T ANJ A PYNNINEN & SAI V Ä Y R YNEN (editors) VOICES FROM THE NORTH: Calling for Inclusion in Education Conference publication
This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the University of Lapland and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.
Publication produced as a part of A School for All – Development of Inclusive Education project, funded by the EU (Kolarctic ENPI CBC).
VOICES FROM THE NORTH:
Calling for Inclusion in Education Conference publication
Cover: Irma Varrio
University of Lapland
Layout: University of Lapland Printing Centre
Rovaniemi 2015
VOICES FROM THE NORTH: Calling for Inclusion in Education Conference publication
Tanja Pynninen & Sai Väyrynen (editors)
A School for All –
Development of Inclusive Education
1
Contents
Introduction 3
I Inclusive approach and discussion – Key note speeches 6
1. Lani Florian The Inclusive Pedagogical Approach 7 (Summary by Juan Miguel Diaz Castro)
2. Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen Teachers in the changing schools 15 (Summary by Tanja Pynninen)
II School, teachers and inclusion 19
3. Amanda Watkins and Verity Donnelly 20 Teacher education as a critical policy issue across Europe
4. Natalia Flotskaya, Svetlana Bulanova, Olga Volskaya and Zoya Usova 31 The Character of Social Competencies in Inclusive Teachers
5. Yulia Afonkina and Tatiana Kuzmicheva 49 Competence approach to the training the teaching staff for inclusive education
6. Essi Kesälahti, Jenny Siivola and Sai Väyrynen 56 Teachers Supporting the Development of Social Skills
7. Essi Kesälahti 64 Aspects of administrative support in implementing inclusion. A case study of three Finnish comprehensive schools
8. Sai Väyrynen 79 Creating resources for inclusion through school and community collaboration
III Inclusion in practice and different situations 87
9. Hennariikka Kangas and Eija Valanne 88 Promoting well-being in the school community. Reinforcing social inclusion.
2
10. Seppo Karppinen and Timo Latomaa 103 The Quality Criteria of Hospital Education and Further Training of Teachers – Developing the Quality Criteria of Inclusive Teaching in Children’s Hospital Education Schools in Northern Finland
11. Andrey Tikhonov 115 Teacher of English, adaptive computer technologies and independent living skills for children with visual disabilities; disability rights activist
12. Katja Anttila, Kerttu Hakoköngäs and Marja Kärki 125 Learning together. Creating a respective ethos and learning together in primary education.
13. Rauni Äärelä 129 Implementation and characteristics of Sámi language immersion
Writers 139
3
INTRODUCTION
With the view of sharing experiences of inclusive education, particularly from the point of view of the North of Europe and Russia, we are happy to present this collection of papers on theory and practice of inclusive education.
The choice of the name of the conference – Voices from the North: Calling for inclusion in education – was delicate. ‘North’ in the global context is usually used to refer to the rich industrial countries, most of which are above the equator. The countries of the ‘North’ have exerted power in many forms in the societies other than their own. This connotation has reminded us that it is our responsibility to promote inclusive education – the subtitle of the conference – for the sake of equity and equality. Inclusive education is a means to provide access to education for all and a voice for those who have been in the margins of our education systems.
A SCHOOL FOR ALL – project (2012-2014) aims at promoting educational opportunities of persons considered as vulnerable by increasing their access to and participation in society in the North Calotte and North-West Russia. The project develops inclusion in schools and teacher education through school-based development work and research. This objective is promoted by developing training for practicing teachers and providing future teachers with essential competencies for inclusive education. ‘North’, in the context of the project, refers to geographically (and politically) defined north. In local tradition, ‘north’ may stereotypically be seen as a faraway resort of endless forests, hills and swamps, and tourists, where nothing much takes place. In the project we have wanted to challenge such a stereotyped view and taken the challenges of the northern position, long distances and scarce resources in education as an opportunity to understand better the uniqueness of our cultures, and conditions for inclusion. Despite the focus on the northernmost parts of the continent, we believe that the writers of this publication will inspire all those involved in developing inclusive education in other contexts and cultures.
The international conference “Voices from the North: Calling for Inclusion in Education” was held at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi on the 10th - 11th April 2014. The conference gathered together researchers, administrators and practitioners from different countries 4 involved in developing inclusion in their work. This two-day conference addressed inclusive education from the theoretical and practical points of view. The first day was particularly directed to researchers and administrators and the second conference day to schools, teachers, and early childhood educators. During these two days, the conference participants had a chance to hear interesting keynote presentations and take part in research paper sessions, workshops and a panel.
The conference addressed three thematic areas:
1) What accounts for inclusive education? In this theme, different understandings of the concept of inclusive education and values related to inclusion in education were debated. Perspectives to the debate came from different approaches to inclusive education.
2) (Teacher) education for inclusion. This theme focused on theoretical approaches and practical examples, as well as administrative issues, of addressing and responding to diversity in the sites of education across educational levels.
3) Working towards inclusive schools. This theme was explored through experiences in schools.
Keynote speeches were given by Professor Lani Florian, Bell Chair of Education, Moray House School of Education, the University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom and Dr. Tarja Seppälä- Pänkäläinen, school principal of Säynätsalo Comprehensive School in Jyväskylä, Finland, whose mission is to enhance school staff competencies in responding to learner diversity.
At the conference, it was noted that the number of students categorized as having ‘special needs’ seems to have been growing continuously. The legislation and the curriculum have favored integration, and only part of students with ‘special needs’ have been involved in mainstream education. Children, who need help, are often being moved between different classes instead of securing a permanent and safety study circumstances. In the sessions, the conference participants explored what can be seen as the best way to work for the child, the whole school community, and home environment. It was concluded that we should try to move the focus from special education to early support and intervention which should be also taken into attention when training future teachers. Inclusive education is about all learners.
Changing teaching practices may cause tensions between teachers and may affect the whole work environment. Would the teachers have the courage to take a risk and try out something new? Teachers face challenges and dilemmas when using inclusive pedagogy in schools but 5 when they see that new teaching approaches are working out well, good atmosphere usually spreads among teachers and students – in the whole school environment. Open discussion and sharing experiences are crucial. One possibility for sharing experiences and expertise is co- teaching. When teachers have a possibility to co-teach in the classroom it is important that the teachers share a common base of values. It is important for teachers to be emphatic and tolerant towards every student. Furthermore, teachers should learn to focus on all learners instead of most or some, yet each student should also be seen as an individual.
Inclusion does not limit itself to basic education. We have seen recently encouraging examples of inclusion in tertiary and adult education. Continuous efforts are still needed to ensure that more inclusive curricula will be developed for further education. In adult education, teachers face challenges with multicultural issues, multidisciplinarity, wide ranges of age, and diversity in learning styles and abilities as a consequence of increasing mobility of students and labourforce. The conference participants discussed vividly the question: should all teachers pay a lot more of attention to global activities nowadays? Are we already assuming that all teachers are prepared for this?
The conference participants acknowledged that there are differences between countries on how to solve issues related to student diversity at schools and institutions of education. They were interested to hear experiences from others, and how to develop their own activities in their own countries and schools.
In this Conference publication, we have collected some of the research paper and workshop presentations by participants who accepted our invitation to contribute to this publication. The keynote speeches have been summarized from the presentations, with approval by the speakers. Some of the papers have been authored by the presenters by themselves, and a few papers translated into English from the original contributions. We have made an attempt to harmonize the use of concepts and scientific traditions across different contexts. However, we acknowledge that these differences exist, and wanted to respect, as much as possible, the original version of the text. We hope the Conference publication will provide an enriching glace at work that aims to make inclusion happen in the North of Europe and Russia.
6
I Inclusive approach and discussion
Both conference days started with a keynote speech. The first keynote speaker was Prof. Lani Florian who focused on inclusive pedagogy from a theoretical and philosophical point of view. The summary of Lani Florian’s presentation “The Inclusive Pedagogical Approach has been written by Juan Miguel Diaz Castro. The second summary of keynote speeches is based on Dr Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen’s presentation “Teachers in the changing schools”. She asked: “What kind of teacher is an inclusive teacher?”, and “What is co-operative working environment like?” The summary has been written by Tanja Pynninen.
7
1.
Key note speech
Lani Florian
The Inclusive Pedagogical Approach
The summary of Lani Florian’s key note speech written by:
Juan Miguel Diaz Castro, University of Oulu
In this article, inclusive education is analysed and discussed through general overviews and a review of the research that has been done during these past years. It also presents an overview of some of the most important current issues in inclusive education research and, at the same time, offers some examples to consider the practical implementation of inclusive education in the real world.
High variability of quality and practice in mainstream schools are the main problems when discussing inclusion in education. Lani Florian stressed in her keynote speech at the conference that it is important that through the implementation of inclusive education, the provision could be improved for the benefit of everyone and not just for those who have been identified as students with some “special needs”. She thinks that it is also important to concentrate on some of the major theoretical, conceptual and practical obstacles which hamper the wide implementation of inclusive education across different mainstream schools.
Background
The background research underpinning this approach is described as being long-term, and has been carried out across different local and national contexts. Since it was felt that there was a need to find ways to do things differently, this research focused on the praxis of inclusive pedagogy. Therefore, the research favours case studies where examples of inclusive pedagogy 8 in action can be analysed, with the general aim of looking for possible implications for support services and the guiding principle of finding ways to do things differently.
The main pillars of the research programme address a number of issues which are central to the current debate on inclusive education. This will be seen in more detail later on, but some of these are: Is there such a thing as specialist knowledge as special education? If there is, what precisely are the defining features, what differentiates it from ‘regular’ education? In relation to this, there is also the pressing question of whether or not United Kingdom (UK) data supports or rejects the idea that those in need of inclusive education “hold back” other students. Likewise, the research addresses initial teacher education by pointing out that teachers frequently report not feeling qualified to effectively manage diversity and inclusion. As a way to address this feeling of being underqualified, the research also seeks to explore which teaching strategies help to increase the participation and achievement of all children, including those identified as having special needs or requiring additional support. Finally, it is also pointed out that the professional identity of teachers is central to them valuing their work.
Theoretical Orientation
The theoretical orientation of the research is defined by concerning itself with three main theoretical issues: the concept of inclusion itself, the problem implicit in the idea of ‘additional needs’ and the concept of teacher’s craft knowledge.
The Concept of Inclusion
Lani Florian conducted in the conference that when it comes to the concept of inclusion, it must be remembered that it is a rather elusive and confusing concept. It is essential to define that concept, at least in the context of a given research.
By analysing further the whole concept of inclusion, we will come across these three different but interrelated concepts underpinning the idea of inclusion:
Inclusive education, inclusive practice, and inclusive pedagogy.
9
Inclusive education can be defined as the way, or more generally speaking, the processes which can increase participation and reduce exclusion in educational contexts. For its part, inclusive practice is defined as the concrete actions taken by people in concrete situations. Since inclusive practice holds in whatever people do, there is implicitly a high variability, with the result that anything could be considered ‘inclusion’. Some people, for example, might just change the name from ‘special needs’ to ‘inclusion’ without undergoing any meaningful changes. However, the fact is that there are various ranges of differences in our identities. Finally, inclusive pedagogy is a different way of working. It is based on the beliefs of the teacher, and confirmed both by the acts and the discourses articulated by them.
‘Additional Needs’ – Problem of “Additional Needs”
The second concept would be that of ‘additional needs’ and related topics at issue. Specifically, while the concept of ‘special needs’ has undoubtedly made a significant contribution to the area of study, it also stagnates the discussion and limits what can be achieved in the field. The concept of ‘special needs’ focuses on differences, and it may finally end up reinforcing differences and further isolating those who it tried to help.
Another problematic aspect in special needs is the whole range of Aptitude – Treatment – Interaction (ATI) approaches. The idea of thinking of deficits and compensating for them is often seen as problematic. This approach can be described as old fashioned, very pervasive and with the appeal of neurosciences. We need to address and acknowledge the limits of what we know and do not know in neuroscience.
When it comes to a teacher’s practice, it might be unhelpful to think of education in terms of a curriculum to follow, instead of having inclusion as the very guiding principle of the teacher’s practice. Along these lines, it is important to point out the inherent problems of teacher education when defined in compartmentalized categories, since they tend not to align with differentiated teaching strategies. In general, teachers are trained to teach only the idea of the normal student, a theoretical figure which is homogeneous and ‘kind’.
It is when we think of differences through the lens of the bell curve that the definition of 10
‘standard’ is delineated. The result is that what we do for most children is considered the norm, thereby needing to do something additional for those others that fall elsewhere in the statistics, which is a major obstacle for inclusion.
Thus, from this section of the theoretical framework, we can identify a number of barriers for inclusive practice. First, we have the bell curve way of thinking, which additionally and frequently confuses ‘statistical normal’ with ‘moral good’. Second, we have the concept of the inclusion of specialist knowledge, which is problematic because it strips off inclusive imperatives from other non-specialist teachers. The idea of specialist knowledge is actually quite persistent, its popularity fluctuating like a pendulum. The reasoning justifying specialist knowledge is based on the idea of having similar children together in order to better cater to their needs through very specific expertise. Finally, the existing forms of provision are identified as an obstacle to inclusive practice. There is a need to re-organize teacher education in order to take into account different types of learners.
Teacher’s Craft Knowledge
We address the concept of teacher’s craft knowledge. Here are references from two different definitions:
“(teacher's craft knowledge is) . . . the tacit, schematic, intuitive thinking on which classroom teaching depends” (McIntyre 2005), or
“The knowledge that teachers develop through the processes of reflection and practical problem-solving that they engage in to carry out the demands of their jobs. As such this knowledge is informed by each teacher’s individual way of thinking and knowing” (Cooper and McIntyre, 1996)
Craft knowledge is conceptualized using a social constructivist lens. Knowledge is just not cumulative, but developed through practice and reflection. We talk of “natural born teacher” simply because we lack the language to pin down and specify what it is that good teachers do. Therefore, the main concern of research is to find ways to bridge the gap between teacher’s 11 craft knowledge and the findings from research. How do we take the findings from current research and help teachers to incorporate them into their craft knowledge?
Methodological Approach
The focus of this approach is mainly based on case studies in inclusive schools, as well as on teacher’s craft knowledge of their own inclusive practice. These case studies include both observations and extended interviews, while the main drive is to find specific and concrete examples of successful inclusive practices.
One of the guiding methodological principles comes from Rouse’s (2008) idea of a triangle which has Knowing – Doing – Believing on its corners. The idea is that when two of these corners are in place, the third one will follow. For example, when you have the knowledge and you put it into action, you will start to believe in it; while if you believe in inclusion and have the knowledge, you will put it into practice. Likewise, when you believe in inclusion and you do it, you will end up developing knowledge.
This methodological approach identifies three different strategies to further incorporate inclusive practices: shifting the focus away from differences to the learning of all children; rejecting deterministic beliefs about ability as fixed, as well as the idea that the presence of some holds back the progress of others; and finally, seeing difficulties in learning as challenges for teachers, (not deficits in learners), thereby encouraging the development of new ways of working.
Shifting focus
Teaching should always concern itself with the learning of all children. Following this argument, Lani Florian stressed that we see the need to stop focusing on differences and only focusing on how we can ensure the learning of all children, always.
We can highlight suggestions, for example, creating available learning opportunities sufficiently for everyone, so that all can participate in classroom life. Similarly, the core idea is to extend 12 what is ordinarily available for all learners (in a rich learning community), rather than using only teaching and learning strategies which are suitable for most, alongside something ‘additional’ or ‘different’ addressed to those who experience difficulties. In this regard, it is noted that there is a need to focus on what is to be taught (and how!), rather than who is to learn it. Differences are part of the human condition, and teaching is always about catering to each learner’s individual way of thinking and learning. These can be subtle differences, but they are also powerful ones since they present the notion that inclusive education is not “extra” work; it is just part of the teaching job from the beginning.
Rejecting determinism
The way of thinking associated with the concept of the bell curve conceptualises ability as something fixed, while at the same time reinforcing the idea that the presence of some holds back others. There is a way to reject these deterministic beliefs of difference. There is a need to shift the lens and to focus on the positive. Instead of defining everything as deficits, focus on what children can do; for example, by acknowledging that all children will make progress, learn and achieve, and that assisting with that progress is what the teaching profession is about.
To support these processes, it could be useful to use formative assessment to support learning, or to group children in order to support everyone’s learning rather than relying on grouping by different levels of ability only.
Away from deficit-theorizing difficulties in learning
According to Lani Florian, there is a need to change the focus in order to see difficulties in learning as challenges for teachers rather than deficits in learners. A result of this way of looking at difficulties in learning is an encouraging argument to develop new ways of working to support the learning of all children. Another important implication would be to work with and through other adults in the classrooms who respect the dignity of learners as full members of the community in order to share experiences, as well as making a commitment to continue professional development as a way of developing more inclusive practices. 13
Findings of the Case Studies – Conclusions
The research outlined case studies on inclusive practice and on teacher’s craft knowledge. The aim is to find ways to understand the process and the contexts in which inclusive practices are implemented. The main findings of the research include the evidence that teachers who use inclusive pedagogy face many challenges and dilemmas. They may engage in varied and contradictory practices because schools are hostile environments for inclusion. School policies and organization, as well as schedules, can be rigid and leave too little space to manoeuvre. A need to focus on the interaction between all members of the school community was identified. The data also suggested that grouping by age might hamper practices involving mixed ability grouping. Significantly, the research findings also present the idea that inclusive pedagogy is defined not in the teachers’ choice of strategies but in their actual use of them – focusing on all learners, rather than ‘most and some’. Developing this notion further, we can describe a dichotomy formed by the juxtaposition of two different approaches: ‘everybody’ versus ‘most and some’ approaches.
On one hand, we have the ‘most and some’ approach, which is typically illustrated by the additional needs approach to diversity. Implicit in its very definition is the idea that “normal is good”, so its counterpart is to flip this notion around.
The inclusive pedagogical approach emphasizes the idea of ‘everybody’ as defined by the complex, multi-layered and various differences that form our identities. This approach is done in a way that does not seek to isolate or reinforce differences. Instead, it asks “what are we doing for everybody”, and then looks for ways through which it could be extended for as many learners as possible.
The relations and connections between people are tacitly embedded in the discourses articulated by “everybody is” as opposed to “most/some are”. Once again, the emphasis is placed on the importance of seeing difficulties in learning as challenges and dilemmas that are a natural part of teaching, rather than theorizing them as deficits in students.
We face the urgent need to transcend the constraints of the context by theorizing all the potentialities and possibilities of inclusion in order to move forward. We all share the immense 14 responsibility to think differently about the future.
References
Cooper, P., & McIntyre, D. (1996). The importance of power-sharing in classroom learning. In M. Hughes (Ed.), Teaching and Learning in Changing Times. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bridging the gap between research and practice. Cambridge Journal of Education: Special Issue: Teachers' Good Practice and Research (Guest editors: Donald McIntyre and Jean Rudduck), 35, 357-382.
Rouse, M. 2008. Developing inclusive practice. A Role for Teachers and Teacher Education? Education In The North, University of Aberdeen. Issue: 16, Vol: 1 (2008).
For further reading
Black-Hawkins, K. & Florian, L. (2012) Classroom teachers’ craft knowledge of their inclusive practice. Teachers and Teaching 18(5), 567-584. DOI:10.1080/13540602.2012.709732
Florian, L. (2014) What counts as evidence of inclusive practice? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 29(3), 286-294, DOI:10.1080/08856257.2014.933551
Florian, L. & Rouse, M. (2014). International perspectives on effective inclusive schools: What can be known about effective inclusive schools. In J. McLeskey, N, L. Waldron, F. Spooner, & B. Algozzine (Eds.). Handbook of Research and Practice for Effective Inclusive Schools, 507-20. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis.
Florian, L. & Spratt, J. (2013) Enacting inclusion: A framework for interrogating inclusive practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28(2), 119-135. DOI:10.1080/08856257.2013.778111
Florian, L. & Black-Hawkins, K. (2011) Exploring Inclusive Pedagogy. British Educational Research Journal, 37(5), 813-828. DOI: 10.1080/01411926.2010.501096
Spratt, J. & Florian, L. (2014) Developing and using a framework for gauging inclusive pedagogy in new and experienced teachers. In T. Loreman & C. Forlin (Eds.). International Perspectives on Inclusive Education, Volume 3, pp. 263-278. Measuring Inclusive Education, Melbourne, Emerald.
15
2.
Key note speech
Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen
Teachers in the Changing Schools
The summary of Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen’s key note speech written by:
Tanja Pynninen, University of Lapland
Schools are part of their immediate surroundings and teachers are seen as a part of the community. Each school community has to build their own ways to act and develop their practice within the framework of inclusive school culture (Picture 1). Development and leadership, operational environment, education arrangements and expertise of teachers are seen as key dimensions for inclusive school culture. When thinking about school development processes for inclusion, we need to look at school cultures as a whole.
Picture 1. Dimensions of inclusive school culture. 16
Co-operative development and leadership cultures characterise schools that nurture participation and diversity of voices. Also ‘learning by doing’ is important in these schools. We need to create physical and mental spaces so that we can open our experiences, feelings and beliefs. Being an expert is not only an individual quality, but it is built as shared know-how. This is what we call as a professional community of learners.
A structure for collaboration between different actors in schools needs to be built. Individual attitudes and interaction skills also play a significant role in co-operative working culture. Collaboration should be transformed into working together by using reflection, which gives possibilities to learn at work, and understanding of the group process determines how collaboration will work. Different working orientations impact collaboration.
Inclusive education – inclusive teacher
Inclusion is a continuum; it is a process, which includes parts of changing and learning. Belonging and the value of presence are factors that build up the idea of inclusion at schools. Schools play part in developing the inclusion ideology and practices. It is also a power and authority issue, and it can be occasionally seen as a threatening or exciting matter. When there are changes made, there are usually also some tensions raised between different people in the work community. This is important to understand.
What is an inclusive teacher like? Inclusive teachers have qualities that will help them to concentrate not only to the teaching in the classrooms, but also getting to know who they are teaching in a multi-professional working environment. Inclusive teacher plans the lessons, but also leaves space for ideas from the students – authentic learning is provided through situations like these. It helps everybody in the class to learn something new, not only the students. Also the idea of letting children help themselves by peer tutoring is important to consider in school activities. Peer interaction is one of the key elements in inclusive pedagogy. Teachers should have the possibility to use variety of teaching methods, and different tasks should also be given to the students. Universal design for learning is an important aspect in pedagogy, with the opportunity to jointly modify with the students.
Inclusive teacher knows the students – what are their learning styles and what kind of strengths and different intelligences they have. Also knowing the parents is essential. As a teacher you 17 shouldn’t try to manage on your own, instead, you should ask help when needed. Considering teachers work and how to manage it, collaboration and consulting with colleagues, parents, school-assistants, school social worker, school nurse and psychologist is essential. Trying new things in teaching is important, as is making mistakes and learning from them. Learning from your experiences gives you a space to grow as a teacher.
Professional learning process - should I go with the flow?
Many teachers are used to old habits and manners, and these might stay tight in their teaching methods. In teacher’s work there are sometimes “professional gaps”; situations where a teacher feels inadequate or unsure about what to do. It is important that teachers are supported to explore their “professional gaps” (Picture 2). Can teachers learn something new by doing that? Are they able to see things differently and do things differently? Teachers have the possibility to increase their self-knowledge through reflection. We should think this as a way to do things differently, see this as a learning process that involves different kind of emotions. When this process succeeds, teacher becomes a learner and inclusion is given a chance to happen.
Picture 2. Professional gaps or abysses. 18
What happens in the bottom? Is it essential for a teacher to think why am I doing this work? What is important in learning processes? Teachers might come across these kinds of situations and in the best case of scenario; they can face new point of views and learn from those, this kind of learning processes may give possibilities to create something new - it is seen as a psychological and individual learning process. Professional growth and learning cannot be seen from outside, it is a hidden part of school cultures. It is also important that school communities are trying and learning how to solve problems and how to trust each other. It is important that we learn how to talk openly, honestly and being vulnerable.
Co-operative working culture
Expertise is not just a quality that can be seen as a feature of individuals – shared expertise is a know-how that has been developed through collaboration and involvement of the members of the school community. School structures should be built in a way that they support any kind of co-operation between different stakeholders. Attitudes, interaction skills, group processes and understanding them play an important role in this process and working environment – co- operation transforms into constructive collaboration. Reflection has a significant part and it gives possibilities for better on-the-job learning. Also the meaning of authority, knowledge, feelings and motives are essentials and important factors to take consideration when discussing of collaborative working culture.
Learning by doing is one of the most essential issues in building co-operative working culture. It is noteworthy that both individual and group actions and processes play an important role. As a teacher you have a meaningful role as an individual, but also as a part of the whole organization, the whole school environment. Schools as organizations have good possibilities to learn when these factors are taken into consideration.
