FRENCH TALES: ESSAYS ON A MAJOR LITERARY TRADITION

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Introduction 1 Selected Bibliography 6 Selected Filmography 14 About the Authors 16 section i: history of the french fairy tales 19

Robert Darnton, Peasants Tell Tales: The Meaning of the Mother Goose 20

Dorothy Thelander, Mother Goose and Her Goslings: The of 38

Louis XIV as Seen Through the section ii: 61

Charles Perrault, Little Red Riding Hood 62

Catherine Orenstein, The Grandmother’s Tale 65

Graham Anderson, Butchering Girls: Red Riding Hood and 74 section iii: bluebeard 87

Charles Perrault, Bluebeard 88

Maria Tatar, Monstrous Wives: Bluebeard as Criminal and Cultural Hero 92

Verena Kast, On the Problem of the Destructive Animus 109 iv | French Fairy Tales: Essays on a Major Literary Tradition section iv: the in the woods 117

Charles Perrault, The Sleeping Beauty in the Woods 118

Carolyn Fay, Sleeping Beauty Must Die: The Plots of Perrault’s “La Belle 124

au bois dormant.” section v: donkey skin and 139

Charles Perrault, Donkey Skin 140

Charles Perrault, Cinderella, or the Glass Slipper 146

Bettina Knapp, Donkey-Skin: An Adolescent’s Struggle Against Incest and for 151

Independence

Anne E. Duggan., Women Subdued: The Abjectification and Purification of 163

Female Characters in Perrault’s Tales

Belinda Stott, Cinderella the Strong and Reader Empowerment 176 section vi: the master cat, or 187

Charles Perrault, The Master Cat, or Puss in Boots 188

Louis Marin, Puss-In Boots: Powers of Signs – Signs of Power 192 section vii: riquet with the tuft 203

Charles Perrault, Riquet with the Tuft 204

Catherine Bernard, Riquet with the Tuft 209 section viii: women writers of fairy tales 215

Elizabeth Wanning Harries, Twice Upon a Time: Women Writers and the 216

History of the Fairy Tale Contents | v section ix: the blue bird and the white cat 223

Madame d’Aulnoy, The Blue Bird 224

Madame d’Aulnoy, The White Cat 233

Marcy Farrell, The Heroine’s Violent Compromise: Two Fairy Tales by 241

Madame d’Aulnoy

Holly Tucker, Like Mother. Like Daughter: Maternal Cravings and 249

Birthmarks in the Fairy Tales of Madame d’Aulnoy section x: 261

Madame Leprince de Beaumont, Beauty and the Beast 262

Jerry Griswold, Among the Critics: The Meaning of Beauty and the Beast 270

Mark Axelrod, Beauties and their Beasts & Other Motherless Tales from 279

the Wonderful World of Walt Disney for my daughter, Anna INTRODUCTION

This collection of essays is an exploration of a major French literary tradition still greatly influential in modern life, literature, and films. The study of fairy tales has benefited from a wide variety of approaches. Sociologists, anthropologists, literary critics, psychologists, and historians have all shown in their own informed ways the importance of fairy tales as a genre, as well as their complexi- ties. Choosing which essays to include in this anthology was not an easy task, and omissions are to be expected. I have given preference to the most recent and, at times, most provocative scholarship on French fairy tales. One of my goals has been to introduce American readers to previously unknown or lesser-known French fairy tales. Fairy tales have a long history. In classical Antiquity, “old wives’ tales” already played an impor- tant role in children’s lives. Passed on from one generation to the next, they were meant to entertain and to educate. In Book II of the Republic, Plato conceded that stories told to children may contain some truth and, as such, be included in education. For Plato, fictions directed at children should be closely monitored; anything gloomy or blatantly untrue, such as , giants, and magicians, should be eliminated; and lies have no place in tales told to the “too easily molded” children.1 It is dubious that what Plato considered lies were perceived as such by the generation of women who recounted these tales. As many authors included in this anthology will attest, “old wives’ tales”, folktales, and/or fairy tales reveal something profoundly true about human nature. If children are so fascinated by fairy tales, it is in part because they are able to recognize themselves in them. The unloved child, the princess, the clever cat, and even the terrible , are all manifestations of who children at times may feel themselves to be. In that sense, fairy tales act as children’s mirrors, or to quote Horace’s famous definition of literature, de te fabula narratur [the story applies to you], fairy tales children hear or read are always about them.

