BLUE OCEAN PARTNERSHIP ABHIJIT SINGH

5: Paul Stevens, GladaLahn, and JaakkoKooroshy, “The Resource Curse Revisited,” Research Paper, Chatham House, August 2015, As India’s ties with Africa improve, the ‘Blue ’ has emerged as an important area 6: X. Tan, Y. Zhao, C. Polycarp, and J. Bai, “China’s of cooperation. Africa’s coastal states have been working towards the rejuvenation of their Overseas Investments in the Wind and Solar maritime economies. Their stated goal is the achievement of sustainable development Industries: Trends and Drivers.” Working Paper, – a form of economic growth that is viable in the long-term, and which prevents the Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2013, exploitation of the . Apart from the need to set up large-scale civilian efficient governance in the maritime littorals. India, in partnership with other developed Asian powers, could assist Africa in developing a maritime system that could provide the resources, capabilities and specific technologies to achieve the desired objectives.

A notable feature of India’s The reorientation in India’s nautical outlook outreach in recent years has been its growing towards Africa represents a shift from its earlier emphasis on Africa. During the past decade, focus on trade and sea-lanes security in the New Delhi has institutionalised its forum African commons.2 It was the anti- effort summits with Africa in which significant off the Horn of Africa that was, for many years, developmental assistance has been offered India’s flagship security initiative in the region. to African states. In late October last year, Apart from escorting merchant ship convoys in at the India-Africa Forum Summit, maritime the , Indian naval ships patrolled security and blue economy was a key theme of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of discussions. In what was billed as India’s most and . The thrust of India’s ambitious outreach programme towards Africa, security initiatives then was to secure energy and New Delhi proposed the launch of “a new era resource shipment flows to India.3 of India-Africa relations” based primarily on the comprehensive development of Africa’s littorals, Even when New Delhi expanded its maritime even proposing the formalisation of a wide- engagement with , Kenya, Tanzania, ranging maritime partnership.1 , Seychelles and Mauritius, exchanges

40 Asia with Africa Singh 41 remained confined to exercises, capacity- of action, outlining a blueprint to address the blue-print for growth and development. blue economy could influence human activities.8 building and training assistance. With a rise region’s maritime challenges for sustainable The Rim Association’s (IORA) in Indian naval ship visits to African ports, development and competitiveness.5 The strategy, Needless to say, this still does not address the first Ministerial Blue Economy Conference India certainly projected considerable political meant to systematically address Africa’s maritime principle challenge Africa faces in rejuvenating in October 2015 too sought to enhance and diplomatic influence. Its participation in vulnerabilities, marked a declaratory shift away the maritime economy: absence of a legal cooperation on sustainable development the African economy, however, could never from a period of self-imposed sea blindness. framework in managing the commons. There projects in the IOR. The conference held, cross a low threshold of assistance, not least More significantly, it sought to integrate is an increased awareness among African in Mauritius, identified four priority areas (a) since it appeared ambivalent about maritime individual maritime strategies of Africa’s other nations that their major maritime dysfunction fisheries and aquaculture; (b) renewable ocean development in Africa’s commons. security communities and develop a unique stems from lack of effective governance in energy; (c) seaports and shipping; and (d) seabed vision of comprehensive development. the maritime littorals. It is the illegal capture exploration and minerals for development. The neglect of the continental littoral spaces of resources – overfishing in the African seems to have been reversed over the past two In this context, the example of South Africa is EEZs, rampant exploitation of the , drug These are all areas in which India could develop years. With a growing African demand that its instructive. In October 2014, proposed smuggling, and widespread an effective partnership with Africa. It could also partners contribute to the development of the Operation Phakisa, a maritime project aimed pollution of coastal waters – that has thwarted combine efforts with China, which has a strong oceans-economy, India’s political leadership is specifically at unlocking and developing the African efforts to build an effective maritime presence in Africa, in strengthening networking, beginning to realise the importance of blue- ocean economy. Pitched as a national movement governance system. Africa not only needs exchange of experiences and best practices for oceans development. Not surprisingly, when aimed at the promotion of growth and jobs maritime administration frameworks and the development of the blue economy. Notably, Prime Narendra Modi visited Seychelles in the country’s ocean economy, Phakisa has the local capacity to enforce regulations, but many of these goals correspond with the UN led and Mauritius in February last year, a key four priority sectors as new growth areas in also a model for sustainable blue-economy sustainable development goals (SDGs) for the theme of discussions was the development of the ocean’s economy: (a) marine transport development that does not result in the blue economy, especially for the conservation the maritime economy. The Indian premier’s and manufacturing activities such as coastal destruction of its maritime habitat. and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and emphasis on blue-energy partnership in the shipping, trans-shipment, boat building, repair marine resources for development.9 Indian Ocean was widely highlighted in the and refurbishment (b) pffshore oil and gas It is relevant that a blue economy development media. As was his advocacy of maritime exploration (c) aquaculture and (d) marine represents large-scale job creation and a Still, there are significant impediments in development, which may have served to expedite protection services and ocean governance.6 viable rate of production and growth. The developing the littoral spaces. The basic problem an agreement to develop infrastructure Importantly, each of these sectors also represent new blue economy has the potential to open is that the blue economy is science, technology in Mauritius (at Agalega) and Seychelles areas that India has been looking to partner up new avenues of development involving and finance intensive, and many African states (Assumption).4 The projects discussed during regional states in the Indian Ocean Region the environment, energy, defence and food are constrained by capability and resources his visit have the potential to revive African (IOR). India’s own developmental experience, production.7 But it is also a comprehensive in achieving the desired goals. What is then domestic growth, and included proposals for in fact, could go a long way in providing concept, including in its ambit both the ‘green needed is an arrangement where states could use the development of maritime infrastructure, valuable inputs to South Africa, especially since economy’ (with its focus on the environment) international and regional financial institutions sea-air transportation, fisheries, marine sciences, Phakisa is based on a model that brings together and the ‘ocean economy’ ( emphasis on ocean such as the IMF, ADB and AIIB to develop an renewable energy and hydrography. teams from government, labour, business and development and sea-land complementarities for exclusive fund for blue energy projects. Meanwhile, Africa’s own efforts to improve its academia. Not only could India partner Pretoria sustainable development). It’s important to reiterate that the central maritime economy and develop a harmonising in realising its National Development Plan-2030 principle of the blue economy is the idea of vision for the subcontinent have been significant. goals through a sustained engagement with Last year, the Blue Economy Strategic Thought ecosystem efficiency. Through a smooth flow of In 2013, the African Union announced an diverse stakeholders, it could also assist other Forum-India, debated many ocean economy nutrients and energy -- in the same way as natural Integrated Maritime Strategy-2050 and plan African states in designing their own maritime concepts, proposing multiple ways in which the -- life and growth can be sustained