19
II School, teachers and inclusion
This chapter starts with an article by Amanda Watkins and Verity Donnelly. It concentrates on inclusive teacher education, how it can be promoted and on the issues that are widely on display in Europe – what is the current policy agenda considering teacher education.
The following articles look at social dimensions of inclusive education at schools, as well as administrative issues related to inclusive education. The articles are based on the research has been carried out in Russia and Finland as a part of the School for All-project.
The first article is written by Natalia Flotskaya, Svetlana Bulanova, Olga Volskaya and Zoya Usova. The article focuses on inclusion and inclusive education in European and Russian contexts and looks further to social skills that are seemed to be important particularly in inclusive schools. The writers also discuss inclusive teacher’s competencies. The study was carried out in Arkhangelsk, Severodvinsk and Ustyansky Municipality.
Inclusive education is becoming more common in Russian schools and teachers’ work in inclusive classrooms. Yulia Afonkina and Tatiana Kuzmicheva represent their research carried out in Murmansk, which deals with teachers working in inclusive classrooms.
“Teachers Supporting the Development of Social Skills” article is written by Essi Kesälahti, Jenny Siivola and Sai Väyrynen from the University of Lapland. In this article readers have a chance to read about the study that was carried out in Finland. They focus on two research questions: how do teachers understand social skills and how do teachers promote the development of social skills in their daily practice.
Essi Kesälahti has written an article of a case study of three Finnish comprehensive schools. In her paper she explores the role of administration in the development of inclusive education.
The last article in this chapter is written by Sai Väyrynen. She focuses on a concern related to boys and their lower level of educational attainment in the northern part of Finland. There are two main issues that the article discusses: how do schools respond to boys’ disaffection, and how can teachers and schools create resources for inclusion in small municipalities with low levels of resources. 20
3.
Amanda Watkins & Verity Donnelly
Teacher education as a critical policy issue across Europe
Teacher education issues are high on the policy agenda across Europe. The United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities (2006) is gaining momentum and acting as a stimulus for change towards inclusive education. Article 24 covers many aspects of education and the UN Handbook for Parliamentarians (UNICEF and UNESCO, 2007) on the Convention argues that inclusive education not only provides the best educational environment for learners with disabilities, but also helps break down barriers and challenge stereotypes.
This paper outlines the current policy agenda for teacher education in Europe and considers how instilling core values in initial teacher education (ITE) can act as a critical lever in promoting inclusive education systems.
The paper uses information from the Agency project on Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I - http://www.european-agency.org/agency-projects/Teacher-Education-for-Inclusion).
Teacher Education across Europe – the current policy context
The World Report on Disability (2011) states:
The appropriate training of mainstream teachers is crucial if they are to be confident and competent in teaching children with diverse needs. The principles of inclusion should be built into teacher training programs, which should be about attitudes and values, not just knowledge and skills. (p. 222)
The OECD Report, Teachers Matter (2005), recognizes that the demands on schools and teachers are becoming more complex as society now expects schools to deal effectively with different languages and student backgrounds, to be sensitive to culture and gender issues, to 21 promote tolerance and social cohesion, to respond effectively to disadvantaged students and students with learning and behavioral issues, to use new technologies and to keep pace with rapidly developing fields of knowledge and approaches to student assessment.
Three recent Council conclusions – from 2007, 2008 and 2009 – have identified priorities for improving teacher education as defined by the Ministers of Education in member states. These have been summarized within the document Improving Teacher Quality: the European Union Policy Agenda (2010), prepared by Paul Holdsworth, European Commission, DG-Education and Culture (as a contribution to the Agency’s Teacher Education for Inclusion project debates).
Ten priority policy areas can be identified in these three sets of Council conclusions:
1. Promote professional values and attitudes; 2. Improve teacher competencies; 3. Effective recruitment and selection to promote educational quality; 4. Improve the quality of initial teacher education (ITE); 5. Introduce induction programs for all new teachers; 6. Provide mentoring support to all teachers; 7. Improve the quality and quantity of continuing professional development; 8. School leadership; 9. Ensure the quality of teacher educators; and 10. Improve teacher education systems.
The preparation of teachers to meet the increasingly diverse needs of learners in today’s classrooms is a key area of policy debate at global and European levels. The European Commission in An updated strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (16 December 2008, 8) stresses that: the quality of teachers, trainers and other educational staff is the most important within-school factor affecting student performance.
In the Conclusions of the European Council of 15 November 2007 on improving the quality of teacher education, ministers responsible for education agreed amongst other things, that teachers should be equipped to meet the challenges of increasing social and cultural diversity in the classroom, stressing that this is crucial for the development of more equitable education systems and for progress towards providing equal opportunities for all.
The Communication from the Commission on Improving Competencies for the 21st Century: An agenda for European cooperation in schools (3 July 2008) also highlights the need for ITE to improve the balance between theory and practice and to present teaching as a problem-solving or research-in-action activity linked more to children’s learning and progress. 22
The Council of the European Union conclusions on the professional development of teachers and school leaders (6 November 2009) state that no course of ITE can equip teachers with all the competencies they will require during their careers and note that the demands on the teaching profession are evolving rapidly, requiring teachers to reflect on their own learning requirements in the context of their particular school environment, and to take greater responsibility for their own lifelong learning.
The Agency Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I) project
During the three-year Agency project involving 25 European countries, information was collected linked to three strands of evidence:
• Project reviews of policy and research literature;
• Information from Agency member countries collected via a survey on policies and practices; and
• Discussions with country-nominated experts during country study visits.
The analysis of this information highlighted a number of key messages, discussed in detail in the project synthesis report, Teacher Education for Inclusion Across Europe – Challenges and Opportunities (2011):
(I) The reform of teacher education must be part of wider societal reform to support greater inclusion. This requires collaboration between policy makers to ensure a holistic approach and recognition of the role of inclusive education as one of the main strategies to address the challenges of marginalization and exclusion.
(II) There is a need for further debate around standards, accountability and equity in education to ensure that ‘measures’ support inclusive practice
(III) Reform must include clarification of the language around inclusion and diversity and a clear understanding of the underpinning premises associated with and the implications of using different terminology. This should include a move away from the categorization and ‘labelling’ of children and young people. 23
(IV) Preparation for teaching must maintain academic rigor, ‘educating’ rather than ‘training’ teachers. The status of teachers must be raised and reinforced by the development of training parallel to other professional groups to ensure lifelong learning. In order to select appropriate teacher candidates and reduce drop out from training and teaching, further research is required to look at the selection process, bearing in mind the need to increase diversity in the teacher workforce.
(V) While there is wide agreement on the content required to effectively prepare teachers for diversity in the classroom, there is, as yet, little research evidence to indicate the most effective approaches to teacher education and how best to support a move from discrete modules dealing with ‘inclusion’ towards integrated content – single courses that prepare all teachers to meet the diverse needs of all learners. More rigorous follow-up of new teachers and evaluation of new initiatives is also needed to gather evidence on the most effective routes into teaching.
(VI) Teaching practice needs to be supported by intellectual analysis and a clear understanding of theoretical issues to close the theory-practice gap. Student teachers ideally need to be placed in inclusive settings with mentors/supervising teachers who are themselves trained for this important role and are able to demonstrate attitudes and values that support inclusion.
(VII) There is a need for closer collaboration between training institutions and schools. (e.g., demonstration schools, communities of practice). Teacher educators should ‘model’ effective practice for teachers in training (in schools and during teacher education courses) and use a wider range of more flexible methods of assessment, such as portfolios.
(VIII) The research and the work of the project show the need for competencies for teachers (adapted to countries’ own contexts) that can help to support a shared understanding of ‘quality’ inclusive teaching and, therefore, consistent judgments about effective teacher education. Competencies are a dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities, developed during the process of learning and will also require new approaches to assessment.
The project analysis concluded that the goal of ITE should be to develop new teachers who are inclusive practitioners – effective in their teaching, as well as expert in their subject. Significantly, the project findings support the arguments that core values for teaching in inclusive settings play a key role in achieving these goals. 24
A values-based approach to inclusive education
Within the project, there was widespread agreement that inclusion is essentially a principled, rights-based approach to education underpinned by a number of central values. Such a viewpoint is implicit within wider European and international level work.
Within the Europe 2020 Strategy (http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm), one of the five headline targets relates to education. This target clearly stresses the importance of values in European education systems:
In the period up to 2020, the primary goal of European co-operation should be to support the further development of education and training systems in the Member States which are aimed at ensuring:
(a) the personal, social and professional fulfilment of all citizens; (b) sustainable economic prosperity and employability, whilst promoting democratic values, social cohesion, active citizenship, and intercultural dialogue. (Council Conclusions, 2009, 3).
The ET 2020 Strategic Framework (2009, 4) sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the coming decade. Strategic objective three focuses upon promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship – within this objective, the importance of values is highlighted:
Education should promote intercultural competencies, democratic values and respect for fundamental rights and the environment, as well as combat all forms of discrimination, equipping all young people to interact positively with their peers from diverse backgrounds.
In the report on the 2008 International Conference on Inclusive Education (2008, 11), it is argued that:
Inclusive education is based on a series of conceptions and values regarding the type of society to be built and the ideal person to be developed. If we want to have more inclusive societies, which are more peaceful and respectful of differences, it is essential that students have the opportunity to develop and experience these values in their education, whether in schools or non-formal settings. 25
It can be seen, therefore, that the thinking has moved on beyond the narrow idea of inclusion as a means of understanding and overcoming a deficit and it is now widely accepted that it concerns issues of gender, ethnicity, class, social conditions, health and human rights encompassing universal involvement, access, participation and achievement (Ouane, 2008).
UNESCO (2008, 29) states that:
Applying a rights-based approach to education in order to move towards inclusion will require comprehensive school system reform including modification of constitutional guarantees and policies, curricula, teacher training systems, materials, learning environments, methodologies, resource allocation, etc. Above all, it will require a change in attitudes of all people, throughout the system, to welcome diversity and difference and see these as opportunities rather than problems.
UNESCO and UNICEF (2007, 27) argue that:
The right to education requires a commitment to ensuring universal access, including taking all necessary measures to reach the most marginalized children. But getting children into schools is not enough; it is no guarantee of an education that enables individuals to achieve their economic and social objectives and to acquire the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes that bring about responsible and active citizenship.
Rights-based, inclusive education for all learners consequently needs a holistic approach and this requires a view of teachers as more than deliverers of content. In summary, it can be argued that:
• Inclusive education can be seen to be underpinned by the values of equality, participation, developing and sustaining communities and respect for diversity;
• The values a teacher holds are an essential determinant of their actions;
• Values are principles that can be evidenced in a teacher’s actions and that become ‘theory enriched practical knowledge’ as a result of the learning opportunities presented during teacher education courses;
• These values form the foundation for all teachers to acquire knowledge, develop understanding and implement the skills necessary for working in inclusive education. 26
Core values as a basis for identifying areas of teacher competence
The OECD (2005, 100) suggests there is: a range of personal competencies that make a difference to the quality and effectiveness of teaching. The potential competencies identified focus upon subject knowledge and a range of transversal skills (such as communication, self- management, organizational and problem-solving skills).
The majority of the countries participating in “The Agency Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I)”-project are debating teacher competencies at either teacher training institutional or national policy levels. However, it should be acknowledged that the understanding of competencies and/or their application in initial teacher education in general differs greatly across countries. Within the project, it was the case that different countries not only identified different essential competencies for teachers, but also interpreted the term ‘competencies’ in different ways.
Within the TE4I project, it was agreed that the terms ‘competencies’ and ‘standards’ are not interchangeable and, as a result of project discussions, the following definitions have been agreed with experts for use within the TE4I project:
Standards generally refer to a set of measures against which student teachers/teachers/teacher education courses can be evaluated – the summative outcomes at the end of a programme of study.
Competencies are seen as developing over time with ITE students and teachers demonstrating progressive mastery in a range of settings and situations. As such, they form both the foundation for ITE and the basis for continuing professional development (TE4I project synthesis report 2011, 46).
The framework proposed within project work was, therefore, based upon multi-faceted ‘areas of competence’ linked to agreed core values for inclusive education.
Areas of competence are each made up of three elements: a certain attitude or belief demands certain knowledge or level of understanding and then skills in order to implement this knowledge in a practical situation.
This approach builds upon the work of Ryan (2009) who describes attitudes as ‘multidimensional traits’, but most importantly Shulman (2007) who describes professional 27 learning in terms of the apprenticeships of the head (knowledge), hand (skill or doing), and heart (attitudes and beliefs).
Model for a profile of inclusive teachers
The core values identified as essential for all teachers working in inclusive education are used as the basis for describing the areas of competence. These core values are:
• Principles that can be evidenced in a teacher’s actions; • Become ‘theory enriched practical knowledge’ through learning that occurs during teacher education course; and
• Express and demonstrate ‘values in action’ through the components of attitudes, knowledge and skills.
Core values identified as essential for all teachers working in inclusive education are used within the Agency Profile of Inclusive Teachers (2012) as the basis for describing the areas of competence. The goal of the document is to outline the essential areas of competence that all teachers should acquire within their ITE to prepare them to work in inclusive settings.
Within the proposed framework, four core values were identified as essential for all teachers working in inclusive education. These core values were used as the basis for describing the areas of competence required by all teachers and each area of competence is seen as interconnected and highly interdependent.
The model of core values linked to areas of competence is presented below (core values are indicated in bold and areas of competence in italics):
Valuing Learner Diversity – learner difference is considered a resource and an asset to education.
The areas of competence within this core value relate to:
• Conceptions of inclusive education; and • The teacher’s view of learner difference.
28
Supporting All Learners – teachers have high expectations for all learners’ achievements. The areas of competence within this core value relate to:
• Promoting the academic, practical, social and emotional learning of all learners; and • Effective teaching approaches in heterogeneous classes.
Working With Others – collaboration and teamwork are essential approaches for all teachers. The areas of competence within this core value relate to:
• Working with parents and families; and • Working with a range of other educational professionals.
Personal Professional Development – teaching is a learning activity and teachers take responsibility for their lifelong learning.
The areas of competence within this core value relate to:
• Teachers as reflective practitioners; and • ITE as a foundation for ongoing professional learning and development.
The values and core competencies presented in the Profile reinforce the argument made within the overall TE4I project that inclusive education is the responsibility of all teachers and that preparing all teachers for work in inclusive settings is the responsibility of all teacher educators working across ITE programs.
Concluding comments
The OECD (2005) contends that raising teacher quality is the policy that will most likely lead to gains in school performance. This argument is in alignment with the wide agreement among the professionals working with the Agency project that educating teachers to respond to diversity is likely to be the policy having the greatest impact on the development of more inclusive schools and communities.
The reform of teacher education must be part of a wider systemic reform that requires the principle of inclusion to become an integral part of the thinking of policy makers and other 29 stakeholders. Such change inevitably takes time and highlights the importance of consistent, long-term, holistic policies.
Throughout the Agency project, a recurring message from project experts and country stakeholders has been the potential of teacher education to act as a lever for change in the education system and promote inclusive practice. Work within the project suggests that individual teachers cannot be viewed as agents for systemic change in education, but that they can be considered a crucial factor contributing to necessary systemic change.
Teachers who hold values in line with an inclusive approach and who are prepared to work effectively with a diverse range of learners’ needs can act as multipliers for inclusive education. Every action that supports inclusive education matters and all actors in education can make a difference in the short and long term.
References
Commission of the European Communities (2008). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of Regions Brussels 3.7.2008 Improving competencies for the 21st Century: An agenda for European Cooperation in schools. Link: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0425:FIN:EN:PDF
Commission of the European Union (2008). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: An updated strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training, Brussels 16.12.2008 Link: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/com865_en.pdf
Council of the European Union (2007). Conclusions of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council of 15 November 2007, on Improving the quality of teacher education http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:300:0006:0009:EN:PDF
Council of the European Union (2009). Council conclusions on the professional development of teachers and school leaders. Brussels, 6 November 2009 Link: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009:302:0006:0009:EN:PDF
Council of the European Union (2010). Council conclusions on the social dimension of education and training. 3013th Education, Youth and Culture meeting, Brussels, 11th May 2010 http://www.european- agency.org/news/news-files/Council-Conclusions-May-2010-Social-Dimension.pdf
European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2011). Teacher Education for Inclusion Across Europe – Challenges and Opportunities, Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Development in 30
Special Needs Education.
European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2012). Profile of Inclusive Teachers, Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education.
Europe 2020 Strategy (2009). Link: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm
Improving Teacher Quality: the EU Agenda (2010). Document prepared by Holdsworth, P., European Commission, DG-Education and Culture, summarising the priorities for improving Teacher Education that were defined by Ministers of Education in the Council Conclusions of November 2007, 2008 and 2009.
OECD (2005). Teachers matter: attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers Available on line from: http://www.oecd.org/document/52/0,3343,en_2649_39263231_34991988_1_1_1_1,00.html#EO
Ouane, A. (2008). Creating education systems which offer opportunities for lifelong learning. Paper presented at UNESCO International Conference on Education ‘Inclusive education: the way of the future’ 48th session. Geneva, 25–28 November 2008.
Ryan, T.G. (2009). An analysis of pre-service teachers’ perceptions of inclusion. Journal of Research in Special Education Needs, 9 (3), 180-187.
Secretariat for the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Department of Economic and Social Affairs), Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Inter-Parliamentary Union (2007). From Exclusion to Equality – Realizing the rights of persons with disabilities. Handbook for Parliamentarians on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol. Geneva: United Nations.
Shulman, L. (2007). Keynote lecture to American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education Annual Conference. New Orleans, February 2007.
UNICEF and UNESCO (2007). A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All: A framework for the realization of children’s right to education and rights within education. UNICEF, New York and UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO (2008). Inclusive Education: the Way of the Future - Conclusions and Recommendations of the 48th session of the International Conference on Education (ICE) Geneva 2528 November 2008.
United Nations (2006). Convention on Rights of People with Disabilities, available online: http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml
World Report on Disability (2011). World Health Organisation/World Bank.
31
4.
Natalia Flotskaya, Svetlana Bulanova, Olga Volskaya and Zoya Usova
The Character of Social Competencies in Inclusive Teachers Inclusive education in European and Russian contexts
Present-day Russian education is described in terms of the new tendencies that reflect the social, economic, mental and cultural transformations being experienced by the society and the public consciousness. Among these tendencies are efforts to identify and copy the best teaching and learning practices, to overcome discrepancies between novel approaches and time-proven practices, and to make quality education accessible to all.
In this context, inclusive education comes to the foreground. As the Russian research community pioneers research on inclusive education, the very notion of this term is yet to be filled with scientifically-based contents, with its features and characteristics being explored and scrutinized. Inclusive education (French inclusive “incorporating, inclusive”, Latin “include, enclose”) is a term to describe the process of educating learners with special needs in regular schools. Inclusive education builds on the ideas ruling out all discrimination and welcoming equality and children with special educational needs. Inclusive education is the line being taken up by general education and is meant to ensure access to education for all, including children with special needs, through adaptive education techniques.
In our opinion, inclusive education, as a term, can be defined broadly or narrowly. Broadly, inclusive education means a process of smooth involvement of learners with educational special needs (gifted learners, learners with disabilities, learners from migrant families) into education. Yet, the interpretation of inclusive education by educators and psychologists is narrow, who view inclusive education as the placement of children with disabilities in secondary school classes. Both definitions have the right to exist. The scientific community has 32 not yet arrived at a commonly shared vision and interpretation of this phenomenon. In their search for the solutions to the challenges of inclusive education, scholars from different countries come together to discuss the issue again and again.
The international Kolarctic ENPI CBC “School for All – Development of Inclusive Education” project presented to its partners an opportunity to get acquainted with various forms of inclusive education implementation in the northern countries of Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark. In Finland, for instance, inclusion is viewed, roughly, as two educators teaching a class consisting of children with no special needs and children with special needs. At the same time, inclusion can be approached differently by different Finnish municipalities. While the south of the country operates some segregated settings, the north of Finland offers basically mixed settings. Finnish children start school in regular classes where they receive support. Sometime later, the decision will be made on whether a learner with special needs should continue studies in a segregated setting or in a regular school that offers special support.
Sweden currently displays an arguable tendency to create classes for children with slight developmental delay in regular schools. Also, children with special needs can be placed with other children, provided that instruction (several classes a week) is also given by a special education teacher in a segregated group. Teachers see their basic mission as preparing learners with special needs for the regular school setting. This special education system is being funded by municipalities.
In Norway, inclusive education is being offered by regular schools, too. Placed in the regular class setting with regular instruction, a learner with special needs is allocated an assistant. Normally, schools do not have many learners with special needs. They are few, with one in a class. Each learner with special needs is offered guidance and support, and the school decides what sort of assistants, and how many, s/he needs. If the learner with special needs should encounter a problem, the teachers will meet to discuss it and reach a decision. The inclusive education system is supervised by Norwegian municipalities (schools receive social and financial support).
Denmark is implementing the national strategy for inclusive education, whereby the process of inclusive education is coordinated and supervised by a dedicated national resource centre. 33
There is also a taskforce consisting of the representatives of Danish universities, who do the research into inclusive education issues and monitor municipalities’ activities to foster inclusion. Although the number of special schools in Denmark is decreasing, some still exist. However, the basic tendency is to place learners with special needs in the regular setting of regular schools close to where they live. Parents have the right to educate their children at schools in their neighbourhood, and the schools are expected to create an environment suitable to special learners’ needs. To support certain learners, the municipal authorities allocate special needs staff (psychologists, speech therapists, special needs teachers, etc.). Some Danish comprehensive schools may have just a few learners with special needs, while others may have groups of them. Denmark is, therefore, practicing a differentiated approach to inclusive education. Learners with special needs also enjoy weekly extra-curricular activities. The Russian system of education is keeping abreast of global trends. Article 2 of the latest edition of the Education Act, enacted on 01.09.2013, defines inclusive education as “. . . ensuring equal access to education for all learners and respect to diversity of special educational needs and individual potential.” Article 5 reads that “. . . to enforce the human right to education, federal, regional and local authorities in the Russian Federation . . . commit to create conditions necessary for ensuring an indiscriminate access to quality education for learners with special needs . . . through inclusive education. (Agramakova 2000, 3.)
In our mind, it is indeed timely that inclusive education is becoming the focus. Addressing the special learners’ needs through inclusive education relates to a quality change in the national educational policy, to its orientation towards practices to mitigate discrimination and to improving access to education for different communities.
There are several regions in Russia that find themselves in a situation where the inclusion is being forced to happen and where educators are being forced to pay more attention to the challenge and to seek innovative pedagogical solutions.
Defining social skills
Inclusive education suggests social interaction between learners and teachers, thus forming a set of skills and competencies that define a teacher as an inclusion organizer comes to the foreground. 34
Russian science is new to “social competence” and does not operate a commonly shared definition of it. I.E. Shishova (2006) points out that an individual’s social competence manifests itself as efficient interaction with others when socializing or performing joint activities and is based on the individual’s knowledge, skills and competencies. Competence (Latin competо “achieving, corresponding, suiting”) is what briefly describes behavioural patterns being applied by people to achieve quality performance of a task, or what can be used as a yardstick to measure quality of a certain activity. Competencies describe individual or personal features (for instance, stress resistance) and skills (for instance, being a good or bad negotiator).
A person can be defined as having social competence if their behaviour manifests mature social skills. For a teacher working within the inclusive education system, the level of social skills is of the utmost importance, to be able to develop social skills among learners.
Within the international Kolarctic ENPI CBC “School for All – Development of Inclusive Education” project, a study the social competencies of a teacher as a participant of the inclusive education process has been conducted. As a result of joint discussions, four social competencies were chosen for further studying: cooperation, adaptive behaviour, tolerance and empathy. Below is a brief description of them as viewed by the Russian researchers today.
Adaptive behaviour
Broadly, adaptive behaviour is defined, at the level of psyche, by a set of self-regulating processes which, in turn, are maintained by the innate or acquired psychophysiological or psychic mechanisms.
“Adaptive behaviour”, as a term, is relatively new and gained a foothold in the 1990s. Before that, human adaptive potential and behavioural patterns were the topics of investigation with such scholars as Yu. A. Aleksandrovsky and R. M. Bayevskiy (1973). There are several scientific approaches to the interpretation of this term. Adherers to the biological approach, V. G. Red’ko and R. Gusarov, looked into the design of ‘artificial organisms – software or robots capable of adapting to a given setting. Social psychologist, L. Phillips, undertook the study of adaptive behaviour in terms of the interactionism-related conception of adaptation as a pattern 35 consisting of efficient decision making, initiative and clear vision of one’s future. A. A. Rean argued that socialization and social adaptation are the processes by which individuals become personalities. N.I. Leonov, a supporter of the ontological approach to social psychology, wrote that individuals tend to act according to their logic and, given that, the role of social factor cannot be underestimated. He views adaptive behaviour as a transient pattern for individuals to act and regulate their actions based on intention.
