2. Gladiators

Home , Falx, Gladius, Manica (armguard), Murmillo, Pugio, Sceptre (horse)

Masarykova univerzita Filozofická fakulta

Katedra Archeologie a muzeologie

Klasická archeologie

Lukáš Kratochvíl

GLADIÁTOR TRÁK A JEHO ARMATURA OD ARCHEOLOGICÉ EVIDENCE PO REKONSTRUKCI

Vedoucí práce: Dr. Elisabetta Maria Gagetti, Ph.D. 2012

Prohlašuji, že jsem diplomovou práci vypracoval samostatně s využitím uvedených pramenů a literatury.

………………………………………

Podpis autora práce

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Elisabetta Gagetti for her valuable advice, her time and encouragement that she provided me during work on this thesis. I would also like to express great thanks to my girlfriend Lenka Hadašová for her language correction and psychological support, which was inestimable during forming of this work and my studies.

Content 1. Introduction ...... 5 2. Gladiators ...... 6 2.1 Brief history of the games ...... 6 2.2 Structure of the games ...... 8 2.3 The classes of gladiators ...... 10 2.4 Thraex ...... 12 2.5 Similarities and differences: the hoplomachus ...... 14 3. The Finds ...... 16 3.1 Galea (“Helmet”) ...... 16 3.2 Ocreae (“Greaves”) ...... 25 3.3 Manica (“Arm-guard”) ...... 37 3.4 Weapons ...... 38 3.5 Parmula (“Shield”) ...... 39 4 . The Iconographic Sources ...... 40 4.1 Relieves ...... 41 4.2 Mosaic ...... 46 4.4 Decorative items ...... 53 5. The elements of the armature in the light of reenactment ...... 55 5.1 Reenactment: an experimental approach ...... 55 5.2 Reenactors ...... 57 5.3 Reconstruction ...... 58 5.4 Manica ...... 58 5.5 Ocreae ...... 60 5.6 Sica ...... 62 5.7 Parmula ...... 64 5.8. Galea ...... 66 6. Conclusion ...... 70 7. Summary ...... 71 7. Bibliography ...... 73

1. Introduction

There is a lack of modern literature dealing with particular a type only of gladiator. The present work has the wish to contribute to a better knowledge of the armatura of the gladiator type thraex. Two are the main ways: the first, to summarize the principal finds of equipment and the iconographical sources; the second, the experimental reconstruction of replicas of the equipment and armature of the gladiator type thraex from the 1st century AD onwards.

The most meaningful sources used for such reconstructions are the finds from the gladiatorial barracks at Pompeii. The purpose of this experiment is to enlarge our acquaintance especially about the structural elements of representative gladiatorial material from archeological contexts.

Another aim of the present work, then, is to answer the question which qualities and functions could original finds show in the time they were used. Scholarly studies are usually focused on setting the artifact into its context, on its implication and function more than on the way in which it was created. Projects devoted to the classification and function of gladiatorial equipment are rarely focused on its construction methods, the analysis of the realization of fixed and moving joints and other production processes. Even complex archeological studies on this theme usually lack the documentation about the structure of the items and the details of joints, which instead provides the best information about the techniques and the ways of construction of such artifacts.

The active interest about reenacting of this period is one of the main reasons for writing this work and there is a separate chapter dedicated to it1. The reconstruction of the armature of the gladiator type thraex is part of a project dealing with the reconstruction of gladiatorial armatures of the 1st and 2nd century AD2. The bronze parts of the reconstructed armature were created by Mr. Martin Junek3, who is at the top of world-class armory crafters.

1 Chapter 5. 2 The project is brought on by the team of professional reenactors “Familia Gladiatoria Tavrvs”. 3 Armoury Maral company (for a brief overview of reconstructions of non-gladiatorial armatures belonging to different periods, but made with the same traditional techniques, see: www.maral.cz 5

His experience in bronze working enabled this experiment. The reconstruction of the thraex’s equipment was based on my own photographic documentation of originals4. In other cases it was necessary to start from the pictorial appendix of finished projects. The reconstruction of the bronze parts of an armature is a difficult and expensive procedure. The demand of time influenced the creating process of last part – the thraex’s helmet type Pompeii H12 − which is not yet finished. Anyway, the major part of the armature elements is ready and could be used in this work.

2. Gladiators

2.1 Brief history of the games

The origin of the gladiatorial games in Rome is commonly connected with the year 264 BC, when two sons of the deceased D. Junius Brutus Pera brought out three pairs of gladiators at the funeral games to honour their dead father. Human sacrifices were already known in Rome before this date, but this was the first known occasion in the city when a gladiatorial combat was staged at a funeral.

The blood of warriors spilled on the funeral pyre should propitiate the gods of the Underworld or put them into a good mood. This performance was called munus5. It was very typical in ancient Mediterranean cultures to spill blood on the deceased relative’s grave6. In the course of time the character of munera changed. The higher the deceased’s social rank was, the more expensive performance was expected. These funeral rituals were very popular with the audience, which considered the gladiatorial fight as an exciting and extraordinary amusement.

During the second century BC the gladiatorial show spread throughout Italy and its religious purpose was transformed into a means of political power. With time, the number of fighters engaged in gladiatorial fights raised. Noble families vied in the number of committed fighters so much that in many munera hundreds of gladiators performed.

Fifty years after the first mention about gladiatorial fights, in 216 BC, “After the death of M. Aemilius Lepidus, who had been augur and twice consul, his three sons, Lucius,

4 Mainly greaves and helmets from the Musée du Louvre, which are on permanent exhibition. 5 Plural: munera. Its meaning is “gift of living towards dead”. 6 Nossov 2009, p. 12. 6

Marcus, and Quintus, celebrated funeral games in his honor for three days and exhibited twenty-two pairs of gladiators in the Forum7.

In 174 BC Titus Quintus Flaminius presented seventy-four gladiators, which was unprecedented number until that time. The funerary games lasted four days, three of which were consecrated to gladiatorial fights8. On this occasion a wooden amphitheatre was built in the forum boarium.

In 29 BC, Titus Statilius Taurus built in the Campus Martius the first stone amphitheatre in Rome.

Forty years later, in AD 70, partly on the place of Nero’s Domus Aurea − in the area of an artificial lake − Vespasian started the construction of the Amphitheatrum Flavium, well- known from the 9th century AD onwards as “Colosseum”, from the colossal statue of Nero himself, later transformed into a statue of Sol, rising close to the building. It was finished by Titus in AD 80. The Colosseum could take in up to 50,000 viewers. The inaugural ceremony lasted 100 days and the number of wounded or dead gladiators was unprecedentedly high. Together with the Circus Maximus the Colosseum became the most famous amusement place throughout the Empire.

Under the reign of Trajan there were held the greatest games of ever. In 107 BC the Emperor delivered 120-day games in honour of his victory over the Dacians. In these games took part 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals were killed. During the next five years Trajan delivered other three games: the third lasted 117 days and 4,941 pairs of gladiators met. Altogether, between AD 107 and AD 113, almost 20,500 gladiators appeared in the Roman arena.

In AD 180-192 even Emperor Commodus entered the arena and reached allegedly 1,100 victories. However, the historian Sextus Aurelius Victor (4th century AD) states that his opponents were armed with lead weapons9. He entered arena as a secutor gladiator

The end of gladiatorial games is directly connected with Christianity. In AD 313 Christianity was accepted as rightful religion by the Edict of Milan and in AD 325 had Constantine the Great (the first Roman Emperor who adopted the Christian faith) declared in

7 Livy 23.30.15 (after: http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy23.html; last access 5.06.2012). 8 Livy 41.28.11. 9 De Caesaribus, 17.4. 7

Beirut an edict, which condemned “spilling of the blood in public” and ordered the law courts to send culprits into jail or to mines instead of into the arena. Nevertheless, this edict was accepted only in the eastern provinces of the Empire. On Italian territory Constantine ignored his own decree and granted to priests in Umbria and Etruria the right to deliver gladiatorial games. So, the games continued but not at the same extent as before.

In AD 375 Emperor Constantius II stopped the recruitment of Roman soldiers as volunteers for gladiatorial training and fighting in the arena. Eight years later, Emperor Valentinian I issued a second edict which prohibited the sending of criminals into arenas. In AD 399 Emperor Honorius shut the remaining gladiatorial schools down.

However, the era of gladiatorial games was ended by a dramatic incident. On January 1st AD 404 a Christian monk, Telemachus, rushed into the arena in pursuit of stop another bloodshed and to separate the fighters. The furious crowd stoned him to death. Emperor Honorius made capital of this case and closed arenas10.

2.2 Structure of the games

Gladiatorial games had taken inherently their position in Roman society. The holding of munera went through a few radical changes during seven centuries: their generally applied structure was created soon after their origin. After they became more than a funeral ceremony, the course of munera received a strictly followed pattern.

Gladiatorial fights were put into programme in the afternoon and they were the highlight of the performance. In the morning, there were the so-called venationes11 or “beast hunting”, which reflected the passion for hunting of the Romans and also should symbolize the human domination over animals. Venationes were played out in the Circus Maximus in the period of the Roman republic and, occasionally, also later. During the Empire, venationes were moved into arenas and closely connected with the munera. Hunters chasing wild beasts with weapons were called venatores, and their lower class was called bestiarii12. Venationes, in addition to hunting, included the exhibition of exotic animals and their amusing performances, animal fights, bullfight and also the execution of criminals by wild beasts.

10 Nossov 2009, p. 25. 11 More generally, any kind of spectacle with animals in the amphitheatre or circus was called venatio. 12 They had no weapons and served as “beaters” of animals.. 8

The space of time between morning venationes and afternoon gladiatorial performances was filled designated for executions of the so-called noxii13. These condemned persons were massacred in many various ways. Such criminals were thrown unarmed to the beasts or had some weapons and were forced to kill each other. In one of the execution ways also gladiators played a part. They were sent in lesser numbers against numerically superior − but poorly armed − noxii, who had no chance against professionally trained fighters. For this purpose were gladiators armed with bizarre weapons14.

The beginning of the gladiatorial show was called pompa. This ceremonial parade had a political character and its main aim was making visible the editor himself (organizer and “sponsor”) of the games. The organizer of the games was followed by lictors and musicians, and these were followed by men carrying a ferculum15. At the end of the parade walked the gladiators themselves. A group of assistants carried the helmets, shields and weapons of gladiators. On the occasion of the parade, audience could see revealed the faces of the gladiators (otherwise protected by the helmets). Before the beginning of the performance there was the prolusio16 which should warm up the audience before the real fights. After this the gladiatorial fights begun.

