European Freshwater Species Strategy By Jasmine Bachmann

WWF European Freshwater Programme This paper was written by Jasmine Bachmann, WWF Danube Carpathian Programme Office. Invaluable inputs and supervision were received from Jane Madgwick, WWF International.

Acknowledgements are given to Jean Pierre D`Huart Günther Lutschinger Guido Schmidt Luc Dries Jari Lukkonen Erika Schneider Ulrich Eichelmann Simone Borelli Eckbert Schneider Silke Engling Michaela Bodner Heinz Stalder Vincent Graffin Micheal Lofröth Chris Tydeman Marja Innanen Panagiota Maragou Philip Weller Tibor Kovacs Petr Obrdlik Andreas Wurzer Elizabeth Leighton Callum Rankine from WWF.

Thanks also to Dick Groenendijk, Dutch Butterfly Conservation, The Netherlands Berthold Heinze, Federal Forest Research Centre/EUFORGEN, Austria Nic Peet, BirdLife International, United Kingdom Viera Standova, Daphne, Slovakia Rustam Sagitov, Baltic Fund for Nature, Russia Alexei Zavarzin, Baltic Fund for Nature, Russia

Special thanks are given to Suzie Holt and Trudy Follwell for additional help with the content and editorial support.

Author’s address: Jasmine Bachmann WWF International Danube Carpathian Programme c/o WWF Austria Ottakringerstr. 114/116, 1160 Vienna, Austria [email protected]

Co-ordinator’s address: Jane Madgwick WWF International European Freshwater Programme c/o WWF Denmark Ryesgade 3F, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark [email protected]

June 2000 WWF. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit the above mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. Table of Contents

1. Introduction ______1 2. Origin and Purpose ______1 3. Status Report on Freshwater Species ______2 4. Freshwater Species in International Treaties ______10 5. The European Freshwater Programme ______14 6. The Use of Species in WWF Programmes ______15 7. The Use of Freshwater Species in the European Freshwater Programme______17 8. Methodology______22 9. "Key Species" for the WWF European Freshwater Programme ______25 10. Acronyms, Abbreviations and Explanations ______61 11. Appendices ______12. Literature ______WWF European Freshwater Species Strategy 1. Introduction

Today, many freshwater species are threatened with extinction, due to loss or changes to their habitat. Numerous factors contribute to this decline; intensification of agriculture; intensive forestry and fishery; pollution; the introduction of non-indigenous species; over-harvesting and physical obstructions such as dams and locks all have grave repercussions on the life cycles and populations of freshwater organisms. These escalating pressures and subsequent species decline is contributing to an overall threat to the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems. The WWF European Freshwater Programme aims to highlight the decline of freshwater species, and has identified 15 species/species groups that would support a wide range of conservation, communication and fundraising activities in order to achieve the programme goals, and conserve the rich biological resources of freshwater ecosystems.

2. Origin and Purpose

The project to develop the European Freshwater Species Strategy, with a list of 10-15 selected species, was started in July 1998, thanks to the financial support of WWF Sweden.

The project co-ordination was undertaken by the WWF Danube Carpathian Programme office, based in Vienna, Austria. Jasmine Bachmann carried out the project under the supervision of Philip Weller (director of the WWF Danube Carpathian Programme), with constant guidance from Jane Madgwick (Head of the WWF European Freshwater Programme).

The overall purpose of this project, as part of the WWF European Freshwater Programme, is to develop a species strategy for Europe to help WWF meet its nature conservation goals, including marketing, fundraising and communications. This will be done by selecting up to 15 species which can act as indicators/keystones/flagships for WWF European freshwater activities. Special focus has been given to rivers and floodplains. The project is intended to form a basic component of the European Freshwater Programme and follow-up work related to this activity will be incorporated into the work-plan (i.e. communications strategy and ecoregional project) of the Freshwater Programme and the activities of Programme Offices and National Organisations. This report is the output of the first year, but the project is expected to continue for at least three years. The next two years of the project will focus on campaigns and actions based on the preparatory work completed within this report.

Methodological Outline

1) The project co-ordinator will conduct · a review of existing examples of methods and uses of freshwater keystone/indicator/flagship species (i.e. WWF Species Workshop, Red List, Austrian Living Rivers, WWF Marketing) based on literature review and consultations with appropriate persons (including persons involved in conservation, marketing, communications); · a review of the status of freshwater species in Europe as part of international treaties (Bern Convention, EC Habitats Directive). 2) A draft outline of a European Freshwater Species Strategy and the means of incorporating selected freshwater species into WWF programmes (i.e. ecoregions project, freshwater scorecards) will be developed.

1 3) A draft outline of proposed freshwater indicator species will be proposed based upon consultations with experts from throughout the European region (west of Ural mountains and north of the Caucasus). 4) An expert advisory group meeting (5 or 6 persons maximum) will be held to review the draft strategy and outline of indicator species, including representatives from partner organisations. 5) A revised strategy and list of up to 15 species will be prepared and sent to WWF Programme and Project Offices (Mediterranean, Russia, Baltic) and the European Freshwater Steering Group for comments. 6) A final report containing a review of existing methodologies and uses of keystone/indicator/flagship species (see point 1 above), a Freshwater Species Strategy for Europe, and list of species selected will be prepared. A preliminary summary of data related to each of these species and potential conservation strategies will be prepared (e.g. strategic conservation actions, communications, marketing/fundraising, political context, species action plans).

At the conclusion of the project the following outputs will be realised:

1) A short review of examples of the use of keystone/indicator/flagship species (i.e. indicators of environmental quality, flagship species for promoting public interest). 2) A short review of the status of freshwater species in Europe as part of international treaties. 3) A definition of proposed strategy for uses of freshwater keystone/indicator/flagship species in WWF work. Possible uses include: a) Indicators of environmental quality b) Marketing c) Praising public awareness d) Species led campaigns (i.e. river basin management in Water Framework Directive) 4) A list of European Freshwater Species selected for the European Freshwater Programme 5) A report summarising the relationship between the list of species and the above four criteria, together with recommendations for action (i.e. introductions). This report will also include a summary about the relevant policy issues and organisational structures required to deliver benefits, together with the priorities for action. 6) A preliminary summary of data available related to each of the selected species and proposals for species action plans. 7) A proposal for WWF action for freshwater species in Europe over the next 2 years, as part of the European Freshwater Programme.

3. Status report on freshwater species

As terrestrial beings, humans inhabitat the “land” of wetlands, and avoid getting wet! The fact that a large number of species worldwide depend either directly or indirectly on freshwater habitats can be easily overlooked. When evaluating European living rivers and lakes for biodiversity, it is not sufficient to only consider birds and fish. The complex nature of life- cycles, feeding habits and migration patterns of mostly terrestrial species, means that a large number of them are dependent on wetlands at some point in their lives. A wide range of other species, such as mammals, amphibians, insects and plants are dependent on wetland habitats. It is also important to stress that there are many exclusively aquatic species.

2 The ongoing degradation of freshwater ecosystems, due to human impact, not only disturbs habitats, but all life connected with them. These changes in the environment per se are not the main problem - it is the speed at which these changes take place that causes concern. Throughout evolution, plant and animal species have appeared and disappeared, but these changes have occurred over geological periods (Olschowy, 1985). During the last 10,000 years, human influence has accelerated the process greatly; the changes are too rapid for species to be able to adapt to the different circumstances. The omnipresent human impacts result in the creation of new ecological conditions and totally destroy some habitats. Figures published in "Europe’s Environment: The Dobrís Assessment" (Europe’s Environment, 1995) and more recently in "Europe's Environment: the Second Assessment" (Europe's Environment, 1998) underline the important correlation between decline in the numbers of individual species and the environmental stress on their habitat. The simple radial plot below gives an impression of the changes in species population and their ecosystem by region.

Figure 1: Changes of species populations and ecosystems by geographic region (1900-1950) Source: Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995; RIVM, 1992)

3 According to these figures all European wetland habitats and selected related species have declined severely since 1900 for all but three groups of species. The species populations showing a slightly incline are the Norwegian salmon and the inland water birds in the boreal geographic region and the estuarine birds in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic region.

In general, the main reasons for this biodiversity loss are; habitat destruction or modification (fragmentation and pollution); overexploitation of single species and resources; and the introduction of exotic species.

Another figure shows a comparison of the percentage of nationally threatened species among animal groups in 26 European countries (Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Moldavia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom). In a significant number of countries and species groups, more than 45% of known wildlife species of vertebrates are threatened.

The net result is a diminution of the total number of species. Since a number of these lost species are endemic to Europe, their disappearance also means total extinction. Even where species are not totally extinct, “gaps” are created in the ecosystem and the ecological and biological network loses strength.

3.1. Mammals About 270 species of mammals, belonging to nine orders, are found in the European region. This accounts for 6% of the world’s mammals. 91% of the species are indigenous, 18% of them are endemic (mainly in southern Europe, the Alps and the Caucasus), the rest having been introduced to Europe. Fortunately, no European mammal has become extinct since the last century to date (Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, 1999).

Terrestrial mammals directly depending on wetlands are under strong environmental pressure. Species include: the European mink (Mustela lutreola), the Beaver (Castor fiber) and the Otter (Lutra lutra). These species suffer particularly because of their habitat requirements, predatory habits and associated economic impacts. It is important to note that the situation for these species is not always consistent throughout the European region e.g. the Otter is declining in many European countries, with 60-85% of its population found in Eastern Europe. Existing reserves, particularly in the west, are often too small for a healthy, viable population and for the species to play its part within the ecosystem dynamics.

Aquatic mammals are uncommon in European rivers and lakes; the most important being freshwater seals e.g. Ringed seal (Phoca hispida) in Northern Europe and the Monk seal (Monachus monachus) in the Mediterranean region.

To ensure the conservation of wetland mammals, a network of large, sensitively managed sites is necessary. A well-functioning network of Natura 2000 /Emerald network sites will help to guarantee the existence of wetland mammals in the 21st century.

3.2. Birds Birds play a significant role in many wildlife protection programmes, mainly because the public has an established and growing interest in birds and their protection. For example, the UK’s Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has over one million members. International conventions like the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar

4 Convention), the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species, and EU legislation (Wild Birds Directive 79/409/EEC) are partly the result of public pressure. But despite this, the impact on bird habitats continues to be very high. Of the 520 bird species recorded for Europe, 6% are threatened with global extinction and 15% are threatened in Europe. One third of all bird species in Europe are rare or declining. The diagram below illustrates that wetlands are one of the most important habitats for rare, declining and localised European bird species, with over 70% of species using wetlands (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995; Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, 1999).

Figure 2: Habitats important for rare, declining and very localised European bird species Source: BirdLife, 1993

The pressure on individual species varies significantly. According to the diagram, the most significant impact on species is the pressure on grassland, agricultural land and wetlands. Countless bird species require a wetland habitat on a daily basis; others are dependent on them during the course of a year or at one particular stage in their life-cycle. Wetlands are not only feeding-grounds, but provide essential nesting areas. Most migratory birds require a network of intact wetlands along their migration routes as they fly between their summer and winter locations. Individual wetlands function as crucial “service stations” along their routes through Europe and Asia. Colonial species such as herons or cormorants also have specialist requirements, needing well structured floodplain forests with old tree species (especially Black poplar, Populus nigra) to perch on.

Due to the loss of viable, intact freshwater habitats, these functions, which are essential to bird populations, can only be partly fulfilled. Ongoing industrialisation, agriculture, tourism, the damming and straightening of natural rivers and drainage have all led to the loss of many freshwater habitats. Hunting and trapping is a further pressure, especially for migratory birds. In addition, several predatory species, at the top of the foodchain, are endangered from the bio-accumulation of large amounts of toxic substances.

Latest examination of the trends for birds suggest that although population decline is widespread, it is most severe in north-west and central Europe (Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment, 1998). 3.3. Amphibians and Reptiles Amphibians and reptiles are traditionally grouped together and known as "herpetofauna", although they form a very heterogenous group. Geographically, the number of species increases towards the south and south-east. There are 75 species of amphibians and 198 species of reptiles are presently known in Europe (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995; Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, 1999).

5 Most amphibians and reptiles have specialist freshwater requirements within their habitats. Some amphibians need cold, fast-flowing mountain rivers. Species can be found that are peculiar to various wetland habitats, including rivers, streams, floodplains, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, bogs, fens, mires and marshes. Species that thrive in this variety of wetland habitats include Marsh frog (Rana ridibunda), Common frog (Rana temporaria), Italian agile frog (Rana latastei), newt (Triturus spp.), snake (Natrix tesellata) and the European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis).

The decrease in numbers and degree of pressure on individual species is the result of many separate factors. Traditional water management for agricultural purposes has led to the destruction of vegetation, temporary ponds, gravel banks and the natural flow of waters. The absence of natural obstacles in the river leads to an increased water flow, and the transition zone between the running water body and the landmass dries out, resulting in a loss of habitat for amphibians and other wildlife. Pollution of running water due to intensification of agriculture adds to the existing pressure. A specific example of habitat damage affecting a threatened species is the effect of river log transportation on the Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella caucasica) in western Georgia (Kuzmin, 1994).

Amphibians acquire oxygen through their body surface area and are therefore seriously threatened by acidification. Accidental radioactive fall-out, such as at Sellafield (UK)* or Chernobyl (UKR) affects both amphibians and reptiles dramatically (frogspawn mortality and mutation rate increase). Clearly, the decrease of amphibians and reptiles is not the consequence of any single factor, but the result of a combination of factors, from habitat loss to climate change.

Consequently, it is very difficult to develop management strategies for individual species, as the protection of the habitat alone will not save the species. A combined approach involving different activities to benefit a wide range of habitats is needed.

Reptiles distribution is more concentrated in southern areas, with warm and dry climates, while amphibians, which depend on wet or humid habitats, have higher concentrations in central Europe, south-west Iberia and the Balkans (Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment, 1998).

Several nations have attempted to protect herpetofauna by implementing international conventions and directives. Together with other tools, the Bern Convention and Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) attempt to protect and save amphibians and reptiles for the next Millennium.

3.4. Fish Since the European continent experienced periods of late glaciation, there is less diversity of European freshwater fish than tropical fish. In that same way as herpetofauna, the number of species within Europe increases from north to south. 334 freshwater species are found in Europe, 200 of which are regarded as native species. 122 of these native species are included in the Bern Convention, 4 in Appendix II and 118 in Appendix III. Some other species are also included in the CITES list. 78 fish species have no protection at all (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995; Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, 1999).

* Note! Some amphibians seem not to be affected by radioactive substances. Natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) breeds in the near surroundings of Sellafield (UK). 6 A characteristic of freshwater fish is their restriction to particular locations. This leads to the development of many independent populations, with individual stock characteristics confined within single water basins. This can make the fish populations very sensitive to the effects of waterborne threats such as pollution, disease or destruction of habitat.