N. N. Mel’nikova and N. V. Stepanova point out that behaviour can be classified as adaptive if the ultimate goal it seeks is productive interaction with the environment. Adaptive behaviour is sought when the given interacting systems come to a discord, and reconciliation, or coordination, thus becomes an ultimate goal of such behaviour. The discord between the interacting systems may be caused by factors such as difficult or uneasy life situations, and the term being used by psychologists to describe how individuals cope with their difficulties is “coping behaviour”. When analysing the “adaptive behaviour”, many authors do rely on “coping behaviour”. M. N. Kouftiak, for instance, defined coping behaviour as a wilful act of social behaviour that enables individuals to cope with stress or difficult life situations using wilful strategies prescribed by their personal features or situation. I. G. Malkina-Pykh argues that coping behaviour helps adapt to one’s life circumstances and suggests mature skills of operating certain means to relieve emotional stress. E. I. Ilyin views coping behaviour as a behavioural pattern for humans to tackle their life challenges, a pattern that employs coping resources and coping strategies. The adaptive (coping) behaviour mainly seeks to maintain individual’s well-being, physical and mental health, and satisfaction with established social relations.
The criteria for coping strategies classification can be different (Shishova 2007). One is success, or efficiency, which classifies all coping strategies into functional, or successful (direct attempts and strategies being successful and constructive) and dysfunctional, or unsuccessful (action patterns being unproductive and employing nonconstructive strategies that are a drag on the coping process). The second criterion is the action pattern and classifies all coping strategies into problem-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-seeking. Criterion three is adaptability and classifies all coping strategies into adaptive (active coping), partially adaptive (seeking social support, distraction or affective discharge) and non-adaptive (emotional suppression, aggression or surrender, escapism, evasion). 36
As can be seen, the interpretations of “adaptive behaviour” differ. “Adaptive behaviour” and “coping behaviour” can be used indiscriminately, and there are various criteria to classify the former. Among such criteria is the degree of adaptability (hence, adaptive, partially adaptive and non-adaptive patterns). In the research in question, adaptive behaviour is behaviour that aims at setting up an effective interaction between the person and the environment.
Cooperation
The term “cooperation” has gained a foothold in the Russian scientific papers as a core notion of the so-called “cooperative pedagogy”, a system of methods and instruction based on humane and creative attitudes to personal development.
The use in class of different cooperative formats, such as ‘teacher-learner’, ‘teacher-group’, ‘learner-learner’ or ‘group-group’, are recently of special relevance, as today’s environment requires individuals to be active and successful in handling challenges creatively. It is through in-class interaction on real life situations that a personality, enterprising and cooperative, can be shaped.
According to the famous Russian psycholinguist, A. A. Leontiev, teacher-class interaction per se is a multi-tier structure that also has a linear arrangement: activity – interaction – communication – rapport. The cooperative learning employs and relies on all levels of communication. What it actually offers is learning through communication (communication between teacher and class and between peers). This communication is a medium for the rapport to be established. It also involves an in-class social communication, as learners assume different social roles – of leader, performer, organizer, presenter, expert, explorer, etc. M. S. Soloveichik points at cooperative learning as a special format of the relationship between a child and an adult, and as a precursor for successful mastering of theoretical knowledge. When cooperation is full-fledged, it fosters the learner’s aptitude to source knowledge, skills and capabilities independently. T. A. Runova underlines that cooperative learning being practiced by an adult teacher and their class is a special form of interaction that is marked by a specific psychological background and orients towards personal features that can be nurtured only if supported by a special social and psychological setting.
37
There are two main sides of cooperation: peer cooperation that seeks an educative effect; and teacher-learners cooperation as a framework for pedagogical communication. The methods and techniques of the cooperative learning build on jointly performed activities and the search for teacher-class interaction modes.
Cooperative relations should be nurtured and instilled like any other personality trait. They are a natural characteristic of an education process governed by the principles of humane attitudes. The ‘humane’ pedagogy (Bayevskiy 1973) implies that cooperation seeks and relies on: • close links between instruction and the techniques conducive to reinforced teacher-class cooperation; • learner’s will to mature; • positive psychological setting of the pedagogical communication; • learner’s freedom of choice of activities and interaction formats; • teacher-guided educational insights that turn learners into subjects of the education process.
Cooperative learning is versatile and multi-tier. Traditionally, cooperative learning targets a well-tuned teacher-learner relationship; active involvement of a learner in jointly distributed in- class activities; improved forms of peer cooperation; or improved one-to-one cooperation formats. The key message of cooperative learning can be worded as follows: together we learn, not just do something. Below are the main principles of cooperative learning (Agramakova 2000): • Interdependence of group members. It can be facilitated through a common goal, intra-group roles and functions, commonly shared training materials, common resources or common encouragement;
• Personal responsibility of each and every member; • Equal contribution by members. The means to make in-class educational, creative or other activities mutually-supported, including intra-group role distribution and splitting a task for all into segments;
• Reflection. Further improvement of teamwork quality and efficiency necessarily involves group discussion.
Thus, when arranging the cooperative learning, special focus should be placed on achieving the group goal and the group success. Group performance can only be effective if each individual member, when dealing with a given topic (question or challenge) to be explored independently, 38 contributes to the teamwork.
When adapting the instruction to the diverse needs of a group, inclusive teachers are faced with a difficult challenge of ‘tuning-up’ the teacher-child relationship. The efforts of arranging the activity of a mixed group should take into account individual aptitudes and the needs of all its members. It is essential that a mixed group functions in a welcoming environment of positive thinking and support. When cooperative learning accounts for the learner’s individual potential, children, guided by their teacher, learn how to bring their own and other children’s interests into accord.
Cooperative inclusive education seeks the following: • solidarity among children and adults which is based on the respect of and the interest in each member’s personality and individual aptitude; • skills of establishing and maintaining contact with different people; • skills of rendering mutual support; • communication skills, a positive communication culture and emotional disposition; • capability of identifying and planning activities to be carried out; of negotiating joint activities with others; of distributing roles and functions; • playing, learning and research skills; and • self-regulation skills.
Cooperation is, therefore, a joint effort that seeks commonly shared goals. Cooperative learning does foster one’s communication skills. Likewise, cooperative inclusive education does foster a positive setting for a teacher to interact with a child on a commonly shared goal. The maturity of the “cooperation” as a social competency for inclusive education can be assessed on the basis of the following criteria:
• involvement (an emotional state that motivates to perform better); • proactiveness (being eager to initiate and promote initiatives); • cooperation motivation (a target-driven process flow of actions); • role assuming (a process of assuming a role based on individual’s recognition of their status in the group).
Thus, cooperation as a social competency builds on and necessarily involves joint activities, the search for various types of action and the evaluation of performance.
39
Tolerance
The notion of “tolerance” is being viewed by Russian scholars from several stances. One of these stances puts an equal mark between tolerance and toleration. Following the meaning of “tolerance” given in the Declaration of Principles on Tolerance (1995) tolerance is respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of the world's cultures, forms of expression and ways of being human. “Tolerance” is a term widely used in developmental psychology and is defined by Russian psychologists (O. A. Ovsyannikova, A. M. Baibakov, G. U. Soldatova, D. V. Zinovyev, E. G. Vinogradova, O. B. Skriabina) as an individual formation comprised of the following: adequate self-concept; self-perception and recognition of others; responsibility for actions taken; sense of humour; disposition to others; self-control; indulgence; ability to self- reflect; lack of anxiety; high eagerness to communicate; ability to disagree and provide arguments for rejection to cooperate; and lack of stereotypes and bias.
The surveys by A. G. Asmolova, R. R. Valitova, V. A. Lektorsky reveal tolerance through a set of interrelated criteria. Among these criteria are: cognitive criterion (basic stereotypes, wider periphery); awareness of the phenomenon of tolerance; ability to self-reflect and interpret life values; specificity of language and speech; emotional criterion (emotional response) (according to K. Rogers); practice benchmark (patterns of interaction with others, ability to establish positive relations, willingness for joint constructive activity).
Tolerance is an inherent personal quality. Once acquired, individuals tend to show it in all life situations and towards all people. An effort has been made in the recent decade by Russian psychologists to bring the types and forms of tolerance into a streamlined system. The surveys into types of tolerance were undertaken by many researchers (V. A. Lektorsky, N. Ya. Makarova, I. V. Krutova, A. V. Zimbuli, V. A. Petritskiy). The analysis of their research papers allows for drawing a conclusion that different grounds exist for identifying the types.
Tolerance as public consciousness. V. A. Lektorsky recognizes the following types of tolerance: tolerance as indifference to the positions other than accepted; tolerance as a failure to build a rapport that suggests respect to another whom I fail to understand; tolerance as an indulgent 40 attitude towards another’s weaknesses; tolerance as respect of another’s position combined with being set to mutual change of the position.
Object of tolerance . N. Ya. Makarova and I. V. Krutova write that among these objects are civilization, international, interethnic, social, individual, and religious ones.
Level of tolerance. Levels are individual, intergroup and interindividual.
Intrinsic motivation and value content. V. Zimbuli and V. A. Petritskiy recognized such types of tolerance as quasi-tolerance, pseudo-tolerance, negative tolerance and positive tolerance.
Result of tolerant behaviour. V. A. Petritskiy differentiates between ethical destructive and ethical constructive tolerance. Even though they both are positively charged, the result they lead to is negative or positive, respectively.
Tolerance as a stability factor. There are two types of tolerance – outward and inward. The former (outward bound) means recognition of the fact that other people may have their own positions, and serves as yardstick to measure the health of social relations. The latter (internal stability) means the ability to maintain balance in unexpected situations, such as conflicts, uncertainty, risk, stress, the ability to make decisions and act.
The papers by Russian psychologists and educators describe the following functions of tolerance: advisory, regulatory or adaptive; peace-maintaining, culture-preserving, felicity- inducing, creative; communicative, cognition- and energy- managing; axiological, epistemological, prognostic and preventive.
“Tolerance” is, thus, a notion being explored on a multifaceted level and classified by Russian scholars in terms of aspect, function, level, type, position and result.
Empathy
The papers by Russian psychologists on “empathy” mainly give insights into psychological and historical aspects of this term. Empathy is often described in terms of “social sensitivity”, “benevolence”, “understanding”, “imaginative insight” and “compassion”. The famous Russian 41 psychologist, S. L. Rubinstein, viewed empathy as an element of human love and as an emotionally mediated attitude to others. Truly emphatic relations are juxtaposed by S. L. Rubinstein with the phenomenon of “augmented egoism”. Contemporary papers (Agramakova 2000) describe empathy as an emotional phenomenon, as apprehension, as an insight into another’s self, mind and feelings.
There is an opinion that empathy is an act of perception which recognizes the uniqueness and the singularity of others. Some authors (Boyko 2001) argue that empathy should be viewed as an emotional response to the state of others, while there are also authors who believe that empathy is a vehicle for interpersonal cognition that employs identification, contagion, projection and motor imitation.
Russian psychologists (Basova 2012) differentiate between two types of empathy – emotional and cognitive. Emotional empathy means the sensory ability to feel compassion for someone. Emotional empathy is very profound empathy. Cognitive empathy involves logical thinking, by which an understanding can be obtained of what a person might be feeling in a certain situation, and by which true compassion can be felt, too.
T. P. Gavrilova recognizes two types of empathy – compassion and sympathy. Compassion is an act of feeling exactly the same emotions that are being experienced by another, which involves identification, whereas sympathy means feeling concerned about another’s feelings but experiencing emotions other than those being experienced by that other person. M. A. Ponomareva suggests empathy can be short- and long-term. Short-term empathy is aroused during an individual’s short-term contact with other individuals when he or she recognizes their position. Long-term empathy takes a longer period and implies closer contact with another. Some authors describe empathy in terms of adequacy, the inadequate empathy manifesting itself in feeling happy about another’s ill-being and the emotional response, in this case, being negative.
Originally, empathy was interpreted purely as an emotional process and, consequently, was believed to consist of only affective components. Later, however, researchers adhered to the interpretation of empathy as a multicomponent phenomenon. 42
L. P. Strelkova represents the entirety of empathy as a three-link chain consisting of compassion, sympathy and inner involvement (the latter is likely to lead to real support).
The types and forms of empathy are predetermined by one’s values, relations, belief system and philosophy. A person can be described as empathic if the empathy he or she displays is balanced and manifests itself in an emotional, cognitive and behavioural response. An emphatic person displays keen feelings of another: he or she can feel and discern another’s emotional state, feel compassion and act for another’s well-being. A. P. Vasil’kova notes that highly emphatic people tend to be more lenient, benevolent, communicative and emotional, whereas those showing less empathic tend to withdraw socially or act unkindly.
Modern psychology recognizes the fact that empathy can be outward- or inward-bound. Inward empathy is described in terms of insight, sense of discomfort and personal distress. It is often aroused in situations where the perception of another’s state of mind frustrates one’s image of the interpersonal relations with another, thus rendering one emotionally vulnerable. Frustrated, one starts feeling the emotions similar to those being felt by the person one feels empathy towards, with the only difference that these are inward bound. Their inward bound character manifests itself as contemplating what might happen to him- or herself in the future or what has already happened in the past. These inward bound feelings usually lower personal distress and restore one’s psychological well-being. They are meant to safeguard our psyche.
Thus, the characteristics of empathy as a social competency, as identified by the majority of researchers, include compassion, sympathy and inner involvement, which manifest themselves through real support.
Research method
Based on the theoretical analysis of social, an empirical side of the project was elaborated. Teachers of M. V. Lomonosov Northern (Arctic) Federal University, a project member institution, went to secondary schools in Arkhangelsk, Severodvinsk and Oktyabrsky settlements (Ustyansky municipality) to survey the inclusive teachers’ social competencies. 43
As a part of this research project, several diagnostic methods were selected to evaluate the social competencies in teachers who are involved in inclusive education. Also, a number of diagnostic packages were developed for application by the project schools. Among the core research methods we employed were interviewing and observing the teachers working in mixed classes. The interviewing was targeted to find out how competent the inclusive teachers feel socially and what their vision of instilling social skills in primary schoolchildren is (theoretical perspective). Observation of the teachers’ work in class targeted the same, only from a practical perspective.
A questionnaire was given to all of the teachers. Since direct observation was supposed to take all day, there were two teachers selected in each project school for observation (with the exception of the MSFI Secondary School 2 in the Oktyabrsky settlement due to its remote location). The experimental analysis of the teachers’ social competencies covered the following staff: Secondary School 5 (Arkhangelsk), Secondary School 19 (Severodvinsk), Secondary School 21 (Severodvinsk), and Secondary School 2 (Oktyabrsky settlement, Ustyansky Municipality). The school selection criterion was the availability of mixed classes – with learners with special needs – and special classes.
To ensure the quality and detailed character of the survey, a dedicated step-by-step programme was elaborated, which included:
1. selection of the diagnostic methods suitable for the survey of inclusive teachers’ social competencies; 2. elaboration of the diagnostic packages to be applied in the project schools; 3. approval of the survey by school managers; 4. kick-off meeting (meeting with school teachers, survey presentation, activity scheduling); 5. conduction of the survey using methods of observation and the questionnaire; and 6. resulting data processing.
The survey covered 44 teachers working in inclusive classes: 14 teachers in MSFI Secondary School №5 (Arkhangelsk), 12 teachers in MSFI Secondary School №19 (Severodvinsk), 10 in MSFI Secondary School №21 (Severodvinsk) and 8 in MSFI Secondary School №2 (Ustyansky Municipality) answered the questions of the questionnaire. Since the only way to judge the 44 teachers’ social competence was by observing them instructing in class, we did a series of observations of two teachers in each school.
The teachers were to meet the following survey eligibility criteria: • immediate involvement in inclusive education (34 teachers); and typically developing peers (10 teachers). The classes the selected teachers are working with include: • mixed classes (learners with special needs plus their typically developing); • special classes (segregated setting)
Typically developing learners in these classes total 101, learners with speech disorders – 1, learners with impaired hearing – 2, learners with vision disorders – 15.
The analysis involved the use of the following methods: analysis of statistical data; results interpretation; and qualitative processing of results.
Sixteen different situations were suggested to the teachers in the questionnaire. The teachers should describe their actions on each of them. When analysing teachers’ questionnaires for their maturity of social competencies, we identified competencies as either present or lacking.
Results
The questionnaire results showed that the ‘cooperation’ competency is present in 36 teachers (81%). Below are several answers by the teachers:
I create situations where interaction, in a group of children, is simply bound to happen.
I often resort to playing activities which involve splitting into two teams, and I place the learner in one of them. The success of the whole team will depend on how well the learner performs.
The ‘adaptive behaviour’ competency was found in 33 teachers (75%). Below we cite one of the answers: 45
I use drama in class. The literature works; we’re acting out good heroes and situations where the heroes need to come to an agreement. It is through playing that the children learn how to act verbally and non-verbally in the situations which require them to adapt.
The ‘empathy’ competency was found in 15 teachers (34%). Below is one of the teachers’ answers:
The technique I use is ‘Mirror Account’, whereby one of the learners is to give an account of a situation as might have been produced by someone who suffered from it. By doing so, primary schoolchildren learn to feel and understand what other people may feel and experience psychologically.
The ‘tolerance’ competency was found in 35 teachers (80%). Below is the account of one of the teachers:
I offer my class to play ‘It’s Good To Be Friends With You’. This play is good for a small circle and is designed for learners to find out more about cultural backgrounds of their classmates, whose nationality may be different from their own. I should say that many do take an interest in other cultures, in their traditions, customs and games. This is how I try to teach primary school children to respect other cultures and understand their values.
The questionnaires have shown that all the inclusive teachers surveyed possess all the target social competencies. The fact that with some of the teachers the surveyed, the social competencies were not clearly manifested can be explained by these teachers’ personal traits and professional background.
Observation results
As was evidenced by the in-class observations, cooperation is practiced by all the teachers surveyed (100%). Let us draw an example here of an in-class situation we observed: the handicraft teacher asks two learners (one with impaired hearing and the other hearing) to make an even seam on a piece of tissue. To succeed, both the learners help each other. 46
Adaptive behaviour was demonstrated by five teachers (83%). Below is the in-class situation we observed: one of the learners who is sharing a desk left his workbook at home. The teacher offers that the student shares the workbook of the learner who has it, but the owner will not share. The teacher suggests they talk to one another to find out the reason why one of them has come to school without his workbook. After they have talked, they start working together.
Empathy was demonstrated by four teachers (66%). Let us draw an example of an in-class situation we observed: the teacher instructs the class on a task. The learner with attention deficit misses out on the instructions and finds himself at a loss. The teacher asks his neighbour to help him, saying, “He needs your help. He has difficulty remembering what I tell him . . .” By saying that, the teacher contributed to the understanding of the child with no special needs that there might be situations where others might need his help.
Tolerance was found in five teachers (83%). Below is the in-class situation we observed: the teacher asks a learner with impaired speech a question. Before the learner answers, the teacher tells the class: Now, let’s listen to Ilya. He has more difficulty answering than you do. Look how well he’s doing. The class listens and says a word of encouragement to Ilya after he finishes. By acting so, the teacher instils in learners the respect for another individual’s potential.
Hence, the conclusion that we drew from the observations is that the positions stated by the inclusive teachers in their questionnaires do match what they practice in class.
The qualitative analysis of the results also involved the comparison of data obtained from the questionnaires with the results of the observations. The four social competencies were demonstrated by all the teachers surveyed. The analysis of the “cooperation” social competency showed that the match between the teachers’ vision of their social competence, their vision of how social skills should be developed in primary schoolchildren and their in-class behaviour was the case with all six teachers (100%).
The analysis of the “adaptive behaviour” social competency showed that the match between theory and practice was the case with five teachers (83%). The mismatch between the teachers’ 47 vision of their social competence, their vision of how social skills should be developed in primary schoolchildren and their in-class behaviour was the case with one teacher (17%).
The analysis of the “empathy” social competency showed that the match between theory and practice was the case with four teachers (66%). The mismatch between the teachers’ vision of their social competence, their vision of how social skills should be developed in primary schoolchildren and their in-class behaviour was the case with two teachers (34%). The analysis of the “tolerance” social competency showed that the match between theory and practice was the case with five teachers (83%). The mismatch between the teachers’ vision of their social competence, their vision of how social skills should be developed in primary schoolchildren and their in-class behaviour was the case with one teacher (17%).
Conclusions
Based on our analysis it can be concluded that empathy and tolerance tend to mature as interrelated social competencies. Also, the results of the qualitative analysis appeared indicative of the interrelationship between such social competencies as cooperation and adaptive behaviour. Cooperation and adaptive behaviour cause empathy and tolerance to mature more positively. Empathy and tolerance, in their turn, tend to be displayed by teachers in real everyday situations.
Thus, the analysis of the obtained results and findings has enabled the identification of the relationship between ‘emotional’ competencies and behavioural patterns, as well as to describe the interrelationship between different social competencies. When planning this research work, we selected four competencies (cooperation, adaptive behaviour, empathy and tolerance). The first two deal with the teachers’ behaviour and the other two with feelings and relationships.
It is evident from the analysis of the findings that empathy and tolerance tend to mature as interrelated social competencies. All the teachers whom we observed demonstrating empathy do possess tolerance as a mature social competency. Only one teacher displayed tolerance with empathy still immature. 48
The qualitative analysis has produced evidence to support the interdependence between cooperation and adaptive behaviour. All the teachers whom we observed demonstrating adaptive behaviour do possess cooperation as a mature social competency. Yet, one teacher displayed cooperation with adaptive behaviour still being immature. Since the rough interrelationship of the competencies was assumed to have two interconnected sides – emotional and behavioural – the obtained results were analysed by us for these two sides. Indeed, cooperation and adaptive behaviour cause empathy and tolerance to mature more positively, while empathy and tolerance, in their turn, tend to be displayed by teachers in real everyday situations.
References
Agramakova, L. Empathy as a component of personal development in social environment. – Kursk, 2000.
Amonashvili, Sh. Psychological grounds of cooperation pedagogy. Kiev: Osvima, 1991. - 110 p.
Basova, A. Meaning of empathy in Russian and foreign psychology. Young Scientist. — 2012. — №8. — p. 254–256.
Bayevskiy, R. Forecasting conditions on the border of norm and pathology. — Мoscow: “Medicine”, 1973. — 173 p.
Boyko, V. Diagnostics of empathy skills level. Practical psychodiagnostics. Methods and tests. Teaching aid. Edited by D. Raigorodskiy-Samara, 2001. p. 486–490.
Declaration of Principles on Tolerance 1995.
D’yachenko, V. Cooperation in education. Moscow, 1991.
Ostanina, N. Approaches to classification of coping behavior in scientific references. News of the Russian State Pedagogy University named after A. I. Hertzen. Issue № 70-2/2008
Shishova, I. Forming of social competencies within the process of foreign language training. Tomsk State Pedagogy University newspaper (Vestnik). Issue №9/2006.
49
5.
Tatiana Kuzmicheva and Yulia Afonkina
Competence approach to the training the teaching staff for inclusive education
Today the idea of inclusive education is becoming more common in Russian schools. Inclusive education, which is intensively included into practice of modern school, sets a lot of complex issues and new challenges to the teacher.
In 2012, the Murmansk region became a participant in the international Russian-Finnish project "School for All: the development of inclusive education" (ENPI Kolarctic program), which has contributed to solving scientific and practical problems in the field of inclusive education in the region.
Analysis of international experience of inclusive education showed that inclusive education practice development is based on the idea of accepting the individuality of each learner and meeting their special educational needs in social interaction of the child with limited health abilities1, the teacher and other children in the class.
Experimental Study
Within the project "School for All: Development of Inclusive Education" a study on social interaction was conducted among the teachers working in inclusive classrooms with students. The survey was conducted according to a procedure jointly developed with specialists from the University of Lapland. Social skills were measured according to the following criteria:
1 ’Limited health abilities’ is Russian equivalent to ’disabilities’ 50
• collaboration (motivation for cooperation, involvement, role-taking); • adaptive behavior (compromises, response to challenges and changes, social responsibility); • empathy (complicity, assistance, recognition of feelings of others); • tolerance (respect for others, recognition of the rights of others, understanding the individuality of others).