A special kind of games was naumachia17. It was an unusual and astronomically expensive form of reproducing sea battles, which owing to its costs belonged to the privilege of the emperors and was not held as often as gladiatorial games. The first naumachiae were produced by Caius Julius Caesar, who in the first century BC launched colossal gladiatorial games and theatrical performances. Thanks to their scale, naumachiae were not usually held in arenas but on artificial water dams or lakes nearby Rome. Although, there were some cases in which naumchiae were realized right in an arena. Such arenas were specially designed for these occasions, and could be flooded. In these battles were attended thousands of convicted criminals who staged famous sea battles in history. These criminals fought for death and gladiators were involved only extraordinarily.

13 Usually condemned to the death in the arena for capital crimes. 14 Wilson S.2001, p. 32. 15 Portable platform bearing the statues of Hercules, Nemesis, Mars, Nike or other gods or important persons. 16 “Prologue” with gladiators (lusorii) fighting against each other with harmless − probably wooden − weapons (arma lusoria). 17 “Sea battle”. 9

Venationes and naumachiae are an inseparable part of history of gladiatorial games, but their issue, because of the amplitude of the topic, is suitable for an individual study. In the present work will not be paid attention to them anymore.

2.3 The classes of gladiators

(According to Nossov 2009, p. 44 – 79)

It is very easy to observe which type of gladiator was coming into the arena according to the period. Their equipment, armature and fashion were subordinated to period and popularity. Generally, gladiators were classified according to their armatures into three categories: light armoured, medium armoured and heavy armoured.

The most ancient types of gladiators are gallus, samnis and veles. The gallus appeared in the arena at the beginning of the Republic and disappeared in the middle of the first century BC. It is very likely that the term gallus comes from the resemblance with Celts (Gauls). The first mention of the samnis is in 308 BC. The term is derived from the Samnites, people defeated by the Romans at the beginning of the third century BC. Finally, almost nothing is known about the veles. Probably, he was armed as the light infantrymen of the Roman Republic: with javelins, sword and shield. In the second century BC came into the arena the venatores (“beast hunters”).

Next, during the first century BC came thraex18, hoplomachus19, murmillo, , secutor, essedarius and riders equites. In this period is classified also scissor. This type of gladiator soon disappeared and reappeared again in the second and third century AD under the name of arbelas. Heavy armoured gladiator garbed in chain or scale male. He was fighting with sword or dagger and with special type of weapon with crescent-sickle blade. His adversary was retiarius, arbelas or dimachaerus. From the arena he disappeared in third century BC. Murmillo was a heavy armoured gladiator armed with sword gladius and using a large shield scutum. He was usual adversary of thraex and hoplomachus. Secutor was heavy armoured gladiator equipped same way as a murmillo except helmet which is closed plain with small holes for the eyes created for fighting against a retiarius, who was his only adversary. Together with murmillo remain in the arena to the end of the games. Essedarius, the term means “charioteer”. He was armed by sword and round large shield. He disappeared from the

18 Chapter 2.4. 19 Chapter 2.5. 10 arena in third century BC. Equites are horse riders belonging to the medium armoured gladiators. They were fighting only with another equites. For fighting on horseback, they were armed by lance hasta and for fighting on foot they were using gladius. For protection, they were equipped by middle-large round shield parma equestris. Equites disappeared from the arena in fourth century BC.

At the end of the Republic came into the arena the provocator. He was medium armoured gladiator. He was fighting with gladius and middle-large shield. His adversary was another provocator.

In the first century AD appeared on stage the retiarius. Light armoured gladiator, the only one without helmet. He was fighting with trident fuscina, net rete and dagger pugio. His only adversary was secutor. Popularity of the pair retiarius – secutor rose very fast and became soon the most popular gladiatorial pair, even more than the pair thraex – murmillo, which had been the most favourite pair until that time. Retiarius remained in the arena to the end of the games. In the first century AD showed also up the paegnarius, his gladiatorial classification is controversial, because his purpouse was only to entertain the crowd only with blunt weapons. In the second century AD appeared the dimachaerus. Possible translation of this name is “two-handed”. He was fighting with weapons in both hands, pair of daggers or swords. He was garbed in chain or scale male. His adversary was probably also dimachaerus or arbelas.

There are also gladiators whose presence in the arena was registered but whom we are not able to categorize in a period: sagittarius - bowman, laquerarius - probably variation of retiarius and crupellarius - the only known fact is that he was whole garbed in steel.

From the early fifth century AD, the fame of gladiators and games declined, and also declined the interest in this theme, anyway. Gladiators were in focus again in the eighteenth century, when the gladiatorial barracks were excavated in 1766 in Pompeii: there, the largest quantity of archaeological material until nowadays was preserved. Also the nineteenth century was under the sign of figurative and literary depictions of the gladiatorial theme. The twentieth century continued with movies in which gladiators were mainly Hollywood characters: therefore, their popularity with the great public lasts so far.

2.4 Thraex

The thraex as a type of gladiator appeared for the first time in the arena in first half of the 1st century BC. He is connected with the Mithridatic Wars, when a great number of war prisoners from Thrace was caught by the Roman army. It happens quite often that ethnic Thracian origin is mistaken with gladiator type, whose strictly defined armature – arms, equipment and fighting style − had nothing to do with that of Thracian warriors20. Men who were fighting as this type of gladiator could probably be both Roman ex-citizens and trueborn Thracians. The best known representative of this armature in the history of gladiatorial games was Spartacus, the gladiator who, arousing a revolt from Lentulus Batiatus’ ludus gladiatorius in Capua, became the leader of the slaves in the Third Servile War, sending a shudder through the whole Italy in 79 BC21. This incident changed the view of society on gladiators. Spartacus had probably Thracian ethnical origin, but he was also a thraex by type of armature.

There is a lack of historical sources about gladiator fighting style, which could inform us about used technique or style of fighting as good as the still extant Anonymous Fechtbuch -Manuscript I.33, a 13th-century German sword & buckler manual22. To the 2nd century dates Artemidorus’ Oneirocritica, a work on dreams: when a man dreams of fighting as a gladiator, such dream announce the marriage with a kind of woman corresponding to the used armature or to the oppponent against whom one fights23. For instance, to thraex corresponds a rich, cunning and eager to excel woman: “rich” because thraex is protected by a good armour, “cunning”, because thraex fights with a curved blade, “eager to excel”, because he acts aggressively. The thraex armature begged to this style of fight abbr. Chapter 4

Since its entry in the arena in the first half of the 1st century BC, the pair thraex and murmillo was the most popular and most often offered to the audience. Its popularity surpassed that of the pair retiarius versus secutor as late as the 1st century AD. Many emperors admired specific types of gladiators and had their favourites among them. Emperor

20 Nossov 2009, p. 68. 21 Because of the amplitude of the topic, please refer directly to Strauss, Barry. The Spartacus War. New York - London: Simon & Schuster, 2009. 22 Tower of London manuscript I.33; Royal Library Museum, British Museum No. 14 E iii, No. 20, D. vi. Some examples of the sketches illustrating different techniques can be found at http://www.thearma.org/Manuals/i33/i33.htm (last access: 4.6.2012). 23 Artemidorus Daldianus, Oneirocritica 2.33

Caligula, for example, idolized just thraex. He even designated a thraex as the commander of his personal guards24.

The armature of thraex is easily identifiable either from archeological finds or depicted on reliefs and mosaics. Typical was the helmet (galea)25 with the head of a griffin, a wide brim and a gridded visor. The griffin was believed to be an animal incarnating Nemesis, the goddess of retribution: a lot of small temples placed in amphitheatres were dedicated to this goddess26. The griffin head was placed on the top of the crest of the helmet. Such crest was entirely decorated with a feather pattern, which formed the appearance of the griffin’s body. Moreover, the crest was adorned with a plume of feathers (crista). In accordance with the type of helmet, there were two small holes, one on each side of the crest, used for inserting long feathers (pinnae).

On the right arm he had a protective armour called manica, which could be either only quilted and stitched, or covered with tiny metallic plates, as the manica of the Roman legionnairs. Later it could also be scaled. On both legs the thraex wore greaves (ocreae)27, which reached the half of the thigh. The ocreae were fastened or tied on the back-side of the calf. Under such leg protectors there were stitched bandages (fasciae), from the ankles to the waist. The fasciae provided an additional protection for the legs and also functioned as pads for the greaves. The thraex, not differently from most of gladiators, wore a loincloth around his waist, the subligaculum (Fig. 1), fastened with a wide belt called balteus. His chest was bared. The weapon used by the thraex was a curved sword called sica. A small square shield (parmula) was used for defense. The whole equipment weighed 16-20 kg: this categorized the thraex as a heavily armed gladiator.

The usual adversary of the thraex was the myrmillo28. Less common was the pair thraex – hoplomachus. More frequent was the pair myrmillo – hoplomachus. Armour and weapons of each type of gladiator were designed for providing both advantages and disadvantages to their users. The thraex had only a small shield, but this disadvantage was compensated by his high ocreae. By way of contrast, the myrmillo was fighting with the type of sword known as gladius and the great rectangular shield (scutum), usually used by Roman

24 Suetonius, Life of Caligula 55: «He made some gladiators captains of his German guards» (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter %3D55; last access: 4.6.2012). 25 Galea is a general term for “helmet”, both for gladiators and for Roman soldiers. 26 Nossov 2009, p. 156-157. 27 General term for “greaves”. 28 Other spelling can be mirmillo, murmillo mormillo. 13 legionnairs. The myrmillo wore on his left leg only a small protector and on his armed arm a stitched or plated (scaled) manica. His helmet had a wide brim and was stylized to the shape of a dorsal fish fin. It could be decorated with feathers and, compared to the thraex’s helmet, also with horsehair. His armature categorized also the myrmillo as a heavily armed gladiator.

To the same category belonged the hoplomachus, whose equipment was identical to thraex’s one, only their weapons being different. In connection with the thraex a special attention must be paid to the hoplomachus.