42 Asia with Africa Singh 43 in perpetuity. Such systems reduce inputs and 1: “India-Africa summit will launch new era of 8: TP Sreenivasan, “India should prepare its cadre eliminate waste, not just through the efficient use partnership”, Times of India, October 24, 2015, at for the blue economy”, Indian Express, February 16, of materials but also because the little waste they http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Africa- 2016, at http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/ produce do not cause much pollution. These summit-will-launch-new-era-of-partnership-PM-Modi/ columns/the-blue-economy-diplomats-ocean-and- innovations have the potential to increase rather articleshow/49513559.cms water-body-policy/ than shed jobs, as emulating natural systems requires the employment of human beings. 2: “India-Africa Summit 2015: PM Modi announces 9: “Open Working Group proposal for Sustainable $10 bn concessional credit to Africa”, Indian Express, Development Goals”, UN.Org, at https:// In order to effectively realise a prosperous future December 25, 2015, at http://indianexpress.com/ sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html for Africa, India will also need to contribute in article/india/india-news-india/india-offers-africa-10- the creation of a coherent maritime system. For bn-soft-loan-seeks-stronger-ties/ this, it is imperative to look beyond infrastructure creation, and aid in the strengthening of legal 3: “Evaluating India-Africa Maritime Relations”, The frameworks and institutions. India has the Diplomat, October 29, 2015, at http://thediplomat. systems, personnel, experience and know-how com/2015/10/evaluating-india-africa-maritime- to help Africa evolve rules and norms that can relations/ equitably manage maritime resources. It must, however, also assist African states in creating 4: “India to develop strategic assets in Mauritius, the material capacity to deal with governance Seychelles ”, The Indian Express, March 12, challenges in critical commons – especially the 2015, at http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india- Gulf of Aden and , where a others/india-seychelles-sign-four-pacts-to-boost- working law enforcement system is yet to be security-cooperation/ effectively implemented. 5: Jan Stockbruegger, “Reclaiming the Maritime? India’s guiding text for cooperation with the The AU’s New Maritime Strategy”, Piracy Studies, African states must be the Africa Union’s February 2, 2014, at http://piracy-studies.org/ Agenda-2063 document, which should spell reclaiming-the-maritime-the-aus-new-maritime- out a comprehensive vision in alignment strategy/ with ‘development goals’ and ‘international aspirations.’ But New Delhi should also be 6: “Operation Phakisa to move SA forward”, South aware that apart from assisting Africa with hard Africa News, July 15, 2015, at http://www.sanews. capacity for security tasks, it will be expected to gov.za/south-africa/operation-phakisa-move-sa- assist in the of a continental strategy forward that can improve the lives of its people by creating a model of sustainable development. 7: Gunter Pauli, The Blue Economy: 10 Years — 10 Innovations —100 Million Jobs, (Paradigm Publications: New 2010)

44 Asia with Africa Singh 45 TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPEMENT regimes and partnerships need to be re-imagined on Climate Change, 2030 Agenda for Sustainable to sharpen focus on technological needs of Development and WTO’s agreement on Trade- IN AFRICA AND INDIA: NEED FOR A poorer people and regions. Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) are key platforms where India and NEW POLITICS India’s partnership with Africa on science and Africa, together, must advocate for strengthened technology is half a century old. Africa was technology frameworks for development. VIKROM MATHUR a major focus of the Indian, Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme in The technology facilitation mechanism that was the 1960s. India also made explicit commitments set up in as part of the outcomes to support science and technology in Africa of the Financing for Development (FFD) after the second India-Africa Forum Summit conference last July, is an important first step in in 2008 through the India-Africa Science and this process. While the mechanism will not be The persistence of basic development challenges related to , energy-poverty and low Technology Initiative. Technology was the a means for the transfer of technology itself, agricultural productivity illustrate that market signals alone are not sufficient to generate central theme in the Delhi Declaration 2015 - it establishes a multi-stakeholder forum and technological applications for the bottom of the pyramid. Common socio-economic ‘Partners in Progress: Towards a Dynamic and multi-agency task team to focus exclusively on concerns of India and Africa provide fertile grounds for the two regions to collaborate on Transformative Development Agenda’ that technological solutions for developmental issues. re-orienting technology regimes to address development needs. At the multilateral level, emerged from the Third India-Africa Forum Crucially, the mechanism will be responsible they must jointly advocate for humble technologies at three key platforms - technology Summit in 2015. The relevance of South-South for a comprehensive mapping of existing facilitation mechanism under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris co-operation between regions with shared technologies and how they can be disseminated5. Agreement on Climate Change and the TRIPS agreement at the WTO. In terms of socio-economic circumstances is particularly bilateral engagements, both India and Africa must work together to leverage information relevant for technology. Africa and India are The Paris Agreement also devoted an entire and communication technologies (ICTs) for development and explore potential areas for two of the fastest growing regions of the world section to issues around technology and capacity science-technology collaboration especially in the areas of health, energy and agriculture. and have much to learn from each other. They building (Article 10 and 11, respectively), At this point, transfer of agency is much more vital than diffusion of technology itself. need to work together at a multilateral level to recognising that technology transfer and reorient technology regimes to allow transfer development is key to realising climate change Realigning Technology Politics it’s 2,217 kg/hectare3, while in China and USA and diffusion of technologies for development; resilience and mitigating greenhouse gas Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals it’s 5,891 and, 7,340 respectively. In terms of at the bilateral level,existing platforms must be emissions. Paris saw the establishment of a (SDGs) in Africa and India will require , 15 percent of India and 20 percent leveraged to support investment in invention technology framework to provide guidance on maximising the potential of technology. Africa of Africa’s population is undernourished4. of affordable technologies that contribute to the work of the existing technology mechanism and India face myriad development challenges: However, technological trajectories are often development. under the United Nations Framework 635.4 million people in Africa and 237.4 million not well aligned with development needs of the Convention on Climate Change, and support people in India have no access to electricity1; poor. The persistence of basic health problems, Technology Commons: the long-term goals of the agreement. There 80 percent of people in sub-Saharan Africa hunger-malnutrition, energy-poverty, and low Re-orienting Global is the risk that the highly bureaucratic depend on biomass for cooking while in India agricultural productivity illustrate that market Technology Regimes multilateral mechanisms for technology transfer 840 million people lack access to clean cooking signals and incentives alone are not sufficient Africans and Indians together comprise nearly become empty shells. The 22nd Conference of facilities2. Crop yield (kg/hectare) both in India to generate technological applications for the one-third of humanity; they need to exercise Parties will be held in , in and African countries is among the lowest in the bottom of the pyramid. There is need for a proportionate degree of influence in global 2016: Africa and India need to ensure technology world – in India it’s 2,963 kg/hectare, in Ethopia new politics of technology. Global technology governance of technology. The Paris Agreement mechanisms under Paris Agreement and Agenda