The data was gathered through monitoring the activities in the classroom and interviewing teachers. Results of the study allowed us to conclude that for the majority of teachers of pilot schools implementing inclusive education practices, the distinguishing characteristic is the lack of social interaction skills in the inclusive classroom. This, in turn, resulted in inadequately organized social interaction of students with each other and with the teacher, and to a distortion of targets and unpredictable occurrence of adverse effects, both from teacher and from the students. Aggressive forms of response, the occurrence of stress, as well as a wide range of negative phenomena in interpersonal relationships (mistrust, suspicion, aversion, etc.) become characteristic. These phenomena, arising and rooting in acts of pedagogical interaction, deform relationships of the members of the classroom, preventing the development of their tolerance and empathy, thereby devaluing the idea of inclusive education as cooperation "of all with all".
The data obtained clearly show that the development of inclusive education involves, first of all, the development of teacher’s skills and qualities such as empathy, mobility, creativity, stress resistance, communication, and broad basis of knowledge. These personal qualities of the teacher determine the formation of the so-called inclusive thinking. Thus, the results of the pilot study indicate the need to develop social interaction skills of teachers to address the following objectives: to quickly and correctly adjust in the communication situation; properly organize verbal communication (ie successfully find adequate means for transmitting this content - the right tone, the right words, etc.); provide feedback to students and on its basis to rebuild the practice of social interaction in the direction of cooperation.
Thus, the implementation of inclusive education practices determines the need to develop new competencies of the teacher, so as to enhance successful implementation of teacher education activities in an inclusive environment.
51
Nowadays implementation of the results and the development of ideas of the School for all – project sets the goal of creating a flexible multi-level system of training of the teaching staff for inclusive education (secondary vocational education - higher professional education (Bachelor degree – Master degree) - additional vocational education), which is carried out by us at Murmansk State Humanities University.
Designing and implementing the system of training teachers for inclusive education system is carried out from a perspective of competence approach, which in national and foreign studies (J. Raven, V.Gutmaher, K.Skala, V.A.Bolotov, V.V.Serikov, I.A.Zimnyaya, A.K.Markova, Yu.G.Tatur) first of all identifies strengthening the practical orientation of education.
Competence-based approach to professional education allows you to define and develop the professional and personal potential, direct it to the sphere of the most effective professional applications, responding to requests of employers on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to create conditions for development of a human being as the subject of professional activity.
Expediency of the competence-based approach is also determined by the fact that it allows you to assess the quality of professional training in terms of competences formed regardless of the presence or absence of professional experience, ie stages of professional learning and adaptation in the profession.
From the position of the competency approach and taking into account the requirements of professional standards, we have developed a module of the professional competencies of the inclusive education teacher, containing criteria for assessing the quality of his training (Table 1, p. 52).
52
53
Implementation of the competency approach gives professional training perspective, predictive focus, thereby making a teacher ready to operate responsibly and creatively develop their profession.
The training of the teachers for inclusive education is realized through creating the following conditions:
1. Organizational: in the framework of the existing educational standards it is necessary to increase the number of disciplines which disclose the opportunities of training and development of people with limited health abilities; organizing and conducting continuous (for two semesters) practice on the basis of inclusive institutions and special education; establishment of resource centers for supporting educational initiatives on the basis of higher education institutions together with experienced practitioners in the field of inclusive education.
2. Psycho-social: the central task in this context is the development of tolerance among future teachers for inclusive education. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and implement programs of psychological support for future teachers of inclusive education aimed at the development of readiness to interact, on training productive interaction skills in different educational situations, the development of adaptive abilities of children with LHA in inclusive educational settings. Effective implementation of programs of psychological support in the sector integration-inclusion is defined by observance of common approaches to the diagnosis and correction of emerging problems that qualified professionals must have in mass educational institutions.
3. Pedagogical: attracting the teaching staff, training teachers for inclusive education with a view to adopting technology of educating persons with limited health abilities (in subject training) to participate in scientific workshops, conferences, scientific schools in the sector of integration- inclusion, that will influence the formation of instructional competence of future teachers for inclusive education. Joint projects with leading researchers and practitioners, scientific and educational-methodical activity in the field of special (correctional) education will improve motivation of future teachers for inclusive education, ready to customize the educational process, with special methodological tools for achieving quality of inclusive education.
4. Information: creation of information educational environment. In the development of inclusive education practices it is necessary to ensure broad access to online information sources, to information and methodological foundations, presupposing the existence of manuals and recommendations in all areas and activities, visual aids, multimedia, audio and video, allowing to distribute the theoretical and scientific practical experience of experts in the field of inclusive education.
In the substantive aspect, the applied competencies that future teachers for inclusive education master in the course of professional training, presuppose willingness to solve the following 54 professional tasks: • assigning appropriate pedagogical tasks for the work of each learner; • creating an atmosphere of mutual goodwill and mutual assistance; • Introducing positive factors to the lives of children, expanding the scale of values recognized by them, enhancing respect for human values; • Taking into account individual characteristics of children; • Organizing joint activities, reinforcing contacts with children using a variety of tools and techniques; • Assisting the learner (emotional, guiding, training); • Organizing collective games and other activities to enable the learners to express themselves on different sides; • Taking into consideration the specifics of micro-groups, in which the learner is included in the classroom, its installations, aspirations, interests, values; • Developing the responsibility in the distribution of tasks between learners; • Organizing socially significant, meaningful and interesting activities for children; • Changing the social role of the child in the course of joint activity and functioning (eg, the role of the leader to the role of the subordinate and vice versa); • Expressing compassion to the failures and rejoicing other children's success in joint activities.
Thus, innovative strategy of teacher training based on the competence approach aims to make the idea of inclusive education an integral part of the professional thinking. This approach will allow the teacher to effectively solve a number of tasks that are important for the implementation and development of inclusive practices
References
Afonkina Yulia. Audit of personal qualities and professional competencies of the teacher in pre-school educational institution.- Volgograd: Teacher, 2014.- 89 p.
Federal Law “On Education in the Russian Federation” : Eksmo, 2013. – 208p. – (Actual legislation).
Hutmacher Walo. Key competencies for Europe // Report of the Symposium Berne, Switzerland 27-30 March, 1996. Council for Cultural Co-operation (CDCC) a Secondary Education for Europe. Strasburg, 1997.
Kuzmicheva Tatiana. Inclusive education in the Barents Euro-Arctic region // Higher education in Russia. - 2013. - № 7. - P. 63-67.
Markova A.K. Psychology of professionalism. – M.: International humanities fund “Knowledge”, 1996.
55
Mazayeva I.A. Innovation competence educational program in a study discipline: experience of projecting / I.A. Zimniaya, M.D. Lapteva, I.A. Mazayeva, N.A. Morozova; edited by I.A. Zimniaya. – M.: Research center for specialist training quality issues, 2008. – 122 p.
Openness of education: different views – common values. Collection of materials / I.D. Frumin, V.A. Bolotov, S.G. Kosaretsky, T.A. Mertsalova, T.V. Timkova. M.: Publishing House HSE, 2013.
Raven J. Competence in a modern society: revealing, development and realization. – M.: Kogito Center, 2002. Serikov V.V. On Methodology of Justification of Pedagogical Means // Development of Personality in Educational Systems: Materials of Reports of the 30th International Psychological and Pedagogical Readings. Rostov-on-Don, 2011. P. 1. P. 581-587.
Serikov V.V.Primary Stage of Pedagogical Research: Ideas, Plan, Project // Education and Sciences. – 2012. #2. Skala K. Social competence. Key qualifications // www.uniprotokolle.de/Forum/25, 2003
Tatur Yu.G. Educational process in University. Methodology and experience of projecting. – M. : Publishing house MSTU, 2009.
Zimniaya I.A. Key competencies as result-target basis of the competency approach to education // Writings of the Methodic Seminar “Russia in the Bologna process: problems, tasks, perspectives. M., 2004.
Zimniaya I.A. Key competence – new paradigm of modern education result // Internet-journal. – 2006. – 5 May
56
6.
Essi Kesälahti, Jenny Siivola & Sai Väyrynen
Teachers Supporting the Development of Social Skills
Knowledge and behaviours are forever changing at different times and in different social contexts. Moreover, knowledge and behaviours are being constructed socially and passed on in social interactions (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana 2002, 72). Social skills are necessitated both in interacting in social contexts and in learning. In this study, the development of social skills is seen as the basis for learning and the focus is on teachers’ actions in fostering them. Teachers play a significant role in enhancing the social skills of the learners (Väyrynen 2013).
The idea behind this research is based on Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of scaffolding – the theory of the zone of proximal development where a mediator (a parent, a teacher or a peer) can ‟engage the child in thinking forward at a space of knowledge where the child cannot yet understand, or master a skill, alone, but has the potential to do so through proximal interaction with somebody who has the capacity. In interaction, the mediator can help the child to shift his present idea, knowledge or skill to a new level of understanding” (Väyrynen 2013). The idea of the zone of proximal development is also related to inclusive pedagogy. According to Peterson and Hittie (2003, 2007) four building blocks for inclusive pedagogy are scaffolding (mediation) at the zone of proximal development, multilevel teaching, the use of multiple intelligences and taking into account different learning styles.
Social skills should be learnt and adopted in the overall learning process in schools. Some learners adopt these skills effortlessly, but others need support achieving these skills. Thus, teachers have a task in designing the pedagogy and teaching in a way that provides opportunities to practice social skills in the first place. In addition, teachers need to pay attention when designing methods to support especially those learners who have difficulties in developing these skills (Väyrynen 2013, 2). 57
This study is a part of the A School for All – Development of Inclusive Education project that aims at developing inclusive education through school-based activities and research. A joint research between Russia and Finland was carried out focusing on teachers’ practices in relation to developing learners’ social skills as those skills are a focal factor in learning. On the basis of previous research, a framework for the development of social skills was developed by the Finnish and Russian researchers for the use of the joint research of the project. The framework consists of four dimensions of social skills that are considered the most important factors in developing social learning environments conducive to inclusive education: 1) empathy, 2) tolerance, 3) collaboration, and 4) adaptive behaviour.
Empathy and tolerance relate to feelings and attitudes, whereas collaboration and adaptive behaviour are related to actions and behaviour. Moreover, there are certain indicators defined for the use of observing these dimensions. The framework of this study and the relationships between the dimensions are described in the following figure:
Figure 1: Relationship between the dimensions of social skills.
Emotional development and behaviour are strongly connected and the ability to feel empathy is needed to be able to value and understand diversity. In addition, the ability for empathy can promote tolerance; further, with a tolerant attitude, the emotional capacity for empathy can be increased. Emotions and actions turn into actual behaviours in different situations. Experiences 58 from collaboration and appropriate behaviours in changing social situations will provide feedback that mirrors emotions and attitudes; positive experiences may further develop our ability to feel empathy and take a tolerant position towards diversity, whereas negative experiences may have repercussions. (Väyrynen 2013).
This framework serves as a basis for the research of investigating the teachers’ actions in supporting the development of social skills in their classrooms. The framework also directs the analysis of the data.
Method
In this study, teachers’ behaviours and actions in relation to the development of social skills at school are researched through the following research questions:
• How do teachers understand social skills? • How do teachers promote the development of social skills in their daily practice?
Teachers’ practices have been investigated in two distinct ways. The first is practices as intentions, meanings, and values as understood by the teachers themselves. For this, teachers were asked to answer a questionnaire on their reactions to different situations. The situations were developed by the researchers at the Murmansk State Humanities University. The situations are different kinds of social dilemmas the teacher might run into in his or her career (for example: ‘a learner tries to make contact with other learners but fails’, ‘a learner is not happy for other children’s successes’). Second, teachers’ practices were observed from an external perspective, including their individual performance, behaviour and actions in relation to the development of social skills at school.
One class of 9–10 year-old learners in the fourth grade was selected in each of three project schools as a target group. Teachers’ practices were observed three times in each class and each observation lasted for an entire school day. All classes consisted of diverse learners.
A questionnaire was given to all teachers who taught the observed classes during the observation days. Out of the eight teachers, six teachers, three females and three males, returned the questionnaire. A theory-guided content analysis with inductive logic was used in 59 the data analysis (the framework is represented in Figure 1). The analysis is still in progress; here we present some preliminary findings.
Preliminary results
The teachers seem to notice that the learners have different “learning tasks” when it comes to social skills. They refer to their observations or intuition regarding the learners’ abilities to cope with the key social skills needed in the classroom. For example, one of the teachers did not insist that certain learners read their stories out loud in class. The teacher explained it to others by saying that being in the spotlight is not that easy for everyone, but we will get there little by little, while others love being the centre of attention and they, on the other hand, need to learn how to give space to others and listen. Another teacher pointed out, for instance, that learner A needs to learn how to listen to others, while learner B needs to learn how to say nicely if he is unhappy with somebody’s behaviour. Academic, usually learning situations, are used as opportunities to promote the development of social skills. In the following, we will look at some of these situations.
Teachers as role models
The teachers seem to behave and speak in a way they want the learners to behave and speak. They serve as an example for the learners (implicit support). In addition, they guide the development of social skills in more direct ways (explicit support). As mentioned before, scaffolding (mediation) can be implemented through learner interaction in heterogeneous groups, or through direct and indirect teacher action (Väyrynen 2013).
Our observations indicate that most of the teachers correct children’s behaviour through positive discipline and experiences. Thanking, praising, and encouraging appropriate behaviours are very characteristic of these teachers. When it comes to shy learners, the teachers, for example, praise them for being so well-behaved in class and listening carefully but, at the same time, they say that it would also be nice to hear what they think about the subject. If some of the learners are very noisy, the teachers praise them for being able to speak their mind, but also points out that it is important to listen to others. In the event that a learner does or says 60 something rude, the teacher thanks the learner for trusting them so much that the learner can show negative emotions, but the teacher also says that it would be better to try to stay positive.
It was also noticed that in conflict situations teachers avoid taking sides. They listen to everyone’s point of view and aim to be understanding. For example, the teacher might say, “I know that you are upset and angry, every human feels that way at times. However, it is better to walk away from the situations and sulk in private than hit the other with the stick, because it certainly does not help your situation”. In our thinking, actions of this kind especially develop adaptive behaviour and tolerance in learners as it strengthens their cognitive processes by offering a verbalised “instruction” for difficult situations. It seems that these teachers understand the connection between language and executive functioning (see Vygotsky 1982; Aro, Laakso & Närhi 2007).
The observations revealed that it seems that the teachers only rarely show negative emotions, and when they do, these are expressed with words, for example, by saying “I am disappointed when you acted like that”. They make it clear to the learners that there are no wrong answers. In that way, they help the learners with forming a positive self-image and boost their confidence. Also, by seeing the good and right in every answer, teachers show the learners that it is natural to understand the same matter in different ways.
In our thinking, these kinds of approaches foster especially tolerance and empathy in learners. One of the teachers explained that teaching empathy is hard, but having a discussion together might help. Further, it is worth mentioning that the observations revealed that teachers acted very empathic even when they were actually not feeling that way.
Supporting the social skills of active and passive learners
An interesting research finding is that the teachers seem to support the social skills of the active and passive learner differently. An active learner is a learner who, for example, actively answers the questions, talks often, interacts with others willingly and is visibly social. This kind of a learner might also be a bit distracted occasionally by other learners’ activities in a classroom, or might disturb others by his or her actions. A passive learner rarely answers the questions even when asked, sits quietly and still, and talks only to his or her closest friends in the classroom. 61
According to our observations, teachers seem to support the development of social skills mainly of those learners who are overly active, loud, and cause more trouble and distractions. The silent and passive ones are not supported very much compared with their more active classmates. However, this finding is not unique. Apparently, teachers prefer the learning situation where everyone listens to the teacher, instead of the learners speaking among themselves during a lesson. Most of the teachers seem to ignore the passive learners. The teachers do not actively try to encourage them to collaborate and work with others. On the contrary, they recognize and support the active learners much more, for example, by saying what those learners should and should not do and, additionally, by explaining to them how to behave in a proper manner.
However, the teachers say that they support the development of the social skills of the passive learners, as well. Here are some examples from the questionnaire to a social dilemma where ‘a learner wants to be alone, and avoids interaction. She/he does not want to be involved in a common activity.’
The learner can follow others, but I try to encourage him/her to join in. I also give the learner a time limit and in that time the learner should take part in the action. I also talk with the learner privately about the reasons why she/he does not want to participate. If needed, we will discuss it with the whole class, too. I will also be in touch with the learner’s parents. If nothing helps, I will discuss the matter with a special education teacher and together we ponder what to do. (Male teacher)
I will discuss, encourage and solve the situation together with the learner. (Female teacher)
It seems that teachers say they encourage the shy learners to develop their social skills, too, but it does not show in practice. Moreover, the answers in the questionnaires indicate that there are some teachers who do not consider a situation serious where ‘a learner interacts and communicates only with one person’. However, some teachers suggest solutions, such as encouragement, collaborative working methods and mixing up the seating arrangement in the classroom, to solve this kind of a situation.
62
Discussion
As mentioned earlier, the analysis of the data is still in progress so it is not possible to draw final conclusions about the study. At this point, it can be concluded that the teachers seem to serve as an example for the learners on how to act in social interactions. They foster the development of social skills in learners both in implicit and explicit ways and all of the four dimensions of collaboration, empathy, tolerance and adaptive behaviour are apparent in the data.
Overall, the teachers seem to acknowledge that different learners need to develop different dimensions of social skills and they use diverse methods in fostering the development. Whatever the method is, the teachers always correct the behaviour in learners through positive actions. Despite the teachers’ awareness of different ‘development tasks’ in relation to social skills, their actions seem to focus more on those learners whose social skills relate to those that are appreciated by the prevailing school culture, namely an active, sociable, adaptive, positive, creative personality. In practice, there seems to be a danger of forgetting to support the passive and silent learners to foster the development of their social skills. Active learners are proactive in their relationship with other learners and also with their teachers; therefore, it seems that they gain more attention and, consequently, receive more feedback from the teachers in developing social skills. Because they are active in their learning, and they probably have personality traits that are favourable to such an active way of learning, their personality helps them to further develop their skills. This phenomenon has been discussed widely in Finland, as it has been shown to result even in differences in acknowledging learners’ achievements (see Alatupa et al. 2007; Keltikangas-Järvinen 2011).
Based on the preliminary analysis of our data, we suspect that there is a discrepancy between what teachers say and what they actually do. Some teachers are likely to be more consistent in terms of their thinking and actions, whereas some teachers ‘think right’ but act differently. Also, we need to look more carefully into our data to determine what kinds of pedagogical approaches successful teachers use to support learners with different characteristics and different levels of social skills. By revealing the gaps and successful approaches, we aim to show that the development of social skills has to be integrated across all subjects and in all interactive situations in the classroom.
63
References
Alatupa, S., Karppinen, K., Keltikangas-Järvinen, L. & Savioja, H. (2007). Koulu, syrjäytyminen ja sosiaalinen pääoma. Löytyykö huono-osaisuuden syy koulusta vai oppilasta. Sitran raportteja 75. Helsinki: Edita Prima Oy. Internet source available: http://www.sitra.fi/julkaisut/raportti75.pdf [Accessed on 6.6.2014].
Aro, T., Laakso, M-L., & Närhi, V. (2007). TOMERA – Toiminnanohjauksen ja itsesäätelyn tukeminen päivähoidossa. NMI-bulletin, 2007, Vol. 17, No. 2. Internet source available: http://www.nmi.fi/nmi- bulletin/bulletin-pdf/aro2_2007.pdf [Accessed on 12.3.2014].
Donald, D.; Lazarus, S., & Lolwana, P. (2002). Educational Psychology in Social Context. Second Edition. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
Keltikangas-Järvinen, L. (2011). Temperamentti ja koulumenestys. Helsinki: WSOY.
Peterson, J.M. & Hittie, M.M. (2003, 2007). Inclusive Teaching. Boston, Pearson: Allyn & Bacon.
Väyrynen, S. (2013). A School for All project. Joint research plan. Teachers Supporting the Development of Social Skills. Internet source available: http://www.ulapland.fi/loader.aspx?id=48bf1282-80d6-47f7- 9fa8-a0bfb754e9988 [Accessed on 5.6.2014].
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1982). Ajattelu ja kieli. Espoo: Weilin+Göös.
64
7.
Essi Kesälahti
Aspects of administrative support in implementing inclusion.
A case study of three Finnish comprehensive schools
Equality is a focal value in inclusive education. Finland is known as a country that appreciates equality and, for example, the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (EASNIE 2013) considers education in Finland is inclusive. At the international level, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action in Special Needs Education (UNESCO 1994) is about every learner having the right to attend mainstream schools instead of placing some learners in special schools and classrooms, and Finland, among many other countries, has signed this statement. In addition, the Policy Guideline on Inclusion in Education (UNESCO 2009) gives an extensive list of international conventions and declarations that promote inclusive education. For example, there is the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006). Finland has signed this convention; however, the latter protocol has not yet been ratified.
At the national level, the Finnish Constitution Law (731/1999) states that “No one shall, without an acceptable reason, be treated differently from other persons on the ground of sex, age, origin, language, religion, conviction, opinion, health, disability or other reason that concerns his or her person. Children shall be treated equally and as individuals and they shall be allowed to influence matters pertaining to themselves to a degree corresponding to their level of development.” In addition, it is written in the Special Education Strategy (MoEC 2007) that learners have a right to education in their neighbourhood school and receive all the needed support in learning in mainstream classrooms. The support is supposed to be provided through a systematic three-level model. This means that all learners are provided with (1) general support that is routine support in everyday school life; if that is not adequate for a learner, then 65
(2) intensified support is given, and if that is not sufficient either, (3) special support will be provided. The two latter stages of support necessitate a thorough assessment and a planning process with a multi-professional team (MoEC 2007).
According to Halinen and Järvinen (2008, 79), there seems to be an overall consensus about aiming at inclusive education in Finland. Still, I must point out that inclusive education is not directly mentioned in the Finnish Basic Education Act (628/1998) or in the national core curriculum and the amendments and additions to the national core curriculum for basic education (2010). In addition, it seems that there is no unity of terms to use when talking about inclusive education and how exactly inclusion should be implemented (Halinen & Järvinen 2008, 79).
Finnish municipalities have quite a wide range of autonomy to arrange services, such as education. For example, according to the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC 2012), the municipalities in Finland have differences in implementing the three-level support system. This reflects the proposition that there is no single correct way to implement inclusive education and the local circumstances have an impact on it (Watkins and Meijer 2010, 241). Reforms require time and resources and much depends on the education providers’ capacity and abilities (MoEC 2012, 21). The educational organisation sets the framework for implementing education and the political level of education sets its limits and possibilities (Johnson 2006).
Context of the study
This is a qualitative case study that is part of the A School for All – Development of Inclusive Education project, which is being carried out in the area of North-West Russia and the Province of Lapland in Finland. The project aims at enhancing inclusive education in schools and teacher education through research and development work. In addition, some development schools are involved in both Russia and Finland.
This case study concentrates on examining the aspects of administrative support in implementing inclusive education through three development schools involved in the project in Finland. The research questions are:
1. How is inclusive education implemented at three selected schools? 66
2. How does the administration support the implementation of inclusive education in three selected schools?
The role of administrative support is highly recognised in the research field of inclusion, but there has not been much research on this topic. For example, Watkins and Meijer (2010, 238– 242) call for taking into account the role of the whole educational environment when enhancing inclusion. Halinen and Järvinen (2008, 81) emphasise more specifically the need for “changes in educational structures, policies, objectives, subject matters, and operating procedures” so that all learners can be educated in local mainstream schools. This means that inclusive education is not only a matter of teachers; it concerns the whole educational system at the municipal and national levels (Naukkarinen 2005, 106).
Inclusive education can be understood and defined in many ways but basically it can be understood in a narrow or a broad perspective. Often the narrow perspective seems to be the dominant way to see inclusive education (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson 2006, 5; Kesälahti & Väyrynen 2013, 11–30). It sees inclusion as a concern that involves certain people, such as disabled learners, and inclusive education is merely about including these people in mainstream education. On the contrary, the broader perspective concentrates on the whole educational system and its possibilities on enhancing the participation of all learners in local schools by restructuring policies, culture and school practices. From this point of view, inclusive education can benefit all learners, not just those with special educational needs (Ainscow, Booth and Dyson 2006, 14–27).
In this research, the conceptualisation relates to the broad conceptualisation. Inclusive education is seen as “a process of identifying and reinforcing potential for learning, and removing barriers. It is an on-going educational development, based on intertwined values, practices and policies. Inclusive education is about the access and equity of all students, at all levels of education and across lifelong learning” (Väyrynen et al. 2013). There is also a political aspect in the concept of inclusive education and it can be seen as a question of power. Someone always holds the power to decide what is best for children and what is best for the society. Thus, what decision makers and administrators think about inclusive education is not insignificant since they have the power (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2014). 67
In addition to the understanding of inclusive education among the administration in the educational organisation, this case study concentrates for instance on leadership, organisation structure and culture, values and legislation from the point of view of inclusive education. The aim is to provide some aspects that can serve as a basis for principals and municipalities for reflecting on their solutions, structures and leadership from the point of view of inclusion in the educational organisation. The educational organisation and the administration will be examined using Bernard’s (2001, 4–10) classification of the three levels of an organisation: the micro level (schools), the meso level (the education bureaucracy) and the macro level (the national educational policy.)