Even though human interaction with fish populations has existed for thousands of years, the negative impacts have increased dramatically over the last 200 years. Pollution of freshwater is probably the main factor in the decline of Europe’s fish population. Domestic, agriculture and industrial waste is often toxic to fish and can destroy or weaken fish populations. At present, there are no water quality criteria for fish in Europe (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995; Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment, 1998). One important group of fish which are particularly sensitive to these impacts are migratory species: these fish migrate seasonally between upper and lower sections of the river. Diadromous riverine species migrating between rivers and oceanic waters have to pass through the lower sections of rivers, which are often highly polluted, obstructed and heavily exploited. As a result, several species are no longer able to migrate and the upstream community is impoverished (Maitland, 1977).

Migratory species are also the most affected by the construction of dams and other obstacles, obstructing the route to their spawning grounds. Combined with severe pollution and intensive fishing, this inevitably leads to the future extinction of individual species. This combination of factors has been the cause in the decline of sturgeons (Acipenser spp., Huso huso), shad (Alosa spp.) and other migratory fish (Maitland, 1986).

Changes in land-use patterns often result in problems such as silting, eutrophication (phosphates and nitrates), acidification and alteration of the hydrology. Important fish sites can be destroyed or permanently affected. The straightening and alteration of rivers, streams and lakes results in the loss of the 'vein-like' interaction between the open waterbody and the surrounding land. Many fish species depend on these ecotones for spawning and thus lose an essential habitat whens they disappear. The detrimental effect of fisheries should be also mentioned. Where commercial and recreational use of these resources is not managed in an appropriate way, it can threaten the species lead, or even lead to local extinction (e.g. sturgeons).

The present protection of European fish species in international treaties is insufficient and could lead to the extinction of many species. Immediate action is required for many endemic species whose populations have either been reduced dramatically or significantly isolated. Recovery plans are needed for many other species. Habitat restoration and management, the establishment of new populations, and the provision of additional safeguards for isolated populations are the first steps in the right direction. The long-term economic benefits of restocking certain threatened species, e.g. salmonids or sturgeons can significantly outweigh the initial costs.

3.5. Invertebrates About 200,000 invertebrate species are known in Europe, half are marine, the remaining are terrestrial or freshwater types. The four largest groups are Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, parasitic wasps, sawflies) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995). Invertebrates play a crucial role in the ecosystem. Besides pollinating and recycling organic debris, they serve as food for a wide range of other animals from fish, birds and mammals to most reptiles and amphibians. Despite this key role, there is little knowledge of their exact ecological function and importance. To date, no comprehensive data collection on the abundance of single

7 invertebrate species throughout Europe has taken place. Protected areas are often selected and managed without reference to invertebrates.

Despite the reporting of over 10,000 threatened species (Heath, 1981; van Tol and Verdonk, 1988; Speight, 1989; Wells and Chatfield, 1992), the issue has not been addressed in international treaties. In 1988 a list of ca. 100 invertebrate species was added to the appendices of the Bern Convention. Detailed information about the autecology of species is lacking and therefore adequate management plans do not exist, except for a few ones such as individual dragonfly species. The largest taxa of aquatic invertebrates are Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Crustacea and Molluscs. During the last few years information about certain freshwater invertebrates has started to be collected and is now being used as a tool for the measurement of water quality, i.e. by absence/presence of individual species.

It is important to conclude that this important section of European fauna has not been researched to a sufficient degree to facilitate the development of adequate management tools (e.g. in biological assessment of water quality status that will be required by the Water Framework Directive).

3.6. Higher plants There are approximately 12,500 vascular plant species in Europe; a comparatively low figure to other regions in the world. The number of endemic species, 3,500 (about 28%), is also relatively low compared with some areas (Europe’s Environment: The Second Assessment, 1998). Like fish diversity, this results from a number of ice ages occurring during the last million years. The fundamental difference between the effect of habitat destruction on plants and on animals, is the fact that terrestrial plants are unable to relocate. Pressures such as soil pollution and acidification, land-use intensification and the effects of global warming add greatly to declines in species numbers per hectare. Generally, plant diversity in Europe is poor. The direct pressures on plant habitat in combination with indirect impacts, such as pollution, does not leave much room for recovery.

Many plant species are introduced for economic or recreational purposes; sometimes with dramatic consequences in the case of invasive alien species in marine and freshwater ecosystems (Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, 1999).

A questionnaire was sent to 18 EU countries, concerning the status of 108 aquatic plants in the past (period 1990 - 1950) and present. The results clearly show that approximately 74% of species were common in the past and remain common. However, 9% of formerly common species have become rare, 10% are vulnerable or threatened and 1% have become extinct. No data is available for the remaining 6%. (Europe’s Environment: The Dobrìs Assessment, 1995). Varying habitat requirements means that not all aquatic plant species are threatened in the same way. Rooting species with free-floating leaves or free-floating species are less affected by water pollution, than species with their leaves in rosettes on the bottom or on long shoots in the water. The latter two are greatly affected by the reduction of light penetration through the water column. Beside purely aquatic plants, there are many other plant species important for freshwater habitats such as bogs, fens and marshes. These habitats are particularly sensitive since any alteration of the quality or quantity of the water supply will change the character of the habitat and affect the chances of survival of important species. Activities such as peat excavation, the diversion of surface water flow, and over exploitation of aquifers have dramatic impacts on these sensitive habitats and the associated species. 8 In order to safeguard viable populations of freshwater plants and wetland species, a holistic approach to wetland conservation is necessary. The traditional species-led conservation approach may stave off imminent extinction but will not necessarily succeed in maintaining living, sustainable ecosystems. The Natura 2000 strategy is currently under implementation, and aims to establish a wide network of large protected sites; a first step in the right direction. The two EU directives forming the basis for this network (the Wild Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) and Habitats Directive (92/42/EEC)) are important contributions to the successful, long-term protection of rare and endangered plant species of European importance. But this legislation does not divest national governments of the responsibility they have for threatened species within their own countries. When government focus is on fulfilment of international duties, plant species that are ecologically important on a country level are often left out of national protection strategies.

9 4. Freshwater Species in International Treaties

This chapter gives a general overview of the status of freshwater species within International Treaties. The countries in the project area have signed a variety of different international agreements, strategies and conventions dealing with either the protection of species themselves or with wetlands in general (and therefore freshwater species).

The treaties considered to be of major importance for freshwater species are the following: Ramsar Convention, adopted February 1971, CITES Convention, adopted July 1975, Bern Convention, adopted September 1979, Bonn Convention, adopted June 1979, EU Wild Birds Directive, 79/43/EEC, 1979, EU Habitats Directive, 92/43/EEC, 1992.

In addition one other legislative framework is mentioned, as it may impact the development of species projects in the European Freshwater Programme:

Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted May 1992.

4.1. Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971)

Aim: To provide the framework for national actions and international co operation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Wetlands are defined as shallow, open waters such as lakes, rivers and coastal fringes, and any land which is regularly or intermittently saturated by water, such as marshes, swamps and floodplains. The Convention works by countries pooling their technical and financial resources. All share the common understanding that wetlands are valuable and irreplaceable as economic, cultural, scientific and recreational resources. As of April 2000 there were 119 contracting parties.

Status of freshwater habitats: Countries which are party to the Ramsar Convention promote wetland conservation by the following means: nominating specific sites to the List of Wetlands of International Importance, which will then be continually monitored to ensure that they retain their special ecological characteristics; promoting the 'wise use' of all wetlands within their territory; promoting the training of wetland managers; consulting with other countries in the Convention, particularly in the case of cross-border wetlands, water systems or issues such as migratory water-birds; and also creating and managing wetland reserves.

Status of freshwater species: "The Criteria for Identifying Wetlands of International Importance" lists groups of birds and fish which are seen as being of major importance in identifying a wetland of international importance.

For further information, please visit the web-site: http://www.ramsar.org/

4.2. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1975)

10 Aim: The participating countries act by regulating international commercial trade in the species listed in the Convention. These are those species which are endangered, or might become so, if trade continues unchecked. The Convention not only covers the actual plants and animals, but also their derivatives.

Participating countries: The EU and most European States have joined CITES, with the exception of Albania, Ireland, San Marino, the Vatican and the states of the former Yugoslavia.

Status of freshwater species: Freshwater species are included in the list of species in Appendices I, II, III.

For further information, please visit the web-site: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/CITES

4.3. Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979)

Aim: To protect and conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats, especially those species and habitats where the co-operation of more than one country is necessary for their conservation, and to promote such co-operation. Particular emphasis is given to endangered and vulnerable species, including migratory species.

Participating countries: The Convention is promoted by the Council of Europe and includes most Western European countries including all of the European Union, some African countries and recently, some Eastern European countries.

Status of freshwater species: Chapter II, Article 4: habitat conservation is seen as a major part of protection of the species listed in all three annexes of the Convention.

For further information, please visit the web-site: http://www.ecnc.nl/doc/europe/legislat/bernconv.html

4.4. Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also known as CMS, 1979 with appendices as amended 1985, 1988)

Aim: To conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global scale. The Convention is suffering severely from a lack of finance.

Participating countries: Only a few countries in Europe are members. Status of freshwater species: Appendix I gives a list of endangered species; immediate protection for the listed species is a requirement for all signatories. Appendix II includes a list of migratory species. The Convention states that Single Agreements covering the conservation and management of individual species should be developed. Seven Agreements have been set up to date under the auspices of CMS. They aim to conserve: Bats in Europe Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Small cetaceans of the Baltic and North Sea

11 Seals in the Wadden Sea African-Eurasian migratory water-birds Western and central Asian populations of the Siberian crane Slender-billed curlews

Draft Agreements are currently being developed and further initiatives are envisaged for a wide range of migratory species, including Sahelo-Saharan ungulates, albatrosses of the southern hemisphere, bustards and marine turtles.

For further information, please visit the web-site: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/cms/

4.5. EU Wild Birds Directive (Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds, 79/409/EEC)

Aim: To impose strict legal obligations on European Union Member States to maintain populations of naturally occurring wild birds at ecologically sustainable levels; to regulate trade in birds; to limit hunting to species able to sustain exploitation and to prohibit certain methods of capture and killing. Article 1 applies to the conservation of birds and also their eggs, nests and habitats. The Directive is legally binding on all Member States of the European Union. They must ensure that sufficient habitat is maintained to enable the survival of all migratory birds and a list of 157 specifically mentioned species. Special Protection Areas (SPAs) are to be designated by member countries to ensure protection of the most important bird habitats.

Status of freshwater species: Annex I includes a list of species which should be subject to special conservation measures. These measures concern the protection of habitat in order to ensure the species survival within their current distribution (Article 4).

For further information, please visit the web-site: http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg11/nature/legis.htm

4.6. EU Habitats Directive (Directive on the Conservation of Natural and Semi-natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, 92/43/EEC)

Aim: To conserve fauna, flora and natural habitats of EU importance. The Habitats Directive aims to combine the protection of endangered species with wider conservation aims to protect and enhance habitats in their own right. The fundamental purpose is to establish a network of protected areas throughout the Community, designed to maintain the distribution and the populations of threatened species and habitats, both terrestrial and marine. The network of both Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs - from the EU Birds Directive) is called Natura 2000.

Criteria for selection include priority habitats and species, as identified in the Annexes.

Status of freshwater habitats: Annex I give a list of natural habitat types of Community interest including freshwater habitats.

Status of freshwater species: Annex II, III and IV include a list of species of community interest, including freshwater species.

12 For further information, please visit the web-site: http://www.ecnc.nl/doc/europe/legislat/habidire.html

4.7. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992

Aim: To conserve and maintain biodiversity. This recent development was signed at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Each signatory state is requested to prepare national plans for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and to integrate these into all sectors. It also requires the establishment of a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity. The Convention gives priority to in situ measures (e.g. protected areas), but also recognises the value of ex situ efforts (e.g. botanical gardens, zoos) to supplement in situ conservation.

Status of freshwater species: The main value of the Convention is not only in the conservation of species, but more importantly, the highlighting of this matter on the international agenda, and the follow-up actions required at a national level. The Convention could become the foundation for the conservation of endangered species and habitats within each country.

13 5. The European Freshwater Programme

The European Freshwater Programme of WWF International has been running since April 1998, with a co-ordination office in WWF Denmark in Copenhagen. The objectives of the programme are threefold: to guide and provide a framework for the many NO and PO freshwater projects; to develop strategies and actions to address key trans-regional and trans- national issues and to demonstrate effective approaches to freshwater conservation through policy analysis, project development and communication.

The five main programme objectives of the European Freshwater Programme Plan are summarised as follows: · Conservation of biodiversity (protection and management of freshwater habitats and freshwater species). · Maintenance of the ecological integrity and functions of freshwater ecosystems (the wise- use of freshwater, an appropriate price for freshwater, awareness-raising campaign, etc). · Reduction of pollution of freshwater systems (reduction of acidification, toxic and eutrophication). · Restoration of damaged freshwater ecosystems. · Influencing Pan-European and global water related policy (draft EU Water Framework Directive, EU Common Agriculture Policy, etc.).

The wide-ranging approach of the European Freshwater Programme leads to a very diverse target group. All of the following groups are considered as target audiences for the WWF European Freshwater Programme:

· Governments (on a national and international scale) · Stakeholders (e.g. fisherman, hunters, farmers ...) · General public (e.g. schools, scout groups) · Water authorities, water management companies, planners · Opinion formers, opinion leaders · The World Commission on Dams, Global Water Partnership and other international water related organisations · Possible funders of wetland projects · Possible funders of projects that have the potential to damage wetlands · Navigation authorities, flood defence authorities

In practice, a range of different activities and strategies will need to be developed to reach all of the above mentioned players. Therefore, the Species Strategy should only be seen as one component in a comprehensive series of strategies.

14 6. The Use of Species in WWF programmes

Individual species are used by most WWF programmes in a variety of ways in order to achieve programme goals. The following text provides a brief analysis of possible ways to “use” species.

Flagship Species (FS) are plants or animals which are used as special symbols of conservation concern or icons of cultural sensitivity. It is important to note that these species do not necessarily have to be under threat or under ecological pressure. In many cases the species chosen will be experiencing major population decline, but it is not an essential pre- requisite. Flagship species act as a symbol and 'spokesperson' for their habitat, and as a result can be used to explain complex issues about their habitat (e.g. cranes or pelicans - importance of large wetlands along their migration route).

Since most of the species chosen appeal to the public, major ecosystem programmes can be built around them, in order to influence human behaviour and thereby realise specific conservation objectives.

The "traditional WWF species", such as the Giant panda, Elephant or Black rhino clearly belong to this group of so called "charismatic megafauna". A single flagship species can be used for several purposes, for example increasing awareness, raising funds and encouraging public commitment to, and involvement in, conservation work. Traditionally large mammals and birds have been used in this way, but rarely plants or invertebrates.