Fig. 1. Style of wearing subligaculum (after: http://historia-del- vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la- antigua-roma.html last visit: 28. 06. 2012)

2.5 Similarities and differences: the hoplomachus

The hoplomachus appeared in the arena in the late Imperial period. This heavily armed type of gladiator should resemble a Greek hoplite29, more or less stylized in accordance with the typical appearance of gladiators. He held in his right hand a spear (hasta) and defended himself by a small round shield (parmula): its handle, designed according to the model of the

29 Term for the citizen-soldier of an ancient Greek polis.

Greek shield hoplon (even if the hoplomachus’ shield was much smaller then Greek hoplon or aspis), allowed a hoplomachus to hold a short sword or dagger as a secondary weapon in his left hand (Fig. 2). His side weapon was not the exact copy of the Greek sword (xyphos), but more likely a shorter version of the Roman gladius or dagger (pugio). He had, like the thraex, a manica on his armed arm, and a pair of high greaves. His helmet was similar to the thraex’s type, but without the griffin-shaped crest, which characterized specifically the thraex. The crest of his helmet was decorated with feathers or horsehair30. Due to the same type of equipment, at first sight hoplomachus and thraex can be easily mistakable. This begs the question whether each of these gladiators had his own armature or if it was duplicated for both of them.

Fig. 2. Bronze statue of hoplomachus, Berlin, Staatliche Museen –

Antikensammlung (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

30 Junkelmann 2000, p. 120-123 15

3. The Finds

3.1 Galea (“Helmet”)

Most of the original finds of thraex’s helmets were found in Pompeii in 1766-1767, in the ludus gladiatorius (“gladiators’ school”). During this excavation several pieces of various gladiatorial helmets were found: today, only fifteen survive, split between the Museo Archeologico nazionale in Naples and the Louvre in Paris. Only one of them was made in iron and belonged to the gladiator type secutor. All the other helmets were in bronze, so that we can assume that the thraex’s helmet was always made in bronze.

The helmet passed through a few stages of development well described by Marcus Junkelmann31. The thraex’s helmet is − both in original, and in other artistic media depicting gladiators − easily recognizable thanks to the griffin head on the top of the crest, and is therefore unmistakable with other gladiator type helmets. Junkelmann states32 that the antecedent of the thraex’s helmets found in Pompeii was the combination of Attic and Boeotian helmets, created in the Late Republic (Fig. 3). In such period, typically, gladiators fought with their faces uncovered.

Fig. 3. Helm of Attic type with griffin head 300 BC, California Getty Villa, Malibu (after:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943 / last visit: 28. 06. 2012)

31 Junkelmann 2000, p. 63-64. 32 Junkelmann 2000, p. 59-61.

The next stage of development is the shape called by Junkelmann Pompeii Subtype H733 which had a straight brim and round visors, unlike Pompeii Subtype H1234 and Pompeii Subtype H1335, which have a bent brim and whose visors are greater, triangular and with an upper edge following the brim. Other differences are in the attaching of visors, crest structure and in the system of closing the front mask. To the construction and decorative details is devoted, here below, Chapter 5. It is obvious, according to the finds from Pompeii, that the former and latter types of helmets were used contemporarily36. The weight of the helmets found Pompeii ranges between 3.3 and 6.8 kg: the average weight is approximately 4 kg37. Average thickness of material is approximately 1,5 mm.

33 Entry 3.1.A.2 34 Entry 3.1.A.1 35 Entry 3.1.A.3 36 Nossov 2009, p. 84-85. 37 Gladiators and Caesars. The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome 2000, p. 40.

3.1.A. Entries

3.1.A.1. Thraex’s Helmet Subtype Pompeii H12

Location: France. Paris, Musée de Louvre.

Inventory no.: 1108.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: with visor and crest: 38 cm; visor alone 23 cm; length: 40 cm; width: 33.4 cm; thickness of the gridded eye cover: 1.8-2.3 mm.

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators’ barracks).

Dating: Probably AD 50-75.

Description: Bronze helmet richly decorated, with a griffin head on the top of the crest and a silver-plated Medusa head on the part of the cap protecting the head over the forehead. The sides of the crest are decorated in detail with small overlapping feathers. Moreover on the helmet sides there are two feather holders. The surface of the helmet is partly decorated with tin embedded links and dents. The grill covering the upper part of the face and the shape of the visor are typical for the 1st century AD. The helmet is decorated by embossing (relieves), perforation and engraving (details).

Bibliography: Wahl, J. Gladiatorenhelm-Beschläge vom Limes. Germania, 55, 1977, p. 116, no. 2, pl. 20, 2 and pl. 23; Les Gladiateurs. Musée archéologique: éditions Lattes, 1987, p. 122-123, no. 20; Schutz und Zier. Helme aus dem Antikenmuseum Berlin und Waffen anderer Sammlungen, Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig. Basel: Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig, 1989, p. 96, no. 89.

Figs 3.1.A.1.1-2. Thraex’s helmet subtype Pompeii H12 (after: http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/helmet-thracian-gladiator; last visit: 05. 06. 2012)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.3. Detail of the hinge Fig. 3.1.A.1.4. Detail of the hinge cover

(photograph by the Author) (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.5. Detail of the silver plated Medusa head on the forehead (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.6. Detail of the crest (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.6. Detail of the visor (photograph by the Author)

3.1.A.2. Thraex’s Helmet, Subtype Pompeii H7

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Inventory no.: 5649. Material: Bronze. Measures: Height with visor and crest: 43.5 cm, visor only: 22 cm, crest: 11 cm; width: 37.5 cm. Inner length and width: 22 cm. Diameter of the grill eye-cover: 8.5 cm. Brim: width on front: 6.4 cm, on back 8 cm. Thickness of the bronze plate: 0.95-1.18 mm, with rim: 2.97-4.23 mm. Weight 3400 g. State of preservation: Good. Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiator’s barracks). Dating: 1st century AD. Description: This Thraex’s bronze helmet is, in terms of design, an older version of subtypes Pompeii H12 and H13. It has a flat brim and circular visor gratings which do not go through the brim. These are fastened by hinges directly to the cheek pieces. Cheek pieces slide under the range of the brim in the front part into the bulging holder. On the top of the crest there is a griffin’s head. The forehead of helmet is decorated by a palm tree, while on the cheek pieces there are discoid patterns. The helmet is decorated by embossing, perforation and engraving. Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 16, no. 279; Bettinali Graeber 1988/1999, p. 115-119, no. 20; Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren. Mainz 2000, p. 165; Il gladiatore / The gladiator 2008, p. 33.

Figs 3.1.A.2.1-2. Thraex’s helmet type Pompeii H7 (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Figs 3.1.A.2. 3 . Enlarged view of the right side (after: La Regina 2001)

3.1.A.3. Thraex’s Helmet, Subtype Pompeii H13

Location: Italy. Capua, Museo dei Gladiatori.

Inventory no.: 5650.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height with visor and crest: 45.5 cm, visor only: 22 cm; width: 44 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.2 mm, with rim: 3.4 mm. Weight 4000 g.

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators’ barracks).

Dating: AD 50-75.

Description: Bronze helmet, richly decorated. In terms of design it is identical to subtype H12. The crest of the helmet is simpler than type H12. On the top of the crest there is a griffin’s head. A Medusa head is on the forehead, while on the sides there are dolphins jumping in the waves, indicated all around the circumference of the helmet. The helmet is decorated by embossing, perforation and engraving.

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 16, no. 280; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 120-124, no. 21; La Regina 2001, p. 373.

Figs 3.1.A.3.1-2. Thraex’s helmet type Pompeii H13 (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 3.1.A.3.3. Enlarged view of the left side (after: La Regina 2002)

3.2 Ocreae (“Greaves”)

The disadvantage of the small shield used by thraex and hoplomachus was compensated by the pair of high ocreae. In the Roman army greaves were not very common: both in the Late Republic and during the Imperial period, they were worn only by centuriones38.

All of the original finds of ocreae come from gladiatorial barracks in Pompeii. There were found five pairs of long greaves, differing from each other in height and in the frequency of decoration. The greaves were made from one piece of bronze sheet and were bordered with a thin bronze strip covering the rough edge (Fig. 4a). They protect always only the front part of the legs. There were pair of rings attached by two rivets on both sides (Fig. 4b): through these rings passed leather straps, tied on the back of the leg.

Figs. 4a -c. (left) Detail of the bordered with thin bronze plate. (middle) Detail of the loop attached by two rivets. (right) Detail of the projection for a kneecap. (photograph by the Author)

38 Junkelmann, , 2000, p. 73-76, Nossov 2009, p. 91-94.

The decoration of ocreae differs piece by piece. Some of them have no decoration39; on the contrary, some are very richly decorated, mostly by stamping, engraving, bashing and perforation40. All types of high graves have a projection for a the kneecap (pict Fig. 4c.). Alike helmets, we do not know whether these richly decorated greaves were not only for ceremonial armoury41, worn by gladiators only when entering the arena on parade (pompa) at the opening of the games. For fighting simpler greaves were used. More than half of discovered graves carry inscriptions, such as “N.C.A.”, “NER.”, “NER. AVG.”, which are the marks of the familia gladiatoria42. The inscription “M.C.P.” was probably the mark of a crafter, because it was found on ten identical pieces of armour43. There are no inscriptions made by the gladiators themselves on their equipment, unlike the military one, which was often signed by the owners44. The issue of the construction and using of Thracian ocreae is described in detail here below in Chapter 5.5.

39 Entry 3.2.A.1. 40 Entry 3.2.A.4. 41 Chapter 6. 42 In these cases, the inscriptions seem to indicate that the greaves had been made for the Imperial gladiatorial school (specifically of Nero): Nossov 2009, p. 93. 43 Nossov 2009, p. 93-94. 44 In some cases we can find the signatures of more users on a single piece. 26

3.2.A.1. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves subtype Pompeii B1 and B2

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

Inventory no.: 5644, 5648.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 52.8 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.13-2.5 mm, with rim: 3.65 mm. Weight 2200 g. State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiator’s barracks).

Dating: second quarter of the 1st century AD.

Description: Pair of bronze high greaves. As far as it is known, this is the only extant pair without decoration. In the area of kneecap they are bulging. Above the knee, there are two shallow drop-shaped bulges bordered by a vault line from engraved from the obverse of the surface. Each greave is completely bordered by a thin bronze sheet. There are three pairs of rings attached by two rivets on both sides, for the fastening to the leg with leather straps passing through them. On the lower edge of the greave inv. no. 5648 there is the mark of the Imperial workshop: NER(ONIS). AVG.(VSTI) (“of Nero Augustus”).