Data collection and analysis
The data of this qualitative case study have been collected from principals and teachers that are involved in the project and from educational administrators and decision makers in the municipality. Official documents serve as additional sources. School leaders represent the main source of data for this research since their role is essential in implementing inclusion (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education 2012, 20), and they are some of the administrators in the educational organisation.
The principals and one of the administrators were interviewed face-to-face during February and March 2014. The teachers, decision makers and one of the administrators received a questionnaire in January 2013 with both open-ended and structured questions. A face-to-face supplementary interview with one teacher was also carried out. The research data have been analysed by using theory-guided content analysis. The results are represented in the framework of the dimensions of an inclusive school culture that comes from the previous research of Seppälä-Pänkäläinen (2009).
Research results
The organisational culture of a school can be examined through the following dimensions that comprise the conceptualised framework for an inclusive school culture. The dimensions are: 1) the operational environment, 2) the arrangements of education, 3) teacherhood and 68 professional growth, and 4) leadership and development. Every school has its own culture, but these four dimensions are the same in each of them. An inclusive and developing school keeps all these dimensions in balance by preventing, solving and fixing possible disruptions in each of the dimensions. It is done in collaboration, and further, people learn through the process. If this does not happen, development and change are not happening, either (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2009, 62–64; 2014).
I reflect my research data on these dimensions of school culture. However, I use the term ‘pillar’ instead of ‘dimension’ since pillars are more concrete and provide a more solid base to review the role of the administration. Moreover, the word ‘pillar’ exemplifies the supportive essence of these dimensions in inclusive school culture.
Operational environment
The operational environment refers to the environment of the schools, to the municipality. The focus is, for example, in the organisational structures and the development work of the municipality (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2009, 65). In addition, I view the values of the municipality and the understanding of inclusive education among different stakeholders. In this case, the municipality has explicitly stated inclusive values and, moreover, those values are seen in the actions of the administrators and decision makers.
We have been for a long time a municipality that pretty much emphasises inclusion in services, so in 2005, we closed down the municipal special school and started to organise services on the basis of the neighbourhood school principle. So we have implemented it for a long time or had an inclusive orientation. (Administrative respondent 1)
In addition, the respondents highlighted the importance of knowledge and understanding of inclusive education among all the stakeholders in addition to right kind of attitude towards inclusive education. Naukkarinen, Ladonlahti and Saloviita (2010) argue that it is essential that there is a clear understanding of inclusion and its requirements at the municipal level and municipal administrators should see it as a matter that concerns them, too. In this case, all the teachers and principals conceptualise inclusive education in a broad way, but there seems to be a lack of knowledge among decision makers. 69
When the decision makers do not have former knowledge on a topic, it becomes salient for them to get enough of the right kind of information, and further, the information should be understood so that the decisions made on the basis of it are appropriate. In this case, it seems that knowledge on inclusion is relegated to decision makers so that they can make decisions that favour inclusive education. After all, the teachers said that they are supported in implementing inclusive education. However, is it a sustainable solution to leave the decision making on the basis of adequate knowledge in the hands of separate stakeholders who share information?
It seems that the sharing of knowledge also plays a role in changing attitudes. Some of the principals and teachers stated that decision makers and the administration concentrate too much on the costs and do not see the effects in the long run.
And that, particularly, decision makers would like to see numbers, and they ask what the costs of this are. Well, at best, it can save some money, but the way I see it is that an inclusive school might cost a bit more, but what can it pay back in the future? There can be fewer people who go to prison over and over again; there can be many fewer people who get marginalised. So it is like you cannot look at the cost effects in a short-sighted way or compare them over five years. Instead, the focus should be on the bigger picture when thinking about educational organisations. (Principal 3)
The structure of the educational organisation was said to be complex and it does not really enhance collaboration at the meso level of the administration. These types of organisations change slowly (Juuti 2006, 204–208; Nivala 2006, 131 –132), so it is not beneficial for implementing inclusive education. Naukkarinen (2005) explains that, to enhance inclusion, collaboration should be a part of the working habits at each level of the educational organisation, not merely in schools. However, if the organisational structure is hierarchical and complex, there is no room for collaboration. If the organisational structure were more open, it would be able to accommodate changes and develop at the same time (Juuti 2006, 206–208). As Fullan (1994) points out, successful change demands a learning organisation, and I understand that a complex and closed organisational structure is not compatible with that idea.
In the pillar of operational environment, the administrators and decision makers play a role in enhancing inclusive values by stating those explicitly and, in addition, making those visible through their actions. Furthermore, there is a need to give attention to the organisational 70 structure from the point of view of implementing inclusive education. It is worth pondering, for example, if the structure is flexible enough and whether there is room for collaboration.
Teaching arrangements
Arrangements of education refer, for instance, to school facilities, how learners are grouped and the kind of support system in place for learning. (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2009, 83). The teaching arrangements are viewed at the meso/macro level and at the micro level.
The framework for teaching arrangements is set at the meso and macro levels. In Finland, the Parliament decides on the basic principles of the educational legislation and educational policy. The government, and the Ministry of Culture and Education as a part of it, are responsible for the organisation and planning of educational policy at the central government level (macro level). The actions of the providers of education at the municipal level are taken to provide education for children living in the area, who have the power to decide about many things themselves, but they are still governed by the law, which has set goals through the Education Act. (MoEC n.d.1.)
The Finnish National Board of Education (macro level) is responsible for the administrative tasks and the development tasks of education at the national level. They also formulate the national core curriculum, which is based on the Basic Education Act. The idea of the national core curriculum is to ensure fundamental educational rights, equality and quality and the consistency of education as well as legal protection. This national core curriculum is the framework of all education in Finland. It sets the framework, for instance, for educational values, structures and tasks, as well as the principles related to learning theories, the educational environment and the working culture and methods. In addition, it defines the goals and the contents of teaching subjects. It also determines the policies regarding learner support, instruction and evaluations in addition to student welfare and collaboration between home and school. The education provider (municipality, meso level) is required to create a municipal- specific curriculum based on the goals and contents set out in the Basic Education Act and in the national core curriculum. Further, school-specific curricula can be created following the same logic (MoEC n.d.2). 71
The curriculum is the basis of education in the municipality and every learner has the right to be educated in accordance with it (MoEC n.d.3). The Finnish Basic Education Act (628/1998), the national core curriculum and the amendments and additions to the national core curriculum for basic education (2010) and the Special Education Strategy (MoEC 2007) do not directly mention inclusive education, but they do say that all learners have the right to go to their neighbourhood school and receive support learning there through a three-level support system.
All of the principals thought that the legislation does guide towards inclusive education, but one principal also suggested that it does so only in an implicit way. In addition, one of the administrators said that the legislation is not that inclusive after all. However, in this case, the local curriculum emphasises inclusion in education as it is mentioned in the curriculum several times. This means that the teachers in the municipality case are strongly guided towards inclusive education, but there might exist huge differences among municipalities in Finland as the legislation does not firmly guide towards it at the national level.
At the micro level the inclusive school arrangements seem to be very diverse. The starting point is that the principals place all the learners in mainstream classrooms and the teachers apply diverse teaching methods and solutions.
Then I ponder together with another teacher what kind of pedagogical practices or solutions we will implement in our teaching . . . I mean, whether it is going to be co- teaching, flexible grouping, differentiation or another kind of working form. So inclusion . . . It appears as a very . . . Like, diverse and heterogeneous classroom that is taught in the school. (Teacher 1)
The teacher described that differentiation is basically just considering and implementing different ways to teach, such as flexible grouping (for instance, on the basis of learners’ skills or learning styles), splitting lessons, different kinds of assignments for different learners, giving some learners extra time or reducing some tasks in exams, giving some learners tools to ease some assignments, and many other kinds of practical solutions developed with the help of the official three-level support system.
However, one of the teachers and some of the decision makers pointed out that too many learners should not be placed in a classroom. The high number of learners in the classrooms 72 seems to be a challenge in implementing inclusive education. In this case, one way to handle this problem is co-teaching. Administration plays a role in making this possible, for instance, by providing resource teachers and encouraging teachers to adopt this working method.
To foster inclusive education in schools, the educational organisation at the macro and meso level should make sure that the legislation and curricula provide a firm basis and framework for implementing inclusive education. The role of the administration at the micro level is to make diverse school arrangements possible by creating a school culture where teachers are encouraged to develop their practices and collaborate.
Teacherhood and professional growth
Teacherhood and professional growth are about training and professional development (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2009). In this case, it was suggested for teacher training to provide special educational skills to all teachers, whether they are general or special education teachers because, after all, they do the same work in inclusive classrooms. This way teachers would feel more prepared, and perhaps the attitudes would then be left behind and professionalism would receive more emphasis.
In addition, the different training, titles and wages of different teachers makes the organising of school work in inclusive ways more difficult. One of the principals mentioned that there is certain inflexibility since, for example, if there are two kinds of special education teachers in the school and they have different compulsory teaching times, but in reality, they do the same work. The principal would like the special education teachers to have similar job descriptions because it would help in organising the school work, and they would also be paid equally. The principal calls for flexibility and unification from the administration.
The professional growth of teachers happens also from teachers learning from each other. As inclusive education requires diverse teaching methods and solutions, it is important for the teachers to be able to discuss their work together, learn from each other’s practices and spread their solutions. One beneficial way to do this, mentioned by one teacher, is to observe each other’s lessons. Unfortunately, there is not much time for this and it is a challenge to create time for it. In this case, taking part in the A School for All-project has created possibilities for actions of this kind. It is the responsibility of the administration to provide resources and create 73 possibilities of this kind, and to foster a school culture where discussion, collaboration and sharing of methods are cherished.
Leadership and Development
It is the leadership that creates, renovates and maintains the organisational culture so leaders play a role in fostering change in other people’s thinking, too (Fullan 1994; Schein 1991; Spector 2010, 177; Viitala 2013, 28). Fullan (2006, 7–8) emphasises that change does not happen simply by leading individuals towards change; instead, leadership should at the same time concentrate on changing the whole culture.
Change is merely a process that needs to get started somewhere and the positive stimulus just needs to be spread around (Fullan 1994, 57). In this research, the principals and teachers in the target group are those who seem to lead the change in their schools. They are pioneers who spread the inclusive practices and slowly change others’ thinking and attitudes. In the case schools, it seems that the uncertainty and doubtful attitudes are changed through pioneering teachers:
There must be a kind of pioneer who vigorously starts to try and search for new models and who represents their ideas and thoughts, for example, to principals so that it is possible to ponder together whether these [ideas] are possible to implement and try . . . The whole school community has to be aware of what is going on and what kind of ideas there are, so there won’t be a feeling that just a small group of people twiddles things that pop out every now and then and perhaps have an impact on other people’s work, too, and so on. So it must be very open, and there must be discussion, and overall, I think that the best approach to these kinds of huge changes is to proceed slowly, so that it begins somewhere and starts to spread little by little . . . Like us, we have a good situation here, as some [teachers] courageously started to try out things, and I hear all the time people saying that it looks good and they want to try it, too. I think it goes well this way. (Principal 1)
Teacher 1 found that there has generally been a shift in teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education, but it took some time. It was also pointed out by other respondents that, after the 74 attitude is right, training and support (resources) should be offered. One of the administrators at the meso level stressed the importance of this exact order by saying,
Well, inclusion requires… It requires attitude – first. And then of course resources. But I think this is the order. I mean, if it’s not a common principle and if one doesn’t sincerely stand for it, then it does not matter how many resources there are because, in that situation, it does not play out. (Administrative respondent 1)
The attitude-before-resources thinking is in line with a Korean study that reveals that, if teachers have negative attitudes or even prejudices towards inclusion, the support and resources given might not be enough to yield the best outcomes (Hwang & Evans 2011, 145). Overall, the importance of the right attitude was stressed among the respondents. One of the principals said that it is the most focal thing, and even though inclusion can be forced by legislation, it is a poor starting point for it.
On-going development works seems to be characteristic of the teachers and principals in this case at the micro level. In addition, the municipality was seen as open to development. It received many thanks for taking an active part in national development projects and in developing things locally, too. One of the principals mentioned that it has been significant that the development work has been done systematically and with persistence in addition to involving all the stakeholders actively.
And of course, at the municipal level, then it is allowed to experiment and develop and examine different kinds of models in the first place so that it is not categorically prescribed, that it should go according to some pattern. (Principal 1)
One principal underlined that it is also important at the municipal level to discuss reforms (such as inclusion), for instance on what it means precisely in their own municipality. This allows it to become reality, and through discussions and pondering, people become committed to it. Overall, the principals seem to appreciate collaboration and discussion. In addition, they seem to be open to experiments and they accept setbacks. Moreover, they seem courageous and open-minded.
75
Discussion
The results of this case study have provided some aspects for educational administrators and decision makers to think from the point of view of supporting the implementation of inclusive education. Does the operational environment enhance inclusive education, for example, through the explicit values? Moreover, how are those values put into action? Also the structure of the organisation requires attention as inclusive education necessitates collaboration, awareness and flexibility at the administrative level, too.
The legislation is claimed to elicit negative or positive orientation towards inclusive education in the country. For example, if the country agrees on the values of inclusion, it promotes the implementation of inclusive education in practice since, in that case, it presumably also provides resources and support in realizing those inclusive values (Anati & Ain 2012, 2–3). In this case, the legislation does not firmly enhance inclusive education and the national core curriculum guides towards it only implicitly. Thus, there might be considerable differences among municipalities in enhancing it in local curricula. In this case, the local curriculum emphasizes inclusive education.
In addition, teachers’ professional competence also requires attention from the point of view of inclusive education. Adequate and the right kind of training are needed for all teachers. In addition, there needs to be possibilities for the teachers to learn from each other.
Overall, openness to learning and development and a few pioneers to lead the change towards inclusive education are needed. A successful change in schools necessitates the kind of “change agents” that the teachers and principals represent in this case. A mentality of change and development is also needed at the meso level of the educational organisation. There must be room for innovations and collaboration. As Principal 1 said, the municipality also needs to be open to new things. Administrative respondent 1 also described the role of the administration as listening to what is going on in the schools and understanding what is needed there. Then, the administration should work in accordance with that information.
This study can serve as a basis for reflection by principals and municipalities. In the best scenario, this research is in compliance with the idea of Miles and Ahuja (2007, 141–142): ‟By providing practitioners an opportunity to reflect on the way inclusive education is interpreted and implemented in other contexts, can help to shed new light on their own practice, which can 76 lead to change and development”. This study has provided only a limited scope of aspects and these all require further research. In other municipalities and with other kinds of respondents, other aspects would probably arise. However, all these aspects can be placed under the four dimensions of inclusive school culture (Seppälä-Pänkäläinen 2009), and there are more features to be found under each of these dimensions, or pillars, as they are called in this case.
References
Ainscow, M., Booth, T. & Dyson, A. 2006. Improving schools, developing inclusion. London: Routledge.
Anati N.M, & Ain, A. Including students with disabilities in UAE schools. A descriptive study. International journal of special education (2) 2012, 1–15.
Bernard, A. 2001. Education for all and children who are excluded. Paris: UNESCO.
European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. (EADSNE) 2012. Raising achievement for all learners. Quality in inclusive education. Odense: Denmark. Internet source available: http://www.european-agency.org/publications/ereports/ra4al-synthesis-report/RA4AL-synthesis- report.pdf [Referred on 24.9. 2013].
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (EASNIE) 2013. Complete national overview. Finland. Internet source available: https://www.european-agency.org/country- information/finland/national-overview/complete-national-overview
Finnish Basic Education Act 628/1998. Amendments up to 1136/2010. Internet source available: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1998/en19980628.pdf [Referred on: 28.3.2014.]
Finnish Constitution Law (731/1999). Internet source available (in Finnish): http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1999/19990731 [Referred on 19.4.2014.]
Fullan, M. 1994. Muutosvoimat. Koulunuudistusten perusteiden pohdintaa. (Trans. Ka-naoja, T.) Helsinki: Painatuskeskus.
Fullan, M. 2006 Change theory. A force for school improvement, Centre for Strategic Education. Seminar Series Paper No. 157. CSE.
Halinen, I. & Järvinen, R. 2008. Towards inclusive education. The case of Finland. Prospects (38), 77–97.
Hwang, Y-S., & Evans, D. 2011. Attitudes towards inclusion. Gaps between belief and practice. International Journal of Special Education (26) 1, 136–149.
Johnson, P. 2006. Rakenteissa kiinni? Perusopetuksen yhtenäistämisprosessi kunnan kouluorganisaation muutoshaasteena. Vaajakoski: Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy. Internet source available: https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/18018/951-39-2600-1.pdf?sequence=1 [Referred on 4.11.2013.]
77
Juuti, P. 2006. Organisaatiokäyttäytyminen. Helsinki: Otava
Kesälahti, E. & Väyrynen, S. 2013. Learning from our neighbours. Inclusive education in the making. Rovaniemi: University of Lapland Printing Centre.
Local curriculum 2011. Rovaniemen esi- ja perusopetusopetuksen opetussuunnitelma 2011. Internet source available: http://www.rovaniemi.fi/loader.aspx?id=3b0ab716-5aaf-4804-95a2-3be1d797c5f8 [Referred on 19.4.2014.]
Miles, S. & Ahuja, A. 2010. Learning from difference. Sharing international experiences of developments in inclusive education. In: L. Florian (Edit.) The SAGE handbook of special education. London: Sage, 131– 145.
MoEC 2007. Special Education Strategy. Internet source available: http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2007/liitteet/tr47.pdf?lang=fi
MoEC 2012. Oppimisen ja hyvinvoinnin tuki. Selvitys kolmiportaisen tuen toimeenpanosta. Internet source available: http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2014/liitteet/okm02.pdf?lang=fi
MoEC n.d.1. Koulutuksen hallinto ja päätöksenteko. Internet source available: http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Koulutus/koulutusjaerjestelmae/koulutuksen_hallinto_ja_paeaetoeksentek o/?lang=fi
MoEC n.d.2. Opetussuunnitelma ja tuntijako. Internet source available: http://www.oph.fi/koulutus_ja_tutkinnot/perusopetus/opetussuunnitelma_ja_tuntijako
MoEC n.d.3. Opetussuunnitelmien ja tutkintojen perusteet. Internet source available: http://www.oph.fi/saadokset_ja_ohjeet/opetussuunnitelmien_ja_tutkintojen_perusteet
National Core Curriculum 2010. Perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteiden muutokset ja täydennykset. Helsinki: Opetushallitus
Naukkarinen, A. 2005. Osallistavaa koulua rakentamassa. Tutkimus yleisopetuksen koulun ja erityiskoulun yhdistymisen prosessista. Helsinki: Edita Prima Oy Ab. Internet source available: http://www.oph.fi/download/47221_osallistu2005.pdf [Referred on 24.9.2013].
Naukkarinen, A., Ladonlahti, T. & Saloviita, T. 2010. Sitoutuminen yhteisiin tavoitteisiin. Internet source available: http://www.edu.fi/erityinen_tuki/yhteinen_koulu_kaikille/miten_edistaa_inkluusiota/kunnassa
Nivala, V. 2006. Näkökulmia julkisen sektorin johtamiseen ja johtamisen kehittämiseen. In: P. Juuti (Edit.) Johtaminen eilen, tänään, huomenna. Helsinki: Otava, 129–140.
Schein, E. 1991. (Translation: Liljamo, R. & Miettinen, A.) Organisaatiokulttuuri ja johtaminen. Jyväskylä: Gummerros Kirjapaino Oy.
Seppälä-Pänkäläinen, T. 2009. Oppijoiden moninaisuuden kohtaaminen suomalaisessa lähikoulussa. Etnografia kouluyhteisön aikuisten yhdessä oppimisen haasteista ja mahdollisuuksista. Jyväskylän yliopisto. Internet source available: https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/21623/9789513936600.pdf
Seppälä-Pänkäläinen, T. 2014. Opettajana muuttuvassa koulussa/Teachers in the changing schools. 78
Keynote speech in the conference Voices from the north: calling for inclusion in education 11.4.2014, University of Lapland.
Spector, B. 2010. Implementing organization change. Theory into practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
UNESCO 1994. The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. UNESCO. Internet source available: http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF [Referred on 21.11.2013.]
UNESCO. 2009. Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. France: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Internet source available: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf [Referred on 24.9.2013.]
Väyrynen, S., .Hakkarainen, P., Hietanen, L., Hautakangas, M., Koskinen, H., Kyrö-Ämmälä, O., Paksuniemi, M., Rahko-Ravantti, R. 2013. A School for All project. Research plan. Internet source available: http://www.ulapland.fi/InEnglish/Units/Faculty-of-Education/Research/Projects/A-School- For-All/Research-and-Development [Referred on 9.5.2014.]
Viitala, R. 2013. Henkilöstöjohtaminen. Strateginen kilpailutekijä. Helsinki: Edita.
Watkins, A. & Meijer, C. 2010. The development of inclusive teaching and learning. A European perspective? In: Rose, R. (Edit.) Confronting obstacles to inclusion. International responses to developing inclusive education. London: Routledge
79
8.
Sai Väyrynen
Creating resources for inclusion through school and community collaboration
There is a growing concern in Finland regarding the generally lower level of educational attainment of boys in the northern part of Finland. It is suggested that boys do not see the value of education, resulting in school disaffection. How can inclusive schools respond to this challenge in the context of the North? The paper presents findings from schools in the northernmost municipalities of Finland where schools and communities have made attempts to create individual learning paths for young male learners who are at risk of dropping out. The study identifies a few critical issues. First, the school community needs to be responsible for and responsive to all learners’ needs. Second, joint problem-solving among teachers can compensate for scarce resources. Finally, a seamless collaboration between the school and community stakeholders can provide meaningful learning opportunities for boys, and allow them to complete their basic education.
Finnish education is grounded on equity and equality. Equity means that all residents of Finland are entitled to receive the same social, health care and education services. Equality is understood as the quality of opportunities: No systematic differences should be found based on gender, region or population groups (Finnish National Board of Education [NBE], 2011). However, differences in educational achievements do exist (Kuusela, 2006). For instance, boys in the province of Lapland do not perform at the same level as girls. Nationally, boys’ educational performance in Lapland is the lowest in the country, especially in rural schools. The same regional pattern does not apply to girls. Recently, the Ministry of Education and Culture [MOEC] (2012) has pointed out increasing educational inequalities based on gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and parents’ educational level. Moreover, the gender gap between girls’ and boys’ attainment in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is also increasing. Recently, the lower achievement of boys has been raised in the media as well (ref). 80
This study is a part of the ‘A School for All’ development and research project aimed at promoting inclusive education in the area of North Calotte. Taking into account the particular contextual challenges presented above, I posed the research questions: 1) How do schools respond to boys’ disaffection? and 2) How can teachers and schools create resources for inclusion in small municipalities with low levels of resource?
Research Context
The paper focuses on the schools in two municipalities in the province of Lapland. For decades, the area has been a source for emigration, and migration to the southern parts of Finland. While the majority of the population are Finnish, some 10% the population are indigenous Sami people. The unemployment rate of approximately 19% is higher than the average unemployment rate in Finland (ELY-keskus 2014). Of those employed, 80% of the workforce is in public services and tourism; the remaining 20% are involved in primary production, such as agriculture and reindeer herding (Regional Council of Lapland, n.d; Työllisyyskatsaukset–Lappi, 2013). One of the study’s municipalities started to integrate children with disabilities in mainstream classes in the 1990s, as placing them in special schools in the provincial capital became too expensive, whereas in the other municipality studied, there are special classes only in the main village. The understanding of learner diversity is broader though, as there are, in every class, learners who need educational support to overcome intrinsic and extrinsic barriers to learning. A shared concern in these municipalities was the observed boys’ disaffection.
Research Method
The study follows the tradition of educational ethnography (e.g., LeCompte & Preissle, 1993) and ethnomethodology (Lahelma & Gordon, 2007). In ethnomethodology, school life can be seen as a process involving interaction between the learners and the adults of the school community and the school policies and practices. It is a process that becomes ordinary by the “interpretive practices through which people assemble what then comes to be seen as objective features of social life” (Pascale, 2011, pp. 105–106). Ethnography as a research method to explore social realities and cultures lends itself to understanding how teachers perceive education and how they approach diversity in the context of inclusive education 81
The fieldwork included class observations and interviews in April and August 2013, and in January 2014. Classroom observations as well as 11 informal teacher interviews were noted down by hand. Eight formal interviews (45–70 minutes) were recorded on a digital recorder and transcribed in Finnish by a trainee research assistant. The transcripts were then sent to the interviewees for their approval and revision, and also for the purpose of promoting dialogue between the informants and the researcher. A document review of the municipality’s educational policies and a glance at educational statistics were also carried out as additional sources of data. Finally, all data was imported into NVivo (QSR) software for analysis.