1 Plato, Republic, Book II. 377b.

1 2 | French Fairy Tales: Essays on a Major Literary Tradition

Because storytelling is so closely associated with women and domesticity, it is not surprising that tales meant for children came to be linked to the traditional feminine activities of weaving, knitting, and spinning. This is well exemplified in everyday language in expressions such as “spinning a tale,” “weaving a plot,” and “losing or finding one’s thread,” to name a few. Through the figures of the weaving Fates, the close connection between storytelling and human lives is made very clear. In Greek and Latin mythology, the three Fates weave the thread of life until the time comes for one of them to cut it. It is worth recalling here the etymological root of the word “fate” from the past participle of the Latin verb fari, which means to speak.2 The Fates are those who have the power to “speak” women’s and men’s lives. For a long time, female storytellers will also “speak” their stories, using their voice to transmit the tales that they themselves once heard. During the reign of Louis XIV, several of these orally transmitted “old wives’ tales” were put into writing. As Jack Zipes and others have shown, the bourgeois and highly educated Charles Perrault played a major role in “civilizing” the oral tales. One of the most prominent authors of fairy tales of that period, Charles Perrault respectfully acknowledged his debt to the nannies, mothers, and grandmothers who had kept these stories alive. This said, Perrault made sure readers understood that his tales were not exactly the same as those in Mother Goose. Both were meant to please, but his contain a more serious component.3 Following each of Perrault’s fairy tales, a Moralité written in verse expresses the lessons one should have learned from the reading. Not surprisingly, these lessons reflect the social values of the Christian upper class for which Perrault was writing. “Written in a period of absolutism when France was setting standards of civilité for the rest of Europe,” Zipes remarks, “fairy tales became vehicles for the dissemination of male-oriented Christian definition of civil order that permeated all aspects of social life at the time.”4 How the France of Louis XIV informed the representation of nobility, religion, marriage, and family in seventeenth-century fairy tales is the topic of Dorothy Thelander’s article reproduced in this anthology. Most of the essays therein argue for a contextual reading of French fairy tales. However, the particular aspect of seventeenth-century Old Regime deemed significant varies from one author to the next. For the historian Robert Darnton, for example, fairy tales reflect not so much the values of the French upper class as those of the peasants. Intended for peasants, Darnton writes, French oral tales, upon which many seventeenth-century literary fairy tales are based, are not simply works of imagination but are expressions of the peasants’ hopes and struggles. While supporting Darnton’s historical reading, Catherine Orenstein advocates for a broader approach. She revisits The Grandmother’s Tale, a folktale version of Little Red Riding Hood analyzed by Darnton in his essay. Whereas Darnton focuses on the unsavory details contained in this version (cannibalism; defecation; promiscuity) to support his theory, Orenstein stresses the importance of examining the tale’s folkloric

