T ahltan Ethnoarchacology Sylvia L. Albright Department of Archaeology Simon Fraser University Publication Number 15 1984 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE Roy L. Carlson (Chairman) Knut R. Fladmark Philip M. Hobler Jack D. Nance Erie Nelson The Department of Archaeology publishes papers and monographs which relate to its teaching and research interests. Communications concerning publications should be directed to the Chairman of the Publications Committee. © Copyright 19 84 Department of Archaeology Simon Fraser University All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN 0-86491-044-4 Cover Photo: Fishing camp at Tahltan-Stikine Confluence. All photographs, including cover, by S. Albright Tahltan Ethnoarchaeology by Sylvia L. Albright Department of Archaeology Simon Fraser University Burnaby, British Columbia Publication Number 15 1984 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was originally written as a graduate thesis in the Archaeology Department at Simon Fraser University. Knut Fladmark, Brian Hayden, and Mark Skinner, members of my advisory committee, are thanked for their encouragement, direction, and criticism while conducting research and writing of this report. Monica Deutsch is acknowledged for her typing of the original manu­ script, as is Brenda Peacock for help with drawing of maps and figures. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the Tahltan people and other residents of the Stikine River area; without their support this research would not have been possible. A special note of thanks is extended to Dora Williams and Fannie Woods who first invited me to share in their daily lives and activities and challenged me to learn more about their traditional ways. My thanks go also to Ivan Quock, chief of the Tahltan Band, for encouraging me to develop a program to involve the local young people in understanding their cultural traditions. John Frank is thanked for his enthusiasm and assistance in supervising these summer projects. Financial assistance for research was provided by the B.C. Heritage Conservation Branch, a grad­ uate student stipend from Simon Fraser University and grants from B.C. Youth Employment Program administered by Simon Fraser University, and the Federal Summer Student Employment Program. My grateful appreciation is extended to friends and relatives who provided moral support and en­ couragement in bringing this report to completion. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES vi I BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH Introduction 1 Theoretical Framework 2 Methodology 5 II THE TAHLTAN PEOPLE Introduction 9 Traditional Territories 10 Social Organization 11 Subsistence Economy and Trade 12 III HISTORICAL EVENTS IN THE STIKINE RIVER AREA Introduction 15 Discovery and the Fur Trade Era 15 The Gold Rush Period 17 Missionary Influences 19 Recent Developments - Opening of the North 20 IV THE ENVIRONMENT Physiographic Areas 23 Climate 24 Biogeoclimatic Zones 25 Paleoclimate 27 V THE RESOURCE BASE Mammal Resources 29 Reptiles 34 Avian Resources 35 Amphibians 35 Insects 36 Fish Resources 36 Plant Resources 41 VI TECHNOLOGY OF RESOURCE EXPLOITATION Hunting Techniques 43 Hunting Implements 46 Skinning and Butchering Game 47 Use of Animals for Raw Materials 50 Hide Processing 51 Fishing Techniques 60 Processing of Salmon 63 Use of Edible Plants 65 Technological Uses of Plant Resources 67 Woodworking Tools 68 Shelters and Other Structures 70 Methods of Cooking and Preparing Foods 76 Storage Facilities 78 VII A SEASONAL MODEL OF TAHLTAN SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Introduction 79 Subsistence Requirements 79 Resource Attributes 80 Seasonality and Resource Availability 83 Technological Efficiencey 84 The Seasonal Round of Subsistence Activities 85 VIII ECONOMIC STABILITY Fluctuations in Resource Abundance 93 Strategies for Maintaining Economic Stability 94 IX ARCHAEOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF SEASONAL SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES Site Formation Processes 99 Factors Affecting Visibility of Archaeological Remains 102 Cone!usions 106 REFERENCES 107 APPENDIX 1 Bird Species Occuring in the Stikine Plateau Area 115 APPENDIX 2 Plants Used in Technology 118 APPENDIX 3 Edible Plants of the Stikine River Area 120 APPENDIX 4 Maps of Ethnographic Fishing Villages 125 iv LIST OF FIGURES 1. Location of Tahltan territories 9 2. Clan territories and Tahltan tribal boundaries 10 3. Historic settlements and routes in the Stikine area 1900 18 4. Physiographic areas in northwestern Brititsh Columbia 22 5. Comparisons of temperatures and precipitation at Telegraph Creek and Cold Fish Lake 26 6. Location of barriers impassable to salmon within the Stikine watershed 38 7. Snare with tossing pole used for rabbits 44 8. Bone swivel and rattle used at the end of beaver net 45 9. Deadfall trap used for carnivores 45 10. Tahltan bow with antler point 46 11. Attachment of point to arrow shafts 47 12. Blunt headed arrow