46 Asia with Africa Mathur 47 2030 are effectively operationalised. take practicable steps to facilitate, finance and and products that cater to the needs and budgets in training programmes in India. Technology promote the access and transfer of life giving of the poor. centres have also been established in several The Agreement on TRIPS under WTO and environmental technologies.9Article 66.2 African countries with Indian support such as prescribes intellectual property rights (IPRs) of the TRIPS agreement goes beyond mere ICTs the Technology Development and Innovation protection and enforcement standards, which promotion and compels developed countries Inequality with regards to access to and use of Centre in Science and Technology Park in have global implications. For India and Africa, to incentivise ‘enterprises and institutions in ICTs among social groups/strata can create Mozambique, Technology Park in TRIPS had two primary implications – first, their ’ to carry out suitable technology a ‘digital divide’ - further entrenching the gap and the Mahatma Gandhi IT and Biotechnology the issue of access to essential commodities transfers.10 However, evidence suggests otherwise between the haves and have-nots. Specific Park in Cote d’Ivoire. like affordable drugs and second, technology – majority of the programmes classifies as policies, programmes and products are needed transfer from developed countries. While technology transfer are poorly-targeted, and to use ICTs to transform the lives of the Health TRIPS recognised the detrimental effects do not provide the mandated preferential poor by improving access to education, health Potential areas for science-technology that higher IP regulation can have on treatment to least developing countries (LDC). and financial services. As the ICT revolution collaboration between India and Africa in public health, and tried to address them to For example, the 2002 report on technology unfolds in India and Africa, it is crucial to also the health sector relate to increased research a certain extent through the ‘flexibilities’ transfer activities, submitted by Germany to the understand its impact on gender relations in anddevelopment of medicines especially that the agreement provided, the mandated TRIPS Council, states that its programmes are both the regions. ICT technologies do hold for neglected tropical diseases, leveraging IP restructuring has meant much stronger aimed at ‘any developing country where the legal the potential to empower women, but existing telemedicine to plug the access gaps, enhanced limitations for generic drug manufacturers framework and investment climate allows private patriarchal, economic, and socio-cultural access to quality and affordable generic in key supplier countries like India.6 Recent investment’, but it is silent on specific LDCs- structures tend to favour male access and usage, medicines and setting-up of medical institutes. developments highlight the possibility of even based advantages that the country is expected inadvertently reinforcing, even widening the higher IP protection in the WTO platform to provide.11 existing gender gaps. In order to tap the real Cost of medicines remains a primary – the United States and Switzerland are potential of ICTs in transforming lives, it is impediment to access: The WHO estimates that advocating for the establishment of the non- Societal action on planetary threats like climate simply not enough to introduce the technologies; essential drugs are still not available to almost violation complaints (NVCs) norms under change and prevention of health crises can’t be their complex gendered nature must be one-third of the global population.14 Having TRIPS. Through the NCV, any member state can held hostage to the ability to pay for technology acknowledged12. said this, the growing supply of generics has challenge another member on actions that do not royalties. IPR must not be used as a shield to made a significant positive impact. As early necessarily violate the WTO conditions.7 guard the interests of large and The M-Pesa scheme in Kenya is a good example as 2001,Indian generic giant- Cipla – sold Common concerns related to these implications prevent meaningful progress on SDGs and of the use of ICTs to promote financial the ARV drug for just US$350 per patient have meant that India and Africa have a history climate change. inclusions. Similar schemes can lead to structural per year, as opposed to the non-discounted of close collaboration at the WTO – recently, social changes and empowerment by providing version, which was priced between US$10,000 of the two regions submitted a Walking Together, Walking access to markets, banks, credit and insurance. and US$15,000.15 However, it is becoming joint statement to the Ministerial of the Far: Bilateral Technology increasingly difficult to produce generic versions WTO demanding a more development-friendly Partnerships India and Africa are already collaborating on – the global discourse is moving towards one framework in the areas of IP and agriculture.8 Africa and India have a long history of ICTs. The Pan-Africa e-Network was launched in of higher IP protection. Apart from the TRIPS, technological collaboration in four areas 2009 through Indian assistance. This fibre-optic developed countries are negotiating for the In terms of technology transfer too, little that are critical for development, ICTs, network, established at the cost of Rs 452 crore, much stronger TRIPS-plus conditions through meaningful transfer and diffusion is actually agriculture, rural electrification and health. across 48 countries in Africa provides satellite bilateral and regional agreements.16 India is taking place despite the rhetoric and Ongoing collaboration in these areas needs connectivity, tele-medicine and tele-education13. also facing additional pressure from the US commitments made by developed countries to to be strengthened to push for applications African technologists have also participated through the US International Trade Commission

48 Asia with Africa Mathur 49 (USITC)17 and the US Trade Representative between India and Africa. companies through India-Africa Seeds Bridge where R&D takes place in the developed world (USTR)18. At this stage then, there is a need to It has also supported larger energy infrastructure project. and developing countries are recipients in the simultaneously explore alternative models of projects through its lines of credit including diffusion stage25 -needs to be altered. Transfer funding IP costs such as global health funding power lines in Kenya and , Making Technology Grow, of agency to developing countries is far more organizations, including Global Fund to Fight hydro-power plants in , the Central Investing in People critical than the transfer of technology itself. Aids, Tuberculosis and (GFATM) and African Republic, and the Democratic Republic To make technology grow, Africa and India need UNITAID created a global subsidy through of Congo, and solar power plants in . to invest in their key resource-the youth. Skilled 1: “World energy outlook 2015,” International Affordable Medicines Facility-malaria (AMFm) and trained technologists will be needed for Energy Agency, (2015). which reduced the price of ACT to end users. Agriculture R&D of new applications and for the diffusion Manufacturers received global subsidy directly Africa and India are largely agrarian societies. of existing technologies. India needs to continue 2: International Energy Agency and shipped reduced price drugs, which were Humble technologies for improving the to increase widespread access to quality science distributed through local channels. productivity of agriculture and developing through scholarships and 3: “Cereal yield (Kg per hectare),” World climate smart agricultural practices are critical fellowships for African students, specialised Development Indicators. through which technology can be optimally irrigation technologies, better crop varieties training centres and educational institutions and employed to plug the supply gaps in Asia and and more upstream investments in food expanding tele-education. 4: “The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015. Africa. Given the common challenges such as the processing technologies. A lot of collaboration Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets: health personnel crises, the lack of health centres is already happening between Africa and India The CV Raman Fellowship for example has taking stock of uneven progress,” FAO, IFAD and in rural areas, and the relatively low investment in this sphere21. A potentially fruitful area for supported 164 African researchers to conduct WFP, (2015). in R&D for medicines,the two regions can collaboration is irrigation technology. Indian research in the Indian technology institutes. collaborate to exploring common solutions. private sector is already active; Jain Irrigation The Indira Gandhi National Open University 5: “Addis Ababa Action Agenda,” United Nations, For instance, both India and Africa have a rich has wide presence in Kenya, , Ethiopia, (IGNOU) has been established in (2015). fertile base for pharmaceutical related R&D. irrigation technology in Africa22. centres have been established for the study of life sciences, systems, agriculture, and rural 6: Dianne Nicol and Olasupo Owoeye, ”Using Energy India has a long tradition of agricultural research: development. TRIPS flexibilities to facilitate ,” Large parts of India and Africa are not Crop Research Institute for the Semi- Bulletin of the World Health Organization, connected to electrical grids because of which (ICRISAT) and International Livestock Technology should ultimately lead to April 18, 2013. developing decentralised and localised renewable India-Africa cooperation in agriculture23. Further to direct and shape technological trajectories to energy solutions. Africa is undergoing a ‘quite up the value chain, ICRISAT has supported align them with development needs and think 7: D. Ravi Kant, “India warns of ‘endless’ legal solar revolution’ as innovative start-ups are agribusiness development in Angola, , seriously about social institutions within which challenges at WTO for pharma patent law regime,” providing power to rural consumers20. Indian , Mali and . ILRI has focused on technologies are embedded. Global politics Livemint, Oct 16, 2015. Modi targeting installed capacity of solar power Association of India and Syngenta Foundation technology innovation happens in the developed to be 100 GW by 2022. Solar power could drive of India are distributing better seeds to African world and the market for its consumption is 8: “ Joint Statement by African and Indian Civil technological cooperation in the area of energy farmers and opening up markets for Indian seed in the global south.24 The current paradigm - Society on The Nairobi Ministerial Of the WTO,” Oct