Species of Special Concern (SSC) are usually threatened species and their protection promotes conservation by safeguarding biological diversity and ecological processes. Rehabilitation of the species from this group is often the aim of specific species conservation projects. Individual action plans or conservation strategies mainly focus on such species. This may be because the species plays a crucial role in ecosystem functioning ("keystone species") or is so threatened that only special projects can stabilise the population. N.B. Species of special concern are not normally used as monitoring tools, even where they act as quality indicators for their environment. This is because, for example, species populations can not be used to evaluate an area at the same time as re-introduction projects are taking place.

Indicator Species (IS) are "markers" which help to measure changes or trends within a particular environment. An indicator can be thought of as a variable that can help to measure or "indicate" whether progress (towards any given objective or target) is being achieved. Indicators are not targets, but markers of progress towards reaching objectives, whether immediate or long-term. Indicators should not stand alone, but should be linked to clearly defined objectives and form part of an overall monitoring and evaluation process. Since indicators tell us about change towards or away from a desired state, it is necessary to have baseline information against which this change can be measured.

N.B. it is only the way a species is used that defines it as a flagship species, a species of special concern or an indicator. For example: Otter (Lutra lutra):

Flagship species: otters used in an awareness raising campaign focusing on the importance of highly structured wetlands.

15 Species of special concern: a project focusing on the artificial re-introduction of otters to stabilise a specific population within a certain area.

Indicator species: the presence or absence of the otter used to evaluate or monitor an area in a specific project. The latter approach makes use of the fact that the otter needs certain ecological standards and that healthy populations are usually not found where these standards are absent.

"Good" Indicator Species should include as many as possible of the following qualities: a) Causality - Indicators should be sensitive only to those factors which the project aims to alter. b) Direct linkage to management response. c) Early warning - indicators should enable change to be detected early on in the process to provide maximum feedback and to allow changes in management to be implemented. d) Appropriate resolution/sensitivity - indicators should have levels of spatial and temporal resolution ("grain") that match both the scale of the issues being addressed and the project objectives. e) Wide applicability - this increases the likelihood that supporting background data will be available, and improves the prospects for the effective interpretation of changes shown. f) Readily measurable - with existing technology, amenable to sampling by non-specialists, and preferably able to be recorded by users/local communities. g) Constancy/replicability. h) Unambiguous interpretation - the resulting effects on the indicator species should be easily understood by all users and their interpretation should be unambiguous and able to be readily accepted by stakeholders at all levels. i) Cost-effectiveness. j) Precisely defined.

In practice, a combination of several 'less than perfect' indicators may be better than a single 'perfect' indicator. It is therefore realistic to adopt the approach of utilising a set of indicators, using the best available knowledge, in order to achieve objectives at every level. (Mather & Worah, 1998).

16 7. The use of Freshwater Species in the European Freshwater Programme

The multi-faceted European Freshwater Programme faces difficult goals. A broad approach is needed to meet the variety of different objectives and to reach the many key players in the “European water game”.

It is obvious that species must be used in different ways in order to meet the objectives on all levels. However, each species can contribute to supporting the whole programme and helping general understanding.

Examination of the different objectives of the European Freshwater Programme Plan reveals several options for using these species tools. Before going into specific details, the question of "how the individual species could support the activities of the European Freshwater Programme?" should be considered.

As flagship species As a communication tool /key message, to communicate complex processes As a monitoring tool /education As a “specific lobbying” tool (e.g. salmons for lobbying against dams) As a “symbol”, identity, brand (e.g. “Kingfisher award” for good water management) As a “target-setting”-species (e.g. sturgeon) To create priorities on a geographical basis (e.g. pelicans in the Southern Europe) To demonstrate Europe’s global responsibility for single species (e.g. Ferruginous duck)

As species of special concern To demonstrate Europe’s responsibility (e.g. endemic species in Europe) To reintroduce species currently under severe pressure To support the occurrence of “keystone-species” (e.g. European beaver)

As indicator species As indicators for the status of freshwater species in Europe (à Water and Wetland Index project) As indicators for governmental activities in freshwater (àWater and Wetland Index project) As indicators for WWF success in freshwater activities (means of verification)

Out of the five afore-mentioned aims of the European Freshwater Programme, the use of species would be helpful in achieving the following four:

· Conservation of biodiversity, · Maintenance of the ecological integrity and functions of the freshwater ecosystems, · Reduction of pollution of freshwater systems and · Restoration of damaged freshwater ecosystems.

The following section includes general examples and proposed recommendations for using species to help achieve these four aims, along with general information on the 15 species selected.

17 7.1. Conservation of biodiversity

Freshwater species are integral to the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems. Habitat protection, rehabilitation and restoration and development of ecological corridors and buffer zones are obvious approaches for the preservation of biodiversity. This 'habitat approach' is complementary to the 'species approach'. However, in many cases, where species are highly threatened, their extinction can only be prevented by immediate, effective species-oriented actions. In these cases, the species approach may not achieve habitat goals in isolation but is the only way to save species from extinction. Species recovery programmes are becoming an increasingly important tool.

Several International and European treaties and activities also follow the "species approach" and refer to lists of species recommended for immediate and necessary actions. Freshwater species are usually included in these lists. The following table highlights key legislation where special reference is given to species (and their habitat):

International Legislation Bonn Convention (Convention on Migratory Birds) Appendix I, II Convention on Biological Diversity Appendix I

European Legislation Bern Convention Appendix I (Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats) EU Wild Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) Annex 1 EU Flora Fauna Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC) Annex II, IV, V The Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy Action theme 11

It is appropriate to use this 'species approach' as part of the biodiversity related activities of the European Freshwater Programme. Many freshwater species are under pressure from different sources, and may even face extinction (see chapter "Status report on freshwater species"); the list of threatened European freshwater species is a long one.

To select species of special concern for activities within the European Freshwater Programme, a number of species should be considered (according to the recommendations given by the WWF International Species Unit, April 1998). WWF should avoid making people believe that the organisation 'owns' particular animals or has total control over their fate. Catchy slogans like "Save the Tiger" or "Adopt a Rhino" give the impression that WWF has the entire responsibility for the fate of single animals. This is not a helpful approach in the long term. Nevertheless, WWF should realise the advantage of it's wide network and develop single 'model' projects for certain species or species groups to demonstrate how trans-national activities contribute to the protection of Eurasian biodiversity.

In order to achieve the "protection of valuable freshwater ecosystems and species", the species approach can be used in the following ways:

Field activities: Many threatened freshwater species could be actively introduced into their habitat where this is appropriate. Lobbying: Species are always good lobbying tools. Their importance in this role becomes greater when the species is included in an international treaty or action plan. Awareness raising: Species, especially flagship species, are useful tools for awareness- raising campaigns, assuming that the species used fits the context.

18 One existing species target from the Programme Plan is as follows: 1.4. At least 10 key freshwater species associated with rivers and floodplains to be stabilised or increased by the year 2005.

This species activity should be seen as part of the "Living Rivers"-project (see later). The success of the above mentioned activity can be measured by the status of the 15 selected freshwater species by 2005.

7.2. Maintenance of the ecological integrity and functions of the freshwater ecosystems

To reiterate, species play an important role in the freshwater ecosystem and their presence or absence may be crucial to the habitat or the food-chain structure. A good example of this is the European beaver (see chapter "Description of the selected species").

One activity planned within the European Freshwater Programme is a Eurasian-wide campaign to promote the concept of "Living Rivers". This activity includes awareness raising actions and aims to demonstrate the importance of ecologically intact and fully functioning freshwater ecosystems and to influence policies and economic instruments to facilitate their conservation and restoration.

Within this campaign, freshwater species should play a crucial role. A ‘package’ of species, representing all the various aspects of the “Living Rivers” initiative should be presented, in order to ensure that the general public gets a clear picture of a highly structured ecosystem.

Firstly, species should be used as flagships to focus attention on the importance of their habitat. Particular problems faced by the species should be illustrated and used to promote the ecological functions of its habitat. Within the "Living Rivers" campaign, species could therefore play the role of 'spokesperson' for their habitat and explain specific issues.

Secondly, important indicator species could also be selected and a general statement on the ecological status of Eurasian rivers could be made according to their presence or absence (e.g. Unio crassus). Note that this selection has to be done very carefully. To ensure that the selected species can be used for this purpose, it should meet at least some of the characteristics of indicator species mentioned above.

7.3. Reduction in pollution of freshwater systems

This important goal of the European Freshwater Programme focuses on water quality in freshwater ecosystems. The major impacts on water quality derive from acidification, contamination by toxics and eutrophication. Individual freshwater species have been used as indicators for the status of freshwater for hundreds of years. But it is necessary to consistently monitor a set of species to ensure meaningful results. Selecting one or two single species for Eurasia would not be acceptable. Generally, the presence of a species indicates the ecological functioning of the habitat. However, one “ecological problem” does not necessarily cause their absence. The distribution and abundance of most species does not depend on a single factor, but rather on the sum of several different criteria, including geographical and natural distribution factors. Therefore, distinct ecological changes can only be established by monitoring a set of species.

19 It is not appropriate for the European Freshwater Programme to develop a 'new' system for freshwater monitoring, especially in the light of the forthcoming EU Water Framework Directive, which will set up a standard methodology. The suggestion is to refer to scientific data collected for national or international river catchment areas, where specific statements about the status of single rivers or lakes are needed.

Nevertheless, for awareness raising campaigns and for lobbying activities, single indicator organisms, being sensitive to certain pollution factors, could be chosen and used as 'speakers' for the problems pollution causes (e.g. certain riverine dragonflies).

7.4. Restoration of damaged freshwater systems

Several species in Eurasia have either been lost or face extinction due to the destruction of their habitat. As before, individual threatened species with specific habitat requirements could be used to promote the importance of fully-functioning wetlands. The loss and fragmentation of freshwater habitats should be set in relation of the loss of individual species. Again, the use of single species in an information and awareness campaign would be the most appropriate tool to help achieve the objectives.

Additionally, scientific data on certain species should be used to indicate the status of rivers. The disappearance of several species points to ecological changes in their habitat (e.g. the Kingfisher needs steep, natural river banks for its breeding holes; which do not exist in regulated rivers and so could be used as the 'spokesperson' for the damaged habitat).

Another recommendation would be to focus particularly on species that have a large impact on their environment, such as the Beaver. However, this approach is limited by the fact that only a few of these "keystone" species, which greatly influence their habitat, exist.

Finally, dam issues need to be addressed. Several dams built at the beginning of this century, but which are no longer used by electricity generating companies, still remain intact. Few examples exist (e.g. on the Loire in France) where these dams have been dismantled and the river has been returned to a more natural state. Species such as migratory fish (sturgeons or salmon) could be used as international lobbying tools for the realisation of more decommissioning projects of this kind.

CONCLUSION: Species are invauable tools for the harmonisation of conservation, communication and fundraising work. Therefore their use within the European Freshwater Programme would support a variety of different activities and help the programme to achieve its goals. The WWF European Freshwater Programme focuses on five main objectives; for four of these the use of species would be particular helpful: conservation of biodiversity, maintenance of the ecological integrity and functions of the freshwater ecosystems, reduction of pollution and restoration of damaged freshwater systems. Within the European Freshwater Programme, freshwater species can be used as: à Flagship species for awareness raising campaigns, for fundraising and marketing aims, as education tools. à Species of special concern to facilitate field projects, to initiate biodiversity conservation actions.

20 à Indicator species to assess the governmental performance of protection policies and to review legislation, to gather scientific information and publicise the results (lobbying tool). Recommendations for the use of different species for these objectives are given. For concrete species examples, see later.

21 8. Methodology

For logical reasons the description of the methodology has been divided into several phases:

Phase 1: July – September 1998 During this first phase, the basic data collection was made and the general methodology for the selection of the 15 species was set up. Surprisingly, WWF International did not have an International Species Strategy, and consequently many documents from throughout the network were taken into consideration. “Aspects of Monitoring & Evaluation: Selecting Indicators”, a guide for the WWF Asia/Pacific Programme, which gives recommendations for selecting representative species, and also a report by the WWF International Species Unit on a workshop held in Gland from April, 20-21 1999, were the basis for the filters (see below), which were developed to facilitate the final selection of species for this project.

During this phase, the WWF European network was fully informed about ongoing activities and was asked to support the entire project and also to suggest species to be included.

The list of species initially selected was based on the following criteria:

1) The species occurs within the project area: Portugal, Spain, France, Malta, United Kingdom, Ireland, Iceland, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, FR Yugoslavia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Russia, Cyprus, Turkey and the Paleoarctic region of Africa.

2) The species spends most of its life in/on water or is directly dependent on it during at least one stage of its life. The water-bodies concerned are open water bodies (rivers, lakes, river banks) and floodplains (forests, meadows), but not wetlands that depend mainly on groundwater.

3) The species should be typical of characteristic biotope conditions and qualities (e.g. slowly flowing river, fast flowing river, natural river-bank, gravel bench, sand bench, upstream rivers, downstream river, regularly flooded areas, small lake with dense shore vegetation, regularly flooded areas etc.).

4) The species is a good example, with some of the following characteristics: Wide-ranging Migratory Habitat specialist Heavily exploited

5) The species is typically threatened by the consequences of human activities (i.e. industry, agriculture, dam-building, fisheries, wildlife trade, pollution). In addition, these species should be regarded as highly threatened.

6) The species has a social-cultural and/or economic value for the local population. The species does not have a major negative image amongst the local population. (This facilitates the species use as a marketing tool.)

7) The occurrence of the species has not been influenced on a large scale by re-introductions.

22 The different suggestions for species from within and outside the WWF network were collected and formed the basis for the following selection.

The European Freshwater Programme species strategy was drafted.

Phase 2: December 1998 – January 1999 A species workshop was held in Vienna in December 1998. Several conservation experts and a communications specialist, were invited. An aim of the workshop was to clarify the goals of the WWF European Freshwater Programme with regard to the use of species. The outcomes of this discussion are included in the WWF European Freshwater Species Strategy. Another goal was to develop the filters for the final selection of the species. These filters, together with the four main objectives of the European Freshwater Programme, were the main factors when deciding whether a species was to be included or not. The term "filter" is used, rather than "criteria", since not all of the species had to fit every filter to be selected; this allowed for a species that was particularly well-suited in one aspect to be selected even if it did not comply with one of the other 'requirements'.