2 Marina Warner 1994. From the Beast to the Blonde. On Fairy Tales and their Tellers. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 39. 3 On this issue, see Louis Marin’s seminal essay, “Les enjeux d’un frontispice.” L’Esprit Créateur, vol. 27, 3 (1987): 49–57. 4 Jack Zipes. 2006. Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion. The Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization. New York: Routledge. 9. Introduction | 3 patterns, contending that only by looking at oral and literary tales’ global pattern can we account for their broader, older, and deeper meanings. The folklorist and literary critic Ruth Bottigheimer questions the belief that Charles Perrault and many of his contemporaries obtained their stories from peasant women. Instead of looking for oral antecedents for French seventeenth-century fairy tales, she argues, scholars should focus on their literary antecedents, most particularly on Giambattista Basile and Giovan Francesco Straparola’s influential books of fairy tales published in Italy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.5 In her essay included here, Elizabeth Wanning Harries discusses how seventeenth-century French women writers of fairy tales contested the prevailing representation of the old and uneducated women as principal transmitters of tales. Rebelling against the idea that fairy tales are linked to naiveté, domesticity, and orality, they represented themselves as upper-class, sophisticated writers of fairy tales who wrote for an equally feminine, aristocratic audience. The French fairy tales considered in this anthology were all written between 1690 and 1715— excepting Madame Leprince de Beaumont’s Beauty and the Beast, published in 1757. It is worth mentioning that it was women who wrote the vast majority of French fairy tales during the seven- teenth century, making Charles Perrault an exception. French aristocratic women, and sometimes men, met in the salons to exchange ideas and to discuss the tales they had written. In an era of absolutism, the salons were a women’s arena, distinct and separate from the royal court, where they could more freely express their ideas and question social values. Lewis C. Seifert was one of the first scholars to consider seventeenth-century women’s attraction to fairy tales within the historical and literary context of the time.6 Elizabeth Wanning Harries uses Seifert’s scholarship to further examine French women’s contribution to the genre with a special emphasis on the differences between their and Perrault’s fairy tales. In her essay on the prolific writer of fairy tales Madame d’Aulnoy, Marcy Farrell explores the various strategies and compromises the female characters have to make in order to survive in a male-dominated world, and Holly Tucker shows how Madame d’Aulnoy’s and Mlle de la Force’s tales express the ambivalence seventeenth-century women felt toward motherhood. For many women writers of the time, fairy tales were a means to criticize the role society expected them to play, and to create visions of a better world. How marriage trapped or enslaved women was an issue often addressed in their stories. Contrary to Perrault, many women writers expressed their doubts concerning the heroines’ hasty marriages, proposing instead a long period of courtship during which men and women got to know each other. In their views, good marriages are based on mutual respect and understanding, and need to be nurtured. In several of the fairy tales written by women, the traditional ending “they lived happily ever after” is either absent or else qualified. InThe Discreet Princess, written by Mlle L’Héritier, for example, the tale notes that the prince and princess after their marriage retained the “greatest tenderness for each other and spent a long succession of beautiful days

5 Ruth Bottigheimer. 2009. Fairy Tales: A New History. New York: Sate University. 6 Lewis C. Seifert. 1996. Fairy Tales. Sexuality and Gender in France, 1690–1715: Nostalgic Utopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See also Lewis C. Seifert and Donna C. Stanton, eds. 2010. Enchanted Eloquence. Fairy Tales by Seventeenth-Century French Women Writers. Toronto: Center for Reformation and Renaissance Studies. 4 | French Fairy Tales: Essays on a Major Literary Tradition in happiness.”7 In the Blue Bird, by Madame d’Aulnoy, the happy marriage is the result of the couple together overcoming many years of hardship. And in Madame de Murat’s Palace of Revenge, the prince and princess who are at first extremely happy together come to realize that “even bliss human heart could tire,”8 and that marriage is far from being always idyllic. To be fair, not all literary fairy tales written by women unsettle the seventeenth-century male definition of female identity. The supe- riority of men over women, for example, is rarely questioned, and heroines will sooner or later fulfill the role given to them by society. As Lewis C. Seifert succinctly puts it, women’s tales simultaneous express “resistance to and complicity with patriarchal constructions of gender identities.”9 Close reading of several of the most famous fairy tales is well represented in this anthology. Louis Marin considers the signs of power and the civilizing process in The Master Cat, or Puss in Boots. Graham Anderson stresses the importance of looking back to classical mythology to understand fairy tales exhibiting cruelty against young women such as Little Red Riding Hood and Bluebeard. Carolyn Fay convincingly identifies substitution as the organizing principle of Sleeping Beauty; and Jerry Griswold introduces readers to different critical models used by scholars to analyze Beauty and the Beast. Even though Europeans have known Charles Perrault’s Donkey Skin and Bluebeard since child- hood, Americans have for the most part never heard of these tales. One could explain this discrepancy by the fact that their storyline involves respectively a father’s incestuous desire for his daughter and a male character who happens to be a of women. In the seventeenth century, Donkey Skin epitomized the genre of the fairy tale. The French expression “peau d’âne” like in “entendre ou écrire un peau d’âne” [to listen to or write a Donkey Skin] was synonymous to “fairy tale.” I have chosen two essays to introduce Perrault’s Donkey Skin. The first, by Bettina Knapp, analyzes the tale from a Jungian perspective, and the second, by Anne Duggan, calls attention to the subjugation and abjectification of female characters in several of Perrault’s fairy tales including Donkey Skin and Cinderella. Both tales have much in common. Scholars have often tried to explain the readers’ fascination for innocent and persecuted heroines such as Donkey Skin and Cinderella.10 Included here is an essay by Belinda Stott, which offers a different interpretation of Cinderella as a paradigm of female strength and endurance. In her reading of Charles Perrault’s Blue Beard, the Jungian psychologist Verena Kast discusses the appeal that rich and dangerous men like Bluebeard have on young and inexperienced women, and