50 Asia with Africa Mathur 51 27, 2015. . %2027%20Oct%202015.pdf> int/hq/2004/WHO_EDM_2004.5.pdf> 20: Galliot, Lorena, “Africa’s Quiet Solar Revolution,” 9: Suerie , “Does TRIPS Art. 66.2 Encourage 15: Donald D. McNeil Jr, “Indian Company Offers The Christian Science Monitor, January 25, 2015, Technology Transfer to LDCs? An Analysis of Country to Supply AIDS Drugs at Low Cost in Africa,” The accessed October 7, 2015

52 Asia with Africa Mathur 53 DECONSTRUCTING INDIA’S facing the hardships of peacekeeping, and in and Bangladesh were serving in Africa risking their lives to save strangers, has been as in 2015.5 But if either country has any particular PEACEKEEPING ROLE IN AFRICA noteworthy and is reflected in the casualties that strategic interests that have predisposed it to they have suffered. provide blue helmets in such numbers to Africa KUDRAT VIRK in particular, they are far too obscure. Rather, The reasons why Asian governments commit the African focus derives from the shifting so many of their uniformed personnel to serve and expansion of peacekeeping under the UN in Africa vary, as they would from the period to the present, which given their different historical experiences, has witnessed the continent play host to some interests, and capacities. Within Asia, the of the UN’s largest missions such as in the leading troop contributors are from the Indian Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), subcontinent – specifically India, Pakistan, and , and South . India is an exception, India is among the largest and most consistent troop contributors to United Nations Bangladesh, for whom deployments of blue albeit arguably. It has the longest – and most (UN) peacekeeping in Africa, where the majority of its blue helmets are deployed. This helmets are a concrete expression of their consistent – record as a troop contributor of engagement with African peace and security has been driven by both principles and principled commitment to the purposes of note to UN operations in Africa. Prior to 1989, interests including India’s bid for permanent membership of the UN Security Council and the UN. But only in part, for each is further there were only two UN peacekeeping operations Africa’s growing importance to it. However, India’s peacekeeping role faces challenges driven to translate this sense of responsibility deployed on the continent: The UN Emergency related to the changing nature of the peacekeeping enterprise itself and the context in into practice for assorted reasons. A snapshot Force (UNEF) in Egypt and the UN Operation which it operates, as well as Africa’s own efforts to provide security on the continent. These illustrates. India is not only a relatively stable in the Congo (ONUC). And India made major raise hard questions for New Delhi. Is the Indian endeavor more than an aspect of its UN democracy, but also a rising economic power contributions to both. A legacy of Nehruvian diplomacy? Could it evolve to become a more integral part of India’s Africa policy? with a sense of ’’, and its liberal internationalism and -Asian solidarity peacekeeping profile is a major component of against colonialism, this engagement has India has for long been one of the largest with peace and security in Africa. And the its bid for a permanent seat in the UN Security continued, but with its need reinforced by India’s troop-contributing countries to United Nations numbers tell a vivid story. Six Asian countries – Council. In the case of Pakistan, its peacekeeping growing interests in Africa. (UN) peacekeeping, globally and in Africa, its Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Nepal, China, and credentials have helped the military in its efforts soldiers having served under the UN flag ‘from Indonesia – provided over a third of all UN to project a positive image and gain a measure Focus on Africa? Congo to Congo’.1 As India’s interests in Africa peacekeepers in 2015.2 With about 80 percent of international as well as domestic legitimacy.3 It may be over-simplistic to reduce the drivers have expanded over the past two decades, the of blue helmets deployed in Africa, this makes Meanwhile for Bangladesh, blue helmet of India’s contemporary engagement with Africa provision of blue helmets has been a prominent the Asian contribution to peacekeeping efforts deployments have lent impetus for modernising to resources, but they are undoubtedly a key feature of the rhetoric on its engagement with on the continent no small matter. More than the country’s armed forces, while giving them factor. Economic growth is an imperative, both the continent and a key component of its efforts half the force strength of the UN Organisation an outward-facing role that has had a positive to sustain India’s rise as a credible and influential to strengthen India-Africa relations. Yet, how Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic impact on civil-military relations at home.4 player on the world stage as well as to meet its central is Africa itself to this endeavour? Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) – the domestic objectives, making the country – with largest such operation in the continent – is Yet, the drivers of South Asian peacekeeping its population of over 1.2 billion – a resource- Asian Peacekeepers in Africa – comprised of Asian troops. Beyond numbers, – for the most part – have had very little to hungry giant. The attraction to Africa, with its Situating India and notwithstanding the occasional criticism that do with Africa itself, despite the continent’s plentiful natural resources from oil and timber The world of UN peacekeeping provides the they have drawn over the years, the commitment dominance in their UN deployment profiles. to metals such as , is obvious. India-Africa most visible demonstration of Asian engagement shown by Asia’s ‘boots on the ground’ in More than 90 percent of UN peacekeepers from trade has grown very rapidly from $5.5 billion