for birds and small game 47 13. Bone skinning knife 48 14. Split beaver hanging to dry over the campfire 49 15. Bone awl used in sewing 51 16. Bone scrapers for defleshing and scraping hides 52 17. Beamer for removing hair from large hides 53 18. Scraping frozen hides 54 19. Wringing the hide 55 20. Hafted stone tools used for dressing hides 56 21. Dressing the stretched hide 56 22. Hide smoking frame and pit 57 23. Flaking the hide dressing stone * 59 24. Two types of hide dressing stones 59 25. Cylindrical basket trap used for salmon 60 26. Gaffing salmon in shallow waters 61 27. Gaff pole with detachable hook 61 28. Dip net used in fishing 62 29. Three pronged spear used for ice fishing 62 30. Splitting salmon on the A-frame cutting board 63 31. Scored salmon hanging to dry 64 32. Bundling dried salmon for storage 64 33. Reconstruction of knife with obsidian flakes 65 34. Stone axe used for chopping trees 69 35. Curved knife with beaver incisor 69 36. Straight bladed knife 69 37. Traditional style smokehouse at Tahltan-Stikine confluence 71 38. New smokehouse at a contemporary fishing camp 73 39. Gravehouse at Telegraph Creek 75 40. Dog houses built into a slope 75 41. Roasting meat over the campfire 76 42. Flat mortar stone used for breaking marrow bones and pounding dried fish and meat 77 43. Carved spoon of sheep horn 77 44. Cache pit used for storing dried foods 78 45. Chart indicating seasonal abundance/availability of resources 84 46. Salmon fishing villages in Tahltan territories 85 47. Salmon fishing villages on the Stikine River system 85 V 48. Schematic representation of major seasonal moves and settlement locations 89 49. Approximate location of several winter villages and caribou fences 90 50. Floorplan of smokehouse Mo. 1 101 51. Floorplan of smokehouse No. 4 101 52. Floorplan of smokehouse remains A2 101 53. Floorplan of smokehouse remains A2 101 LIST OF TABLES 1. Alternate Names Used in Reference to Tahltan Clans or Families 11 2. Hours of Direct Sunlight 24 3. Fish Species Occurring in Study Area 37 4. Average Catches of Stikine Salmon by Alaskan Gillnet Fisheries 39 5. Estimates of Exploitation and Abundance of Stikine River Sockeye 1959 to 1980 40 6. Uses and Relative Value of Raw Materials Provided by Animal Resources 50 7. Measurements of Several Stone Hide Working Tools (mm) 58 8. Tahltan Fish Camp/Smokehouse Survey 72 9. Average Daily Requirements of Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals 80 10. Calculation of Average Caloric Values for Individual Resources 81 11. Tahltan Divisions of the Year 83 12. Salmon Fishing Villages in Tahltan Territories 86 13. Behavioral Chain Model for Salmon 100 14. Archaeological Correlates of Seasonal Subsistence Strategies 104 v i 1 I BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH Introduction This report presents results of research accompanied by changes not only in the into traditional Tahltan subsistence physical landscape but also in the social practices. It represents an attempt to environment of groups living in these areas. apply a relatively new approach, This means that opportunities for ethnoarchaeology, to British Columbia ethnographic recording of traditional aspects archaeology in order to understand the of native culture are quickly being eroded nature of past cultural adaptation in a away. This situation is not restricted to northern sub-arctic environment. British Columbia and has been recognised The goals of the present research are by the National Museum of Man through based on the premise that an understanding the implementation of an Urgent Ethnology of the dynamics of prehistoric subsistence Program for research in many parts of behavior and site formation processes is Canada. Two research contracts have been crucial for full interpretation of granted for work in the Stikine area of archaeological remains of an area. Thus, British Columbia; one to Robert Adlam, of the major goal of this research was to the University of Toronto, for a study of establish a model of traditional subsistence Tahltan kinship systems, the second to patterns of the Tahltan Indians useful for Howard Higgins, of the University of New interpretation of archaeological sites in the Mexico, who is concerned with symbolic Upper Stikine River area of northern aspects of Tahltan use of space. British Columbia. Most of the Stikine River area is still A second goal has been to provide more relatively isolated in comparison with other general theoretic contributions to the study parts of British Columbia. However, a of hunter-gatherer societies. Using an number of development projects have been ethnoarchaeological approach to the study proposed for the area. Plans for leasing a of subsistence patterns, this research has large tract of Crown Land along the Stikine gathered data which provide a basis for the River on either side of Telegraph Creek formulation of testable hypotheses instigated an archaeological site survey and concerning processes of subsistence specific inventory project by the B.C.