As the research is still on-going, the data analysis is in the process of being refined at the time of writing this paper. It relies on data-driven content analysis, the grounded theory approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In this paper, some preliminary findings will be discussed.
Findings
In order to respond to boys’ disaffection in schools, teachers need to identify the problem, understand its roots and then come up with solutions so as to ensure that boys manage to complete their basic education. Some teachers had identified the problem:
We estimate that about 9% of the learners in the upper grades are at risk of marginalisation – or they are somehow special in the sense that probably they won’t succeed in basic education.
In some informal interviews, it was revealed that a few teachers were unaware that the national ninth grade learning achievement of boys in Lapland was both lower than boys in general, and following a regional pattern. This raises some concern: How would teachers address this situation, and respond to learners’ needs if they do not recognise the characteristics of their context? In these findings, I will particularly point out solutions and resources that can be found in contexts of low resources.
82
Teachers’ understanding of local context
The data reveals that thoughtful teachers have a good understanding of local contexts and their impact on learners. One of the reasons behind disaffection was said to be poverty and social problems.
We take holistic care of learners . . . and as we know everybody, we know where they come from and what kind of difficulties they have at home . . . economical and all that . . . so we try to help them.
In small communities, the life of home and school is relatively closely connected. Teachers may be family friends, and even if not friends, they are aware of what happens in the learners’ families. As the community is small and the characteristics of the local way of life are familiar, there might be more understanding of where the families come from and how it shows in learning:
The family background impacts [on learning]. When I used to teach [in another Northern village] there was no tradition of doing school work at home. The children could not understand it because there was no such history at home.
The school community faces, in some instances, a mismatch between the school culture and local cultures, as well as the aspirations of families and the aims of education. It became clear from many informal discussions that while education was appreciated by families, it was shadowed by the history of using formal school education as a part of oppression and colonialisation of indigenous Sami people (Suoranta, 2005). This mismatch between the local ways of living and expectations of school education were illustrated by one interviewed teacher:
There are those who just can’t sit here, study grammar or anything. They are very disruptive because they just can’t follow [the teaching] – not in a small group, not alone, not in the mainstream class. They just can’t do it. But they are just excellent workers, they have men’s skills already. They are working over the weekends on reindeer 83
herding, construction business or wherever. They will not be marginalised [after school]. It’s just our difficult task to keep them here, by the papers.
Responses to disaffection: flexibility and collaboration
Boys’ disaffection, as a phenomenon, seems to be localised and contextually determined. Therefore, solutions for boys’ disaffection cannot be sought from specialised services or outside the communities. Solutions within the schools and within the community are needed, because the resources are there: ‘in any aspect of a school; in learners, parents/carers, communities, and teachers; in changes in cultures, policies and practices’ (Booth & Ainscow, 2002: 5). Some of the schools that participated in this study had been very creative in identifying and harnessing support available.
So we’ve made individual plans for them. Our crafts teacher takes [these boys] with him so that they can work there. Usually it’s something that is needed at school. They work there, they plan the work, measure and do it. There are all kinds of skills involved . . . Sometimes it might be so that they study a certain subject, a part of the lesson, and then they continue with their work. But, most importantly, they are working on something according to their strengths, crafts or maintenance; they are good in those kinds of activities . . . so that they would succeed in something.
This excerpt documents a strong commitment to ensure that all learners, including boys who are causing concern, can actually complete their basic education. They have identified the boys’ strengths and devised learning opportunities where the boys can excel and find their efforts meaningful in the school context. There is also recognition that the skills and knowledge stipulated in the curriculum can be achieved through different ways of learning.
Another important aspect of supporting learning is collaboration among professionals in the school and in the community. It was observed in some schools that teachers had formed effective ways of co-teaching in order to facilitate learning during the lesson. While few teachers actually worked together in the same classroom, some teachers preferred to use the possibility of ‘co-teaching’ to divide the group into smaller groups and more targeted support. The latter option may serve the purpose of more targeted support, but the special teacher in 84 one of the schools observed that teenagers do not want to be ‘taken away’ from their classmates for targeted support. It may accentuate their feeling of not belonging to the school.
The northern school communities are solidly set within their communities, and this created an opportunity to foster collaboration with other professionals as well, such as the municipality’s social workers, youth workers and local businesses. Social workers and youth workers were engaged with finding solutions that would work for boys who were at risk of dropping out, and local businesses and entrepreneurs stepped in by offering on-the-job training.
Conclusions
It seems that schools in the North are in different positions in understanding and responding to the trend of boys’ disaffection and underachievement in the school. Where this challenge has been acknowledged, it seems that three aspects need to be considered to successfully support learners.
First, the school community needs to be responsible for and responsive to all learners’ needs. This responsibility is shown in the staff’s genuine understanding of the life worlds of the learners. The staff is both understanding about the cultures of the learners and the requirements of basic education. This understanding helps them to identify ways in which the academic and educational goals of the curriculum can be achieved, thus making all learners complete their basic education. The staff feels proud when they find reasonable and context- relevant solutions so that their learners, notwithstanding their difficulties, may overcome the barriers to learning. The staff is creative, flexible and open-minded. Research shows that in many cases the efforts that have been developed to address specific needs may help teachers to be more sensitive towards the needs of those learners who do not necessarily need any additional support (e.g., Ainscow 2014, Väyrynen 2014). This might even contribute to adopting more inclusive practices in usual classroom situations.
Second, joint problem-solving among teachers can compensate for scarce resources. It is evident from the small schools in Northern Finland that teachers join their efforts to more effectively identify and understand boys’ disaffection, and to come up with meaningful 85 interventions. As specialist support is not ‘at hand’ in the schools, teachers use the resource that is available, that is, themselves. Most education professionals know more than they actually may manifest in their daily practice. Therefore, collaborative problem-solving and joint reflection are important tools to share knowledge, broaden one’s pedagogical repertoire and take advantage of tacit knowledge that has accumulated over years of practice (e.g., Engeström 2004; Hakkarainen & Paavola 2006). Joint problem-solving does not only contribute to addressing a certain situation but more widely, to enhancing teachers’ professional skills and, hence, creating new resources.
Finally, a seamless collaboration between the school and community stakeholders can provide meaningful learning opportunities for disaffected boys, and allow them to complete their basic education. The research informants alluded to the disaffection as a mismatch between local cultures and mainstream school culture, but claimed that boys’ marginalisation or exclusion in the community are not the issues as boys are likely to find ways of making their ends meet. If we look at the phenomenon from a wider perspective, it seems that life in the North for many families consists of several sources of income; in this respect, marginalisation may not appear to be a likely process. However, it is important that schools are also concerned with ensuring that basic education is completed, as it is a means to pursue other possibilities even later. Close community relationships may bridge the gap between local cultures and school culture. By nurturing this relationship, schools may contribute to their communities by promoting education and skills acquisition, and communities may contribute to schools by helping them to identify areas of meaningful collaboration. When the community’s way of life is brought closer to the realities of the school, learners may feel more connected with learning.
References
Ainscow, M. 2014. From special education to effective schools for all: Widening the agenda. In L. Florian (ed.) The Sage Handbook of Special Education (2nd Edition). London: Sage.
Booth, T. & Ainscow, M. 2002. Index for inclusion. Bristol: CSIE.
Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. 2008. Basics of qualitative research. Techniques and procedure for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
ELY-keskus 2014. Lapin työllisyyskatsaus huhtikuu 2014. Lapin ELY-keskus. Available http://www.ely-keskus.fi/documents/10191/2950498/Huhtikuu_2014.pdf/4a8ea7b09e70-4285-9eab- 04f362d955da 86
Engeström, Y. 2004. Ekspansiivinen oppiminen ja yhteiskehittely työssä. Vastapaino. Keuruu: Otava.
Hakkarainen, K. & Paavola, S. 2006. Kollektiivisen asiantuntijuuden mahdollisuuksia ja rajoja – kognitiotieteellinen näkökulma. In: J. Parviainen, Kollektiivinen asiantuntijuus. Tampere: Tampereen yliopiston yliopistopaino. 214–272.
Lahelma, E. & Gordon, T. 2007. Taustoja, lähtökohtia ja avauksia kouluetnografiaan. In S. Lappalainen, P. Hynninen, T. Kankkunen, E. Lahelma & T.Tolonen (Eds), Etnografia metodologiana. Lähtökohtana koulutuksen tutkimus. Tampere: Vastapaino. 17–38.
LeCompte, M. D., & Preissle, J. 1993. Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. (2nd ed.). San Diego: San Diego.
Pascale, C-M. 2011. Cartographies of knowledge. Exploring qualitative epistemologies. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Suoranta, J. 2005. Radikaali kasvatus: Kohti kasvatuksen poliittista sosiologiaa. Helsinki: Gaudeamus.
Väyrynen, S. 2014 (in print) A glance at inclusion in a small Finnish community: Essential teacher competencies. In: Walton, E. & Moonsamy, S. (eds.) Making education inclusive. Cambridge Scholars Publishing
87
III Inclusion in practice and different situations
The third chapter focuses on inclusive practice in Finland and Russia from different points of views. Hennariikka Kangas and Eija Valanne present Multi-Agency at the School-project, in which the idea of “by working together towards a school and society of well-being” has been developed. During the project they have discovered that by promoting school well-being and preventing possible challenges in learning and growth, it is possible to provide more equal opportunities for children and their families.
Seppo J.A. Karppinen & Timo Latomaa’s article is based on a project that aimed at developing of quality criteria for Hospital Education in the Northern part of Finland. The project objective was to increase theoretical knowledge and teacher’s practical pedagogical skills through inclusive further training short courses (2009-2012).
Andrey Tikhonov’s article focuses on people with disabilities as a part of the society and education. The article is based on his experiences, and discrimination on the basis of his disability. He brings out the idea of a better society that is organized more on the principles of inclusion, and considers what inclusion actually is.
Learning together. That is the main idea of the article from Katja Anttila, Kerttu Hakoköngäs and Marja Kärki. These three teachers were given a chance to participate in the School for All- project, and they started to develop inclusive primary education at Nivavaara School in Rovaniemi. They feel that co-operative learning and co-teaching have given them the possibility to develop their practice, and has given them new ways to work and teach by using different teaching methods. It is important that the students feel that with co-operative learning it is possible to achieve better results, than by studying alone.
Rauni Äärelä’s article is introducing the special characteristics and implementation of Sámi language immersion in Finland considering early childhood education. How Sàmi language immersion is carried out in the Sàmi language nests?
88
9.
Hennariikka Kangas and Eija Valanne PROMOTING WELL-BEING IN THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY Reinforcing social inclusion
Challenges we face today in the school community
Comprehensive school and its pupils Comprehensive school in Finland is a significant environment of growth that involves the whole cohort. In addition to its educative role, it also has a sociocultural role in advancing the well- being of a child (Janhunen 2013). According to the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results, Finland has succeeded well though the results have been declining lately (Ministry of Education and Culture 2013).
Well-being of the children is of concern in our comprehensive schools. In 2012, 5.6% of the families with children were customers of the Finnish family counselling centres. Of these, 61% used the services because of the child’s emotional, learning or developmental problems (Kuoppala & Säkkilä 2013b). During the same year, child welfare notifications were made for 64,391 children, which is 7.2% of all the children in Finland between the ages of 0 to 17. In addition, 17,830 children were on substitute care, and 87,196 children were customers of community care social services (Kuoppala & Säkkilä 2013a.) This is the broader context and these children and families live throughout Finland. Therefore, this is an important question both locally and nationwide. This background raised the question: What is collaborative school well-being like?
Shift the focus from working alone to working together In the past, the professional tradition was that teachers worked alone, door closed, in their own classroom with the children. Now we face the need to share this work with other professionals. The solution is multi-agency that is understood as a reciprocal and equal dialogue between 89 different stakeholders, such as the child, parents, teachers and other professionals. According to this, teachers do not have to cope alone anymore. In addition to their personal competence, there is the possibility of a shared expertise (Sipari 2008). Teachers have the opportunity to implement flexible teaching arrangements by actualizing, for example, co-teaching with a teacher colleague. Furthermore, communal competence is not restricted to teacher colleagues. There are many professionals in schools working with children. The multi-agency of school is a growing capital that brings opportunities and pressures for change. According to the reform of the national curriculum, multi-agency collaboration will not be seen as a recommendation, but as an obligation for schools to renew their culture.
The idea of multi-agency does not only include professionals. The knowledge and agency of children and parents are seen as valuable as those of a professional. The importance of children’s and parents’ active participation in promoting well-being is highlighted in the new legislation concerning school welfare services. The law obligates schools to offer opportunities for children and parents to be involved both in the matters concerning the child and in the matters concerning the school community (Law of pupil and student welfare services 1287/2013). This enunciates the following question: How will children’s and parents’ active participation in school be supported?
From intervention to prevention and promotion Teachers are used to working with the parents and other professionals such as school nurses and school social workers at the level of intervention. The focus of the work has been about finding solutions to the child’s or school’s problem together. The new school legislation and the changing curriculum emphasize the meaning of preventive support for all children as soon as the need appears. The shift of the focus aims to reduce the need for interventions (The Finnish National Board of Education 2011). The new legislation about school welfare services (1287/2013), which came into effect on 1 August 2014, also stresses the importance of promotion and early prevention in the areas of well-being. As the comprehensive school reaches all the children in one age group, we are compelled to find ways and methods to support their positive growth and development, even before any challenges arise. For this, we need to devise collaborative methods to find solutions to improve school well-being.
90
Shared agency Furthermore to the methods, we need to find ways of organizing this collaboration with the stakeholders of pupil welfare. The well-being of children is a shared concern among many professionals. Instead of different stakeholders working alone with the children at the intervention level, we need to find shared agency and communal competence in the school community. This allows us to share the responsibility, but it also brings new challenges. How is a shared language between different professionals found? How is time made to plan together? How is true participation for everyone involved established? This background inspires the next question: How is co-operation between school social workers and teachers achieved and strengthened? This can also be addressed at the university level: How is social work and teacher education combined?
Let’s find a solution - Multi-Agency at the School project
These were the challenges that drove us to start a project called Multi-Agency at the School in the beginning of February 2013. The project is funded by the European Social Fund and the Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment of Northern Finland. It is coordinated by the Teacher Training School of the University of Lapland, and it is a shared project with the teacher education and social work programme of the University of Lapland.
In March 2013, two developer-workers began to make concrete plans with teachers, parents and children on the school well-being desired to be achieved and how to achieve it. Respecting the main idea of co-operation in the field of well-being, the developer-workers formed a working pairs of developer-teacher and developer-social worker. Other active agents in this project were the children of the Teacher Training School and their parents. Support and guidance for the project were provided by the professional experts from the Regional State Administrative Agency of Lapland, the Centre of Excellence on Social Welfare in Northern Finland, the Centre of School Services of Rovaniemi and the Centre of Social Services of Rovaniemi.
91
The aims of the project and breadth of activities implemented are described in Table 1:
AIMS:
• Reinforce the school well-being of a child by enhancing a sense of community and active participation
• Promote interaction between families and the school; supporting the agency and participation of parents in the school society
• Develop the school culture toward preventative methods and early intervention
• Develop co-operation between school social work and teachers
• Develop a model of multi-agency collaboration at the school level
• Conduct multidisciplinary research and study involving the Social Work and Primary School Teacher Education programmes at the University of Lapland
ACTIVITIES:
Child and family School University
• Classroom activities to support, e.g. • Developing • Developing the co-operation between teacher social skills or transition to collaborative school education and social work
secondary school welfare services o Multidisciplinary group working on their • Preventative and early intervention • Students from the bachelor and master theses
groups to improve, e.g. university doing o Piloting co-operative training concentration, social skills or anger research or practice o Research-based articles and seminar management sessions presentations • Break activities involving the children • Developer-teacher and • After school clubs, e.g. friends’ club, developer-social girls’ club worker at school • Experiential consultant group for • Implementing methods parents of social work into the • Different kinds of events with parents school environment Active participation of children, parents and the school community in planning, implementing and reflecting the activities
TABLE 1. The aims and activities of the project Multi-Agency at School
92
Multi-agency as a tool for promoting social inclusion
Focus on multi-agency
To master alone social inclusion and well-being is a challenging concern at school. Both social inclusion and well-being are complex entities that can be divided into numerous components. These components are usually managed and processed separately in different professional settings. The roles of different stakeholders have been made very clear and separate from each other. These, especially professional, boxes are used to working side by side, but seldom stepping outside the box. Nevertheless, the development of a child is an entirety that best progresses in everyday life and cannot be separated into divisions (Karlsson, Hohti, Tammi, Olli & Hakomäki 2014). This necessitates a reconsideration of our (professional) boxes and the ways in which we to organize support for the development of the child. Could there be a new way of truly working together on a shared interest instead of working side by side?
One of the main aims of the Multi-Agency at the School project was to search for new ways for different stakeholders to be truly active in the matter of social inclusion and well-being at school, which is a shared interest of many parties. In this project, the focus of this multi-agency was on the children, their parents, school staff and social work and how to work together towards a school of well-being. The short-term of the project enabled us to start the development along with all the stakeholders. It also gave us opportunities to try out different kinds of methods to enhance the multi-agency. During this developmental work, a model was constructed to conceptualize the different dimensions of multi-agency collaboration that should be taken into consideration.
Active participation of children and parents
Participation of children During the Multi-Agency at the School project, the active participation of children was emphasized. The voice of the children was being heard alongside the adults’ voice and appreciated as equally important. For example, the experiences and perceptions of the children were requested when trying to understand loneliness of children and to find ways to combat 93 against it. In addition to ensure that children’s voice is heard, we gave them the opportunity to influence change, e.g. on the content of the after school clubs, and asked them to join us to plan the meetings. They have been involved in producing information, planning, implementing and reflecting different actions to promote social inclusion and well-being. Their participation during the project has given us different viewpoints on how to support their equal opportunities and take their opinions and wishes into consideration (see also Kränzl-Nagl & Zartler 2010).
Home-school collaboration The home-school collaboration has also been under development. Instead of the school taking the responsibility of coming up with new ideas to increase the parents’ participation, we wanted to involve the parents to think about the opportunities for active participation as well as to think about how to improve the home-school collaboration. This was done by adapting the future workshop method (Jungk & Müllert 1987) during the school year. The phases were conducted as follows (Figure 1):
FIGURE 1. Adapted Future Workshop in developing the home-school collaboration.
•Parents producing information on school welfare and home-school collaboration: objects to develop Critique •Questionnaire to parents to vote on the most important objects phase
•Experiential consultant group generating ideas on how to develop the collaboration •Interviews of parents with multicultural backgrounds •Questionnaire to vote on the most important ideas Visionary phase
•Produced information and ideas implemented in the school environment and curriculum Implementation phase
94
Results of future workshop The results show that parents are concerned about the well-being of our children. The Finnish school system was highly appreciated and regarded as one of the most important aspects in children’s well-being. The main concerns were about the insecurity in the society, bullying, shortening of childhood and the effect of the media. The parents wished that schools would promote well-being, especially by decreasing bullying and supporting the social skills of children. About their own involvement in school, they felt that school does fairly well in offering possibilities for their active participation. They preferred participating in events concerning their own child and considered that the best ways to participate and influence were commenting and voting through the Internet, as well as taking part in the existing events in the school. It was stated that school plays a remarkable role in increasing or decreasing their participation by choosing the methods of collaboration.
Parents appreciated the specific opportunities for participation during the project. Such opportunity was the engagement of a group of parents as “experience consultant”. They stated that working together with the school enhanced the feeling of belonging to the school community. It also provided them with a space to be heard. According to the last questionnaire, the adapted future workshop method was useful when strengthening the active participation of parents. More than half of the parents felt that the home-school collaboration and their active role had improved during the project. At the same time, they felt that the process had moderately increased their opportunities to participate and strengthened their parenting.
Collaboration between professionals
Pupil welfare services
Collaborative well-being and social inclusion were the main objects for the development of the school’s pupil welfare services. There was a change in the focus of these services from intervention to promoting and preventing school well-being. During the Multi-Agency at the School project, a group of school staff and other specialists was formed to keep track of school well-being at the school community level. The group met regularly and developed methods to follow the need for support in the classrooms or in the whole school during the school year. Thus, the forms of support could be quickly arranged and organized to promote well-being and 95 prevent any further challenges in learning, school attendance or growth.
Multi-agency at the university In order to promote stepping away from the professional territories, collaboration during the university studies was considered important as the borderlines of these territories were still more open. This was between the teacher education and social work programmes at the University of Lapland. A joint research group was formed and mentored by a professor from both faculties. During the school year, a joint training session at the Teacher Training School of the University of Lapland was piloted in two classrooms, where the students from the teacher education and social work programmes collaborated on planning, implementing and evaluating classroom activities. Both of these piloted actions got very promising results. According to the feedback from the university, it provided opportunities to the students involved to get to know each other’s field of work, and it enabled professional sharing of concepts, knowledge and methods. Overall, this was experienced as creating shared agency and understanding, and was seen as be the future way of working on a shared field of school well-being (see also Rawlings & Paliokosta 2011).
Promoting social inclusion by focusing on well-being, active participation and the sense of community
As the Multi-Agency at the School project was a pilot project and short-term, one of the main objectives was to try out different kinds of activities to promote well-being and social inclusion at school. To decide which activities to take on, the opinions and wishes of the school staff and those of the children and their parents were taken into consideration. From these were derived four kinds of activities concerning the children in the Teacher Training School: classroom activities, preventive and early intervention groups, break activities and after school clubs. The contents and approaches of the activities are discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs.
96
Classroom activities
The classroom activities were planned and performed together with the class teacher in pilot classrooms. The main objective was to offer the promotion of social inclusion to all of the children. A specific period was tailored to each classroom. The content of those periods was directed to themes such as support of social and co-operational skills, transition to secondary school or building the group spirit and social well-being. These themes were tackled through various activities in one or two lessons per week, from 10 lessons to continuous work throughout the school year. The results of the activities are encouraging. According to the feedback from the children and the teachers, these kinds of activities enhance the atmosphere and the team spirit in the class. Furthermore, the respondents also perceived that these activities prevent bullying. The teachers stated that the activities also present regular opportunities for the children to learn and practice their social skills. In addition, they felt that the outcomes of the activities support their own work well-being.
Break activities
The same objective of social inclusion of all was set for the break activities. The concern of many teachers and parents was that some children felt lonely and said that they had nothing to do during the breaks. This was addressed by organizing break activities to provide possibilities for all the children to join in and play together. In addition, the hope was to give opportunities for children to gain experiences of belonging to the community and making new friends. We asked the children to plan, instruct and evaluate the break activities. This, indeed, was very popular among the children and there were 30–90 children playing together one to two times per week. We also had a long waiting list of children who wanted to design the next break activity. The results of this activity for promoting social inclusion are also very positive. The best experience for the children was having the opportunity to participate in something like this and that the activities they designed passed over to the other breaks as well. In addition to the experiences of participation, break activities also enabled children of different ages to work together and gave them opportunities to practice their social skills.
97
After school clubs
According to the latest surveys carried out in Finland, having a hobby is not economically possible for all the families (Puronaho 2014). Hobbies have become increasingly expensive and cannot be seen as an equal opportunity for all to take part and form new friendships through a shared interest. Because the school days in Finland are rather short, children spend a lot of time alone in the afternoons. This highlights the need for after-school clubs that are available for all children. During the Multi-Agency at the School project, a total of six clubs held during the school year. The clubs were highly popular especially among the children from first to third grade, and the clubs for the next year are requested often by the children and their parents. The children evaluated that during the clubs they had many opportunities to participate and influence as their opinions and wishes had been taken into consideration when deciding on the themes and contents of the clubs. They also stated that they worked with children of different ages and made new friends through the clubs. The school staff also saw the clubs as opportunities to participate and to have hobbies as well as develop skills to work in groups.