54 Asia with Africa Virk 55 in 2001 to $70 billion in 2014,6and Indian General Assembly later in the year – to create problematic – norm of responsibility to protect force, in a first for the UN, was mandated to investments in the continent now run into a 8,000-strong peacekeeping standby force. (R2P) and raised similar issues, including a carry out offensive operations against rebels billions, with companies such as the Tata Group These Chinese moves pose a potential challenge concern that it may be providing foot soldiers in the eastern DRC. In the words of Richard having a visible presence. However, conflict for India, given that New Delhi’s manpower for the pursuit of Western interests and values.9 Gowan, ‘African officials frequently argue that in Africa poses a risk to the safety of Indian contributions to peacekeeping operations have Not surprisingly, India has been a vocal critic UN missions are too cautious and unwilling investments and migrants, a reality exposed by helped to distinguish its engagement in Africa of the lack of transparency in the UN Security to use force. Both inside and outside the UN, the evacuation of about 15,000 Indians from and to give it a small edge over Beijing, the Council’s working methods and of consultation African governments are likely to push for in the wake of violence in 2011. Other economically more dominant player. with troop-contributing countries in the drafting more robust and ambitious peace operations in threats include those posed by Boko Haram of mandates. It has also pressed the case future.’10 The challenge for India then becomes insurgents to stability in Nigeria – one of ‘New’ Challenges against abandoning the traditional principles of one of willingness to re-think its approach India’s main sources of crude oil imports – and Though China has attracted the ’s share local consent, neutrality, and non-use of force to peacekeeping, not merely as an aspect of by piracy off the Horn of Africa to shipping of headline-grabbing controversy, India’s except in self-defence in UN peacekeeping. The its UN diplomacy but of its Africa policy, or routes. Given the complexity of Africa’s engagement in Africa is not devoid of criticism resultant tension between India’s understanding risk neglecting the context in Africa itself and regional and security dynamics, this means that and faces a few of the same issues. India-Africa of peacekeeping and the mandates that it has to forfeiting the pay-off of its past contributions. India has a broad-based interest in supporting trade, for example, is characterised by a marked implement in high-risk operating environments efforts to increase peace and stability across the imbalance, similar to China-Africa trade: It is has, however, created difficulties: In the DRC, Second, Africa is building its own capacity continent. New Delhi also has specific stakes based mainly on the export of primary products for example, Indian troops have had to to keep the peace. Its deployments to UN in several African countries that currently host from Africa and the import of manufactured criticism for not doing enough to protect peacekeeping operations have increased UN peacekeeping operations, in particular the goods from India.8 This risks replicating old civilians. A large part of the problem lies in the substantially, and this expansion in manpower DRC and , where it has significant colonial trade patterns, and there is a clear need missions themselves: They tend to be under- contributions is reflected in the leader board investments in the oil industry. for New Delhi to broaden its trade base. In resourced and operate under constraints that of UN troop contributors: Five African this context, its contributions to African peace amplify the challenges faced by peacekeepers. countries ranked in the top ten in 2015 – And then there is China, or rather Chinese and security – through UN peacekeeping, in Ethiopia, Rwanda, , Ghana, and Nigeria. competition for African business and ‘hearts and particular – have helped India maintain – for At the same time, there is no getting away from Furthermore, African regional organisations minds’. China belongs to a cohort of newcomers now – its standing on the continent, and remain a more fundamental issue in the context of have deployed their own peace operations over to peacekeeping, but has rapidly risen to the top a key plank of its bid to strengthening relations India-Africa relations: In Africa, there has been the past two decades – for example, in Sudan ranks of troop-contributing countries with over with Africa as a whole. But this peacekeeping greater acceptance of the shift towards ‘peace and – with the African Union (AU) 3,000 blue helmets deployed in 2015, up from role in Africa faces a number of challenges. enforcement’ and of the idea that peacekeeping alone having deployed 64,000 peacekeepers since fewer than 100 in 2000.7 The vast majority of cannot be based – always or entirely – on 2004.11Africa is developing a continental peace these Chinese peacekeepers are serving in Africa The first relates to the changing nature of traditional principles. The mandates of African and security , including an African – specifically in the DRC, Darfur, Mali, , peacekeeping. Over the past two decades, operations (such as the African Union Mission Standby Force (ASF) with rapid deployment and South Sudan. And until recently, most were UN peacekeeping operations have grown in in Somalia [AMISOM]) have gone further than capacity to address conflicts. However, the medical, engineering, and support personnel. ambition and complexity to involve a wide those of the UN. Though it may be an exception ASF – conceived over a decade ago – is not yet In 2015 Beijing deployed its first combat range of activities, and since 1999, several in the context of UN peacekeeping, the creation fully operational, and African peace operations battalion to a UN peacekeeping mission – in missions (for example, MONUSCO) have had of a 3000-strong Force Intervention Brigade face serious capacity gaps in areas ranging from South Sudan – signalling a shift in its approach express mandates to protect civilians. This turn (FIB) – under the umbrella of MONUSCO, but skilled personnel to logistics and transport. to peacekeeping in Africa, further borne out by towards more robust peacekeeping has been manned by soldiers from South Africa, Tanzania, India has supported African capacity-building in President Xi Jinping’s pledge – made at the UN intertwined with the emerging – and for India, and – is closer to a trend in Africa. This peacekeeping through monetary contributions

56 Asia with Africa Virk 57 and the provision of training, but can it do 6: Xinhua, “Backgrounder: India, Africa Closer POLICY CONVERGENCE IN GLOBAL more? India is one of a handful of troop- Tie amid Fast Development of Economic, Trade contributing countries with the capacity and Flow,” May 19, 2011, http://news.xinhuanet.com/ GOVERNANCE INSTITUTIONS: THE willingness to deploy specialised assets such english2010/database/2011-05/19/c_13883624. as combat helicopters, field hospitals, and htm; Sanusha Naidu and Edwin Rwigi, “India’s CASE OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL engineering units to UN operations. Is it willing, Africa Trade Policy under the Modi Government: ARCHITECTURE ON DEVELOPEMENT however, to step out further from under the Business as Usual or the Makings of a Strategic UN umbrella and provide similar support for Reorientation?,” Bridges Africa 2, no. 1 (4 March SANUSHA NAIDU the ASF and African-run operations? All in 2015). all, how central is Africa itself to India’s peace and security engagement with the continent? Is 7: “IPI Peacekeeping Database,” International Peace India’s peacekeeping role in Africa more than an Institute,http://www.providingforpeacekeeping.org/ extension of its diplomacy at the UN? And is contributions/ Examining the role of policy convergence in global governance institutions, the main there room to think outside the proverbial box argument is that under a new global development architecture achieving policy convergence on sensitive and difficult issues such as the use 8: Amadou Sy, “Three Trends in Indo-African Trade will remain a difficult task as each state will be seized with dealing with their triple challenge of force for a closer fit with the realities in and and Investment,”Africa in Focus, October 23, 2015, of poverty, inequality and unemployment. The view is that in order to address these issues of Africa? http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/africa-in-focus/ countries need to explore different ways of nesting power in global governance institutions. posts/2015/10/23-trends-indo-african-trade- 1: Ruchita Beri, “India’s Role in Keeping Peace in investment-sy. The year 2015 was significant for the global was held in December in Nairobi, Kenya Africa,” Strategic Analysis 32, no. 2 (2008), p. 203. agenda on development. It was underpinned by 9: Zachariah Mampilly, “Indian Peacekeeping and five main international gatherings. These were: Together these global meetings have set into 2: “Peacekeeping Statistics,” United Nations the Performance of the United Nations Mission in • The 5th Global Aid for Trade review ( 30 motion the start of various international Peacekeeping,http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/ the Democratic Republic of Congo,” in Thierry Tardy June- 2 July) that focused on reducing trade costs processes, which will ultimately define and shape resources/statistics/ and Marco Wyss (eds.), Peacekeeping in Africa: The for sustainable development the future of global architecture on development. Evolving Security Architecture (London and New • The Financing for Development Conference Understanding how these global processes will 3: Inam--Rahman Malik, “Pakistan”, in Alex J. York: Routledge, 2014), pp. 113–131. (FfD) that took place in Addis Ababa in July evolve also requires a critical awareness of the Bellamy and Paul D. Williams (eds.), Providing • The UN adoption of the Post-2015 agenda kind of engagement and policy convergence Peacekeepers: The Politics, Challenges, and Future 10: Richard Gowan, “10 Trends in Peace (25-27 September, which focused on the shift that will be required. Based on the above issues of United Nations Peacekeeping Contributions Operations,”Global Peace Operations Review, from the Millennium Development Goals this brief is aimed at unpacking how policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. June 17, 2015, http://peaceoperationsreview.org/ (MDGs) to the Sustainable Development Goals convergence is being informed by the underlying 204–224. thematic-essays/10-trends-in-peace-operations/. (SDGs), and included trade, peace and security trajectories of a new global development as cross-cutting thematic issues aimed at global framework. It also intends to explore what new 4: Rashed Uz Zaman and Niloy R. Biswas, 11: Anit Mukherjee, “UN Missions Bedrock of structural economic change practices of global governance are emerging that “Bangladesh”, in Bellamy and Williams (eds.), India’s Military Engagement and Assistance to • The negotiations for a new international can assist in enabling better policy convergence Providing Peacekeepers, pp. 183–203. Africa,”Indian Express, December 25, 2015. climate change deal under the auspices of the in global governance institutions. United Nations Framework Convention on 5: Based on data from the UN. Climate Change hosted in Paris in November The World is not the Same • The MC10 WTO Ministerial Meeting that Following the 2008 financial crisis, the