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, nos 296-297, Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, 82 No. 2a-b., Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 180 cat. B1 and B2; La Regina 2001, p. 386.

Figs 3.2.A.1.1-2. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves type Pompeii B1 and B2 (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Figs 3.2.A.1.3-4. Enlarged view (after: La Regina 2001)

3.2.A.2. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves subtype Pompeii B3 and B4

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Inventory no.: 5645 and 5647. Material: Bronze. Measures: Height: 55.5 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.12-1.62 mm, with rim: 4.75-5.35 mm. State of preservation: Good. Provenance Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators’ barracks). Dating: Second quarter of the 1st century AD. Description: Pair of high bronze greaves. In the term of design it is identical to types B1 and B2. Thy are decorated with engraved ornamental patterns on the upper and lower edges. A vault line is in the lower part decorated with short bashed. In the area of the knee the are two characters. On the right greave (inv. no. 5647) is naked Neptune, depicted holding a trident in his left hand and a small dolphin in his right hand. On the left greave (inv. no. 5645) there is naked Jupiter, standing between two trees, holding a long sceptre in the left hand and a bundle of bolts in the right hand. Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, nos 299-300; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 59-64, no. 9a-b; Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 180 cat. B3 and B4: La Regina 2001, p. 387; Il gladiatore / The gladiator 2008, p. 37.

Fig. 3.2.A.2.1. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves type Pompeii B3 and B4 (after:

http://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/gladiators/img13greaves.html; last access: 1.7.2012)

Figs 3.2.A.2.2-3. Enlarged view (after: La Regina 2001)

3.2.A.2. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves subtype Pompeii B5 and B6

Location: France. Paris, Musée du Louvre.

Inventory no.: 1169 and 1170.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 57.5 cm (the higher one); width: 21.5 cm. State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiator’s barracks).

Dating: Second quarter of the 1st century AD.

Description: Pair of bronze high greaves. In the term of design it is identical to types B3 and B4. Differences can be seen in the decoration. On the left part of the upper third of each greave there is a male, bearded frontal head, with a high anastolé over the forehead (Pan?), inside a square frame. Opposite to it, there are two superimposed masks of a Silenus and a Maenad in profile view to their right, with a thyrsus behind them. In the areas of kneecaps there is a frontal head of Medusa, so-called “beutyful tipe”, with her eyes open and a pair of winglets in the hair over the forehead. On the upper part of the left greave (inv. no. 1169) there is the hallmark AM, originally probably PPAM; in the centre of there upper part, beneath the upper edge, there is the mark MC (probably MCP: see below); in the knee area there is the mark NCA. On the right greave (inv. no. 1170), on the front side of the thigh there is there the mark MCP; on the left there is NCA, on the right there is PPAM.

Bibliography: De Ridder 1915, p. 8, nos 1169 and 1170, pl. 67; Baratte 1987, p. 124-125, no. 23; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 83-86, no.13 a-b.

Fig. 3.2.A.2.1. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves type Pompeii B5 and B6 (after: http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=20619& langue=fr ; last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Fig. 3.2.A.2.2 Detail of the vault line and Fig. 3.2.A.2.3. Detail of the vault line and bearded head on inv. no. 1170 (photograph by bearded head on inv. no. 1169 (photograph by the Author) the Author)

Fig. 3.2.A.2.4. Detail of the Medusa’s head on the kneecap area of inv. no. 1169 (photograph by the Author)

3.2.A.3. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves subtype Pompeii B9 and B10

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

Inventory no.: B9 5665, B10 5668.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: B9 Height: 55 cm; width: 20 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.13 mm, with rim: 4.85 mm. Weight 2200 g. B10 Height: 55 cm; width: 19 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.13 mm, with rim: 4.85 mm. Weight 2200 g. State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators’ barracks).

Dating: Second quarter of the 1st century AD.

Description: B9. On the upper part, there is garland made of laurel and oak leaves. In the knee area there is a table with three Bacchic masks; leaning against the table there are a club (on the left) and shepherd staff (on he right). Under these, on both sides of the greave, there is a vegetal scroll. Under the knee, in the centre of the greave, there is a gabled line and, under it, an eagle with widespread wings fighting against a serpent. On the lowest register there are five Bacchic masks: Three of them lay on a basket with lid, known as cista mystica of Bacchus; while on each side of this composition there is another Bacchich mask against a neutral background. On the side rims of the greave there are three pairs of rings. Next to one of the highest ring there is the mark NER, while on the upper part of the thigh there is a large hallmark MCP.

B10. The second greave is very similar to the previous, but it shows differences in decoration and shape. In the upper part there are two laurel branches, with a decorative round shield between their tops. On the knee there is a mask of young Bacchus on a cista mystica. Beneath, there are the head of a Faunus on the left side, and the mask of a Satyr on the right side, both on a cista mystica. Between each of the masks and the head of young Bacchus, there is a thyrsus. Under the gabled line there is an eagle hunting a rabbit. Beneath there is an acanthus scroll. On each side of the greave there are three pairs of rings. In the upper part of it there is a large hallmark MCP (cf. B9).

It is not certain that greaves B9 and B10 belonged to the same pair, because of the differences in their decoration, style and shape. Moreover, they do not share the same hallmarks, differently from all the other greaves.

Bibliography: Quaranta 1831; Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, no. 301; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 65-70, no. 10a, p. 71-75, no. 10b; La Rocca 2001, p. ***; Il gladiatore / The gladiator 2008, p. 37.

Figs 3.2.A.3.1-2. On the left, the greave inv. no. B9 5665 (front view); on the right, the greave inv. no. B10 5668 B10 (right side view) (after: La Regina 2001)

3.2.A.4. Thraex’s/hoplomachus’s greaves subtype Pompeii B7 and B8

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

Inventory no.: 5666, 5667.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 54 cm; inner diameter: 90.8-128.8 cm; depth 14,8 cm. Thickness of the bronze plate: 1.62 mm, with rim: 4.78 mm. Weight: respectively, 2300 and 2500 g. State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators’ barracks).

Dating: Second quarter of the first century AD.

Description: Pair of richly decorated bronze graves. The decoration is identical on both greaves: the only difference is that the mask of Silenus in the upper part and the stork in the lower part are specularly inverted. In the upper part a mask of Silenus, lying on a cista mystica, is depicted in profile; at each side there is thyrsus with long ribbons. Lower, in the same register, there are two young Bacchus’ masks on a cista mystica (one on each side), in prifle towards the centre of the greave, and a tree beneath them. In the knee area there are two crossed cornucopias. In the following register, beneath a richly decorated gabled line, there are three embossed Bacchic masks on a panther skin. In the lowest register there is a stork (or heron) with open wings, holding a snake in its beak. On the sides of each greave there are four pairs of rings and on the upper edge there is the already seen hallmark MPC.

Bibliography: Caterion 1827; Fiorelli 1869, p. 21, no. 313-314, Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 76-81, no. 11a-b; La Regina 2001, p. 389.

Fig. 3.2.A.4.1. View of the front side decoration of inv no. 5666 (on the left) and of the left side decoration of inv. no. 5667 (on the right) (after: La Regina 2001)

3.3 Manica (“Arm-guard”)

The manica is the part of the armour covering the fighter’s arm. It probably developed from the Hellenistic boxing glove called caestus45. At first, it protected only a short part of the arm, from the wrist to the elbow; later it was elongated up to the shoulder. We can find a few kinds of manica on depictions: unfortunately original finds has not been preserved. It is because of the organic material used for the making of most parts of the manica: usually made of quilted cloth or leather. The fastening of the manica was by leather straps over the shoulder and around the chest (Fig. 5a). Another possibility to put it on the arm can be seen on the funerary relief of Lusius Storax46: broad cloth or leather thongs overlapped on the arm. A case apart are the crossed thongs. Another option, used during the 1st and the 2nd century AD, were metal manicae (scale or laminar). Laminar arm-guards was used for the first time by the army of Emperor Trajan in the First and Second Dacian Wars (AD 101-102 and 105-106). These laminar arm-guards should provide protection against the Dacian weapons called falx47. According to the only preserved legionnaire manica, found in Britannia, we can guess the function and construction of the segmented manica (Fig. 5b). From the 2nd century onwards, the scale arm-guard became favored. It is depicted, e.g., in the fragmentary mosaic at Villa Borghese48. The function and reconstruction of the manica are described here below in Chapter 5.4.

Fig. 5a. Systém of manica fastening by Fig. 5b. Remains of metal manica segents leather strap. (after: Wilson S. Gladiators from Newstead excavationin Britain (after: 100 BC – AD 200 Osprey 2001) Wilson S. Gladiators 100 BC – AD 200 Osprey 2001)

45 Nossov 2009, p. 90. 46 Entry 4.1.1. 47 The Dacian falx existed in two sizes: one-handed and two-handed. The shorter variant was called sica. 48 Entry 4.2.5. 37

3.4 Weapons

It was quite common that in the Republican period war prisoners used their own weapons or armours while entering the arena as gladiators49. Sica sword was, according to the opinion of Roman people, the typical weapon for gladiator thraex. It is a single-handed dagger with a curved blade. There are not so many preserved gladiatorial weapons, and no direct find of gladiatorial sica. In the ludus50 the gladiators did not train with sharp weapons most of the time, but instead of them wooden swords (rudes) were used. A training dagger sica has been found in the legionnaire camp in Oberaden in Northern Germany, dated to the 1st century BC (Fig. 6c). Most of original finds of military sicae come from sites in Romania. The information about the shape of the blade of the gladiatorial sica comes from mosaics and grave reliefs. Until the first half of the 1st century AD the blade was evenly curved along its length (Fig. 6a), while later types were with sharply angled blade (Fig. 6b). The wooden blade from Oberaden is 30.5 cm long and its total length was 46.5 cm (Fig. 6c). Yet, in the same period, iron-bladed sicae were much more longer: we estimate the length of their blades in 45 cm. The use of such curvature is described below in Chapter 5.6.