The European Freshwater Programme can be summarised into five major categories. These are protection, sustainable management, pollution, restoration and cross-cutting issues affecting international water policy. The species approach seems to be particularly relevant to the first four categories. Each individual issue focuses on specific targets by developing and carrying out different activities. The species were scored against their applicability to the different objectives:

Protection stabilise/ increase single species {Field activities protection of a particular habitat {Lobbying focusing on CEE {Awareness raising

Management Living Rivers {European campaign {Awareness raising {Lobbying Pollution Water quality {Use scientific data {Lobbying {Link to Scorecard Project Restoration Dams {Use scientific data {Lobbying {European/Global campaign

The team also approved the following list of final filters:

1. Ecological importance Species (for example, "keystone" species or those situated at the apex of a crucial food-chain) which are an integral part of the ecosystem; their conservation helps conserve a great number of other species and sustains the ecological functions of their habitat. Their conservation can be linked to the wider context (ecological processes) and to broader conservation impacts. 2. Representative of habitat Species which symbolise the habitat in which they live.

23 3. Level of threat / Intrinsic vulnerability Species listed in the IUCN Red List categories. Naturally fragile species, i.e. those which are particularly affected by human-induced toxic chemicals due to their physiology, and those which occur at low densities, have slow reproductive rates, and/or concentrate in limited habitats for a portion of their life-span.

4. Economic and/or commercial value & socio-cultural values to local people Widely valued species with or without local commercial value; key species with traditional or social value for our local partner groups.

5. Public appeal Recognisable and charismatic species familiar to the general public (and potential donors), which are symbols of social, cultural and/or religious values.

6. The following additional issues should also be taken into consideration when selecting the species: Wide ranging species Migratory species Habitat-specialist Heavily exploited Habitat coverage Projected area coverage Taxonomic groups coverage International Treaties / Directives (and opportunities) Covered by other organisations Linkage with other WWF teams Linkage with the Living Planet Index

A scoring of the suggested species against the above mentioned filters was undertaken (see attachment). This list of suggested species, together with the draft European Freshwater Programme Species Strategy, was sent out to the WWF network for comments.

Phase 3: March – May 1999 Comments received on the strategy were included into the main document. A workshop was held in Copenhagen at the end of April 1999 for the final selection. Three WWF conservationists and a communication specialist attended. 'Project brainstorming' was carried out and a number of projects were suggested. From these project suggestions, an initial three species/sets of species were chosen and project proposals developed. These were Black poplar/riverine forests (Populus nigra), ponds/amphibians (Great -crested newt/Triturus cristatus and Fire bellied toad/Bombina bombina) and migratory fish - sturgeons (Acipenser spp., Huso huso) & salmons (Salmo sp.). The general description of the 15 species selected for the project is included.

Phase 4: June – July 1999 A last draft of the European Freshwater Species Strategy was sent to the WWF European Freshwater Team for final comments. The proposals are discussed at the European Freshwater Team Meeting (Poland, June, 1999). Final comments and suggestions were then included in the final strategy.

The WWF European Freshwater Programme Species Strategy was completed in preparation for fund-raising through the European Freshwater Programme.

24 9. "Key species" for the WWF European Freshwater Programme

Mammals European beaver (Castor fiber) FS, SSC, IS* European otter (Lutra lutra) FS, SSC, IS

Reptiles European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) FS, SSC

Amphibians Great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) FS, SSC, IS Fire-bellied toad (Bombina bombina) SSC, IS

Fishes Sturgeons (Acipenser sp./Huso huso) FS, SSC, IS Salmon (Salmo salar) FS, IS

Insects Riverine dragonflies FS, IS

Crustaceans Freshwater crayfish SSC, IS

Molluscs Riverine mussels (Unio crassus, Margaritifera margaritifera) SSC, IS

Birds Ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca) FS, SSC, IS Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) FS, IS Pelicans (Pelecanus sp.) FS, SSC Cranes FS, SSC

Plants Black poplar (Populus nigra) FS, SSC, IS

* The species can be used as following: · FS ...... Flagship species · SSC .....Species of special concern · IS ...... Indicator species 25 European Beaver (Castor fiber L.) Castoridae, Rodentia, Mammalia

Distribution and Population Trends The beaver was once widespread in Eurasia, inhabiting the forest zones and wooded river valleys (from the tundra to the steppe). However, by the beginning of the 20th Century, only about 1,500 individuals remained. The beaver first disappeared from the south of its range (Portugal, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iraq), and subsequently from Italy and Britain.

At the beginning of this century only five populations remained in Europe: France (Rhone), Germany (Elbe), south Norway, Belarus (Dnepr) and Russia (Don). In Asia, a further three populations remained.

Today, the species is slowly becoming re-established over much of its former range, and is presently thought to number approximately 430,000 individuals.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology Beavers are Europe’s largest rodents and have several adaptations to their semi-aquatic lifestyle. They are found in a variety of freshwater systems. Good water quality is not thought to be a critical factor, but permanent access is essential. The river is used as the major displacement and escape route, as a cooling medium during hot weather and for the storage of winter food. When on land, beavers nearly always stay close to the water’s edge, especially in areas with large predators. The beaver feeds on leaves, seeds and rhizomes of a great variety of aquatic and marsh plants. Bark also comprises a large part of their diet, particularly in the winter.

In oligotrophic or mesotrophic systems, dominated by running water, beaver dams have a large impact upon the freshwater community. The effect of beavers in creating habitat and shaping landscapes can increase biodiversity, by affecting river hydrology and wetlands. The dam results in a reduction in the water current and the retention of sediment and organic matter. This leads to an increase in carbon retention and a decrease in nitrogen availability and acidity, altering the invertebrate community structure by replacing running-water taxa with pond-taxa and attracting several new species of birds, fish, and amphibians. In Latvia, the value of beavers in wetland conservation and water purification has been estimated to be up to 1.9 billion Euro. The beaver therefore has an important ecological function as an "engineer of the floodplains".

Major Threats Over-hunting (castoreum, meat, tail) Habitat destruction (forest clearance, regulation of brooks and rivers) Competition with the introduced North American beaver (Castor canadensis) Water pollution (affecting the food resource)

International treaties EC Habitat Directive (EC/92/43) Annex II, IV (exc. Finnish and Swedish population) Bern Convention Appendix III 1996 IUCN Red List Lower risk: near threatened

26 Ongoing actions: (suggested by WWF Belgium, WWF Germany Auen Institute, WWF Austria, WWF Hungary PO)

Several different WWF beaver introduction programmes are taking place in Austria, Hungary, Romania and are planned in Scotland and Slovenia. WWF Austria has also used the beaver as a fundraising tool. A major European company uses the beaver as a brand and has financed a large education programme for school children (conservation, marketing, fundraising, communication).

Future Considerations In order to conserve the beaver in Europe, the aim should be to preserve both the species itself and its ecological function as an ecosystem engineer. Further artificial reintroduction is still necessary in many places. "Living Rivers" concept.

Target groups General public, school children Fishermen Water managers Foresters

Possible partners National or international companies

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The beaver is a 'keystone' species and one of the most important engineers of wetland habitat. Where basic habitat criteria are fulfilled, the beaver settles down and begins to alter its environment. This function makes the beaver an extremely important inhabitant of floodplain forests and wetlands. Because of its previously extensive distribution throughout Eurasia, many introduction projects are being undertaken out by various NOs and POs. The species also provides various communication opportunities.

Useful references Council of Europe (1996): Management of the beaver (Castor fiber) towards restoration of its former distribution and ecological function in Europe. Smit, C.J. & Wijngaarden, A. van (1981): Threatened Mammals in Europe, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden.

27 Common Otter (Lutra lutra L.) Mustelidae, Carnivora, Mammalia

Distribution and Population Trends Former distribution of the Common otter in Europe covered the whole of the continent, excluding Iceland. Current European distribution is not precisely known, but there is a rapid downward trend in numbers in western Europe. In many regions only small scattered populations remain, often on the brink of extinction. Healthy populations now only exist along the coasts of Norway and North-western Scotland, and Ireland. More recently, however, population increase has been reported in Austria, Germany and in the UK.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The otter can live in either the sea or freshwater, and is found both inland and along coasts, with access to freshwater, in streams, pools or aquifers. In freshwater lakes, reed beds are very important; along rivers otters show preference for places where fish can be caught easily, but bank-side vegetation is largely unimportant to them. Holts are generally made close to water, with the exception of natal holts, which can be found further inland. In many freshwater areas, otters may only use holts occasionally, preferring to build and inhabit covered couches.

Despite a social system of group ranges, otters are strikingly non-social. Sprainting (scent marking) enables them to avoid others living within the same range, allowing exploitation of fish and other resources without interference. If otters meet, there is little aggression (except between territorial males), but avoidance of each other. Otters are polygamous and polyandrous. There are two stages of rearing cubs: the first in the natal holt, and the second accompanying the mother. The male is not involved in raising the cubs.

Typical hunting behaviour of otters in the sea consists of swimming along the surface in daytime, diving in shallow water, and capturing small fish from their hiding places. Occasionally otters capture other animals such as aquatic birds, and rabbits.

Major Threats Direct and indirect effects of contamination, PCBs, heavy metals and other pollutants Hunted for their fur and because of the damage they can inflict on fisheries Loss of wetland habitat due to drainage of wetlands, regulation of streams, building of dams. Limited food availability associated with poor water quality (ordinary pollution in itself is not considered as a significant problem) Disturbance, particularly to breeding females Accidental kills

International Treaties EC Habitat Directive (EC/92/43) Annexes II, IV Bern Convention Appendix II CITES Appendix I 1996 IUCN Red List Not evaluated

Ongoing Actions (Suggested by WWF Belgium, WWF Germany Auen Institute, WWF Hungary PO, WWF Greece, WWF Austria, WWF Med PO, WWF Spain)

28 WWF Austria is currently carrying out an otter project. The aim of the activities is a co- operation between fishermen and others (conservation, marketing, fundraising, communication). WWF Finland (conservation, fundraising, communication, but to only a small degree at present). WWF Belgium (conservation, communication) WWF Spain (flagship species) WWF UK (funding, conservation)

Future Considerations A network of well managed, pollution-free nature reserves would contribute greatly to otter survival. The emphasis should be placed on the need for an ecosystem approach, rather than a single species conservation policy.

Target Groups Fishermen Hunters

Potential Partners IUCN otter specialist group

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The otter can be used as a flagship species, as a species of special concern and also as a indicator for natural river stretches. In comparison with the mink (Mustella lutreola) the otter fit better into the European concept as it is more widespread and more NOs and POs face problems concerning the otter, shown by the different activities already carried within the network. Its capacity to indicate natural habitats and good water quality makes the otter a perfect species to be used as a flagship for the "Living Rivers Campaign". In addition, the otter is very effective as a fundraising tool.

Some useful references Smit, C.J. & Wijngaarden, A. van (1981): Threatened Mammals in Europe, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden. Kruuk, H. (1995): Wild otters: predation and populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

29 European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) Emydidae, Testudines, Reptiles

Distribution and Population Trends The European pond terrapin is the world’s most northerly distributed tortoise. Its original distribution covered central and southern Europe, western Asia (to the Aral Lake) and north- western Africa. Today the species can be found sporadically in Central Europe. In many areas the original, native populations are extinct; existing populations result from animals that have either escaped from captivity or were deliberately introduced. In northern Europe the distribution of the terrapin is restricted to lowlands, due to its heliothermic temperature regulation requirements. In the south, the species has a wider distribution than in the north, but is still very rare because of severe human impact.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The European pond terrapin is not closely associated with rivers, but more commonly occurs in standing or slowly running water, oxbows and lakes. The terrapin prefers high off-shore vegetation and a complex structured habitat with a high percentage of dead trees. The species is also very shy and difficult to observe.

The pond terrapin, like all reptiles, regulates its own temperature from the surrounding environmental temperature. The pond terrapin is commonly found sitting in the sun on exposed places (heliothermic). The slightest disturbance will force it to hide in the water. Regular disturbance can result in considerable energy consuming stress for the terrapin and this therefore needs to be kept to a minimum

Major Threats Disturbance of habitat Sensitiveness to water pollution Habitat loss (due to drainage of floodplain and re-afforestation)

International Treaties EC Habitats Directive (EC/92/43) Annex II, IV Bern Convention Appendix II 1996 IUCN Red List Lower risk

Ongoing Actions Several WWF organisations are either carrying out species oriented activities or using the species as a brand (WWF Med PO in Prespa Lake project, Greece).

Future Considerations Active introduction of the species is considered as an important step for the preservation of the European pond terrapin.

Target Groups General public (schools) Fishermen Agricultural groups

30 Potential Partners Pond Action group Different local nature conservation groups School classes

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The European pond terrapin is the most widespread terrapin in Europe and represents a particularly 'communicative' reptile for campaign purposes. Its decline is directly related to the loss of its habitat. Additionally, this species and the Great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), represents the smaller water bodies. Together these species cover almost the entire programme area. Using the European pond terrapin as an example also introduces the issue of the effects of the introduction of non native species (in this case different species of terrapins).

Useful references Müller, G. (1987): Schildkröten. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart

31 Great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) Salamandridae, Caudata, Amphibia

Distribution and Population Trends The Great-crested newt has a wide distribution from northern France, Britain and southern Scandinavia, through central Europe to the Ural Mountains. Today, this newt is under severe pressure throughout its entire distribution range.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The species prefers medium to large sized ponds, particularly mature farm ponds and those associated with mineral workings. However, it will also use smaller water bodies, including ditches, shallow temporary ponds that dry out in the summer, and sometimes garden ponds. Optimal terrestrial habitat is characterised by plenty of cover, in the form of trees, scrub, long grass, stones and log piles.

The Great-crested newt usually over-winters on land, and enters the breeding pond in late February or early March until June. Adults leave the water in the autumn. Occasionally there is an additional migration towards the pond in the autumn; this often comprises young animals which will breed for the first time in the following spring. On land newts may wander as far as 1 km from the breeding pond.

Crested newts are nocturnal amphibians and spend most of the time on the pond bottom. Immature individuals may return to water each year.

Major Threats Since amphibians are the only terrestrial vertebrates to have a skin that is fully permeable to water and a life cycle that includes both aquatic and terrestrial stages, they are very sensitive to environmental changes: acid rain, temperature extremes and ultraviolet light.

Habitat loss and fragmentation Introduced predators or competitors Collection of animals Pollution and acidification of breeding ponds

International Treaties EC Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) Appendix II, IV 1996 IUCN Red list Lower Risk: conservation dependent Bern Convention Appendix II

Ongoing Actions (suggested by the European Freshwater Programme)

Future Considerations Habitat conservation is the most important conservation approach and the complex habitat of the species has to be taken into account. It is useful to combine actions for Fire-bellied toad (Bombina bombina) with Great-crested newt (Triturus cristatus) and form a joint project.

32 Target Groups Local governments National governments

Potential Partners Schools Local and regional NGOs

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The Great-crested newt is a very interesting species since it requires aquatic, but also terrestrial habitat. The species is also associated with small ponds, which are increasingly vulnerable. This makes it a valuable tool for the European Freshwater Programme in awareness raising campaigns and as a species for the "Living Rivers" project. In addition the Great crested newt has an 'exotic' appearance and therefore offers excellent communication opportunities.