58 Asia with Africa Naidu 59 foundation of the global economic outlook had Africa, compounded by unpredictable currency issues and form part of the global policy Current Status Quo fundamentally shifted. The immediate fallout fluctuations aligned to depressed primary convergence in the G20 developing working of Policy Convergence from the crisis did not directly affect emerging commodity prices group as well as in the platform and The sobering reality of today’s multi-polar actors such as China. However, it seems that • The rise of Mega-Regional Trading the IBSA (India, Brazil, South Africa) trilateral international system is that it is overlaid by today the protracted nature of the 2008 financial Agreements such as the Trans Pacific Partnership grouping, the adoption of the 2030 Sustainable its plurilateral nature that makes the policy consequences has begun to be felt in China’s (TPP) or the Transatlantic Trade in Investment Development Agenda Vision comes with its convergence in global governance institutions economic state of affairs and in terms of Partnership (T-TIP) are interpreted as bypassing own set of inherent contradictions. The most that much more complex. On big ticket issues broader global impulses. the rules-based system of the WTO, and obvious of these is the greater need to protect such as reform of the United Nations Security • The weakening of the ‘Africa Rising’ national development interests first and foremost Council (UNSC), the Bretton Woods Institutions Over the past 18 to 24months, the global narrative2 in all spheres of decision-making with regard to and platforms that still reflect the imbalance of development landscape has been undergoing political and economic governance institutions the post II Period, there is consensus some strategic re-orientations that undoubtedly All of the above point to a global context where through the applied Principle of Common but on the policy convergence that the world has points to medium and long-term effects. Such the idea of governance no longer relates to just Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR). changed and that the global architecture needs to trends will inform how policy convergence state to state convergence but also brings into reflect current realities of new voices and centres and decision-making in global governance the discussion the role of other foreign policy The CBDR principle is generally and commonly of power. institutions are undertaken. actors who represent the voice and interests of referred to in the context of international a variety of multi-stakeholders whether it is the environmental law. It has in recent times also But where the situation becomes complicated is Let us consider the following trends and private sector, global social movements, national been extended to the WTO and in other bilateral in the ‘how to’. Nowhere is this more relevant patterns: parliaments and/or domestic sub-national actors. trade negotiations. It provides a safety net for than on the different approaches to reforming of • World trade has not managed to rebound This diffusion of state power in the current those states who, while accepting responsibility the UNSC. The big policy convergence question after the 2008 financial crisis and it looks unlikely setting of a multipolar world leads to a set of around climate change, remained cautious of is whether to push for the ‘right to veto’ or not. that will return to its long run average of 6 fundamental questions around what types of being held liable to contribute in the same way Consider the different trajectories among those percent before the crisis hit in the immediate policy convergence can be identified in going as their counterparts from the developed world, countries seeking to gain a permanent seat in a future forward. based on two principles of ‘historic emissions reformed UNSC. The group of four - Brazil, • The weakening of the trade-growth nexus or and their ability to pay’.3 Germany, Japan and India - have resolved that relationship. Between the period 1986 and 2000, Domestic Policy Space and they will not push for the ‘veto right’ in order to a 1 percent GDP growth in the world economy Global Governance The principle of CBDR can thus also be allow for the process to continue without delay. correlated with a 2.2 percent increase in trade Within this evolving developmental governance interpreted and used to safeguard national vested However, not all engaged actors are willing to growth. Yet since 2000 this relationship has been landscape, the link between domestic policy interests. This is because we cannot forget that adopt such a compromise. weakened. Currently, this elasticity is just about issues and decision-making with international all politics is local and therefore satisfying the 1.3 percent1 commitments and responsibilities cannot be expectations of domestic constituencies is very In the African context ‘The Ezulwini • Global Commodity Prices are not just ignored. Unmistakenly, the policy convergence much a part of how international interests are Consensus’4 calls for two permanent seats that declining but have in some cases reached their around the global governance development shaped and influenced. Not least because it is will represent the continent with ‘the right to bottom out levels agenda is underlined by the coalescing around electorates that wield the power at the ballot veto’. With the African side remaining steadfast • The volatility in the global benchmark the triple challenge of addressing poverty, boxes.Of course in this global climate of in its demands, South Africa finds itself caught price of oil has seen prices dip to less than inequality and unemployment. economic and development uncertainty, the between a rock and hard place. On the one hand, $35 a barrel, leading to balance of payment underplay of geo-strategic interests should not Pretoria cannot break ranks with the African weakness for some oil producing countries in While the triple helix challenges are not new be underestimated either. position because it is a signatory of the Ezulwini