Fig. 6a. Detail of the oil lamp decoratin thraexholding sica with evenly curved blade, Köln, Römisch-Germanisches Museum, (after: http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/i n/set-72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012

49 E.g., the samnis gladiator was typical by his armour. 50 Place where gladiators lived and trained.

Fig. 6b. Bronze statue of the thraex holdning sharply Fig. 6c. Reconstruction of wooden blade angled sica and parmula with horizontal grip, from Oberaden (after Nossov, Konstantin. Hannover , Kestner-Museum (after: Junkelmann M. Gladiator. Rome’s Bloody Spectacle Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms 2009) Gladiatoren 2000)

3.5 Parmula (“Shield”)

According to the size, of their shields, gladiators felt into three groups, that is large-, middle- large- and small-shielded51.

Thraex and hoplomachus belong to the group of small-shielded gladiators. The thraex used a small quadrangular shield (parmula) measuring about 60 x 60 cm. Such shield had a convex surface for providing a better protection. Because of the organic materials of which these shields were made, none has survived. Nonetheless, there are iconographic sources, in particular bronze statuettes, which inform us about them.

The exact construction of the parmula can be deduced from the way in which the large shield (scutum) was constructied. On the contrary, some hoplomachus’ parmula has been completely preserved because it was made of bronze. Its shape could be various as it is discussed below in Chapter 5.7, but mostly it should have been suggestive of a miniature of

51 Junkelmann 2000, p. 76 -81. 39 the Greek shield aspis. Originals from excavations are of a type similar to those reproduced on statuettes depicting hoplomachi (see above, Fig. 2), but also the hoplomachus is often represented with a very convex shield, for example in the mosaic from the Roman villa at Zliten52. Unfortunately, no similar exemplar has been preserved.

Finally, it is noteworthy to mention that there were admirers of particular shield categories. The supporters of small shields were called parmularii, while the supporters of large shields were called scutarii53. To the function and use of shields is paid attention in Chapter 5.

4 . The Iconographic Sources

The iconographical sources are the most valuable sources of information about gladiators, next after the original finds. Gladiatorial topic can be observed in roman art, mostly on mosaics, stone reliefs, paintings and commonly used pottery, e.g terra sigillata54, oil lamps, cups. Often are also found small bronze, bone or ivory statuettes which depict gladiators in various positions – winner in winning position and surrender in gesture with raised finger. Information about fight results can be seen on mosaics, reliefs and paintings. Letter “V” indicated winner and was a shortcut for viciit. “M” meAnt missus – reprieved gladiator. “P” by word periit – killed or “Q” by word quanatoz or Gracian Θ théta which meAnt death. There are also shortcuts “ST. M” – stans missus, this meant ending of fight by tie and both fighters left arena alive. Or “M.P”- missus periit, for reprieved gladiator, who finaly succumbed to his injuries55 Extant engraved singns and paintings of gladiators on plasters of Pompeyian houses have usualy nothing common with original armature of gladiators but it shows the evident admiration of common inhabitans.

52 Entry 4.2.1. 53 Nossov 2009, p. 154, where one of the quoted sources is Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 1.5.1: «From my governor, [I learned] to be neither of the green nor of the blue party at the games in the Circus, nor a partizan either of the Parmularius or the Scutarius at the gladiators’ fights» (http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.1.one.html; last access: 7.6.2012). 54 General term for some of the fine red Ancient Roman pottery with glossy surface slips. 55 Nossov 2009 p. 167. 40

4.1 Relieves

This expensive form of decoration is mostly connected directly with places of holding gladiatorial fights or death. Extant are gravestones of gladiators built by bereaved after death. Either by the co-fighters from ludus or by lanista himself in the case of eminent gladiator. But mostly it was built by family and children. There was found the largest graveyard of gladiators in Ephesus. Three gravestones and bones of 67 men in the age of 20 – 30 years considered as gladiators were found. On the gravestones is engraved name of the dead fighter, his portrayal and often dedication. Gladiators are allways depicted standing and fully armed, against his adversary or alone. Often were depicted with palm spray as winners. In Thyateiry (nowadays Turkey), young wife of fallen gladiator had built a gravestone, which says „Amias in memory to her beloved husband Araxios, who came from Daldis, also called Antalos“. Araxios stays in figh position, protects himself with shield parmula , has high ocrea and holds sica with curved blade. It´s dedicated that Araxios was fighting as a thraex. From Smyrna comes gravestone of thraex Satornilose who stands in winning position holding a palm spray. The gravestones say: “Familia in memory to Satornilos.” Beside the figures, there were depicted wreaths on the gravestones, as in the grave of thraex Danaos (Fig. 7). The number of wreaths was eaqual to number of victories in the arena. Some epitaphs on the graves of gladiators were same as on the soldiers gravestones. First is written name, than follows type of weapon he fought with, his native land, number of undergone fights and age.

Fig. 7. Reconstruction of the Relief tombstone of the retired gladiator Danaos with wreaths on the side. (after: Wilson S. Gladiators 100 BC – AD 200 Osprey 2001) 41

The relief found in Pompeií56, nowadays placed in Muzeo archeologico Nazionale, Neapoli, shows the course of venatio a munus. In the upper part of relief there is pompa depicted. Iin the middle line there are gladiatorial fights under way, where in the right side can be recognized pair hoplomachus – murmillo. In the lower part there is venation depicted. On the redrawn relief from 19th century from Pompeii which was destroyed are gladiatorial fights depicted. Thraex is in the upper line depicted twice in pair with murmillo, the lower line is formed only by pairs murmillo – thraex, thraex – murmillo. Also, the relief from 2nd quarter of 1st century AD is preserved. It comes from clerk Lusius Storaxe57. On the right side there is well identifiable pair thraex – murmillo in the upper part. In the lower part there are pairs thraex – murmillo, murmillo – thraex, murmillo – hoplomachus and thraex – murmillo described from left.

56 Entry 4.1.2. 57 Entry 4.1.1.

4.1. Relieves

4.1.1. Funerary relief of Lusius Storax

Location: Italy. Chieti, Museo Archeologico Nazionale d’Abruzzo.

Inventory nr.: unknown.

Material: Limestone.

Measures: pediment 60 x 280 cm; height of the frieze panels: 60 cm.

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Teate (Chieti).

Dating: AD 20-40 (Kleiner); principate of Claudius (41-54: Maderna).

Description: The relief with gladiatorial munera belongs to the funerary monument of a freedman, Gaius Lusius Storax, who lived in ancient Teate (today Chieti) where he was sevir Augustalis (i.e., member of a college of priests of the Imperial cult). The monument was designed in the fashion of a temple: with a pediment. In the pediment, we can see Lusius Storax in toga, seated on a sella curulis, in the centre of the composition. Around him there is a crowd of men and at the sides tibicines (on the left) and cornicines (on the right). All the people are watching the gladiatorial munera clearly offered by Lusius Storax himself, partly represented on the pediment itself: here, from left to right, there are two equites, a myrmillo- hoplomachus pair (behind them there are two umpires) and a thraex-myrmillo pair. The relief of the frieze (from left to right) shows the following pairs: thraex-myrmillo, myrmillo-thraex, myrmillo-hoplomachus and thraex-myrmillo.

Bibliography: Maderna, C. Die Bildhauerkunst während der Regierungszeit des Nero (54-68 n. Chr.) 2010, I, p. 132, II, fig. 204a-b; Kleiner F.S. A History of Roman Art, Enhanced Edition,

Figs. 4.1.1.1. Left and right part from Lusius Storax’s funerary relief showing the performance of munera (after http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301554/and http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301242; last visit: 3.6.2012)

4.1.2. Relief from Pompeii with munus and venatio

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

Inventory no.: 6704.

Material: Marble of Luni

Measures: 1.50 x 4.23 m.

State of preservation: Two diagonal fractures; little missing area in the centre of the lowest register.

Provenance: Pompeii, necropolis before Porta Stabia.

Dating: AD 20-50.

Description: This relief, organized in three registers of different height, originally decorated the façade of a funerary monument. It is very important because it consists of a cyclic narration, in which the singles episodes mark also under the chronological point of view the “timetable” of an editio (the game day), offered by a magistrate. The narration begins in the upper register, with a procession (pompa), marching from left to right: the parade is opened by two lictors, followed by three tibicines (“players of tuba”) and by a ferculum, on which there are two small figures, possibly representing the fabri who constructed the armatures for the gladiators (Junkelmann 2000). Then, the harenarii follow, carrying materials needed for the games, such as the table with the programme of the games and the palm branch as prize for the winner. In the pompa we can detect a character frontally depicted, cladded in a toga, who is the patron of the funerary monument and the editor of the munera. The gladiatorial fights are represented in the central register: a series of pairs of gladiators, umpires and assistants are depicted. In detail: two provocatores, two groups each consisting of three men (perhaps, paegniarii and their assistants); a hoplomachus and a murmillo on the right. Bottom row, venatores fighting with animals, as well as three bestiarii at the moment of letting beasts out onto the arena.

Bibliography: See Mau, A. Pompeii: Its Life and Art. Translated by F.W.Kelsey. New York: Macmillan, 1907, p. 431, fig. 246; La Regina 2001, p. 359, no. 74; Cooley S. and M.G.L. Pompeii: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 2004 p. 140.

Fig. 10. Relief from Pompeii (after Nossov, Konstantin. Gladiator. Rome’s Bloody Spectacle 2009) 44

4.1.3. Sketch of a lost relief from Pompeii

Location: /.

Inventory no.: /.

Material: /

Measures: /

State of preservation: /.

Provenance: After a relief found at Pompeii.

Dating: AD 20-50.

Description: A sketch realized in the 19th century from a destroyed relief in Pompeii showing gladiatorial combats. From left to right, there are in the upper row: two equites, a myrmillo- thraex pair, a hoplomachus-myrmillo pair, two essedarii, two retiarii and a myrmillo-thraex pair. The lower row comprises a myrmillo-thraex pair and a thraex-myrmillo pair as well as some enlarged details. Helmets and foot covers are depicted. Thraex’s parmula shows a vertical handgrip.

Bibliography: Mazois, F. Les Ruines de Pompei: Premiere Partie. Paris: Atlas, 1824, p. 47- 48; Smith, W. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London, 1875, p. 1186-1188.