Preventative and early intervention groups
In the beginning of the project, the parents and the school staff brought up the need for preventative and early intervention groups. These groups focused on learning and rehearsing the skills of concentration and attention (Maltti-method from the Institute of Niilo Mäki) or social and emotional skills (applying the methods of Aggression Replacement Training [ART] and FRIENDS). The children in these groups were elected in the collaboration between teachers and parents. The children, their parents and the teachers took part in mapping the goals for the child and assessing the progress and the work of the group. The children, their parents and the teachers mainly felt that the skills learnt in the groups were useful in everyday life. They helped the child to more easily socially integrate into the school and the group supported the teacher’s work in the classroom. The self-evaluation of the children indicate the strengthening of concentration in school exercises, recognizing and controlling their own feelings, as well as of collaborating with other children. The feedback of parents has been encouraging, as this example shows:
98
Participating to the group had a really positive effect, supporting the personality of the child. In addition, the appreciation of his own identity changed towards more positive and he trusts in himself more than before.
As the well-being of a child is best enhanced by everyday acts, the importance of promotion of well-being and preventive work increases. This kind of work can mainly be achieved in their natural surroundings, for example in their classroom, where the pupils have the opportunity to enhance their social skills. Although the need for intervention is not disappearing completely, the change of focus to promotion and prevention helps us not only to recognize the possible challenges earlier, but to prevent them from emerging. This kind of action also strengthens one’s image of himself, the sense of belonging and well-being overall – all worth working for!
Reflection of Multi-Agency
Key points of the project
The Multi-Agency at the School project was formed to work with the questions of school well- being, active participation and the sense of community, as well as to test multi-agency as a tool in achieving those aims. Multi-agency was understood as a shared agency not only between professionals, but among other stakeholders as well, such as the children, their parents and professionals.
One of the challenges that led to starting this project was the need for collaborative school well-being. During the project, we found ways and methods to improve the communal school welfare services. The activities implemented are in line with the new legislation (Law of pupil and student welfare services 1287/2013) and seem to produce very encouraging results.
One of the main factors in well-being is the true possibility of participation and the sense of belonging to the community. The parents’ involvement in school is a significant factor to a child’s school well-being as it shows the parents’ appreciation of the school. The information produced by the children and parents as well as the methods tried out have given us as a Teacher Training School many tools to continue the development work on providing equal 99 opportunities of participation to all members of the school community.
Model of multi-agency
The third challenge was about combining the work of teachers and social workers. Different kinds of models were carried out during the project, which highlighted the need for further development of collaboration between these two sciences in theoretical and practical settings. Forming a successful multi-agency is not easy, nor is it self-evident truth. It requires a change in attitudes and ways of thinking. We as professionals need to break the chain of “it has always been done like this” and make room for something new. The change is not going to happen quickly nor without self- and shared-reflection, but the results of this kind of change are encouraging.
On the other hand, multi-agency can be seen as a multicultural working community, where the diversity of different work cultures must benefit on the basis of efficient action. It requires consideration of the cultural sensitivity and the interaction between the cultures (Katisko, Kolkka, & Vuokila-Oikkonen 2014). The schools stand before an interesting challenge. How is the familiar and safe conserved, while at the same time welcoming new ways of working and actualizing collaboration? The essential factor is that we now begin to initialize this change towards shared agency and communal competence in the teacher training at the university.
During the Multi-Agency at School project, the moments of success and challenges as well as all the gathered experiences helped us to understand the nature of multi-agency. We see it as a complex entity that can be viewed from many perspectives. The success of multi-agency depends on all the stakeholders, even if implemented in home-school collaboration. Nonetheless, as professionals, the conceptual basis of multi-agency is a bit broader. This complex nature of multi-agency is presented in Figure 2:
100
FIGURE 2. A conceptual model for multi-agency (Kangas, Pulju, Laitinen, Lakkala, Turunen, & Valanne 2014)
Although the nature of multi-agency is situational, this does not mean that it cannot be adapted to other contexts. The model can be implemented in different kinds of surroundings as it is not tied to the school environment. As multi-agency is seen as dynamic, flexible and situative, the contextual factors need to be taken into account when negotiating the nature of the collaboration every time. This model is built to help understand the complexity and develop multi-agency in different surroundings. It can be a tool for schools to reflect on the success of their multi-agency or it can be used in university studies to conceptualize collaboration between different stakeholders.
Catch the idea?
The underlying idea of the project has been “By working together towards a school and society of well-being”. Now that the project is nearly over and the results are in, we do believe that by promoting school well-being and preventing possible challenges in learning and growth, we can provide more equal opportunities for every child and give them more experiences of belonging to their social society. This is, indeed, a shared aim for all of us working in the school 101 community and a place for successful collaboration.
Nevertheless, the improvement of children’s well-being at school cannot be achieved without the participation of children. By sharing the power with the children, we can better get in touch with children’s views and capitalize the broad knowledge of the children in the work of well- being. The intergenerational dialogue and shared experiences have the real possibility to strengthen community relations. The experiences of true participation also reinforce their self- image and their sense of community membership (Kränzl-Nagl & Zartler 2010). To accomplish social inclusion for children, we need to involve them in the process and have them work alongside the other stakeholders. Together we can make a change for the better.
References
Janhunen, K.-M. 2013. School Well-being Construed by Young People. Dissertations in Social Sciences and Business Studies, no 52. Joensuu: University of Eastern University.
Jungk, R. & Müllert, N. 1987. Future Workshops: How to Create Desirable Futures. London, England: Institute for Social Inventions.
Karlsson, L., Hohti, R., Tammi, T., Olli, J., & Hakomäki, H. 2014. Päättäjä, kuuntele lasta! Kasvatus 2014/45, 1, 65-66.
Katisko, M., Kolkka, M., & Vuokila-Oikkonen, P. 2014. Moniammatillinen ja monialainen osaaminen sosiaali-, terveys-, kuntoutus- ja liikunta-alojen koulutuksessa. Malli työssäoppimisen ja ammattitaitoa edistävän harjoittelun toteutusta varten. Raportit ja selvitykset 2014:2. Helsinki: Opetushallitus.
Kränzl-Nagl, R. & Zartler, U. 2010. Children’s participation in school and community. European perspectives. In the edition of B. Percy-Smith & N. Thomas. (edit.) A Handbook of Children and Young People’s Participation. Perspectives from theory and practice. New York, USA: Routledge, 164-173.
Kuoppala, T. & Säkkinen, S. 2013a. Child welfare 2012. Official Statistics of Finland. Social Protection. Statistical report 30/2013. Helsinki: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos.
Kuoppala, T. & Säkkinen, S. 2013b. Kasvatus- ja perheneuvolatoiminta 2012. Tilastoraportti 31/2013. Helsinki: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos.
Law of pupil and student welfare services 1287/2013. http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2013/20131287. (Only in Finnish, read 4.5.2014)
Ministry of Education and Culture 2013. PISA 2012: Proficiency of Finnish youth declining. Press release. http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Tiedotteet/2013/12/pisa.html?lang=en. (Read 4.5.2014)
Puronaho, K. 2014. Drop-out via throw-out? Tutkimus lasten ja nuorten liikuntaharrastusten kustannuksista. Opetus - ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja 2014:5. Helsinki: Opetus - ja 102 kulttuuriministeriö.
Rawlings, A. & Paliokosta, P. 2011. Learning for interprofessionalism: pedagogy for all. In edition L. Trodd & L. Chivers (edit.) Interprofessional Working in Practice: Learning and Working Together for Children and Families. Maidenhead: Open University Press, 53-67.
Sipari, S. 2008. Kuntouttava arki lapsen tueksi. Kasvatuksen ja kuntoutuksen yhteistoiminnan rakentuminen asiantuntijoiden keskusteluissa. Jyväskylä Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research 342. Jyväskylä: Jyväskylän yliopisto.
The Finnish National Board of Education 2011. Amendments and additions to the national core curriculum for basic education. Unofficial translation. http://www.oph.fi/instancedata/prime_product_julkaisu/oph/embeds/ophwwwstructure/132551_ame ndments_and_additions_to_national_core_curriculum_basic_education.pdf. (Read 4.5.2014)
103
10.
Seppo J.A. Karppinen & Timo Latomaa
The Quality Criteria of Hospital Education and Further Training of Teachers – Developing the Quality Criteria of Inclusive Teaching in Children’s Hospital Education Schools in Northern Finland
Today, school staff, teachers and assistants need a new way of thinking and special awareness in mainstream education and, particularly, in special education. We need more transparency, openness and new thinking to make our educational environment more inclusive and successful for every child. In particular, if we want special education to become more of an inclusive education, schools must enhance and improve unconventional educational and didactic practices, knowledge and advice to integrate favourable, improved and beneficial experiences in teaching, inclusive learning and rehabilitation (Murto 1999). By the concept of “inclusive education” in this article, we understand simultaneously two dimensions of compulsory education: rights and responsibilities. Both the educational rights and, on the other hand, the student’s responsibilities are priorities for the children and adolescents who are of average intelligence, but require medical attention in hospital due to somatic illnesses (cancer, tumour, leukaemia, anorexia, etc.), as well for the pupils with mental health problems (severe depression, anxiety, abused or addicted, etc.) who are unable to attend formal education in their neighbourhood schools for these reasons. In most cases, they are qualified as temporarily disabled; however, they are responsible for studying according to the curriculum. Therefore, by the concept of “inclusive education”, we mean that the school “goes where the children and the youth are” – not the concept of “school for all”, as is usually thought in modern educational literature (Saloviita 2012). In Finland, approximately 5,000 pupils annually belong to public hospital education services at 30 different hospitals.
In this article, we will introduce and discuss an inclusive further training short courses project conducted during 2009–2012 for all teachers, assistants, special education students and 104 hospital staff members who work in children’s hospital education of psychiatric departments in Northern Finland. The further training was based on the development of Quality Criteria in Hospital Schools in Finland (Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1). Although our hospital education school teachers are well-educated having the special education teacher’s diploma, the objective of the training was to increase the theoretical knowledge and practical pedagogical skills of teachers and supporting staff and to increase co- operation between three northern Finland hospital schools. During the training project, we followed the progress of the project, and at the end of the project, we evaluated the effects of the project according to the principle of action research (cf. Atkins & Wallace 2012).
Hospital schools in Finland
In Finland, basic education is a free nine-year education provided for the whole age group (currently approximately 60,000 children) in comprehensive schools. Compulsory school starts when a child turns seven, and ends after the basic education syllabus has been completed, or after ten years. The local or school curriculum is based on a national core curriculum (Basic Education Act 21.8.1998/628, 25 §, 26§). The local or school curriculum is based on the national core curriculum, but each school may have some local variations or specialties in the curriculum, such as sports-, art- or music-oriented schools. There are also 105 special schools in Finland, such as those for the hearing- or visually-impaired and for those with severe intellectual disabilities. In Finland, however, there is an effort towards inclusion so that all students could attend comprehensive school in the same schools that we call “the neighbourhood school”.
Nearly all children complete their compulsory schooling. However, in Finland (the Basic Education Act), stipulates that the public administration is obligated to arrange basic school education services for those children and adolescents who are not able to attend their neighbourhood schools owing to various impairments, disabilities or illnesses including psychiatric, somatic, neurologic or other reasons. Hospital schools are a good example of providing an opportunity to attend school during severe illness.
In Finland, we have 30 comprehensive school units from pre-school to the ninth grade for 105 hospitalized children and adolescents. Most of them are located in large hospitals, including university or central hospitals, with children’s and youths’ psychiatric services. Annually, 4,000 hospitalized pupils study in these hospital schools while admitted for treatments, investigations or analysis. The duration of hospitalization is from a few days to months, with young patients sometimes staying in hospital for more than a year.
In Northern Finland, there are only three hospital school units. Hospital schools in Rovaniemi, Oulu and Kajaani serve half of the geographical area of Finland, which is too much distance to cover. In addition, children with special needs including psychiatric, somatic or neurologic illnesses study in these schools. In Finland, we think that it is very important to ensure that these hospitalized pupils have the same opportunity to study and learn as those students in mainstream education. That is why the teachers in hospital schools need special awareness, knowledge, skills and advice to integrate experiential teaching, learning and rehabilitation skills in the curriculum (Murto 1999; Csikszentmihalyi 2005; Latomaa & Karppinen 2010; Karppinen 2012). During the development and enhancement of Quality Criteria in Hospital Schools, we started to think, “what are the teaching methods of which the students would benefit during the period in hospital, and which teaching methods support the pupils’ school attendance and facilitate their return to the home school after the period in the hospital?”. This, with the Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education, was the basis for the course plan and content of the further training of teachers and supporting staff in three northern hospitals schools.
The Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education
The enhancement of Quality Criteria in National Basic Education in Finland began between the years 2009–2012 at the request of the Ministry of Education (Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1). The purpose of quality criteria devised for basic education is to ensure the quality and a diverse supply of education, and to guarantee the basic educational rights of children irrespective of their place of residence, native language or social and economic standing. For hospitalized children and youths, the purpose of quality criteria means educational rights and democracy to study, learn and achieve curriculum goals during their stay in hospital until they have recovered and are ready to return to their own permanent home schools. We began to call this a principle of “everyone to school” in which all children are given 106 the chance to attend school regardless where they are from (cf. “a school for all” implicating the current ideology of inclusion in which the school changes to receive all of the children; see Murto 1999; Saloviita 2012).
This “fresh” principle appeared to us from our practical experience of many years in the hospital educational system. That is one reason why we interpret differently the slogan of inclusion. We discovered that there were a number of school children and adolescents who did not have any motivation to participate in everyday educational activities, even though the educational system was taking into account their special needs. There were too many deficits and abnormalities, mentally, emotionally and socially, and because of the learners’ vulnerability, they suffered, for example, from distrust or low self-confidence. Some of them were “drop outs” and did not have enough courage to attend in school; however, they were intelligent young people, not at all educationally disabled. We noticed the school must offer attractive and activating methods to carry out the slogan “everyone to school”. If the daily program is holistic and “addictive” for the pupils, they will continue to recognize their existence, physical capabilities and mental well-being and they will continue on their educational career after the hospitalized period. The goal is to be able to interact actively, responsibly and creatively with the environment and social group. In this way, the school is doing its responsibility in the co-operation and treatment process with the hospital.
Quality dimensions of the Ministry of Education were devised for:
1. The quality of structures; and 2. The quality relating to the pupil.
Thus, there are two levels in Quality Criteria in Hospital Schools: administrative and operational. The quality of structures includes governance, personnel, economic resources and evaluation of schools. The quality relating to the pupil includes implementation of the curriculum, instruction and teaching arrangements, support to learning, growth and well-being, inclusion and influence, school-home cooperation and safety of the learning environment. These two levels of criteria should be in line with each other and support each other to ensure high-quality education in hospital schools.
107
Description of the Quality Criteria Project for inclusive education at the Children’s Hospital Education School of Oulu University Psychiatric Departments
One of the most important principles and philosophies of the hospital education service is to strengthen and support the young patient’s holistic condition, i.e. mental, physical and social well-being. This is the key quality of supportive learning, growth and well-being of hospitalized pupils (Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1, pp. 43–44). The holistic approach is also mentioned in the national core curriculum of basic education (National Core Curriculum for Basic Education, Chapters 4 and 5, 22–25). Not only are learning and acquiring knowledge and skills goals of basic education, but also are the pupil’s growth and personality development. According to Siljander (1996), the school system has been criticized for the fact that it is intellectually focused and teaching is classroom-oriented. The school emphasizes academic skills and forgets the arts and physical education. Finally, it has been argued that traditional classroom teaching isolates or even excludes pupils from society, local communities, everyday life and nature (Siljander 1996, pp. 7–14).
Above, we mentioned the principle of “the school goes where the pupils are” as a way to understand the concept of inclusion and criticized the formal schooling. It is also a paradox that we are talking of “inclusion” and that the school is a part of society and, at the same time, we are “isolating” or “segregating” and holding our pupils indoors in a school building, as they would need to be outdoors in a natural learning environment in local society, culture, environment and nature. Hospital schools have not been an exception to this. In our project, we broke the view of the isolation and segregation of schools.
Hospitalized children and youths with mental depression, anxiety disorders or low self-esteem spend most of their time indoors as cures, therapies or treatments are given in the hospital departments. In addition, once out of the hospital and returned to school, again the teaching and learning occurs inside the classroom. Pupils in hospital schools mostly learn academic subjects and knowledge, because teachers do not want them to stay behind in the curriculum when they return to their home school. However, according to our experience, most of these kids want to “learn other ways” or go outdoors to “walk, breathe fresh air, see natural things or visit parks, museums and workplaces – and learn by adventuring”, for example, even just for 108 half an hour per day in nearby nature, like other kids do. This means the quality of contributing, of inclusion and influence, for the hospitalized pupils. This idea broadens the learning environment from inside (classroom) to reality (outdoors). (Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1, pp. 37–38.)
In 2009, we started a short courses co-operation project for the in-service training of teachers and supporting staff of hospital schools with all three hospital school units of Northern Finland. The project was funded by the Finnish Ministry of Education (Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1, pp. 9–19). In the in-service teacher training focus group, there were 18 special education teachers and 10 school assistants. The aim was to develop quality criteria for pedagogical approaches, teaching and rehabilitation in co-operation with the school education (pedagogy) and hospital medical treatment (rehabilitation). The main task was to educate teachers, assistants, students and the hospital staff members to “think and teach otherwise”.
We followed the Principles of Practical Action Research (Denscombe 2010). Our purpose was to produce good practices and guidelines for hospital schools and solve problems in the three participating schools. We followed the process and changed activities, if it was necessary, during the process and evaluated the outcome after the project (Atkins & Wallace 2012). As for the pedagogical methods, we chose the experiential and outdoor adventure education (Karppinen 2005, 2012). This meant using outdoor experiential methods to make our educational environment more inclusive and successful for every participant (Karppinen & Latomaa 2007; Latomaa & Karppinen 2010). Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. Outdoor education programs involve concrete experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges such as hiking, ropes or group co-operation, which encourage and provide opportunities for outdoor learning experiences. Outdoor education is usually based upon the philosophy, theory, and practices of experiential education (Priest 1999, pp. 111–114; Priest & Gass 2005).
The project started in 2009 and was completed by 2012. We focused the improvement on the limited values of relating to the pupil as follows: 1. Support of learning, growth and well-being of hospitalized pupils; and 2. Contribution of inclusion, participation and influence 109
Finally launched in 2010, the project was called “In-Service Training for the Hospital School Teachers and Staff”. The main reason for educating the staff members was to understand the teaching arrangements of the “outdoor adventure education” approach as an instrument to support: • Learning, • Growth and well-being, and • Inclusion, participation and influence
The experiential education of outdoor education method was selected as a pedagogical method, because there are many indications of its holistic effectiveness in pedagogy and therapy (Gass 1991; Priest & Gass 2005; Reiners 1995; Boud, Cohen & Walker 2000, 1–17; Heckmair & Michl 2002; Csíkszentmihalyi 2005). Experiential education or outdoor education, however, is not widely used in education in Finland (cf. Karppinen 2005, 2012). Therefore, we thought that the project could provide information that could also be used mainstream schools. During the period of 2009–2012, six overnight training seminars (six short courses) were held per year in each of the locations, as well as three long-distance three-hour afternoon seminars (via Skype). The training structure included:
• One-half of the time of academic education (indoors): Themes were psychological, psychiatric, neurologic and social exclusion. There were a number of professional lecturers providing “updated” theory-based knowledge. • The other half of the time was practical education (outdoors): Different types of activities in the natural environment, so-called “low risk outdoor adventure education” methods for all teachers and staff. This included trekking in a wild forest, low rope climbing, reflection at an outdoor fire, tar boat rowing in the River Oulujoki, overnight camping, orienteering, dancing, sense of balance exercises, etc.
The goal of the series of short course training was to integrate academic and practical training and to promote the theoretical and pedagogical skills of teachers and supporting staff. Both the academic and practical exercises were required of all of the staff in three hospital schools. The goal of this was to further promote co-operation of all staff in hospital schools by adding a common understanding of children’s and young people’s challenges of growth, problems and useful pedagogical methods.
110
Conclusions of the project “In-Service Training for the Hospital School Teachers and Staff”
During and after the project, we evaluated the outcome of the training. The results of the project can be presented in seven observations:
1) During the short course project, we learned to know our colleagues better and could characterize the special challenges in our three hospital districts, our areas and our specific work in schools. We all have relatively large areas to operate as school units. The weekend project meetings were working supervisions for all of us. The short teacher training course was a supplementary, multidisciplinary and an economic way to learn up-to-date knowledge. 2) We gained updated theoretical and basic knowledge about psychological, psychiatric, neurologic and social exclusion, and learned the latest news of the hospital medical and treatment situations, as well as gaining the pedagogical praxis of the outdoor methods. 3) The further teacher training of the outdoor education helped the staff members to experience practical elements of outdoor activities in the natural environment. 4) By experiencing personally, it was easier to understand how to use this kind of methodology in the inclusive school education setting. It was easy to notice how education in the outdoors can improve physical, mental, behavioural and social abilities. The outdoor education methods were planned beforehand. The logic of the process of was: pedagogical intention – group activity – conceptual reflection. One afternoon weekly, outdoor learning included free of charge activities, such as: low rope exercises with small risk, rowing a boat in the river, bird watching expeditions, cooking picnic hot dogs on an open fire, nature trekking, bicycling, walking in the snow, winter fishing, skiing, driving on a husky safari, and excursions to greenhouses, museums, theatres, etc. After the activities, we reflected on our experiences together and made collections of the memories and photos by creating narrations and literary works. Everyone had a chance to share his or her own experiences, listen to others and think of the outdoor activities. 5) Transferring the training skills and knowledge to everyday school education was obvious. The teachers and assistants began to see its advantages and limitations in the 111
hospital education schools. As for children and adolescents with depression, anxiety disorders and low self-esteem, outdoor activities accelerate rehabilitation. In the beginning, pupils were mentally distrustful, avoidant, and were in a low physical condition, not wanting to leave the classroom for the outdoor environment. From the very beginning, in each of the outdoor experiential events and processes, at least the following dimensions were included: a) mental coping and physical survival mechanisms, b) reflection and learning, and c) knowledge, understanding and values. We started from a very low level and slowly accelerated the effects. At first, just going outdoors for a walk around the school corner was almost an apoplectic adventure for us. Next time we expanded with more experiences and longer periods, etc. After a few times of practicing in the outdoors, observations and deep reflections, the pupils felt like “survivors”, physically comfortable and mentally safe. They were not adverse to the outdoor learning environment and experiential learning. After the outdoor activities, pupils were more wakeful and joyful to study “academic” subjects in the classroom. They had learned to control themselves spontaneously and to spread awareness of the values we all share in the school and life. The multidimensional reality increased the responsibility of oneself and of the outdoor natural environment. The group spirit increased positively and nobody bothered each other. Finally, the school became fun, because of the successful experiences! They conceded the meaning of health, that nutrition and social interactions are important factors for recovery. 6) Outdoor activities expanded our teaching and learning environment from indoors to outdoors. At same time, outdoor learning supported academic learning and increased the pupils’ motivation to return to their own schools after the period of hospitalization. 7) The Practical Action Research Approach was useful for the development of school practices. This approach allowed the participants to contribute (involvement and accountability of staff); the activities were flexible and changes could be made during the process. At the end of the project, a joint assessment of the outcome was conducted.
112
The final words
The purpose of quality criteria devised for basic education is to ensure quality and a diverse supply of education, and to guarantee the basic educational rights of children irrespective of their mental or physical condition. For hospitalized children and youths, the purpose of quality criteria means educational rights and a democracy to study, learn and achieve curriculum goals in the same ways as their mainstream fellows. As we mentioned above, it is a paradox that we are talking about “quality criteria” in the hospital school services, but meanwhile we do not have the courage to start reforming our thinking or praxis in the school. How is it possible to change the thinking of the teachers or the staff?
We were lucky in the years 2009–2012 to have the project “The Further Teacher Training of the Outdoor Education” funded by the Ministry of Education. We were fortunate to gather excellent academic lecturers, outdoor leaders and co-operative colleagues and staff in Rovaniemi, Oulu and Kajaani hospital schools. The education gained updated theoretical knowledge of inclusion and the basics of psychological, psychiatric, neurologic and social exclusion. The staff members learned the latest advisory of the hospital medical approaches and psychiatric treatments, as well as experienced practical elements of outdoor activities in the natural environment. Afterwards, it was easy to share the outdoor experiences with the pupils by doing low-risk activities, walking, climbing, rowing, watching the migration of birds and nature’s changes around the year. Today, leaving the classroom for the mainstream outdoor learning environment is used as an everyday teaching method in Oulu’s hospital education unit, thanks to the unconventional and inclusive project – and the eager and initiative staff.
References
Atkins, L. & Wallace, S. 2012. Qualitative Research in Education. London: Sage Publications.
Boud, D, Cohen, R. & Walker, D. 2000. Using Experience for Learning. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press, 1–17.