60 Asia with Africa Naidu 61 Consensus. On the other hand, it is also aligned policy positions and interests in global positioning and hedging by a state. The idea of states communicate their efforts to partners, in principle to what its IBSA partners are willing governance institutions within a plurilateral ‘nested power’ is that the level of interaction through public diplomacy, with the aim of to concede in order for the impasse to be set of engagements. This push and pull nature and negotiations around each issue of interest building partnerships and getting states to join resolved around the UNSC reforms. of policy convergence in global governance is considered as unique based on the ability of their coalition.In a sense, the country must be institutions is becoming more intricate, especially the state to position, brand, and hedge itself seen as ‘mover’ and shaker’. Another area of concern relates to the as the global development agenda is underlined by becoming a ‘big player’ through the use tensions that can be seen within the trade for by competing coalition interests, which are not of resources, relationships, and networking. This is where building policy convergence development nexus where the rules based system always in sync with each other and underlined by This means that in ‘nested power’ the level of becomes the art of diplomacy in the current is caught between Bilateral Regional Trading Catch-22 dilemmas. interaction around one factor is considered to global development architecture; and perhaps Agreements (BRTAs) vis-à-vis the WTO. Of impact the level of engagement and outcome where convergence between Africa and Asia particular interest is whether BRTAs would But is there a way to develop synergies that in respect of another and relationships are around nested power can be utilised further offer better market access and trade benefits will strengthen policy convergence on global established with multiple actors even where around the triple helix challenges of poverty, than what can be established through issues governance issues? there are tensions. The current global reality is inequality and unemployment. While the general being discussed in the WTO. The issue at hand premised on the viethat one set of engagements consensus today is that aid has not assisted in is around the Duty and Quota Free Preferences Nesting Soft Power for Policy cannot satisfy all the interests of a state. This is addressing the triple helix challenges affecting (DQFP) scheme for enhancing market access Convergence in Future Global because it does not always lead to the desired the developing world, there is the common and boosting growth and industrial development Governance Institutions? results with some of the trade-offs not always belief that trade is better equipped to do so. for recipient economies. While the objective of Synergising Africa and Asia relations satisfying the national political and economic But we are also aware of the complex nature of such programmes is to increase African exports Much of the debate regarding policy interests of countries. global trading regimes that can also have negative into partner economies, often the design of such convergence in global governance institutions effects on reversing the triple helix challenges. programmes is such that it excludes those goods has focused on the use of soft power to In today’s global setting, if states require Therefore, an important area of cooperation which African countries’ are competitive in. influence and leverage outcomes. The use of more adept ways of bringing about policy towards governance convergence in this This is aimed at protecting local industries and such tools is aimed at understanding how the convergence then the game to play is to nest regard can be found in respect to the trade and producers. allocation of resources and the distribution of power in different ways within the variations development nexus, particularly around global capabilities leads to coalition building centred of global governance institutions. This requires value chains. A study done by Acharaz and Ghisu highlights around common interests. not only looking at big ticket issues around that in the case of India’s extended DFQP global governance reforms but also embedding Asia’s comparative advantage lies in its programme to Africa under the India-Africa But is soft power from this vantage point relationships around smaller salient issues that manufacturing capabilities as a result of its Forum Summit engagement, the design of sufficient to push for greater policy coherence can have important consequences for what a competitive labour arbitrage and its ability to the programme is limited in terms of which in global governance consensus? This is state wants to achieve in its own vested interests invest in high capital intensive production. For products fall under the scheme and which where examining other ways of embedding around global governance outcomes. Africa, it is the vast resource rich endowment are excluded through the adoption of tariff soft power needs to be discussed. The idea which accounts for 75 percent of the continent’s escalation measures, non-tariff measures such as of ‘nested power’ is one such avenue for Nesting power in coalition building must become global value chain. Both these advantages sanitary and phyto-santiary standards, and rules exploration. Nested power in global politics is more nuanced around the brand and identity a make Africa and Asia reciprocal partners. Such of origin5. the adoption of many instruments of power state conveys. This does not mean that coalition synergies enable both continents to seek better within a multi-level governance architecture partners have to be on the same page at all times governance outcomes that includes: The dilemma in both examples for most that is aimed at achieving multi-dimensional - they have the ‘right to disagree’. But the idea • Improving the design of trade and African countries is balancing their different outcomes underlined by branding, attracting, of branding for a state refers to how effectively investment policies that enhance productive

62 Asia with Africa Naidu 63 capacities not just in the form of preferential as Angola and claiming that the depressed NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS market access or technical training programmes global commodity prices will have negative that enhance prospects of improving value consequences in meeting their socio economic added production but also aimed at opening up budgetary spending. Other issues contributing to markets for the export of such products this downward shift include rising inflation costs; • Strengthening awareness from both sides severe climate conditions yielding poor agricultural on industrial programmes that provides for less returns; and higher interests rates to curb consumer competition and more complementarity between debt. • African and Asian producers in duty and quota free preferential schemes 3: See Marcus Hedahl, Moving from the Principle • Harmonising more coordinated positions ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibility’ to in the WTO and other global trade forums in ‘ to Sustainable Development’ will respect of global value chains such as reducing aid international climate change negotiations, ABHIJIT SINGH heads the Maritime Security Initiative at ORF. A former Indian naval officer, NTBs and tariff escalation measures London Scholl of Economics 2013. Available at: he is a keen commentator on maritime matters, and has written extensively on security issues in • Looking to expand mega-regional trading http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2013/09/28/ the Indian Ocean and Pacific littorals. He has published authoritative papers on India’s growing blocs between themselves that create expansive moving-from-the-principle-of-common-but- maritime reach, Chinese maritime strategy in the Indian Ocean, and the evolution of the Iranian markets to trade in differentiated-responsibility-to-equitable-access- Navy and the Pakistan Navy. In 2010, Cdr Abhijit assisted the late Vice Admiral GM Hiranandani to-sustainable-development-will-aid-international- (retd) in the authorship of the third volume of Indian Naval History - ‘Transition to Guardianship.’ The above is just one possible way for Africa and climate-change-negotiati/ Subsequently, he served as a research fellow at the National Maritime Foundation (NMF) and the Asia to define synergies around the emerging Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi. Co-editor of two books on maritime global development architecture where power 4: ‘The Ezulwini Consensus’ was adopted in 2005 at security -- ‘Indian Ocean Challenges: A Quest for Cooperative Solutions’ (2013) and ‘ needs to be nested in multiple layers within an Extraordinary Session of the Executive Council of the Indo-Pacific’ (2014), Abhijit’s articles and commentaries have been published in the Asian global governance institutions. of the African Union (AU). The Consensus outlines Bureau for Asian Research (NBR), the Lowy Interpreter, the World Politics Review, the Diplomat Africa’s position on democratic reform of the UN as and CSIS Pacific Forum. 1: Figures presented at the Commonwealth Trade agreed to by the AU. Symposium: Shaping a Global Trade Agenda BEN SHENGLIN is a professor of banking and finance and Dean at the Academy of Internet Finance, for Development Symposium, hosted by The 5: See Vinaye Ancharaz and Paolo Ghisu, ‘Deepening Zhejiang University. Before joining Zhejiang University as a full-time professor in May 2014, Dr. Shenglin Commonwealth Secretariat in partnership with the Engagement India’s engagement with LDCs’ ICTSD, was CEO of JP Morgan Chase (China). He has earlier worked with ABN AMRO and HSBC. Dr. Shenglin’s South African Department of Trade and Industry (the Issue Paper No 31, October 2014. Available at: various roles in various other external organisations include: National Executive Committee member dti), 23-24 June 2015, Southern Sun Hotel at OR http://www.eabc.info/uploads/Deepening_Indias_ of All China Federation of Industry & Commerce; joint chairman of Zhejiang Association of Internet Tambo Airport, Johannesburg. Engagement_with_the_LDCs_-_An_in-depth_Ana_ Finance; member of Global Strategic Advisory Board of School of Management, Purdue University; lysis_of_Indias_Duty-free_Tariff_Preference_Scheme. counselor to Zhejiang Provincial Government and a consultant to the central government in China as well 2: The weakening of the ‘African Rising’ narrative pdf as non-executive director of leading companies including China International Capital , Tsingtao is due to the decline in global commodity prices Brewery and Bank of Ningbo. He has a bachelor’s degree in engineering from , a compounded by the slow growth consumption, Master’s degree in management from Renmin University of China and a PhD in Economics from Purdue which has been recorded in many of Africa’s primary University, USA. His research areas include Financial reform and China’s banking industry, management of economic partners such as China. This has led to financial institutions, internet financial services (FinTech), entrepreneurial finance, international business and balance of payments issues and some countries such the globalisation of Chinese enterprises, international financial system and RMB internationalisation.