Fig. 4.1.3 Tracing of the Pompeii destroyed relief from 19th century (after Nossov, Konstantin. Gladiator. Rome’s Bloody Spectacle 2009)

4.2 Mosaic

Mosaics from the Antiquity are one of the most permanent form of decorative art which was preserved. This expensive style of decoration was very well-liked by Romans who decorated with it their private vilas or public rooms. The fragmen fo mosaic from Zliten in Libye58 dated around 200 AD depicts the cours of munus. On its right side there is bust of editor depicted, than follow musicians and a pair of fighting equites. Other fighting gladiators are also depicted, with easily recognizable armature types. Thraex is depicted twice, fighting with murmillo and surrending with raised finger59. On mosaics from Augst by Basel60 from 2nd century placed in Augst, Römermuseum is five fighting scenes depicted. Pairng of gladiators is very well traceable on this mosaic. One of the scenes is dedicated to pair thraex – murmillo. There is also depiction of pair thraex – murmillo on one part of mosaic from half of the 1st century from Bad Kreuznach61 placed in Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier. On this view there is Thraex hit by murmillos shield to his helmet which confirms the theory of active using of shield in fight62. On the fragment of mosaic from Verona 63 around AD 200 there is thraex kneeling over downed murmillo and standing arbiter64. Three fragments of mosaic from famous Villa Borghese from the beginning of 4th century AD represent gladiatorial combats between retiarii and secutores and venation. Thraex is not represented here but it is clearly visible the using of scalemaled manicae and its attaching65. Mosaics from 2nd century AD are less detailed and it is more difficult to follow details of gladiatorial armature opposite to mosaics from the end of 3rd and 4th century AD. It is likelihood that authors of mosaics created their work with a certain amount of own artistic invention and some technical details were not crucial for creating work. In spite of that mosaics in combination with written sources and original finds of equipment are very valuable preserved source of information.

58 Entry 4.2.1. 59 This gesture mean, the fighting person is unable to continue in fight because of his injury or exhaustion. Than the crowd could decide about his next destiny. 60 Entry 4.2.2. 61 Entry 4.2.3. 62 Chapter 4.4. 63 Entry 4.2.4. 64 There were two arbiters summa rudis and his assistant secunda rudis watching th fight. Their main task was observe the fight rulez dictate (Nossov 2009 str. 159) 65 Chapter 2.3

4.2. Mosaics

4.2.1. Mosaic from Zliten

Location: Lybia. Tripoli, The Archaeological Museum of Tripoli.

Inventory nr.: not found.

Measures: 5.73 × 3.97 m.

State of preservation: Complete, with some lacunae, obliterating especially one of the gladiatorial frieze, and some areas of the central square.

Provenance: Roman villa at Dar Buk Ammera.

Dating: AD 200.

Description: Fragment of a large mosaic, originally decorating a triclinium, with scenes of games in the amphitheatre. The mosaic consists of a set of sixteen square fields decorated with geometric designs in opus sectile or representations of several kinds of fish in opus vermiculatum,, formin a square in the centre of the pavement. Each side of the edge is decorated with pictures of gladiatorial contests. Here, only two details have been selected. Top (from left to right): Bust of an editor, musicians (with the rare representation of a hydraulis, “water-organ”), a stretcher to take away the dead or wounded, and an umpire holding one of the equites by the hand, expecting a verdict. Bottom (from left to right): combat between a retiarius and a secutor, a thraex-myrmillo pair and a hoplomachus- myrmillo pair (the myrmillo is holding up his finger and the umpire is stopping the fight). The last gladiator on the right is a provocator.

Bibliography: Kondoleon, Christine, Domestic and divine: Roman mosaics in the House of Dionysos, New York: Cornell University 1995, p. 73-74; Dunbabin, Katherine M.D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world (4th edition). New York: Cambridge University 1999, p. 119- 120.

Fig. 4.2.1.1. Details of the mosaic from Zliten showing the course of the pompa and a venatio (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

4.2.2. Mosaic fragment from Augst

Location: Switzerland. Augst, Römermuseum,.

Inventory nr.: not found.

Measures: not found

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Augusta Raurica (Augst).

Dating: AD 200.

Description: This square detail of the mosaic is one of the five, which depict a gladiators’ pairing. There is a myrmillo prepared for the fight and a thraex taking his parmula shield from the ground.

Bibliography: Katherine M.,Dunbabin D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world.New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 280-282; Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 96- 98.

Fig. 4.2.2.1. Mosaic detail from Augst showing gladiatorial fight (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

4.2.3. Detail of a Mosaic from Bad Kreuznach

Location: Germany. Bad Kreuznach, Römerhalle.

Inventory nr.: not found.

Measures: The whole mosaic: 58m2.

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Remains of a Roman villa, Bad Kreuznach.

Dating: 2nd century AD.

Description: The extensively preserved mosaic depicts thirteen different combats in the Roman amphitheatre, inside frames of different shapes. This fragment shows the fighting between a thraex and a myrmillo. The myrmillo hits the thraex on the helmet with his shield scutum.

Bibliography: Cüppers H. Die Römer in Rheinland-Pfalz, Hamburg: Neyses, 2005, p. 321- 323; Hornung S. Luxus auf dem Lande – Die römische Palastvilla von Bad Kreuznach. Bad Kreuznach: publishers, 2008.

Fig. 4.2.3.1. Detail of acmosaic from Bad Kreuznach (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

4.2.4. Mosaic fragment from Verona

Location: Italy. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano.

Inventory nr.: not found.

Measures: not found

State of preservation: fragmentary.

Provenance: Roman villa at Negrar, Verona.

Dating: Late 2nd or early 3rd century AD.

Description: A thraex is kneeling close to a dead or badly wounded myrmillo. An umpire is stopping the fight. In the right bottom corner there is a cart for a body. Thraex’s parmula, also on the ground, shows a horizontal handgrip.

Bibliography: Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 106-107.

Fig. 4.2.4.1. Fragment of mosaic from Verona (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

4.2.5. Gladiator mosaic in Galleria Borghese

Location: Italy. Rome, Galleria Borghese. Embedded in the floor of the Salone.

Inventory nr.: without inventory number.

Measures: The five larger sections: 2.16/2.25 x 5.39/5.782 m; the two smaller sections: 54 x 86 cm.

State of preservation: recomposed in seven sections (five larger; two very small) from many small square panel detached from their original setting.

Provenance: Borghese estate at Torrenova, on the via Casilina. Discovered and brought to light in 1834

Dating: First half of the 4th century AD.

Description: The most famous gladiatorial mosaic from the late Imperial period, decorated, in the shape of a continuous frieze, the cryptoporticus of an Imperial villa. Of the seven sections now in the Galleria Borghese, two depicts venationes, four scenes of munera and one scene both of munera and venatio. The gladiatorial combats are between retiarii and secutores; moreover there are scenes of venatio. According to the inscriptions all the duels ended with the death of the loser: in fact, the Greek letter Θ (= first letter of θάνατος = “death”) characterizes the dead. The depicted gladiators use a scale manica, typical for this late period.

Bibliography: Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 53-73; Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p.144 – 145; Moreno, P., Viacava, A. I marmi antichi della galleria Borghese. La collezione archeologica di Camillo e Francesco Borghese. Roma: De Luca, 2003, pp. 136-138 (with further literature).

Figs 4.1.5.1-2. Three fragments of the mosaic from Villanova in the Galleria Borghese, representing a venatio and gladiatorial combats between retiarii and secutores (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

4.4 Decorative items

The whole decorative industry sector dealed with gladiatorial theme. This support numerous finds of commonly used staffs with gladiators and their fights topic. In Römisch- Germanisches Muzeum v Kolíně is placed collection of preserved oil lamps with gladiator depiction. Some of them are decorated with thraex himslef (Figs. 8a-c). Other show thraex in pair with murmillo (Figs. 9a-b) and hoplomachus (Fig. 6a). Two lamps from the National Museum in Berlin show two thraex (Fig. 10). Another group of decorative items constituted by small gladiator statuetes of various type cast from bronze (Figs. 11a-b) or in more rare occasions from ivory. It is certain that gladitorial theme arous enormous interest of common citizens. Especially in the day of Games a bussines with decorative items and souveniers with gladaitorial motive flourished. There were countless traders around amphitheatres selling medalions and statuettes with popular gladiators, ceramic with fighting motives, weapons, armatures and other various things of common use gladiatorial theme.

Figs. 8a-c. Detail of the three oil lamps with thraex gladiator, , Köln, Römisch-Germanisches Museum (after: http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set- 72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Figs. 9a-b. Detail of the two oil lamps depicting fight between thraex and murmillo, , Köln, Römisch- Germanisches Museum (after :http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set- 72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Fig. 10 Two thraex , Berlin, Staatliche Museen –Antikensammlung (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 11a. Bronze statue of thraex prepared to Fig. 11b. Bronze statue of thraex in fight..Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale (after: surrender gesture, Palencia, Museo Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So Arqueologico (after: Junkelmann M. kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000) Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

5. The elements of the armature in the light of reenactment

5.1. Reenactment: an experimental approach

Reenactment has a strong tradition in Bohemia and thanks to high-quality crafters of historical replics there are some world-class projects. The term “reenactment” includes general revitalization of history. But quality degrees of such operation can be various.

At the lowest level there is a merely visual reconstruction, which creates only images of a certain period without putting any emphasis on historical or archaeological sources and on the used materials. This way, nonetheless, creates the illusion of historical authenticity but mostly without any connection to the reality of reconstructed age. This is a very popular way of delivering history in film industry nowadays. It brings a great number of historical epics which purpose is only to deliver a period’s image without any effort to create the true image of history.

At the opposite end of the range, there is professional reenactment66, which has the purpose to attain the most faithful reconstruction of a certain period, by a deep study of the sources and replying the techniques of that period. The most similar approach to antiquity is experimental archeology. Sometimes, yet, also professional reenactment has to face constructing compromises, especially because of the lack of information about techniques and processing of the selected period. Reenactment is only not focused on creating the picture of history but also should answer the questions about the functions and qualities of the reconstructed objects, which nowadays are only hypothetical. Differently from experimental archaeology, the true function of the object has the second place in reenactment. For example, archaeology will primarily examine the function of a weapon and its effect in the time it was originally created and in certain situations. Reenactment creates a credible picture of a certain period67 in which is not necessary to own an actually sharp weapon for its active, multiple use.

The craftsman who reconstructed all the parts of the bronze gladiatorial equipment I am presenting here − manica, ocrea, galea − is mr. Martin Junek, who belongs to the top-class of

66 “Professional reenactment” is not an official term: in itself, it does not ensure the desired quality. 67 For this type of reconstruction is not necessary to make a really sharp weapon. A blunt blade is better for multiple use.