7 Marie-Jeanne L’Héritier. The Discreet Princess, or the Adventures of Finette. Translated by Jack Zipes. Beauties, Beasts, and Enchantment. 2009. New York: Crescent Moon Publishing. 92. 8 Henriette Julie de Murat, The Palace of Revenge. Translated by Jack Zipes. 141. 9 Lewis C. Seifert. Fall 1990. “Female Empowerment and its Limits: The Conteuses’ Active Heroines.” Cahiers du Dix- Septième: An Interdisciplinary Journal 4.2: 28. Quoted in Tatiana Korkeeva. September 2012. “Rival Sisters and Vengeance Motifs in the contes de fées of d’Aulnoy, L’Héritier and Perrault.” MLN 127 (4) : 732. 10 See W.F.H. Nicolaisen January 1993. “Why tell Stories about Innocent, Persecuted Heroines.” Western 52 (1): 61–71. Vera Sonja Maass. 2009. The Cinderella Test: Would you Really Want the Shoe to Fit: Subtle Ways Women are Seduced and Socialized into Servitude and Stereotypes. Santa Barbara: Praeger Books. Introduction | 5 how they can free themselves from these men’s destructive power.11 In “Monstrous Wives,” Maria Tatar critiques the literary and filmic representations of Bluebeard not as a cold-blooded serial killer, but as a victim of his wicked wives. Their infidelities, curiosity, and duplicitous behavior fully justify their killing by Bluebeard. During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, this disturbing tale has been made into films (the most recent one Barbe Bleue appeared in France in 2009), music (Béla Bartok’s 1911 opera, Bluebeard’s Castle), and fictions (,, 1979). In addition to critical essays, this anthology contains some of Jack Zipes’ beautiful translations of seventeenth-century French fairy tales. Donkey Skin and Bluebeard are reproduced here in full. Perrault’s original versions of Little Red Riding Hood and Sleeping Beauty included herein will sur- prise, and perhaps even shock, many readers. Finally, translations of The Blue Bird and The White Cat by Madame d’Aulnoy as well as Catherine Bernard’s version of Riquet with the Tuft will give readers a chance to acquaint themselves with fairy tales written by French women during the seventeenth century. It would be a mistake to overlook the fact that Walt Disney’s animated movies based on French fairy tales have shaped the way most Americans think about these tales. As a teacher of fairy tales, I have had not only to come to terms with this fact, but also to try to find ways to utilize students’ beliefs that Disney’s versions of fairy tales are, indeed, the “real” ones.12 As a point of reference, Disney’s movies have proven to be very useful. Although at first shocked by the differences between Perrault and Disney’s versions of Sleeping Beauty, for example, students came to realize that fairy tales are a very adaptive genre. They discovered that to make sense of fairy tales, one has to consider the time and place in which they were created, as well as the audience for which they were intended. This is exactly what Robert Darnton prescribed for the study of French fairy tales in his essay mentioned above. Numerous books and articles have recently been published on Walt Disney’s rendering of fairy tales. Critics from films, literary and cultural studies have analyzed Disney’s movies and their effects on global culture using different, and often complementary, perspectives. The pioneer fairy- tale scholar Jack Zipes was the first to discuss the “spell” casted by Disney on our understanding of fairy tales, and how to break it13. Included here is Mark Axelrod’s article on Walt Disney’s version of Beauty and the Beast and other French fairy tales with an emphasis on the motherless heroines. I offer this anthology as an invitation to discover new fairy tales and to revisit and reevaluate the ones readers may have heard or read in their childhood. May the reader experience them anew with a deeper and richer sense of wonder.14