64 Asia with Africa 65 GARETH PRICE is a senior research fellow at the Asia Program at Chatham House. His areas of MICHAEL SHELLENBERGER is a leading global thinker on energy and the environment. expertise include economic reforms in India, India and Pakistan domestic politics, and international Over the last decade, Shellenberger and his colleagues have constructed a new paradigm that relations in . He is also a member of the Asia Task Force and an honorary fellow at the views universal prosperity, cheap energy, and nuclear power as the keys to environmental Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Edinburgh. He holds a PhD progress. Michael is a Time Magazine “Hero of the Environment” and winner of the Green Book from the University of Bristol. Award for his (and Ted Nordhaus’) 2007 book, Break Through: From the of Environmentalism to the Politics of Possibility, which Wired called “the best thing to happen to environmentalism since KUDRAT VIRK is a senior researcher at the Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR) in , Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring.” Michael’s research is regularly cited and published in the New York South Africa, working on projects related to peace-building and region-building in Africa. She Times, Slate, USA Today, and . He has appeared on The Colbert Report and CNN›s completed her DPhil in international relations from the University of Oxford, where her research Crossfire. He is co-founder and Senior Fellow at Breakthrough Institute, where he was president from examined the perspectives of the global South on the principle and practice of humanitarian 2003 - 2015. He is also the founder and president of Environmental Progress, a new international intervention after the Cold War, with an in-depth focus on India and Argentina. Dr Virk’s research and policy organisation. current research interests include international peace and security, responsibility to protect (R2P), peacekeeping and the protection of civilians, emerging powers, in particular the BRICS bloc (Brazil, SANUSHA NAIDU is a senior research associate with the Institute for Global Dialogue in South , India, China, and South Africa), and India’s foreign policy. Most recently, she contributed Africa. She is also a research associate in the Department of Political Science at the University of a chapter on India’s relations with South Africa to The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Pretoria. Her areas of specialisation include South African foreign policy, Africa’s international Policy (2015). Her work has previously been published in the International Review of the Red relations and political economy and more recently the rise of China and India in Africa. She Cross and Global Responsibility to Protect journals. has made presentations at various national and international conferences and has an extensive publication record including two edited books: Crouching , Hidden Dragon: Africa and MANISH CHAND is the Editor of ‘Two Billion Dreams: Celebrating India-Africa Friendship,’ China (with Dr. KwekuAmpiah: University of KwaZulu Natal Press) and African and Chinese a book capturing myriad facets of India-Africa relationship, and has co-edited ‘Engaging with a Perspectives on China in Africa (with Axel Harniet-Sievers and Stephen Marks: Fahamu Books) and Resurgent Africa (McMillan/ORF),’ a collection of essays on emerging powers’ engagement with a special edition of the Politikon journal on Africa’s Relations with the Emerging Powers (with the renascent continent. He has also co-edited ‘India-Africa Partnership: Towards Sustainable Corkin and Hayley Herman: 2009, vol. 36, Issue 1). She is also a regular media commentator. Development’ (published by RIS and FIDC, 2015) and has served as Editor of Africa Quarterly, a journal focused on African issues and India-Africa relations. He is currently CEO and Editor-in- URVASHI ANEJA is a fellow at the Observer Research Foundation where she works on India’s Chief of India Writes Network, an e- magazine-journal focused on international affairs, emerging role in global development processes. She completed her PhD in International Relations from the powers and Africa. He has presented papers at international seminars on India-Africa relations University of Oxford and her research examined the role of international NGOs in armed conflict, organised by leading think tanks like Chatham House, the Indian Council for World Affairs (ICWA), with a focus on and . Her current research interests include south-south Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), the Nordic Africa Society, Observer Research cooperation for humanitarian and development assistance, India and global governance, and the Foundation (ORF), RIS and CODESERIA. politics of refugees and forced migration. Urvashi regularly consults for the United Nations and other international organisations. She is also Associate Professor in International relations at the MAO KEJI got his BA from the University of Toronto with distinction, majoring in International Jindal School of International Affairs, where she heads the Center for Global Governance & Policy. Relations and Asia studies. As a specialist in international politics and regional studies, he has worked Her recent publications include ‘ Shifting Currents: India’s Rise as a Development Partner’ (Rahul with a number of prominent institutes including Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Chandran and Hannah Cooper eds. Alternative Models of Development Cooperation, 2015) and Munk School of Global Affairs (Toronto), Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences-Institute of South ‘India, R2P and Humanitarian Assistance’ (Global Responsibility to Protect, 6:2014). Asia Studies (ISAS) and NDRC-ICC. He is also a freelance columnist, regularly contributing to a number of websites and newspapers. He has particular interest in Sino-Indian relations in the global VIKROM MATHUR, senior fellow at ORF, has 15 years of professional experience, straddling perspective. research and policy advice, at the interface of social and environmental change. His diverse research interests include: Political, cultural and social influences on the production and use of scientific

66 67 knowledge about nature/environment; dynamics between science and public policy; social and cultural determinants of technological change; governance of emerging technologies; governance of trans-boundary natural resources; and cultural theory. He is among the leading authors of the vulnerability chapter of United Nations Environment Programs Global Environmental Outlook 2004. Vikrom received his PhD from Oxford University, Institute for Science, Society and Innovation (2011). The focus of his research was on institutional frameworks for climate adaptation decision making around the Tonie sap of .

About ORF

Set up in 1990, ORF seeks to lead and aid policy thinking towards building a strong and prosperous India in a fair and equitable world. It helps discover and inform India’s choices, and carries Indian voices and ideas to forums shaping global debates. ORF provides non-partisan, independent analyses and inputs on matters of security, strategy, economy, development, energy, resources and global governance to diverse decision- makers (governments, business communities, academia, civil society). ORF’s mandate is to conduct in-depth research, provide inclusive platforms and invest in tomorrow’s thought leaders today.

ORF-DFID Programme on India and Global Development

The ORF-DFID programme focusses on informing and shaping India’s policy discourses across a range of development issues. Under the bilateral umbrella, it investigates India’s development partnerships with Asia and Africa: concessional lines of credit extended to the two regions, humanitarian assistance, , agriculture, health, and the role of the Indian private sector in fostering development cooperation. The ORF-DFID collaboration also conducts research on India’s engagement with multilateral processes such as the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, financing for development, BRICS, and G20. Recent publications include Urvashi Aneja and Tanoubi Ngangom, in the Room: Challenges for India as an Emerging Development Partner (2016); Vikrom Mathur and Ritika eds.Global Goals, National Actions:Making the post 2015 development agenda relevant to India (2015); and Asgar Qadri and Rajrishi Singhal, Development and Diplomacy through Lines of Credit:Achievements and Lessons Learned (2014).

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