55 armours and plattner articles craftsmen in Czech Reublic, and and his fame, among collectors and producers of events, is worldwide. On his great strength, besides other things, depends his capability of bronze manufacturing, which at such degree is very rare.

Due to the factory processing of bronze68, it is difficult to assess the properties of the metal when heated, despite the supplier given values. The biggest influence has ratio of copper and tin. For the reconstructions presented here tin bronze69 was used, a specifical alloy with a content of ca. 8 % of tin at most, which can be processed by cold-working70. The firmness71 of the cold-worked bronze slowly decreases by heating at 300 °C. A higher softness is reached by annealing at 650 to 700 °C. In the practice, this means that the metal plate must be annealed in forge: its temperature is controlled by the colour of the heated material (Fig 12a). When the metal is soft enough, there is only a short time for shaping72 (Fig. 12b). The complexity and expensiveness of bronze manufacturing multiplies the difficulties in comparison with iron or brass manufacturing, which is commonly used as a cheaper substitute. The qualities of bronze objects are very different when compared with similar items made with substitute materials.

Fig. 12a, Heating of the bronze Fig. 12b, Shaping of the vault line on a sheet (photograph by Martin Junek) greave (photograph by Martin Junek)

68 The tin bronze sheet, in this case. 69 Tin bronze contains at most 20 % of tin, and the total amount of copper and tin must be at least 99 % in the final alloy. 70 Alloys with more than 10 % of tin are processed by casting. 71 In this case, bronze can be hammered in cold form because of his hardness. 72 When bronze is annealed in the presence of air (i.e. of oxygen), it quickly cools down and becomes hard, which means also “fragile”.

5.2 Reenactors

Reenactors are people interested in the restoration and reconstruction of history in all of its forms. For most of them it is a hobby more than a profession. Very often reenactors can be found among amateur archeologists. It is common in Czech Republic that most of the historical replicas craftmen are also people acting as reenactors. Unfortunately, it is also a common practice that every reenactor reconstructs his equipment at his own expense; and not everyone has access to the necessary archeological materials and knowledge. This fact usually influences the quality of the reconstructed objects. Therefore, a reason for the trade-off between historical replicas and bare imitations is the financial aspect. This influences both the used material and the degree (extension and quality) of decoration. Anyway, the largest share in quality of reconstruction have the capabilities and experience of the craftsman who reconstructs a certain object. Among Czech craftmen should be emphasized Patrick Bárta73, who is at the worldwide top of weapon manufacturing.

There is a lack of reenacting groups reconstructing actively the world of gladiators. The greatest expert in the field of reconstructions and experiments with gladiatorial equipments is the historian and experimental archeologist Dr. Marcus Junekelmann. He conducted an array of significant experiments with his reenacting group Familia Gladiatoria Pulli Cornicinis74, which are published in his studies75. His reconstructions are valuable thanks to their extent, but used materials and processing differ from the original ones. Instead of bronze he uses brass and iron. Furthemore, replicas maintain only the basic shape of the reconstructed object, regardless of decoration. His reconstructed items are not decorated and have only a raw basic shape with no details.

The other group reconstructing the gladiatorial world on a significant level is the Italian group Ars Dimicandi76. They are focused on reconstruction of fights and fighting techniques more than on equipment, which is at a very low level of processing quality. On the

73 See: http://www.templ.net. 74 See: http://www.clemens-fritz.de/gladiator.htm. 75Among his many titles, see: Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt - Roms Gladiatoren im Experiment. Mainz: von Zabern, 2000; Junkelmann, M. Gladiatorial and military equipment and fighting technique. A comparison. Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies, 11, 2000, p. 113-117; Junkelmann, M. Gladiators in action. Recent works on pratical aspects of gladiatorial combat. Rez. zu: "Retiarius vs. secutor et scissor. Ricostruzione empirica delle tecniche di combattimento e degli armamenti". Journal of Roman Archaeology, 23, 2010, p. 510-532. 76 See: http://www.arsdimicandi.net/.

57 contrary, very good aesthetic results in reconstruction reached the German group Amor Mortis77.

5.3. Reconstruction

In this part of the work I would like to specify, correct or add some pieces of information, which were found out during the reconstruction and the following use of my thraex armature. As models for those parts of the thraex’s equipment (i.e. manica, sica, parmula), which were not preserved other archeological sources, mainly iconographical were used. The aim of this reconstruction is to create the replica of the armature of a gladiator thraex as it appeared during the first century AD. The archeological finds from the Quadriporticus of the Theatre at Pompeii are date not later than the year AD 79 and, therefore, they bring the largest information about this period. This makes this group of archaeological finds the best for our reconstruction. Considering the change of human constitution in course of time, the size of the reconstructed equipment is made to fit a man with nowadays structure. This is the reason why the shape is always the original one, but not the size.

The reconstruction of this thraex equipment started three years ago. Its quality was influenced by the number of the available pieces of information. But also reconstruction itself brought new knowledge, which helped to improve the quality of every following object.

5.4 Manica

Considering the absence of finds of gladiatorial manicae, this reconstruction was based on the combination of different sources. First of them is the mosaic from Zliten in Libya78, where on the left side there are fighting secutor and thraex depicted standing back to back. The colour of the manica of each of them is different from the colour of their equipment. Evident segments indicate the possibility of a scaled manica. In this case, the thraex would have an iron manica and the secutor a bronze one. The second source was the statuette of a thraex now in the Museum August Kestener in Hannover (Fig. 6b). The way of the hand protection also suggests the conclusion that the manica was formed by lamellar segments.

Our reconstruction of the righthanded manica is made in bronze. The used material was a 1.5 mm thick tin bronze plate. Twelve lamellae were made: the three in the area of the elbow are shorter, the other ones are provided with a leather patch for a better flexibility

77 See: http://www.gladiatorenschule.eu/. 78 Entry 4.2.1. 58

(Figs. 13a-13b). The upper part of the manica covers the shoulder and is made out from one single piece of bronze. It is decorated with an embossed lionhead (Fig. 13c). On the inner side there are three leather straps along the whole length of the manica. The lamellae are riveted to them on both sides of the manica and in its middle. The rivets on the sides of the lamellae are easily visible, while in the middle the heads of the rivets are covered by overlapping lamellae. This has a strictly practical reason, that is joint protection. This area is exposed to hits and so it is susceptible to damage. To the rivets on the sides of the lamellae there leather loops are attached, through which run leather straps, tied up on the inside of the arm (Fig. 13e). Under the manica is worn a quilted linen sleeve on which metal lamellae are applied and fixed by leather straps. Fingers are protected by the overlapping of the linen sleeve and a leather plate79 attached by leather straps around wrist and palm. A larger strap is riveted in the upper part alonged around the chest and over the shoulder. On the both straps there are buckles for tightening (Fig. 5a). Lamellas of manica are overlapping from above. This fact is often topic of discussions. There were a number of experiments for proving direction of laying lamellas, if they were in this course or reversely. But results show that the laiyng of lamellas has no influence on function of manica. Total weight of this manica is 3kg.

Fig. 13a. Detail of the manica take apart Fig. 13b. Detail of the leather elbow (photograph by the Martin Junek) cower (photograph by the Author)

79 Most of the depictions of gladiators show a manica on the whole arm, including the covering of fingers.

Fig. 13c. Detail of the decoration Fig. 13d. Whole manica with leather plate (photograph by the Author) cowering fingers (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 13e. Inside view of the manica, with the quilted sleeve and the leather straps (photograph by the Author)

5.5 Ocreae

The model for the reconstruction of the high ocreae was a pair of greaves found at Pompeii, type B5 and B680, today on exhibition in the Musée du Louvre81. The greaves protect the front part of the leg from ankle to the half-thigh. The deepest are is in correspondence with the kneecap area, on which there is an embossed relief. This bulge eases the movement of the knee and in particular the kneeling down (Fig. 14a). There was no need of a fully anatomical shape, as for example in the Greeek kronoi or in the later mediaeval plated greaves, which were formed straight on the leg. Under the gladiatorial ocreae there were quilted leggings called fasciae (Fig. 14b), which absorbed the hits and also enabled a large range of moves of the legs. On both sides of a greave three bronze rings are attached. Through these leather straps pass and fasten the greave to the leg. Both ocreae are all along hemmed by a thin bronze plate 0.5 mm thick. All the joints of the hemming are covered under rivets, so that the

80 Entry 3.2.A.2. 81 Département des antiquités grecques, étrusques et romaines, Salle des bronzes, on the first floor.

60 aesthetic of the object is not disturbed. This way of hemming is typical also for all other pieces of the gladiatorial equipment. The decoration of ocreae was realized by embossing, except the bearded male heads, which were casted and added later (Fig. 14d). This is a mistake in the construction. These greaves, in fact, were reconstructed on the basis of a picture and this relief seemed to be too raised for the embossing technique. This technological problem has been overcome just in these days. The cast plate has been removed and the reliefs remade by embossing. The total hight of an ocrea is 61 cm. The width in the narrowest ankle area is 15 cm, in the widest area of upper edge is 21 cm. The weight of one single greave is 2.5 kg.

Used material for reconstruction is 1,5 mm thick bronze-tin plate, the edges of graves are hemmed by 0,5 thick bronze-tin plate. The rings for hitching leather straps are made from bronze wire 0,8 mm thick. These are attached by bronze rivets in the sides of graves (Fig. 14c).

Fig. 14a. Detail of the kneecap bulging with Fig. 14b. Reconstruction of faciae (photograph decoration (photograph by the Author) by the Author)

Fig. 14c. Detail of the loop attached by Fig. 14d. Detail of the bearded man (photograph two rivets (photograph by the Author) by the Author)

Fig. 14e. Pompeii B5 and B6 Subtype recnostruction. (photograph by the Author)

5.6 Sica

All the reconstruction, as described above, are modelled after originals dated to the first century AD, because we have a lot of preserved material from Pompeii. This is the reason why the type of sica with blade evenly curved along its length was chosen. The second type of sica, with sharply angled blade appeared around the mid-first century AD.

As model for shape and curving of the blade were chosen the depiction on an oil lamp in the Römisch-Germaniches Museum in Köln (Fig. 6a) and an original sica in a private collection (Fig. 15a), unfortunately with no indication of its orignal archaeological context. Yet, its shape is the closest to that reproduced on the lamp.