Useful references Corbett, K. ed. (1989): Conservation of European Reptiles and Amphibians. On behalf the Conservation Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica, Christopher Helm. Langton, T. & Burton, J.A. (1997): Amphibians and reptiles. Conservation management of species and habitats. Council of Europe Publishing. Planning and Management Series, No. 4.

33 Fire-bellied Toad (Bombina bombina) Discoglossidae, Anura, Amphibia

Distribution and Population Trends The Fire-bellied toad has a wide distribution ranging from southern Sweden and south-eastern Denmark eastwards through Russia to the Ural Mountains and north to the top of the Caspian Sea and south to the Caspian Mountains. Its southern limits follow the boundaries of the Black Sea and Greece. Western limits go through Germany and Austria.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The Fire-bellied toad is generally a lowland species, occurring in marshes or wet grasslands, along river valleys, in pastures with small, shallow lakes or ponds, and also in coastal wetlands. It prefers shallow, often temporary ponds without a through-flow of water, and with extensive areas of flooded shore in spring. Short grassland surrounding the ponds is essential as a feeding area at night. It is essential for terrestrial hibernation places, such as stone walls, logs, or woodlands to be located within a few hundred meters of the pond.

The behavioural and ecological demands of the species vary considerably over its geographical range. Adults are physiologically more tolerant of variations in habitat than the more sensitive juveniles. All age groups normally hibernate on land. After emerging in late March to early May, the animals move to the nearest body of water, which may not necessarily be the spawning pond. The distance between the place of hibernation and the spawning pond is normally a few hundred metres, rarely up to 800m. Clean and shallow water is normally chosen for mating.

Spawning places are often temporarily flooded areas, and the flooding itself may be an important factor in inducing reproductive behaviour. Each female deposits between 80 and 300 eggs in clumps of 15-40 attached to submerged vegetation. The development of egg to metamorphosis is temperature–dependent (taking 60-90 days). The time and temperature required for tadpole development is believed to be a critical factor in the survival of the north- western populations.

Adults mainly feed at night on invertebrates in the inner littoral zone, or within the immediate vicinity of the pond. Sometimes adults leave the pond in late summer and move to swampy meadows, where they live until early autumn and then hibernate.

Major Threats The species formerly occurred in uncultivated and un-drained swampy areas and pastures, habitats which have now been greatly reduced as a result of. Intensive farming methods Road construction Forestry Cultivation and drainage Overgrowth of trees and floating vegetation, reducing water temperature Regulation of water levels

34 International Treaties 1996 IUCN Red List Lower risk: conservation dependent EC Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) Appendix II Bern Convention Appendix II

Ongoing Actions (suggested by the WWF European Freshwater Programme)

Future Considerations The conservation of this species is important if only for its value as an ecological indicator of a particularly rich type of lowland habitats, valuable for many plant and invertebrates. The protection of the species habitat should include its breeding (and feeding) ponds, terrestrial feeding zones surrounding the waterbodies, and hibernation places. Vegetation surrounding the ponds must be kept low. The conservation of the European pond terrapin should be embedded into a wide approach of protecting its habitat.

Target Groups Local governments National governments

Potential Partners Schools Local and regional NGOs

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The team felt strongly the need for inclusion of at least one amphibian in the list. The Fire- bellied toad seemed to be one of the best, since it is an endangered species and declining all over Europe. It represents the problems affecting ponds particularly well. In addition it is attractive and can be used as an education tool. Together with the other species it fits well into the species package for the “Living Rivers” campaign.

Useful references Corbett, K. ed. (1989): Conservation of European Reptiles and Amphibians. On behalf the Conservation Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica, Christopher Helm. Langton, T. & Burton, J.A. (1997): Amphibians and reptiles. Conservation management of species and habitats. Council of Europe Publishing. Planning and Management Series, No. 4.

35 Sturgeons (Acipenser sp., Huso huso) Acipenseridae, Acipenseriformes, Fish

Distribution and Population Trends Sturgeons are one of the oldest types of living vertebrates on earth. They evolved 250 million years ago and are primitive fish with cartilaginous skeletons. The family of the sturgeons (Acipenseridae) consists of about 25 species within four taxonomic groups. Of all the species, only 18 occur in the project area, and only some are of major importance. These include Acipenser sturio, Acipenser stellatus, Acipenser gueldenstaedtii and Huso huso. These species are under major commercial pressure. The most important habitats within Eurasia are the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The species spend most of the year in the sea and begin migration up-river to spawning sites in spring.

Ecology Sturgeons are very large fish, adult lengths of different species can range from 80cm up to 6 metres. The main habitat of sturgeons are rivers and coastal marine waters (they also occur in lakes) especially in the temperate zone throughout the northern hemisphere. Sturgeons are either anadromus, i.e. mature fish migrate from the sea to rivers for spawning and travel to the sea as juveniles, or they live in freshwater during their whole life-cycle. Most of the species can tolerate sharp salinity changes, but all require freshwater to spawn; pebble deposits on riverbeds and side channels serve as spawning grounds. The reproduction of sturgeon is positively influenced by high water levels in rivers because it helps them to travel upstream.

Sturgeons live on benthic organisms, including plants. This makes them vulnerable to the affects of pollution, which can build up in benthic communities. This pollution comes from a variety of different sources including chemical industries, oil-producing installations, along rivers and coastlines. Another important factor in the decline of sturgeons is habitat degradation. For example, when the USSR started to build dams on the Volga River in the 1950s, most of the important spawning grounds were cut off. Beside these two factors, the most adverse impact on fish species is probably as a result of the international market for sturgeon oocytes (unfertilised female eggs), i.e. caviar, and to a lesser degree, for its meat.

Populations are also extremely vulnerable to over-fishing due to their late sexual maturity (between 6 and 25 years depending on the species and the sex). Sturgeons do not have any non-human predators due to their bony exterior. Many species of sturgeon have experienced severe population declines world-wide because of both habitat destruction and excessive fishing for international trade.

Major Threats Effects of pollution Habitat degradation, due to dam construction Over-hunting

International Treaties Acipenser sturio EC Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) Appendix II, VI (priority species) 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: critically endangered CITES Appendix I, II Bern Convention Appendix III

36 Acipenser gueldenstaedtii 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: endangered CITES Appendix II

Acipenser stellatus 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: endangered CITES Appendix II Bern Convention Appendix III

Huso huso 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: endangered CITES Appendix II Bern Convention Appendix III

Ongoing Actions (suggested by WWF Belgium, WWF Austria, WWF Germany Auen Institute), Traffic Europe*, WWF Austria (conservation, fundraising, communication), WWF France

Future Considerations It seems clear that only joint activities from several interest groups can influence the status of the sturgeon. Close co-operation with some of the different groups (fishermen, fishery industry, gourmets) is recommended. Since WWF has good experience of working with the TRAFFIC office, a joint project should be considered.

Target Groups Fishery companies Dam constructing companies World Commission on Dams Consumer / Buyers groups

Potential Partners Fishery companies Food companies Gourmets

Reason for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme Although it is an ancient species, the sturgeon is highly threatened. The sturgeons are economically important fish and important for human activities and social welfare. Ecologically they combine coastal and freshwater ecosystems. Sturgeon are particularly affected by large dams, since they interrupt migration routes, and therefore, sturgeon make effective lobbying tools against dam construction.

Some useful references Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 66 Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of threatened freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 46

* The TRAFFIC network is the world’s largest wildlife trade monitoring programme. It is a combined programme of WWF and IUCN. TRAFFIC works closely together with the Secretariat of the CITES convention. 37 Salmons (Salmo salar) Salmonidae, Clupeiformes, Fish*

Distribution and Population Trends The salmon is an anadrom migrating fish species, mainly living in the northern Atlantic Sea (including the North Sea and the Baltic Sea).

Distribution mad See attachment

Ecology The larvae of the salmon live in the upper reaches of streams for several years. After 2-5 years in freshwater, the species migrate to the sea (except Vanajanselkä in Sweden, Ladoga- and Onegasea). The salmon then stay in the sea for up to 4 years, eating mainly fish. During this time they gain muscle and strength. After this period the salmon migrate again over several thousand kilometres to their breeding stream (led by their sense of smell). During the migration most of the species do not eat, but live on their fat reserves. Salmon are able to cope with obstacles in the river up to 1.5 m high. On reaching the upper part of the rivers, the females start to spawn on the riverbed in fast-flowing, cold water. Most individuals are exhausted after their long and energy consuming migration and die. Only a few individuals are able to make the migration back to the sea and return to the spawning ground the following year.

Major Threats Exploitation River pollution River engineering (dam building activities)

International Treaties Bern Convention Appendix III (except at sea)

Ongoing Actions Rhine 2000 (WWF Germany Auen Institute) WWF Finland (conservation, fundraising, communication)

Future Considerations The salmon is not a very widespread species. However, the group of Salmonidae as a whole has a wide distribution and is found in most large rivers. It is not necessary for the salmon in particular to be used within the entire project area, but different local or national salmon species can be promoted where this is appropriate. Joined activities with the TRAFFIC office should be considered (together with activities for the sturgeons, see above.).

Target Groups Fishery industry National and international governments World Commission on Dams

Potential Partners Anglers

* Other species of the salmon family should also be included if useful. 38 Gourmets Tourism industry

Reason for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The salmon is an economically important species, as is the sturgeon, but they differ in terms of target groups. Salmon have a high cultural image and are also a strong symbol of prestige. Salmon join together sea and upstream river ecosystems, since the species migrate long distances. They are very sensitive to the existence of large dams, since their migration routes are interrupted and they are unable to reach their spawning grounds. Also, the water quality and variety of habitats suitable for salmon need to be high (c.f. Rhine – salmon project). The species is also dependent on natural hydrodynamics. This sensitiveness to the status of the river makes it a good lobbying tool against river regulation. As the salmon binds together the entire catchment from the source to the sea, the species is a good tool for use in a catchment based approach.

Some useful references Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 66 Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of threatened freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 46

39 Riverine Dragonflies Odonata, Insects

Distribution and Population Trends Dragonflies have a wide Paleoarctic distribution, with populations occurring from Siberia westwards into Europe. Today, only scattered populations occur e.g. in France, Italy, the Netherlands and Germany. With regard to European freshwater dragonflies, the species most at risk are those confined to rivers and streams. Being predators and, consequently, being present in relatively low densities, riverine dragonflies are commonly regarded as a vulnerable group of insects. Furthermore, most species display life cycles which may last several years, and have strong preferences for specific, mostly restricted, microhabitats.

Ecology Dragonflies are the largest and among the most beautiful and attractive of all insects. Their distinct appearance means that they cannot be mistaken for any other insect, being one of the largest in Europe, brilliantly coloured, and displaying stunning aerial movements. The presence of large, healthy populations of these dragonflies indicates a stable, clean, undisturbed, natural river ecosystem.

Dragonflies are regarded as generalised predators, both as larvae and winged adults. They are well adapted to this ecological role and are an irreplaceable part of the river ecosystem. It is generally argued that the existence of good populations of predators reflects healthy ecosystems, with rich lower trophic levels. Therefore, the species richness and strength of riverine dragonfly communities can serve as a valuable indicator of the ecological integrity of running water systems. In addition, most dragonfly species are highly mobile and show irruptive migratory movements, turning up quickly in restored or newly created healthy habitats, thereby rapidly displaying the results of improved river management. Furthermore, it is highly likely that conservation of dragonflies in general, and Yellow-legged dragonfly (Gomphus flavipes) in particular, helps to conserve a great number of other riverine specimens. It is suggested to use Yellow-legged dragonfly (Gomphus flavipes) as an important keystone species, being the most indicative rheofile dragonfly for large European rivers. This species can serve as a model species within the rheofile dragonfly-flagship group.

Major Threats Dragonflies are among the most threatened animals in the developed world. With regard to European freshwater dragonflies, the species most at risk are those which are confined to rivers and streams. Being predators and, consequently, being present in relatively low densities, riverine dragonflies are commonly regarded as a vulnerable group of insects. Many are threatened and consequently listed in national and European Red Data books. Furthermore, most species display life cycles, which may last several years, and have strong preferences for certain, mostly restricted, microhabitats. Several substantial examples demonstrate a positive correlation between reductions in riverine dragonfly species/abundance and, for example, occurrence of micro-pollutants (such as like herbicides and pesticides) or increased eutrophication of river water.

It is also argued that construction of river dams may sharply affect the occurrence of riverine dragonflies and examples of local extinction of Yellow-legged dragonfly (Gomphus flavipes) are known where weirs have been constructed. It is therefore not surprisingly that the Yellow-

40 legged dragonfly and many other riverine dragonflies are showing on-going declines over large parts of Europe. Although recently in some rivers signs of recovery appear to be present.

The ecological quality of any river catchment can therefore be judged by the presence or absence of rich dragonfly communities as rheofile dragonflies are particularly sensitive to habitat deterioration and poor water quality.

Ongoing Actions (suggested by WWF Belgium) WWF Austria runs a dragonfly education programme for children.

Future Considerations Riverine dragonflies could be included into the group of species being used for the “Living Rivers” campaign. Single dragonfly projects do not seem to be useful, but they would be good as part of an international awareness raising campaign.

Target Groups School children Fishermen

Potential Partners Companies Schools

Reasons for selecting the species for the Freshwater Programme The riverine dragonflies demonstrate good links between wetlands and running water ecosystems, since they are dependent on both. In addition these dragonflies need a highly structured substrate and are very sensitive to pollution. Although an ancient species, they are declining world-wide. They make good indicators as they are quick to move to a newly restored habitats. Many riverine species benefit from conservation practises carried out specifically for dragonflies. In addition, they are 'exotic' and attractive animals and this aspect makes them a useful communicative tool, which could be used in the "Living Rivers" project.

Useful references Askew, R.R. (1988): The Dragonflies of Europe. Harley books. Colchester. UK Suhling, F. & Muller, O. (1996): Die Flußjungfern Europas – Gomphidae. Die Neue Brehm Bücherei 628. Watson, J.A.A. & Conrick, D.L. (1982): Effect of sewage effluents on dragonflies (Odonata) of Bulimba Creek. Brisbane. Aus. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 33.

41 Crayfish (Astacus astacus, Austropotamobius pallipes, Austropotamobius torrentium) Astacidae, Decapoda

Distribution and Population Trends Crayfish occur naturally on all continents expect Africa, and a number of coastal and oceanic islands. Three families of decapodes can be found in freshwater habitats of the temperate zones. In the 16th century the species was introduced to Sweden and its presence in the Iberian Peninsula, the British Islands, Scandinavia, northern Germany and eastern Switzerland has also been attributed to the influence of man. The limits of the natural range of the two astacid genera Astacus and Austropotamobius in Europe are unknown, but they have been restricted to small, unconnected patches.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The Noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) can be found in the warmer, clear, clean lowland waters of smaller rivers, lakes and ponds with steep banks. The species is often hidden under stones or in the substrate during the day and becomes active at dawn. Therefore the Noble crayfish favours highly structured surroundings (stones, dead trees, vegetation). Potentially suitable rivers for this species are considered to be up to 40cm deep and 3m broad.