11 See also Clarissa Pinkola Estés. 1995. “Stalking the Intruder: The Beginning Initiation.” Women who Run with the Wolves. New York: Ballantine Books. 35–70. 12 On this topic, I recommend reading Naomi Wood, “Domesticating Dreams in Walt Disney’s Cinderella.” The Lion and the Unicorn 20.1 (1996): 25–49. 13 Jack Zipes, “Breaking the Disney Spell.” Jack Zipes, Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells, eds. 1995. From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture. Indiana University Press:21–42. 14 As always, I am grateful to Joseph McCreery for his loving support. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Zipes, Jack. Why Fairy Tales Stick: The Evolution and Relevance of a Genre. New York: Routledge, 2006. SELECTED FILMOGRAPHY

Barbe Bleue. Georges Méliès, 1901.

Beauty and the Beast. Walt Disney, 1991.

Bluebeard. Donald Bethelme, 1987.

Bluebeard. Edward Dmytryk, 1972.

Cinderella (Cendrillon). Georges Méliès, 1889.

Cinderella. Kenneth Branagh, 2015.

Cinderella. Walt Disney, 1950.

Donkey Skin (Peau d’Âne). Albert Capellani, 1908.

Ever After. Andy Tennant, 1998.

Into the Woods. Rob Marshall, 2014.

La Barbe Bleue. Catherine Breillat, 2009.

La Belle et la Bête. Christophe Gans, 2014.

La Belle et la Bête. Jean Cocteau, 1946.

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La Véritable histoire du Chat Botté. Pascal Hérold, 2008.

La Véritable histoire du Petit Chaperon Rouge. Todd Edwards, 2004.

Little Red Riding Hood. David Kaplan, 1997.

Maleficent. Robert Stromberg, 2014.

Peau d’Âne. Jacques Demy, 1970.

Red Riding Hood. Catherine Hardwicke, 2010.

Sleeping Beauty. Walt Disney, 1959.

The Company of Wolves. Neil Jordan, 1985. ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Charles Perrault (1628–1703) was born in Paris into a wealthy bourgeois family. Until 1683, he worked as Jean-Batiste Colbert’s secretary who appointed him Controller-general of Royal buildings, a very important position under Louis XIV. Perrault sided with the Moderns in the so-called Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns. The Ancients found their inspiration in the literature of Antiquity whereas the Moderns found theirs in the literature originated from France. An accomplished writer, he was elected to the prestigious French Academy in 1663. Perrault published his first tale, Grisélidis, in 1691. A collection of his fairy tales appeared in 1697 under the name of his , Pierre d’Armancourt.

Catherine Bernard (1662–1712) was born in . Related to Racine and Fontenelle, she was introduced to the most important Parisian literary salons of the time. Bernard published several tragedies, novels, and poems. Her tragedies were very successful. Her first play written in 1689, Léodamie, was performed twenty times in Paris. Not wealthy, Bernard depended on patrons to sup- port her. She never married. The fairy tale included in this Anthology, Riquet à la Houppe, appeared in 1696 as part of her novel, Ines de Cordoue.

Marie-Catherine d’Aulnoy (1650–1705) was born in Normandy into an aristocratic family. At the age of sixteen, she married the baron d’Aulnoy who was forty-six years old. By all accounts, the marriage was a disaster. After two unsuccessful attempts to have her husband killed, she briefly took refuge in a convent. Later, she supposedly traveled to England, Holland, and Spain at times ac- companied by one of her lovers. In 1685 she moved back to Paris where she hosted one of the most influential literary salons. Madame d’Aulnoy was a prolific writer. In 1690, she published L’Ile de la Félicité, a fairy tale included in her novel, l’Histoire d’Hippolyte, Comte de Douglas. Her most famous fairy tales include The White Cat, The Blue Bird, and the Green Serpent.

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Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont (1711–1780) was born in Rouen. She married M. de Beaumont who turned out to be a gambler and a philanderer. The marriage was annulled three years later. To support herself, she worked as a governess for British aristocratic families. While in England, she began her remarkable career as a writer. Highly educated, Madame Leprince de Beaumont wrote several pedagogical essays, novels, and stories in which she stressed the importance of education especially for young girls and women. She published more than seventy books in her lifetime. Madame Leprince de Beaumont’s most famous fairy tale is The Beauty and the Beast published in 1757.