Modern technologies were used for creating this weapon. The blade is ground and tempered and inserted into the wooden handgrip (Figs 15b-c). The length of the whole weapon is 71 cm, the blade alone measures 49 cm. Our sica is blunt on account of safety during experimental reconstruction of possible fight techniques and also of the decreasing wear. It was established that it is possible to get behind the opponent’s shield by rotating this weapon. But due to the size of the scutum of the myrmillos, the hand holding the shield is much of the time out of the reach of curvature of blade. Hoplomachus eliminates the advantage of curved sica by using a bulging parmula because the curvature of this kind of shield covered the whole forearm, which is the easiest body part to be injured by a curved blade. Opposite to the gladius, the sica has worse qualities in stabbing but better for dealing

62 cut wounds thanks to its blade. Thracian armatura bids an aggressive style of fighting82. An active use of the parmula shield as a secondary weapon grants other combat tactic possibilities.

Fig. 15a. Thraex’s sica in private collection (after: http://ru.warrior.wikia.com/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Th racian_machaira_1_645.jpg; last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Fig. 15b. Final assemblage of the Fig. 15c. Detail of the wooden sica (photograph by the Author) handgrip (photograph by the Author)

82 Chapter. 2.4.

5.7 Parmula

There is a lot of archeological finds depicting a thraex holding his shield. It is possible to observe small differences in size and vaulting. The shield used by hoplomachus could have two different shapes. Original finds reach at most a radius of the curvature of 5 cm, but the iconographical sources83 depict shields of hemisphaerical shape84.

The thraex’s shield has always a vertical grip, and its shape is square or moderately rectangular. Our reconstruction is made of 1 cm thick plywood, incurvated into the required shape. In this case the radius of the curvature is ca. 11 cm. The front of the shield is covered by raw cowhide, 2 mm thick. This technology has not undergone changes during the period in which it was used. The skin free of fur and other impurities is dipped into the water for 5-8 hours, to be softened. While wet, it is stretched on the structure of the shield. Then, it is bent with thin leather straps on the other side of the shield to be tightened. The edge of the shield is reinforced by a 0.5 mm thick bronze border, which is riveted the structure of the shield (Fig. 16a). In the centre of the inner side there is a vertically inserted grip (Fig. 16b). The fingers are protected by an iron umbo85 (Fig. 16c).

The final size of the shield is 64 x 56.5 cm and its weight is ca. 4 kg. Palm branches and two jumping bulls are painted on the front side. The depiction on the shield means the affiliation to a particular familia gladiatoria, in this case the familia gladiatoria Taurus.

The position of the grip is debated in many cases. Iconographical finds inform about the possibility of vertical and even horizontical grips. Carried out experiments show that the vertical grip is much more advantageous and it is likely that this was the version actually used. It provides a better manipulation of the shield both for protection and for attack. Due to its weight, the thraex’s shield was a very effective weapon. This fact is supported by the general opinion that the thraex’s was a very aggressive armature86. In the scutum the horizontal grip is a necessary option: because of his size and weight the vertical grip is not effective. The artists depicting gladiatorial themes have not paid attention to this detail. The horizontal holding so often depicted was probably inspired by Roman legionnaires, who used a kind of scutum with such a grip, which was, the, “transferred” to gladiators.

83 Entry 4.2.1 84 This shield is reconstructed by Dr. Marcus Junkelmann and his function described in Das Spiel mit dem Tod- So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren. 85 Shield bulging wich covers the fingers when they hold the grip. Depictions of the umbo on the thraex’s parmula are not so common. 86 Chapter 2.4. 64

Fig. 16a. Detail of the Fig. 16b. Detail of the vertical attaching bronze edge grip (photograph by the Author) (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 16c. Front side of the shield with umbo (photograph by the Author)

5.8. Galea the last part of our reconstruction is the helmet subtype Pompeii H12, realized after the original on exhibition in the Musée de Louvre87. Its construction is the most difficult and expensive part of my reconstruction and in present time, the manufacturing process is not yet finished. Due to such time reasons, only the first stages of the reconstruction are presented here: the core and the decorated crest. The details of the decoration and the remaining elements are going to be finished during July 2012. Nonetheless, I would like to pay attention the same to the helmet reconstruction and describe the constructing elements and techniques. All of them were discussed with the craftsman Martin Junek and have been realized while this work has been written.

The helmet is structurally divided into four parts: calotte (Fig. 17a), brim (Fig. 17b), crest (Fig. 17c) and cheekpieces (Fig 17d). Calotte and brim form the core of the helmet. To this core crest and cheekpieces are attached. The crest is attached firmly, while cheekpieces are attached by hinges (Fig. 3.1.A.1.3). Inside the forehead of the helmet, there is a flat loop for the sliding of the cheekpieces. Subsequently, they can be shut together by clicking. Grilled visors are attached to the upper part of the helmet by a tapering getting through the brim, ended with a loop through which passes a cotter. In the lower part of the helmet, the visors slide into the flat loop situated in the middle part of the cheekpieces, which is attached by two rivets (Fig. 3.1.A.1.6.). When hit, this part could be damaged and deformed, which could make the opening of the helmet impossible. Because of this, there is a strengthening plate (Fig. 3.1.A.1.4) covering the critical area.

The decoration of the helmet is realized by a combination of several techniques: embossing, undercut mortices and perforated patterns (lines or simple figures).

The material used for our reconstruction is a 1.5 mm thick tin bronze plate, the same as for manica and ocreae. For the brim hemming, the lower part of cheekpieces and the visors was used a 0.5 mm thick tin bronze plate. The griffin’s head was modelled in wax and cast in bronze with the method of lost wax. The crest of the helmet is decorated by chiseling delicate feathers, which should give the impression of the griffin’s body. In this type of helmet the crest is connected and forms a continuous surface in the back side . There are visible tiny holes piercing the crest in the upper part. As they don’t have any constructional meaning, it is likely that they were used for the attachment of a wooden extension with feathers by cotter

87 Département des antiquités grcques, étrusques et romaines, Salle des bronzes, 1st floor.

66 pins or tiny straps going through the holes88. For a firm wearing of the helmet, a lining or cap is needed under the galea. After putting the helmet on the head the cheekpieces fasten together and, for secure against opening, they are binded by strap in their lower part. This way of attaching is the same for every type of gladiatorial helmet which should protect the face. The holes for the straps are well apparent on the original finds.

Fig 17a. Callote with gorgon head Fig. 17b. Callote with attached brim (photograph by

decoratin on progres (photograph the Martin Junek) by the Martin Junek)

88 It was probably attached the same way on the thraex helmet Subtype H12 type

Fig. 17c. Detail of the griffin head and crest decoration (photograph by the Martin Junek)

Fig. 17d. Detail of the unfinished cheekpices (photograph by the Author)

Fig 17e. Unfinished reconstruction of the helmet type Pompeii H12 on July 7th 2012 (photograph by the Author)

6. Conclusion

At the end of this work I would like to say that the manufacturing gave the occasion for further construction inquiries, which we are not able to answer at the present state of knowledge. For a complete settlement of the construction of a thraex’s helmet and another equipment it would be necessary a personal examination of original finds, with the possibility to dismantle some of their parts, which is obviously very difficult to realize. It would be expedient to work on the theme of the construction of gladiatorial equipment in a following project or to dedicate an individual study to it.

7. Summary

The aim of this work was to collet archeological and iconographical material concerning the gladiator thraex and to create an exact replica of a selected equipment of the first century AD, as possible. Experimental methods of reconstruction were used, focused on construction details and the interpretation of original equipment, including decorations. Next aim was to describe the manufacturing process and to point out construction details and distinctions. As models for the greaves and the helmet were used original finds from Pompeii. A combination of iconographical sources was used as model for non preserved elements of the complete equipment. There are minimal signs of wear after year of active using. Embossed decorative reliefs are almost undamaged in spite of numerous hits. This ascertainment can help to answer the question if some helmets were used only for decorative (ceremonial) purpose, while for fights were used other items less decorated. Based on the carried experiments on bronze endurance, my opinion leans towards the possibility that all of the found items of gladiatorial equipment could be used for active combats in the arena without suffering aesthetic damage. In particular, if we take in consideration the costs and yields of holding gladiatorial games, the investment in the attractive image of gladiators is a perfectly logical choice.

The manufacturing also gave the occasion for further construction inquiries, which we are not able to answer at the present state of knowledge. For a complete settlement of the construction of a thraex’s helmet it would be necessary a personal examination of original finds, with the possibility to dismantle some of their parts, which is obviously very difficult to realize. It would be expedient to work on the theme of the construction of gladiatorial helmets in a following project or to dedicate an individual study to it.

Shrnutí

Cílem této práce byla sumarizace archeologického a ikonografického materiálu týkající se gladiátora Tráka a pomocí experimentální rekonstrukce vytvořit co nejpřesnější repliku vybraného vybavení zapadajícího do prvního století po Kristu. Zaměření rekonstrukce bylo především na konstrukční detaily a co nejvěrnější ztvárnění originálů vybavení včetně dekorací. Dále mapovat výrobní postupy a upozornit na konstrukční detaily a odlišnosti. Jako předloha pro rekonstrukci holeních chráničů a helmy byly použity originály nálezů z Pomejí. Pro nedochované vybavení byla předlohou kombinace několika ikonografických pramenů. Po roce aktivního užívání nese rekonstruované vybavení pouze minimální známky opotřebení. Tepané dekorativní reliéfy jsou i přes četné zásahy užívanými zbraněmi téměř nepoškozeny. Toto zjištění může lépe odpovědět na otázku, zda některé přilby byly pouze dekorativní a k bojům do arény se používaly přilbice obyčejné a méně zdobené. Můj názor, na základě experimentování s odolností bronzu, se přiklání k možnosti, že k aktivním bojům do arény mohla být zapojena většina nalezených exemplářů gladiátorského vybavení, aniž by utrpěly estetické újmy. Obzvláště vezmeme-li v potaz, jak nákladnou, ale i výnosnou činností, bylo pořádání gladiátorských her, zdá se investice do co nejlepšího image gladiátorů logickou volbou.

Výroba také odkryla další konstrukční otázky, které se současným stavem poznání nejsme schopni zodpovědět. Pro úplné přesné určení, jak byly konstruované přilby tráckých gladiátorů, by bylo nutné osobní prozkoumání originálních nálezů spojené s demontáží některých částí. Téma konstrukcí gladiátorských přileb by bylo vhodné rozpracovat v další práci nebo mu věnovat samostatnou studii.

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