The White-clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) is quite tolerant to different temperature s; and can be found in Scotland (12°C), but also in Spain (23°C). It is also not particularly choosy about it's habitat and can be found in both fast flowing mountain waters and lowland rivers. But the species is a good indicator of water quality: organic and chemical pollution is not tolerated.

The Stone crayfish (Austropotamobius torrentium) shows the greatest preference for clean, clear, cold and calcareous water. It is also very sensitive to organic water pollution and therefore a good indicator for water quality.

The diet for crayfish consists mainly of small invertebrates, but they will also eat sick or dead fish. As a result, the species is an important element in the riverine ecosystem (the "health police").

Major Threats Loss of habitat Exploitation for human consumption Pollution of water (very sensitive to water quality) Warming of water due to reduced vegetative shade Sedimentation of rivers (loss of hiding and living spaces) Introduction of non native species (for example Procambarus clarkii) "Crayfish plague" caused by the fungus Aphanomyces astaci (Oomycetae)

International Treaties Astacus astacus Bern Convention Appendix III 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable

42 Austropotamobius pallipes EC Habitats Directive (EC/92/43) Appendix II Bern Convention Appendix III 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable

Austropotamobius torrentium Bern Convention Appendix III 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable

Ongoing Actions (suggested by WWF Belgium, WWF Spain)

Future Considerations The crayfish species would work well as part of an awareness raising campaign. Another suggestion would be to include them in the package of species to be used in the "Living Rivers" campaign.

Target Groups Water management authorities Fishermen

Potential Partners Fishermen Gourmets Schools

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The different species of crayfish are widespread throughout Eurasia. The individual species are good indicators of a highly structured habitat and good water quality. Their "exotic" appearance and behaviour makes them a good education and communication tool.

Useful references Eder, E. & Hoedl, W. (1998): Flußkrebse Österreichs. Staphia 58, Nr. 137. Linz

43 Freshwater Mussels (Unio crassus, Margarifera margaritifera ) Margaritiferidae, Bivalvia

Distribution and Population Trends Unio crassus is an endemic species of Europe, and is considered to be the second most threatened European mussel. The decline in numbers throughout its former distribution went unnoticed for a long time. Its former range included central and northern Europe (excluding Great Britain), and extended to the Black Sea. The mussel used to be so common in parts of Austria that it was even used as pig food. Freshwater pearl mussel (Margarifera margaritifera) has a fairly widespread distribution. It occurs in northern Europe, Eurasia (as far as Siberia) and eastern North America. Today, the population density of the species and it’s reproductive viability is declining throughout the entire paleoarctic region. From the beginning of the 19th century until the present day, many pearl mussel populations have become extinct in large areas. Today’s population consists nearly entirely of older specimens only.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology Unio crassus occurs in brooks, large streams and rivers with gravel or sandy/muddy beds. One vital factor in its survival is the need for fast flowing, clean water. In south-east Europe, it is also found in large littoral lakes. For reproduction, a host fish is needed (Gasterosteus aculeatus, Pungitius pungitius, Cottus gobio, Phoxinus phoxinus, Perca fluviatilis). The females develop up to 200,000 eggs and release them in small packets that are ingested by the host fish (as food-particles or in the inhalent water). The glochidia parasitise for 5 weeks, without additional growth, and then fall from the host fish to spend the next stage of their life- cycles deep in sediment.

The Freshwater pearl mussel (Margarifera margaritifera) prefers water with a low calcium carbonate content. It occurs in rivers, streams and lakes with igneous bedrock and a substrate of stones, sand and gravel. It is thought that the species requires clean, fast flowing, well-aired water, but it is quite capable of surviving in static pools for several months. Clean water is not essential for the mussels well-being but a product resulting from its water filtration activities. A high oxygen content is also not essential for the mussel itself, but is essential for the host fish.

This species is extremely long-living (up to 140 years) and sexual maturity is reached after 20 years. If the population density falls below a critical point, some females are capable of becoming self-fertilising hermaphrodites. The life-cycle of this mussel species undergoes a parasitic stage on fish. In Europe the fish host is almost exclusively the native Brook-trout (Salmo trutta fario) and occasionally the salmon (Salmo salar).

Major Threats Unio crassus · Eutrophication from agricultural run-off (manure, sewage),-very sensitive to ammonia and nitrogen · Habitat loss (due to river straightening, canalisation, piping) · Decline of many host fish species · Increasing concentrations of toxic substances (in water and substrate)

44 · Low reproduction rates at low densities - single female are not able to become hermaphrodites Margarifera margaritifera · Increasing pollution (toxic substances and eutrophication) · Damming of smaller streams · Sedimentation of river beds · Introduction of the North American rainbow-trout (Salmo gairdneri),

International Treaties Unio crassus EC Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) Appendix II, IV 1996 IUCN Red list Low Risk: near threatened Margarifera margaritifera EC Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) Appendix II Bern Convention Appendix III 1996 IUCN Red list Threatened species: endangered

Ongoing Actions (suggested by WWF Germany Auen Institute) WWF Finland

Future Considerations (from literature) Unio crassus · Initiate taxonomic studies to determine which Unio species occur in Europe · Surveys of present status of population · Determine the importance of Unio crassus as a natural-filtration mechanism for the freshwater ecosystem

Margarifera margaritifera · Reduction of eutrophication and pollution through strict control measures · Creation of protected unpolluted areas, where possible · Inclusion of mussels in management plan of rivers · Prevention of both illegal pearl fishing and the publication of exact localities

Target Groups National and international governments Water authorities Water engineers

Potential Partners Fishermen General public School children

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme Unio crassus is a very good indicator for high water quality, has a wide range and is declining in numbers. For the Freshwater pearl mussel the ecological connection to the host fish is very important, therefore the species can be seen as a symbol for the ecological connection between different freshwater species groups (in this case fish and mussels). Another of the strong arguments for including this species group was the fact that the species use an often overlooked part of the river: the sediment. Mussels can be used to communicate the complete freshwater picture and are an excellent education tool. 45 Useful references Council of Europe (1996): Background information an invertebrates of the Habitat Directive and the Bern Convention. Nature and environment, No. 81. Council of Europe (1992): Threatened non-marine molluscs of Europe. Nature and Conservation, No. 64.

46 Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca) Anatidae, Anseriformes, Aves

Distribution and Population Trends The breeding range of the Ferruginous duck comprises the steppe, desert and southern forest zones of Eurasia, extending from the Mediterranean basin to central China. Although the total population size is not known, it is estimated that roughly half of its global breeding range is within Europe, largely concentrated in the south-east with strongholds in Romania, Ukraine, Turkey, Moldova, Hungary and southern Russia. Numbers in Turkey are not known, although a WIWO survey in 1992 found over 100 breeding pairs in the Kizilirmak Delta, suggesting a large Turkish population. The Ferruginous duck winters mainly in the coastal zones of the Caspian, Black, Azov and Mediterranean Seas. A significant part of the population (7,000-10,000 individuals) winters in tropical Africa, especially in Mali, Chad and Nigeria. The total population size and range has shown severe declines in Europe. During the late 1960s the important population of the former USSR was estimated at 75,000: 65,000 in the Dniestr-Dniepr region of Ukraine and Moldova, and 10,000 in the Kuban valley, Russia. However, by the early 1980s, just 12,000-14,000 pairs were thought to remain in the European part of the former USSR, falling to approximately 6,000 pairs by the early 1990s. In the Kuban river delta, formerly a major breeding site, summer numbers have also declined. Between 1971 and the 1980s, numbers fell from 15,000 to 1,500 individual. Sharp declines also occurred in the Ukraine during the 1970s.

Declines in breeding populations also occurred in Belarus, Slovenia, Spain, and most other countries. Winter numbers also declined between 1970 and 1990, especially in the Black Sea region. In January 1967, 18,000 birds were recorded in the northern Black Sea, but only up to 1,500 were noted between 1979 and 1988. Data from Africa is insufficient to identify population trends. On the basis of this apparently rapid decline in Europe and Asia, the Ferruginous duck is now listed as Globally Threatened.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology The main breeding habitats are large river deltas, fresh, brackish and alkaline lowland lakes and oxbows within large river valleys, all characterised by a mosaic of emergent vegetation, diverse submerged plants and a rich fauna. Water-bodies fringed with dense reedbeds are preferred, especially when the latter are interspersed with patches of open water. The species is fairly tolerant of man and utilises a wide range of nest-sites and food. Nests are located close to the water’s edge, often in dense clumps of vegetation. Although omnivorous, the majority of the diet consists of plant material, chiefly the soft parts of leaves and roots from water-plants. Birds winter mainly in coastal or large inland fresh/brackish water-bodies, either open or fringed with reedbeds, and rich in submerged vegetation.

Major Threats Wetland destruction The main threat to this species is the widespread destruction of wetlands throughout most of its range. Wetland drainage is thought to have eliminated many of the western populations and caused the loss of the species’ optimal breeding sites in eastern Europe. In Spain considerable areas of suitable habitat have been lost, for example at Donana, where the

47 species is now practically extinct. During this century, Greece has lost more than 60% of its wetlands due to drainage, most of which had been prime habitat for the species. The increasing aridisation of the climate in the centre of Europe may also have contributed to the loss and deterioration of wetlands. Illegal Hunting High numbers were once shot in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, but this is now less common. In Greece and Italy the species is protected but is still shot due to misidentification of ignorance of the law. This is a serious problem at the local level, e.g. at the Evros delta. Other threats Birds wintering in tropical African wetlands are vulnerable to the potential threats of recurring droughts, which reduce the extent of available habitat and increase the human pressure on the remaining areas.

International Treaties EU Wild Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) Appendix I 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable CITES Appendix III

Ongoing Actions BirdLife International

Future Considerations Being a rather dispersed breeding species, the Ferruginous duck requires the broad conservation of large areas of steppe wetlands in Eastern Europe. Measures are required to discourage drainage of these lakes for agriculture. Given the crash in population of this species and lack of knowledge on the effects of hunting, all hunting of the species should be brought under strict control (bag limits and restricted seasons) to ensure that exploitation is sustainable.

Target Groups Water management authorities Agriculture industry

Potential Partners BirdLife International Tourism industry

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The Ferruginous duck is a globally threatened species with its main distribution in central and eastern Europe, therefore it has been included to demonstrate Eurasian’s responsibility for wetlands. From an ecological point of view, Ferruginous duck underlines the importance of large rivers and wide deltas with numerous oxbows.

Useful references: Tucker, G. M. & Heath, M. F. (1995): Birds in Europe. Their Conservation Status. BirdLife International. Cambridge

48 Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) Alcedinidae, Coraciiformes, Aves

Distribution and Population Trends The north European range has expanded during this century, but recently population numbers have fallen in several countries. Although numbers have been severely depleted by harsh winters, the overall decline is attributable to industrial and agricultural pollution and the canalisation of rivers. The Kingfisher has a vast breeding range, from the western Paleoarctic to Japan, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Sulawesi and the Solomon Islands. Between a quarter and a third of the world population lives in Europe, where the Kingfishers range extends almost everywhere south of 60°N. Reliable breeding population data is available for Jersey, Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Moldova and Czech Republic. Russia has the largest population and, although its exact size is uncertain, it probably amounts to 20-50% of the total. Other strongholds include the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Poland and Romania, with Portugal, France, Germany and Bulgaria also having good populations. In winter the eastern half of the European range is vacated, and migrants move into western and southern Europe (southern Sweden and west of a line from Rostock to the Danube Delta), with the Republic of Ireland, United Kingdom, France, Spain and Italy holding the largest populations. Some Kingfishers winter on east Mediterranean and North African coasts. The range has expanded in northern Europe during the twentieth century, with increases in Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Estonia. However, numbers decreased during 1970-1990 in a number of countries with important populations, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, Italy and Bulgaria. In total, population size declines have been noted in 12 countries, constituting up to approximately 40% of the European population for which population data is known.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology Breeding Kingfishers generally occupy lowlands (usually below 650m) where they require stretches of running fresh water which is unpolluted, shallow, translucent, partly shaded and not turbulent, with reedy or woody cover at the edges to provide plenty of low perches. Although, in the Caucasus they breed on mountain lakes at up to 2,000m. The species inhabits streams with a flow of at least 1 million gallons per day and also occasionally, ditches, canals, and the borders of lakes, where Minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus), Bullheads (Cottus gobio), Roach (Rutilus rutilus) and other fish 3-7cm long are abundant. Kingfishers are strongly territorial. A low, perpendicular bank of stone-free, sandy or clay soil for nest-burrow excavation is essential for summer territories. In winter Kingfishers require ice-free water for feeding, and many move to estuaries, harbours and seashores. They are very vulnerable to icy conditions and die in large numbers in severe winters.

Major Threats The effects of hard winters can outweigh all other threats to the Kingfisher's survival. In the severe winters of 1961-62 and 1962-63, the species was almost totally wiped out in parts of Europe including Britain. Numbers in Wales fell to about 15% and in England to 5% of previous levels. Although breeding productivity is high, recovery took up to nine years. The species’ response to weather may mask other influences on the population, but a long- term decline has been noted in many countries and it is generally attributed to the chemical

49 and biological pollution of rivers. The two principle sources of freshwater pollution are industrial waste disposal and agricultural chemical runoff. In England and Wales, a significant correlation between low Kingfisher density and high levels of pollution has been demonstrated.

Increasing the efficiency of drainage systems by the canalisation of streams and the clearance of emergent vegetation is also highly detrimental to Kingfishers. This is most likely due to the loss of nesting habitat, although loss of feeding habitat and feeding efficiency, as well as declines in fish numbers, may also contribute.

International Treaties EU Wild Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) Annex I Bern Convention Appendix II

Ongoing Actions (suggested by WWF Belgium, WWF Germany Auen Institute, WWF Austria, WWF Spain, BirdLife International) WWF Belgium (conservation, fundraising, communication) WWF Austria (conservation, fundraising, communication) WWF Spain (flagship)

Future Considerations The Kingfisher is an excellent and easily monitored indicator of the health of river ecosystems. The species seems set to decline further from current levels unless the degradation of rivers and streams can be stopped. Effective conservation must therefore be mediated through industry, agriculture and water authorities. One idea is to create a "Kingfisher Award". A "WWF Kingfisher Award" scheme could be set up to given to water management authorities or other organisations showing sustainable water use or good water management practises.

Target Groups Water engineers National and international governments

Potential Partners National and international organisations/companies National/International Governments

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme The Kingfisher is a highly attractive animal and for a wide range of people it can be seen as a symbol for natural river stretches. In addition, the Kingfisher lives along steep banks of small streams and requires the retention of natural river-dynamics. Due to its restricted habitat range it is also a good indicator species. In addition, the bird is widespread and also known throughout Eurasia.

Useful references Tucker, G. M. & Heath, M. F. (1995): Birds in Europe. Their Conservation Status. BirdLife International. Cambridge

50 White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) and Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) Pelicanidae, Aves

Distribution and Population Trends Both species of pelican are considered to have stable populations. However, the White pelican population is thought to consist of only approximately 4,000 breeding pairs, concentrated in only a few sites, while the Dalmatian pelican is now extremely rare in Europe. Wetland drainage has been the major contributing factor to these dramatic declines.

The White pelican is a species widely distributed throughout eastern Europe, Asia and Africa. The European population has declined sharply since the beginning of the twentieth century. Nearly 20% of the total world population of Dalmatian pelican breeds in Europe, and half of this number occurs in the Caucasus – Caspian Sea area. The number of Dalmatian pelican breeding sites began to decline dramatically in the middle of the nineteenth century. The status of the species worsened during the twentieth century, with continuing declines noted between 1970-1990 for Albania, Turkey and Yugoslavia, leading to the species' current listed status as globally threatened.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology Both species breed in inland wetlands, with the White pelican choosing the remotest parts of these wetlands. Nests of both species are located on the ground, either within large reedbeds, or on rocky or bare earth islands, and always isolated from the mainland to avoid mammalian predators. Regarding diet, both species feed almost exclusively on fish and birds often fly long distances to forage.

Major Threats The Dalmatian pelican is particularly vulnerable because its small European population is concentrated at only a few sites.

Previously, pelicans were threatened by the drainage of wetlands for agriculture, as well as by the destruction of breeding colonies by fishermen. Drainage has now decreased considerably but water extraction for irrigation continues to threaten the wetlands that pelicans use.

Contamination from pesticides, heavy-metal pollution and disturbance by birdwatchers and photographers also pose a threat.

International Treaties Pelecanus onocrotalus EU Birds Directive (79/409/EEU) Appendix I Pelecanus crispus EU Birds Directive (79/409/EEU) Appendix I 1996 IUCN Red list Threatened species: vulnerable CITES Appendix I, II

Ongoing Actions (suggested by the European Freshwater Programme) BirdLife International

51 Future Considerations The full protection of White and Dalmatian pelican breeding colonies is essential. Some of the important resting sites are not under protection. Conservation measures required at important sites include: habitat management, shooting bans, and a reduction in the mortality caused by electric power cables.

Target Groups Hunters Fish-farmers National and international governments General public

Potential Partners BirdLife International

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme Pelicans are important freshwater bird species for the southern part of Europe and the entire Mediterranean area. The team felt it important to include a typical southern species, in order to underline the importance of the Mediterranean for freshwater species. Pelicans are dependent on lakes, estuaries and coastal wetlands. Since the animal is large and attractive, it provides good communication opportunities.

Useful references Tucker, G. M. & Heath, M. F. (1995): Birds in Europe. Their Conservation Status. BirdLife International. Cambridge

52 Crane (Grus sp., Anthropoides sp.) Gruidae, Aves

Distribution and Population Trends Cranes are cosmopolitan in their habitat and occur from the North American and Asian Tundra to the Asian, Australian and African Tropics.

Seven out of the 15 species world-wide occur commonly in the WWF Eurasian region. These seven species are the Eurasian crane (Grus grus), the Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus), the Sandhill crane (Grus canadesis), the White-naped crane (Grus vipio), the Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis), the Hooded crane (Grus monachus) and the Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo). During the last century a large decline in crane numbers has taken place all over the world.

Ecology Most cranes prefer relatively open space and require territories with a wide range of visibility. Space and solitude are particularly required during the breeding season. Most species nest in shallow wetlands; but the degree to which different cranes use and require wetlands varies widely among species. Most crane species are migratory and form large migrating flocks. Staging areas should contain safe roosting sites as well as a source of food. The number of cranes using a staging site will increase until bad weather forces the flock to move south. Along the migration route are several stopover points; these areas have to offer good circumstances for the flock. Most species of migratory cranes remain in large flocks during the winter. The cranes roost in shallow wetlands at night and also forage in wetlands, as well as upland areas (including agricultural land), during the day. Non-migratory species also gather in groups during the non-breeding season; moving from one area to the next in search of food and security. For more information about the crane species inhabiting the project area: see appendix

Major Threats Cranes generally try to maintain a distance of several kilometres from areas of human activity. We need to realise that in general, agricultural development has had a high negative impact on the habitats of cranes. According to a study of the USGS (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Centre) global threats, and their impact on the various crane populations, are very high.

· Habitat loss and degradation (lowered water-table); · direct exploitation (shooting); · accidental kills (collision with power-lines) · poisoning.

International Treaties Grus grus, EU Bird Directive (79/408/EEC) Annex I, Amendment

Grus monachus EU Bird Directive (79/408/EEC) Annex I, Amendment 1996 IUCN Red List Lower risk: conservation dependent

Grus japonensis 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable

53 Grus leucogeranus 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: endangered

Grus vipio 1996 IUCN Red List Threatened species: vulnerable

Ongoing Actions The Red-crowned crane, the Hooded crane and the White-naped crane are used as freshwater indicator species in the “WWF Living Planet Campaign”. WWF Germany (conservation, fundraising, communication)

Future Considerations A broad approach is necessary to ensure the survival of crane populations. Due to the migratory behaviour of the species, a Eurasian wide project would need to be launched. Eco-regional planning process.

Target Groups General public, tourists

Potential Partners WWF network Tourism industry BirdLife

Reason for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme Cranes are a good example of a flagship species. They need large wetlands, fens and bogs along their migration routes from the North to the South. It is not easy to communicate the importance of large wetlands. By using the crane as an example, this complex issue can be explained easily. In addition, cranes are large and attractive animals and also very popular in mythology, making them a good communication tool. Due to their distribution, cranes can also tie in the northern and western European areas with the Asian part of the project (cf. pelicans).

According to current research, the protection of cranes themselves can only be successful if their habitat is protected. Some of the key habitats are still not under protection. It should be a goal of WWF to promote their protection on an international level. Since the cranes are a migrating species, European governments are also responsible for their conservation, and such a campaign would provide opportunities to show solidarity between the relevant countries.

Useful references: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/birds/cranes

54 Black poplar (Populus nigra L.) Salicaceae, Plant*

Distribution and Population Trends Black poplar has a wide distribution throughout Europe, with the exception of the extreme North, and extends into western and central Asia. It is thought to be absent in the areas east of the Caspian Sea, but can also be found in northern Africa. Due to the increasing loss of floodplain habitats throughout Europe, the number of Black poplar trees is declining rapidly.

Distribution See attachment

Ecology Black poplar trees are a central element of riparian ecosystems and play an important role as bio-indicators for this dynamic habitat. The species prefers lowland floodplains and is a major component of gallery forests. It is only in the southern parts of its distribution, that it appears in the mountain layer. The Black poplar needs very specific conditions for germination: open, fresh substrate and areas without dense shading, otherwise the seedlings die and regeneration is prevented. Consequently, the growth of new specimens is only possible if natural river dynamics offer good germination sites.

The tree is also very important from a biodiversity view-point, as many insect and bird species live in the wide tops. Old specimens often provide breeding places for cormorants and woodpeckers.

Major Threats Black poplar can be considered to be on the verge of extinction because of: · Loss of suitable habitat (i.e. floodplains drained for agriculture); · Canalisation and building of dams, which changes the natural dynamics of rivers and disrupts the creation of fresh substrate, necessary for germination; · Continuous or immediate reduction in groundwater tables, which leads to a drying out of the older specimens; · Hybridisation by cross-pollination with non-native poplars; · Increased competition with more economically desirable species, mainly hybrid poplars.

International Treaties Ministerial Conference on the Protection of European Forests, Resolution 2, Strasbourg 1990

Ongoing Actions Ex situ conservation is already being carried out by various European countries at present. A European Forest Genetic Resource Programme (EUFORGEN) was launched in 1994 to implement the 2nd resolution of the Strasbourg Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (1990). EUFORGEN operates through a network of experts, including forest geneticists and forest specialists, and aims to analyse the conservation requirements of the species, facilitate the exchange of knowledge and develop methods and ideas.

* Black poplar is a tree species lobbying for the conservation of a complex habitat, the floodplain forest. The European Freshwater Team should think of including also other plant species if starting a Floodplain project, to give all WWF teams the possibilities of being included. For example: Alder (Alnus glutinosa) for Scotland. 55 Future Considerations The conservation of the Black poplar in situ is limited to a few restricted areas, therefore protection of the last remaining habitat is urgently needed. To protect the remaining Black poplar trees by law and to increase the population of the species. Public awareness campaign.

Target Groups General public Water authorities Foresters

Potential Partners EUFORGEN

Reasons for selecting the species for the European Freshwater Programme It is very important that the WWF European Freshwater Programme includes a plant species in the freshwater species list to underline the importance of intact freshwater habitats. The Black poplar seems to be an appropriate species for this since it is a specialist of floodplains and sensitive to habitat changes. In addition it is a large, beautiful tree and provides home to many species in its wide tops (birds and therefore a good communication tool). Since the tree is also quite wide-spread throughout the project area, it could be easily promoted.

Useful references Heinze & de Vries (1998) in :Geburek, Th. & Heinze, B. (Hrsg) (1998): Erhaltung genetischer ressourcen im Wald – Normen, Programme, Maßnahmen. Ecomend Verlagsgesellschaft, Landsberg. http://www.cgiar.org/ipgri/EUFORGEN

56 10. Summary of suggested projects for the selected species

EXPLANAITION Species characteristic: according to possible use of the species (see chapter XY) Overall objective: of the suggested project(s) Approach/concept: to achieve goal Constraints and unresolved issues: according to first analysis Main geographical focus : within the project area of the European Freshwater Team Suggested activities: to be seen as draft list Known and possible partners : according to first analysis Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 1 – high, 2 – medium , 3 – low

European Beaver (Castor fiber)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species Overall objective: conserve the existing populations and restore former range Approach/concept: create a better understanding of the ecology of the animal and explain the benefits of beavers as a keystone species in ”Living Rivers” Constraints and unresolved issues: poor image of beaver in some countries has lead to misunderstanding of the implications of increased populations or re-introductions e.g. effects on fisheries and forests Main geographical focus : existing and former range, building from existing WWF projects Suggested activities: factual publication on successful beaver re-introduction projects including socio-economic assessments; use of publication with stakeholder groups in potential re-introduction areas; re-introduction projects with monitoring programmes Known and possible partners : WWF NO’s and PO’s; others to be determined Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 3

European Otter (Lutra lutra)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species Overall objective: ensure full protection across Europe; conserve the existing populations and restore former range Approach/concept: develop a strategic approach to otter conservation together with other international organisations in Europe Constraints and unresolved issues: they are considered a problem species in some countries due to fish consumption; they are common in some countries and use highly modified rivers and waterways; there are legal obstacles to their re-introduction and conservation Main geographical focus : existing and former range, building from existing WWF projects Suggested activities: co-operate with IUCN expert group to establish the status, priorities and opportunities for conservation and restoration of otters; expand existing activities and stimulate new projects as appropriate Known and possible partners : IUCN Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 2

Threatened amphibians (special focus on Triturus cristatus and Bombina bombina)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species 57 Overall objective: protect valuable wetland sites for threatened amphibians Approach/concept: raise awareness of the key threats, link to EU policy changes for agriculture and establish ecological networks Constraints and unresolved issues: lack of centralised knowledge of small wetland sites and species identification; lack of political will to protect sites for amphibians Main geographical focus : potentially across Europe but special attention to Accession countries may be justified; build from existing projects Suggested activities: raise public awareness at the European and country level , develop and promote rapid assessment methods for small wetlands of value for amphibians; co-operate with other NGO’s working on localised projects; establish protected area networks Known and possible partners: Pond Action, Amphiconsult Priority for European Freshwater Programme: 1

Ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species Overall objective: establish ecological networks to conserve this highly threatened species in Europe Approach/concept: promote protection and restoration of “Living Rivers” (due to dependence on side channels and oxbows in connection to rivers); highlight the impact of flood defence and channelisation in key areas Constraints and unresolved issues: poor knowledge of key sites and impacts Main geographical focus : to be prioritised Suggested activities: to be determined Known and possible partners : BirdLife International, Wetlands International and national counterparts Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 3

Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Indicator Species Overall objective: promote sustainable water and wetland management within river basins Approach/concept: create an international standard for sustainable river basin management and use this in an award scheme e.g. for governments, industry, river basin authorities; link with promotion of implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive Constraints and unresolved issues: difficulty in establishing criteria and international standards Main geographical focus : Europe (EU+ Accession countries) Suggested activities: develop criteria for sustainable river basin management Known and possible partners : Living Waters Campaign; water using industries Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 2

Cranes

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern Overall objective: conservation of networks of large wetlands across Europe Approach/concept: use cranes to raise awareness of the ecological importance and other values associated with large, intact wetlands Constraints and unresolved issues: low level of current WWF involvement Main geographical focus : migratory routes across Eurasia 58 Suggested activities: cultural and artistic events and publications concerning the history, mythology and ecology of cranes and their associations with people, along the migration routes; stimulate actions for wetland conservation that benefit cranes; develop links between different countries which are taking action Known and possible partners : Wetlands International, BirdLife International and specialist crane networks Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 3

Pelicans

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern Overall objective: protect large wetlands that are critical for pelican conservation in Eurasia Approach/concept: use pelicans to raise awareness of the ecological importance and other values associated with large, intact wetlands within Europe and along the migration routes Constraints and unresolved issues: low level of current WWF involvement Main geographical focus : migratory routes across Eurasia Suggested activities: cultural and artistic events and publications concerning the history, mythology and ecology of pelicans and their associations with people, along the migration routes; stimulate actions for wetland conservation that benefit pelicans; develop links between different countries which are taking action Known and possible partners : WWF NO’s and PO’s, MedWet, Tour du Valat, BirdLife Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 3

Black Poplar (Populus nigra)

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species Overall objective: stop the loss of European Floodplain forests Approach/concept: use black poplar to raise awareness about the loss of floodplain forests and promote the protection of the last remaining sites Constraints and unresolved issues: / Main geographical focus : floodplain forest in Eurasia with the special focus on the distribution area of Black poplar Suggested activities: prepare background information on the situation of the remaining floodplain forests, their conservation status, develop management guidelines for sustainable use of floodplain forests, select several sites for the public promotion of the protection, restoration and sustainable use of floodplain forests in Europe, Europe-wide awareness raising campaign Known and possible partners : EUFORGEN, national and local NGOs Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 1

Salmons and Sturgeons

Species characteristic: Flagship species, Species of Special Concern, Indicator Species Overall objective: improve the ecological status of rivers Approach/concept: use salmon and sturgeon to raise awareness for the poor situation of European rivers and create a partnership with fishery and other stakeholders Constraints and unresolved issues: / Main geographical focus : large European rivers, specially focusing on the habitat of sturgeon and salmon

59 Suggested activities: prepare background information on the situation of salmon and sturgeon populations ant their main threats; lunch an awareness campaign towards special target groups (such as fishery companies, anglers, buyers groups, gourmet sector) and build co-operation with the conservation sector; raise funds and transfer expertise to local river conservation groups. Known and possible partners : TRAFFIC, fishery companies, gourmet sector Priority for European Freshwater Programme : 1

60 11. Acronyms, Abbreviations and Explanations

Freshwater Ecosystem Include surface waters freshwater bodies such as rivers lakes and wetlands, and underground water bodies Hermaphrodite An animal or plant having both male and female reproductive organs Anadromous Migrating behaviour of various fishes, migrating from the ocean upstream to spawn. Benthic community Plant, micro-organisms and animals that inhabit the bed of aquatic ecosystems Bern Convention Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979 Birds Directive EU Directive ion the Conservation of Wild Birds, 79/409/EEC Bonn Convention Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979 CEE Central Eastern European Countries CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1975 CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals à Bonn Convention Diadromous Behaviour of certain fishes, migratory between fresh and salt water EU European Union FS Flagship Species Habitats Directive EU Directive on the Conservation of Natural and Semi-natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, 92/43/EEC Heliothermic Behaviour of an animal of worming itself by basking and influence further by “posturing” or “shuttling” between sun and shade IS Indicator Species IUCN World Conservation Union NGO Non governmental organisation NO National Organisation (of WWF) PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl PO Project Office (of WWF) Polyandrous Having more than one male sexual partner at a time Polygamous Having more than one female sexual partner at a time Ramsar Convention Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971 SAC Special Area of Conservation SPA Special Protection Area SSC Species of Special Concern UK United Kingdom UKR Ukraine WWF World Wide Fund For Nature

61 12. Appendices

Appendix 1: 1994 IUCN Red List Categories

EXTINCT (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.

EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW) A taxon is Extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalised population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as defined by any of the criteria A to E.

ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future, as defined by any of the criteria A to E.

VULNERABLE (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by any of the criteria A to E.

LOWER RISK (LR) A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, but does not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. Taxa included in the Lower Risk category can be separated into three subcategories: 1. Conservation Dependent (cd). Taxa which are the focus of a continuing axon-specific or habitat-specific conservation programme targeted towards the taxon in question, the cessation of which would result in the taxon qualifying for one of the threatened categories above within a period of five years. 2. Near Threatened (nt). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. 3. Least Concern (lc). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent or Near Threatened.

DATA DEFICIENT (DD) A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat or Lower Risk. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, if a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified.

62 NOT EVALUATED (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been assessed against the criteria

Appendix 2: Species Distribution

Castor fiber according Smith & Wijngaarden (1981)

Lutra lutra according to Smith & Wijngaarden (1981)

63 Emys orbicularis according Gasc et al (1997)

Triturus cristatus according to Nöllert & Nöllert (1992)

64 Bombina bombina according to Nöllert & Nöllert (1992)

Acipenser gueldenstaedtii according to Müller (1987)

Acipenser sturio according to Müller (1987)

Acipenser stellatus according to Müller (1987)

65 Huso huso according to Müller (1987)

Salmo salar according to Müller (1987)

Astacus astacus

66 Austropotamobius pallipes according to Holdich 1988

Austropotamobius torrentium – not available

Unio crassus according to Council of Europe (Nr. 81, 1996)

67 Margaritifera margaritifera according to Council of Europe (Nr. 81, 1996)

68 Aythya nyroca according to Tucker & Heath (1994)

69 Alcedo atthis according to Tucker & Heath (1994)

70 Populus nigra according to Heinze & de Vries (1998)

71 Appendix 3: Selected species with scoring matrix

Species Family English Name I II III IV 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lutra lutra Mustelidae European otter + + + + xxx xx NE xx X Mustela lutreola Mustelidae European mink + +/- + xx x NE xxx X Castor fiber Castoridae European beaver + + + xxx xx LR xxx Xxx

Haliaeetus albicilla Accipitridae White tailed eagle ? + xxx xxx LR xxx Xxx Alcedo atthis Alcedinidae Kingfisher + + + + x xx xx Xxx Aythya nyroca Anatidae Ferruginous duck + + x xx VU xx Xx Oxyura leucocephala Anatidae White headed duck + + x x VU x Xx Anser erythropus Anatidae Lesser White-fronted Goose + + xx x VU x X Branta ruficollis Anatidae Red breasted Goose + x x VU x X Botaurus stellaris Ardeidae Graet Bittern + + x x x X Charadrius dubius Charadriidae Little Ringed Plover + + x xx x Xx Ciconia nigra Ciconiidae Black stork + + xxx x x Xx Cinclus cinclus Cinclidae Dipper + Pelecanus onocrotalus Pelicanidae Great white pelican + + xx x x X Pelecanus crispus Pelicanidae Dalmatian Pelican + + xx x VU x Xx Phalacrocorax pygmeus Phalacrocoracidae Pygmy cormorant + xx x LR x X Acrocephalus paludicola Sylviidae Aquatic warbler + x xx VU x X Ardea cinerea Ardeidae Gray Heron + xx xx x X Grus sp. Gruidae Crane + + xxx xxx xx Xx

Liparis loeselii Orchidacae Fen Orchid + x xx xx Xxx Clematis integrifolia Ranunculaceae + + x x x Xxx Populus nigra Salicaceae Black Poplar + + + xxx xxx xxx Xx Myricaria germanica Tamaricaceae German tamarisk + + xx xxx x Xx Tamarix ramosissima Tamaricaceae Tamarisc + + xx xxx x Xx Trapa natans Trapaceae Water chesnut + ? + x xxx xxx Xx Nymphoides peltata Menyanthaceae Floating Heart + x xx x Xx

Proteus anguinus Proteidae Olm + x xx VU x Xx Triturus cristatus Salamandridae Reat, Warty newt + x x LR x Xx Salamandra salamandra Salamandridae Fire Salamander + x x x Xx Bombina bombina Bombinatoridae Toad + xx xx LR x X Bombina sp. Bombinatoridae + xx xx x Xx Rana sp./Hyla sp. Ranidae/Hylidae + xx xx x X

Margaritifera margaritifera Unionidae Freshwater Pearl Mussel + + + + x xxx EN xx Xx Margaritifera auricularia Unionidae Spengler's Freshwater Mussel + + + + x xxx CR x Xx Unio crassus Unionidae + + + + x xxx LR x Xx Hirudo medicinalis Hirudinidae Medicinal leech + + x x DD x X Myxas glutinosa Lymnaeidae Glutinous Snail +

Astacus astacus Decapoda Noble Crayfish + x xx VU xxx Xxx Lepidurus apus Triopsidae Tapote Shrims + x xx x X

Acipenser ruthenus Acipenseridae Sterlet + + + x xxx VU xxx Xxx Acipenser sturio Acipenseridae Common Sturgeon + + + x xxx CR xxx Xxx Alosa alosa Clupeidae + + x xx DD x X Alosa pontica Clupeidae + + x xx DD xx X Salmo sp. Salmonidae + + + xx xxx xxx Xxx Salmo trutta Salmonidae Trout + + + xx xxx xxx Xxx Umbra krameri Umbridae European Mudminnow + xx xx VU x X Lethenteron sp. Petromyzonidae Lampreys + xx xx x X Abramis ballerus Cyprinidae Abramis, Bream xx xx x X

Lycaena dispar Lycaenidae Large copper + x xx LR x Xxx Gomphus flavipes Gomphidae Dragonfly + + x xxx x Xxx Onychogomphus uncatus Gomphidae Dragonfly + + x xx x Xxx

72 13. Literature

· Askew, R.R. (1988): The Dragonflies of Europe. Harley books. Colchester. UK · BirdLife (1993): Report to the EEA-TTF by BirdLife International, June 1993. Cambridge · Corbett, K. (1989): Conservation of European Reptiles and Amphibians. On behalf the Conservation Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica, Christopher Helm, London · Council of Europe (1998): Amphibians and Reptiles; Conservation management of species and habitats. Planning and Management Series, No. 4. · Council of Europe (1992): Threatened non-marine molluscs of Europe. Nature and Conservation, No. 64. · Council of Europe (1996): Background information an invertebrates of the Habitat Directive and the Bern Convention. Nature and environment, No. 81. · Council of Europe (1996): Management of the beaver (Castor fiber) towards restoration of its former distribution and ecological function in Europe. · De Meulenaer, T. & Raymakers, C.(?): Sturgeons of the Caspian Sea and the international trade in caviar. TRAFFIC office, Europe. · Eder, E. & Hoedl, W. (1998): Flußkrebse Österreichs. Staphia 58, Nr. 137. Linz · Environmental Assessment Report (1999): Environment in the European Union at the turn of the Century, No 2 · Europe’s Environment (1995): The Dobrís Assessment. EEA. Copenhagen · Europe’s Environment (1998): The Second Assessment. EEA. Copenhagen · Freese, C. (1996): The commercial, consumptive use of wild species: managing it for the benefit if biodiversity. WWF Discussion paper · Gasc, J.-P., Cabela, A., Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J., Dolmen, D,. Grossenbacher, K., Haffner, P., Lescure, J., Martens, H., Martínez Rica, J.P., Maurin, Hs., Oliveira, M.E., Sofianidou, T.S., Veith, M. and Zuiderwijk, A. (Eds) (1997). Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles in Europe. Societas Europaea Herpetologica and Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle . (IEGB/SPN), Paris. · Hagemeijer, E. J. M. & Blair, M. J. (1997): The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T & A D Poyser, London · Heath, J. (1981): Threatened Rhopalocera (butterflies) in Europe. Nature and Environment Series No. 23. Council of Europe, Strasbourg

73 · Heath, J. (1981): Threatened Rhopalocera (butterflies)in Europe. Nature and Environment Series No. 23. Council of Europe, Strasbourg · Heinze & de Vries (1998) in :Geburek, Th. & Heinze, B. (Hrsg) (1998): Erhaltung genetischer ressourcen im Wald – Normen, Programme, Maßnahmen. Ecomend Verlagsgesellschaft, Landsberg. · Heinze, B. (1998): Molekulargenetische Unterscheidung und Identifizierung von Schwarzpappel und Hybridpappeln. FBVA-Berichte; Schriftenreihe der Forstlichen Bundesversuchsanstalt. Nr. 105 · IUCN (1996): Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. · Kruuk, H. (1995): Wild otters: predation and populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford. · Kuzmin, S. L. (1995): Die Amphibien Rußlands und angrenzender Gebiete. Westarp Wissenschaften and Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Magdeburg. · Langton, T. & Burton, J.A. (1997): Amphibians and reptiles. Conservation management of species and habitats. Council of Europe Publishing. Planning and Management Series, No. 4. · Mac Gillivray, A. (1995): Environmental measures, indicator for the UK environment. · Maitland, P.S. (1977). Freshwater Fishes of Britain and Europe. Hamlyn, London. · Maitland, P.S. (1986) Conservation of threatened fish in Europe. Council of Europe, Strasbourg · Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 66 · Maitland, S. P. (1994): Conservation of threatened freshwater fish in Europe. Nature and environment, No. 46 · Mather, R. & Worah, S. (1998): Aspects of Monitoring & Evaluation: Selected Indicators: A guideline for the WWF Asia/Pacific Programme · Müller, G. (1987): Schildkröten. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart · Müller, H. (1987): Fische Europas. Neumann Verlag, Leipzig. · Murphy, K. J.; Castella, E.; Clement, B.; Hills, J. M.; Obrdlik, P.; Pulford, I. D.; Schneider, E.; Speight, M. C. D. (1994): Biotic indicators of riverine wetland ecosystem functioning. In: Mitsch, W. J. (1994): Global wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier Science B.V. · Nöllert, A.; Nöllert, Ch. (1992): Die Amphibien Europas. Kosmos Verlag. Stuttgart

74 · Olschowy, G. (1985): Warum Artenschutz? Gutachtliche Stellungnahme und Ergebnisse eines Kolloquiums des Deutschen Rates für Landespflege. In: Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Rates für Landespflege, pp 537 – 651, Heft 46. Bonn · Raymarkers, C. (1998): CITES awareness for traders in sturgeon products. Progress Report. TRAFFIC Europe. · RIVM (1992): The Environment of Europe: a Global Prospective. National Institute of Public Health and Environment Protection, Bilthoven · Scott, D. A. (1982): Managing wetlands and birds. International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Glasgow · Smit, C.J. & Wijngaarden, A. van (1981): Threatened Mammals in Europe, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden. · Smit, C.J. & Wijngaarden, A. van (1981): Threatened Mammals in Europe, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden. · Speight, M.C.D. (1989): Saproxylic Invertebrates and their Conservation. Nature and Environment No. 42, Council of Europe, Strasbourg · Suhling, F. & Muller, O. (1996): Die Flußjungfern Europas – Gomphidae. Die Neue Brehm Bücherei 628. · Tucker, G. M. & Heath, M. F. (1995): Birds in Europe. Their Conservation Status. BirdLife International. Cambridge · Tucker, M.; Heath, M. (1994). Birds in Europe. BirdLife International. Cambridge, UK. · van Tol, J. & Verdonk, M.J. (1988): The protection of Dragonflies (Odonata) and their biotopes. Nature and Environment series. Council of Europe, Strasbourg · Walter, K. S. & Gillett, H. J. [eds] (1997): 1997 IUCN red List of Threatened Plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. · Watson, J.A.A. & Conrick, D.L. (1982): Effect of sewage effluents on dragonflies (Odonata) of Bulimba Creek. Brisbane. Aus. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 33. · Wells, S.M. & Chatfield, J.E. (1992): Threatened non-marine Molluscs of Europe. Nature and Environment Series No. 64, Council of Europe, Strasbourg · WWF Scotland factsheet on Beavers · WWF strategy to conserve freshwater ecosystems in the Africa and Madagascar region, 1997

75 The WWF European Freshwater Programme’s overall goal is WWF International to conserve and restore the functions and integrity of European Freshwater Programme freshwater ecosystems for the benefit of all life. c/o WWF-Denmark WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s Ryesgade 3F natural environment and to build a future in which humans live DK-2200 Copenhagen N in harmony with nature, by: Denmark - conserving the world’s biological diversity - ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is Tel: + 45 3524 7842 sustainable Fax: + 45 3524 7869 - promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful [email protected] consumption. www.panda.org/europe/freshwater

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