Csíkszentmihalyi, M. 2005. Flow. Elämän virta. Tutkimuksia onnesta, siitä kun kaikki sujuu. Rasalas Kustannus, Raamatutrükikoda: Tallinna. 113
Denscombe, M. 2010. Good Research Guide : For Small-Scale Social Research Projects (4th Edition). Berkshire, Great Britain: Open University Press. .
Dewey, J. 1920. Reconstruction in Philosophy. Holt .
Finland law Basic Education Act (628/1998).
Finland law Basic Education Decree (852/1998).
Finland National Core Curriculum for Basic Education 2004. Perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2004. Opetushallitus. Studio Viiva Oy, Vammalan kirjapaino Oy, Vammala
Gass, M. 1991. Enhancing Metaphor Development in Adventure Therapy Program. Journal of Experiential Education 2, 6–13.
Greenway, R. 2008. A View into Future: The Value of Other Ways of Learning and Development. In: P. Becker & J. Schirp (eds.) Other Ways of Learning, bsj Marburg. Printed in Europe, 347–372.
Heckmair, B. & Michl, W. 2002. Erleben und Lernen. Einstieg in die Erlebnispädagogik. 4., erwierte und überarbeitete Auflage. Neuwied; Kriftel: Luchterhand.
Karppinen, S.J.A. 2012. Outdoor adventure education in a formal education curriculum in Finland: action research application in: Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, Vol 12 No: 1, March 2012, pp 41–62.
Karppinen, S.J.A. & Latomaa, T. 2007. Experiences by adventuring, Part 1. University of Lapland Press. Lapin yliopistokustannus, Rovaniemi, 75–97.
Karppinen, S.J.A. 2005. An adventurous year in a challenging class (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) Faculty of Education, University of Oulu, Finland. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis. E 77/2005. To be read/saatavilla: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514277554/
Latomaa, T. & Karppinen, S.J.A. 2010. Experiences by adventuring, Part 2. University of Lapland Press. Lapin yliopistokustannus, Rovaniemi, 118–135.
Murto, P. 1999. A Shared Inclusive School for All – fiction or truth? Yhteinen koulu kaikille – onko inkluusio tarua vai totta? Jyväskylän yliopiston täydennyskeskuksen julkaisu.
Quality Criteria of the Hospital Education in Finland 2011:1. Sairaalaopetuksen laatukriteerit 2011:1. (Eds.) Tilus P, Ekqvist N, Heikkinen T, Kilvelä R, Papunen L, Ruutu P.
Priest, S. 1999. The semantics of adventure programming. In: J. C. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.) Adventure Programming. Venture Publishing: State College, PA, 111–114.
Priest, S., & Gass, M. A. 2005. Effective leadership in adventure programming (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
Reiners, A.1995. Erlebnis und pädagogik: praktische Erlebnispädagogik; Ziele, Didaktik, Methodik, Wirkungen. 1. Aufl. Fachhochsch.-Schr. Sandmann, München.
Saloviita, T. 2012. Inklusio eli “osallistava kasvatus”. Viitattu 06.05.2014. To be read/Saatavilla url - osoiteesta: http://users.jyu.fi/~saloviit/tutkimus/inclusion.html
114
Siljander, P. 1996. Exclusion – the crisis of ideological breach. Syrjäytyminen – aatteiden murroksen kriisi. In: P. Siljander & V-M Ulvinen (Eds) From exclusion to overcome.
Syrjäytymisestä selviytymiseen – vaikeuksien kautta elämänhallintaan. Oulu University reports 66/1996. Oulun yliopiston opetusmoniste 66/1996, 7–14.
115
11.
Andrey Tikhonov
People with disabilities in society and education, inclusion or exclusion? Idealism or inclusion?
A blind man approaches a busy intersection in the centre of Chicago. His white mobility cane with light-reflecting stripes is a powerful tool that substitutes for his lost sight. A deaf person in Tokyo explains his case to an attorney, where there is a sign language interpreter who establishes a channel of communication between them. A smiling young lady in a wheelchair strolls through the Green Park in London. A nice guy with Down syndrome works in a big shopping centre in Sydney. All these people live full lives. In spite of their severe physical or mental impairments they enjoy this beautiful world and they are happy. Is it a picture that was created through the philosophical notion of idealism? No, this is what is called inclusion in the broader meaning of this term.
In this article, you do not have to unscramble a complex tangle of scientific research and fundamental theoretical applications. This humble text is composed by a person who was once excluded and even nowadays faces cases of discrimination on the basis of his disability. The author of this work strives to promote inclusion and craves for a better society which is organized on the principle of inclusion. He kindly asks your permission to draw your attention to some practical things that were defined through his learning, working and living experience. What is inclusion? Does modern society need this new paradigm of relationships? How can people address this modern challenge? There are so many questions that should be answered by scientists, educators, learners and common people.
116
Back in the USSR
During the Soviet Union epoch, the majority of the Russian population was unable to learn about all those privileges that people living in democratic and civil societies enjoy. Common people were convinced that they were selected to live in the best country where they could experience the most progressive regime, including its politics and social and economic development. It was almost impossible to get information regarding other countries and gain new experience because of the so-called Iron Curtain. Russians were misled by the government which made them believe in principles that did not have much in common with the concept of inclusion. Ideological propaganda was highly developed, creating the illusion of a successful powerful state in the public’s opinion. However, many people were excluded from participating in different kinds of social activities. These excluded people had internal power and the will to think critically, as well as the desire to change the current situation. Thus, they were accused of attempting to destabilize the fake state of overall happiness and prosperity. In general, exclusion extended to all people who were outside of the norm if we take this term in its sociological meaning.
When talking about persons with disabilities, we have to admit that in most cases they were segregated. Disabilities were perceived as disgraceful, and often families were ashamed of having a child with a disability. Persons with disabilities had to endure offensive mockeries, and on the street, people would stare at them with scorn. This negative attitude can be explained. People were taught (or programmed) to accept only a norm. A person with a disability is not the norm, and according to the Soviet Union’s ideology, this person did not have a right to be treated as a normal citizen (a comrade). This approach was created by public opinion, but public opinion was under the control of the government. This phenomenon is described here as it had outreaching consequences. Negative attitudes toward persons with disabilities are deeply rooted in public opinion and we need years to stub it out.
The only option for children with disabilities was to study in a special closed school where they sometimes experienced violation and privation. Of course, it was impossible to organize special schools in every single small town. Therefore, children were sent to big cities where they had to live without their families. Unfortunately, some special institutions could not provide children with high quality educational services. Furthermore, teachers treated students with special 117 needs as people who would never be successful and achieve high results. In such situations, people with disabilities had to study, work and live in their own communities, but not in a special school. The government supported them financially; thus, people were dependent on the state budget and could not participate in real market economic relations. They were happy in their segregation, and they could not imagine any other way of living. There was no conceptual platform and motivation for either people with disabilities or well-bodied persons to create a friendly environment that would involve all citizens. Inaccessible information, the lack of knowledge and the suppression of civic initiatives prevented the creation of preconditions for inclusion.
There is always black and white. To be fair, we must bear in mind that there were some special educational institutions that provided students with disabilities with brilliant knowledge and skills. These schools were in well-developed cities. A lot of talented teachers worked there, who inspired their students to work hard and be independent in spite of their limitations and restrictions. People who studied in these schools had enough will and passion to become successful and active. Unfortunately, not all children were given the opportunity to attend such schools. The special education system could not guarantee that every child would be surrounded by intelligent and well-educated teachers and caretakers.
On the way to inclusion
Inclusion is a certain state of a developed civil information knowledge society which creates conditions of equal opportunities through appreciation of uniqueness of each person. This term is rather new, but its concept was generated by human beings a long time ago. The Bible written approximately two thousand years ago says, “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself”. Here we do not imply any theological connotation of the Bible, and consider it only as a great resource of human experience. After years of slavery, and religious, racial, disability and other segregation, people came up with the idea of human rights and equality. It became a milestone in the development of modern civilization.
People realize that the best way to build a society is to respect individual rights and the needs of each person. Each person can enjoy his own freedoms that are guaranteed by international 118 and domestic legal documents. It is very important to maintain the balance of using freedoms. The distortion that can occur here is a situation whereby a group of people believe they are authorized to limit the freedoms of others. This situation is possible in a country with a totalitarian regime. Limiting freedoms not only causes discrimination and exclusion, but also political and military conflicts. A civil society is a perfect way to maintain this balance. Each citizen or member of the society should be educated in terms of human rights, individual freedoms and respect for others. This knowledge must be accessible and presented in an appropriate form so that even children can understand its significance. Both governments and non-governmental organizations are in charge of providing access to information regarding these hot issues. Education, mass media and the national strategy of a country play a decisive role in explaining to the broader audience why it is crucial to keep the peace through the respect for others and how to achieve it in practice. Only a developed civil information knowledge society is capable of bringing its members to a level of evolution that can be defined as inclusion.
In its essence and development, inclusion has some similar characteristics with culture. Culture is the full range of learned human behaviour patterns. In his book, Primitive Culture, the pioneering English anthropologist, Edward B. Tylor, said that culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Culture is something we have in our minds, e.g. pieces of art and buildings are only products of culture. Inclusion is also something that people can have in their minds. If there is culture, people can express it through different creations. If there is inclusion, they can provide all members of the society with adequate living conditions.
Inclusion is not a stable state that society can reach in a course of its growth. Inclusion is a dynamic process which involves the whole society as a unit. This process is possible when people have a certain amount of knowledge, educational level and access to well-presented truthful information. Inclusion works if people are ready to respect and support each other and if they appreciate each other. This is a human formation which implies society members who think critically and feel empathy towards others. Such a formation is a perfect platform to create conditions for those who have special needs. Along with other categories, it includes persons with disabilities. 119
Disability is the result of an impairment that may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional, and developmental or some combination of these. We must take into consideration that impairment is a problem of bodily function. It is explicit that disability implies some limitation and restrictions. For example, a person with visual disabilities cannot read printed textbooks due to his or her physical condition. This condition is stable and, in most cases, it cannot be altered. However, the option exists to substitute printed materials with Braille or audio alternatives. Braille is not a language, but rather a system of raised dots that can be read with the fingers by people who are blind or whose eyesight is not sufficient for reading printed text. Thus, it is a code by which languages such as English or Finnish may be written and read. If we create settings in classrooms whereby blind pupils can use Braille materials, they can be successful in spite of their inability to read printed books. This is one example of overcoming a disability.
From the point of view of sociology, disability can be described by the restrictions that a disabled person experiences in the environment where he or she lives. If there are special conditions, a negative effect of the disability can be reduced or annulled completely. Unfortunately, we have many situations when people with disabilities are so-called hostages of their disability. A wheelchair user has no chance of leaving his house and taking a walk if he lives on the seventh floor of a standard block of flats. This person cannot take stairs. There is no ramp at the entrance of the house to reach an elevator. Its door is sometimes too narrow to allow a wheelchair to squeeze through it. A deaf person has no chance of watching the news on television if there is no sign language interpretation.
We could mention here several examples that clearly show the exclusion of people with disabilities. It happens because their disabilities impose a certain number of restrictions on them. If a society is not mature socially, it will not care about such cases of segregation. If a society has reached a level of understanding this problem, it creates special conditions which provide all people with equal opportunities.
120
On a personal note
As a person with a disability and the author of this article, I am able to compare and contrast attitudes towards people with disabilities in Russia and in the western countries. In Russia, there are still many prevailing stereotypes regarding people with disabilities. Some people still do not realize that people with physical or mental impairments have the same rights as people without disabilities and can be successful academically, professionally and personally. The last two decades have witnessed a great shift from a total lack of awareness of disability-related issues to an acknowledgement of the importance of these questions, but we still have a long way to go. The author of this article had a chance to visit several European countries as a participant in international student cooperation, music contests and festivals, seminars, conferences and social projects implemented by non-governmental organizations. During these visits, I saw how people in Europe approach disability-related issues and how disabled students and professionals are fully involved in society.
I lost my sight completely at the age of three. It was a profound sorrow for my family, but my parents had enough courage to provide their totally blind son with equal living conditions and proper education in a country that had just collapsed (the end of the Soviet Union). Their way was hard and it was difficult to find support and understanding among officials and people. Only natural steadfastness, fidelity to their moral principles and firm determination helped them to persevere. In my home town, there was no special school for the blind and visually- impaired children. A child with visual disabilities was sent to a special boarding school located in another city (more than one thousand kilometres from my home town). However, in my case it was not possible as I did not meet the entrance requirements of the school in terms of general health conditions. More importantly, my parents did not want to separate their child from the family. They managed to arrange a so-called remote home education for their child. This meant that a pupil with a disability was officially enrolled in a mainstream school, but was not required to participate in everyday school classes. On the contrary, school teachers visited a pupil with special needs at home a few times a week, but he had fewer classes per week in comparison with his classmates. It goes without saying that teachers did not have enough time to teach. Therefore this model of education was believed to be ineffective. In my case, to take on this challenge, all of the family including cousins helped this blind pupil to read sighted printed 121 books, check his homework, break down new rules, etc. They invested so much time and effort so that the learning process was effective.
My parents made me believe in myself and they made me understand the significance of education. At the graduation ceremony in high school, I was awarded a silver medal which meant I was one of the best students. It was a victory for my whole family. If my family had not done so much for me, I would never have achieved this goal along with many others. From my early childhood, I learnt that being disabled was not something weird and disgraceful. In spite of external factors such as public opinion and propaganda my parents had their own strong beliefs. Hence, even in the Soviet Union there were people who were ready to struggle for inclusion.
The problem was that I did not attend school. I did not have any experience communicating with my peers. Socialization is important for every child, and this process can be harder for a child with special needs. This lack of interaction resulted in poor communication skills, which became a tremendous problem for me when I started classes at a music college. The music college was a mainstream educational institution, but there were precedents of visually-impaired musicians graduating from the school. However, these were cases of spontaneous integration, meaning that students took responsibility to adjust courses for themselves. In spite of these positive examples, the administration and faculty did not want to enrol a new blind musician in classes even though he had a good musical background. It took great effort to convince them to give him a chance. They did not believe that a blind teenager was able to study, play the violin and perform on stage. After hours of consultations, he was accepted for full-time college courses, and four years later, graduated from the college with honours. The administration’s and faculty’s attitude towards him was completely changed. His violin teacher encouraged him to develop his music career and obtain a higher degree in music. When he first met this blind student and his parents, he was torn up by doubts. He was not positive about the future career prospects of a blind violinist. He had never taught students with visual disabilities and, apparently, he had never met such people and communicated with them. In addition, he was not knowledgeable regarding the potential that people with disabilities possess. He did not have access to information that could eliminate his stereotypical impressions. At that time, there were no non-governmental organizations that could support people with disabilities if they struggled for their rights to study and have equal opportunities. 122
I dived into the same difficulties when I knocked on the door of the dean of the foreign language department. I had taken a decision to enter university in order to study foreign languages, linguistics and intercultural relationships. The head of the department was perplexed to learn that a blind young man wanted to obtain a degree in linguistics and teaching English and German. She expressed serious doubts about my physical and mental abilities to master the whole course. Furthermore, the faculty did not know a lot about teaching visually- impaired students. This lack of special knowledge and skills can be considered a failure of the educational system. However, every system has the potential to be upgraded. The biggest problem was that some teachers could not grasp why a blind person needed an academic degree. According to their beliefs, this person was absolutely helpless and could not study successfully and later find a job. This is a sheer psychological barrier which is much harder to remove. Prejudices and stereotypical ways of thinking and behaving prevent people from accepting every individual as a human being who has equal opportunities and his or her own uniqueness.
There is also an antithesis. Some intelligent and decent professors and lecturers were friendly to their ‘Braille student’ as they used to call me. They created new ways of presenting information and testing my knowledge. They were open to new teaching methods and they wanted to support me on my way to an academic degree. Language acquisition is a complex and difficult process that requires experienced teachers and hard-working students. To teach a learner with disabilities is a doubly challenging task for any teacher. A lack of knowledge and information caused problems not only for the student with visual disabilities, but for them as well. The effectiveness of a course depended on the teacher’s personal motivation to support a student with special needs. Such teachers were ready to understand and develop the concept of inclusion. However, at the time, it was not possible due to both financial and psychological reasons.
Discovering inclusion
I did not attend the graduation ceremony in my university. I left my home town for East Lansing, Michigan in the United States (US). I managed to receive one of the world’s most prestigious scholarships. I applied for it with no hopes in my mind of winning it. I applied simply 123 because I had read on the official website of this program that they did not discriminate on any basis. It had sparked my interest and I was eager to check it out. Together with hundreds of sighted applicants, I went through a highly competitive competition. However, only a few dozen people were awarded with participation in the Fulbright Program, which is the flagship international educational exchange program of the US State Department. I was one of those acknowledged. Through the Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistant (FLTA) Program, I spent an academic year at Michigan State University (MSU). My responsibility was helping American students with the Russian language. I also had the right to attend up to four different courses on an audio basis each term. For the first time, I learnt what inclusion meant. MSU students and faculty with disabilities can find support in the Resource Center for Persons with Disabilities (RCPD). RCPD staff is qualified to assist people with different disabilities. The RCPD played a special role in my inclusion in university life. I was trained to navigate around using a white mobility cane. The white cane is a universal tool used by people with vision loss – from toddlers to seniors – to assist them with safety, mobility and independence. In Russia I had used a cane, but I did not have enough skills to travel independently. A specialist from the RCPD was a perfect mobility and orientation instructor. After two weeks of training, I was able to walk around the MSU campus on my own. The RCPD kindly opened a door for me to a world of independence, traveling and gaining new expertise. Mobility and orientation classes changed my life. I became an advanced white cane user who could not only reach the nearest shop, but also travel to other countries independently. The RCPD specialists introduced me to new adaptive computer technologies designed to help people with visual disabilities. I was provided with a laptop, special screen reader software and a scanner. Back in Russia I used a desktop and a scanner. I would never have graduated from the Russian university if I had not used assistive computer technologies. In the US, I was surprised to get a laptop and other devices free of charge. I could also use other helpful things such as Braille tags on elevator buttons and talking traffic lights. I was happy and successful in my work and study. I participated in numerous music and art festivals, and made hundreds of friends who came to America from different corners of the world. The most striking thing for me was that people treated me equally. I cannot recall any case of discrimination. Everyone was friendly and was ready to help me.
The Fulbright experience was life changing for me. I learnt what inclusion is. It helped me to set up my professional and personal goal. This goal is to develop the same system of guidance for Russian people with disabilities as I experienced in the US. Pursuing my goal, I have visited 124 several European countries (Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, France, the United Kingdom, Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark) and learnt different approaches to inclusion for persons with disabilities. Through various social projects implemented by domestic and international non-governmental organizations, I visit inclusive schools and other educational institutions. I do my best to bring the best practices to my home town and school where I work. My message is the following: people with disabilities can go to school. They can study in universities and obtain a degree. They can find a job. Finally, they can have their own families, live active lives to the fullest and be just as happy as any other person in the world. These days I can sense striking changes regarding disability rights and policies in Russia. I am happy and proud to see strong and highly motivated civil society activists who understand the needs of people with disabilities, and who are passionate about creating better living conditions for them. Influenced by non-governmental organizations, governments adopt new laws that protect disability rights. Gradually, public opinion changes, and attitudes towards persons with disabilities shift from scorn to respect and empathy. I believe that in a few decades Russian society will be living in an inclusive setting and each person will be an active and happy member of this society in spite of any differences, including the disability that he or she may have.
125
12.
Katja Anttila, Kerttu Hakoköngäs and Marja Kärki
Learning together: Creating a respective ethos and learning together in primary education
Translation by Tanja Pynninen
Since being given the opportunity to participate in the ‘School for All Project’, we started to develop inclusive primary education at Nivavaara School in Rovaniemi. Unlike previously, there are no longer separate small groups (special classes); all children start school together with children of the same age. An exception are the regional special classes for children in need of high-level support, e.g. children with moderate intellectual disabilities or severe forms of autism spectrum disorder, and whose basic education will last 11 years instead of nine. The support that we have been able to provide for learners with complex socio-emotional and learning difficulties through co-teaching arrangements has turned out to be enough and it has been something that everyone has benefitted from. In our co-teaching arrangement, the special education teacher and the class teacher work as a team in the first and second year of education. In classes where there is no special education teacher, a learning support assistant works alongside the teacher.
Subjects that are being taught to everyone by means of co-teaching are Finnish language and literature, mathematics, environmental and natural science, and handcrafts. In Finnish language and literature classes, we have divided the children into smaller groups so as to provide individual help as much as possible. Consequently, there has been no need to form a separate group for the children with special needs. Next year, we will expand co-teaching across all subjects, and combine the first and second classes into only one group of mixed-age children.
126
Our approach to co-teaching
We have concentrated our efforts on creating an ethos where learners feel they are a part of the group and are accepted as themselves. Therefore, learners are seated, working in groups from the beginning of their schooling. It takes long-term work to support the grouping process so that the groups become psychologically safe for the learners. We have supported the grouping process in the class by carrying out some shared games and plays and devised co- operative working methods. We have also been trying to foster friendliness and consideration towards others. Thus, it is equally important that the adults in the classrooms treat each other in a polite fashion. This works as a model for the learners of how to behave.
It is important for us to try to engage the learners’ in active working methods. Sahlberg and Leppilampi (1994) note that the five principles in co-operative studying are:
• positive interdependence addiction • close interaction • social skills • individual responsibility • reflection
These principles form the basis of our teaching. By positive interdependence, the learners feel that they need each other to carry out certain tasks. It strengthens the social cohesion between learners in the classroom. This is the basis for the learning process, and also the most important element of our pedagogy. The learner should feel that with co-operative action, it is possible to reach better results than by performing the task on his or her own. Without positive interdependence, the co-operative action would easily transform into individual work, even though the activity would be carried out in a bigger group. We have noticed that when working together, the learners are more productive and feel more secure about presenting new ideas and voicing their opinions. Usually, the learners are satisfied with the work completed together, and they feel successful. Because the learners are at different stages of learning, positive interdependence can create a good ethos, where everyone can feel like a good and competent learner. We have been practicing interaction skills in our classes. In co-teaching, we teachers model interaction for our students. We have also deconstructed some interaction skills and practiced one skill at a time. These skills are, for example, listening to each other (make eye contact, do 127 not talk on top of others), waiting for your own turn, using your voice (to speak up so that everyone else can hear you), and encouraging one another. We practice these skills all the time, and feel that the children adopt these skills better when there is only one skill to be practiced at a time.
In planning and guiding the co-operative work, it is important that the activity is something that every team member is willing to contribute to. The learners take the responsibility of deciding who is in charge of certain elements in the learning process. The teachers provide guidance during this particular process so that no one is left out. The whole group takes care of its members, so that learners will learn while the group works together to achieve their shared goal.
Productive group work requires a range of social skills and flexible attitudes from the learners. Thus, co-operative skills are considered as important learning goals. When working in groups, learners have to help and encourage each other and pay attention to one another. They make joint decisions and solve problems together. Sometimes, the learners may come across situations where they have to give up their own ideas and go along with the rest of the group.
It takes a safe learning atmosphere to develop social skills in group actions. As a common guideline, we have been keeping the idea that every learner says something aloud every day. They discuss the subject that is being taught at that time, and they learn how to argue for their own opinions. In a smaller group, shy students also get the chance to talk and it will be easier to them to talk in front of the whole class. We have been trying to maintain this positive atmosphere in the classes and also solve the conflicts that occur in a constructive way. We have agreed on common rules and these rules work as a foundation for social interaction. There have been less conflicts than before. Further, the children have learned how to solve these situations by themselves and rarely need the adults to intervene.
Finally, reflection of learning happens mainly with the support of the teacher. Self-evaluation is being tried out by considering the actual work and the results. It is also important to remember the meaning of giving and receiving feedback. We have observed that learners easily give negative feedback to one another while there is no positive feedback being given at all. Teachers should pay attention to this. 128
Benefits of co-teaching for teachers
Co-teaching has given us a lot of new working and teaching methods and the possibility to jointly develop our teaching. We as teachers have a lot of so-called tacit or silent knowledge which, when combined, usually translates to work in practice. Co-teaching has already made it possible to share this silent knowledge among ourselves, and it is good to let go of old habits and ways of working, and see how the same thing can be done differently.
Besides developing the teachers’ expertise, teachers can share demanding situations by co- teaching, and possibly solve these situations together. Even though we are different, we feel that we have succeeded in carrying out co-teaching. Some studies have stated that it is important for teachers to share a common vision of what good teaching and studying is (see e.g. Villa, Thousand & Nevin 2004); this is a requirement for well-functioning co-teaching.
Co-teaching has inspired us to develop our work. By working together, we have tested some new methods with more confidence, even when we have been unsure about the results. Our teaching methods have become more active and participatory, and we have been able to focus our work more towards learner-centred thinking. Diverse working methods have motivated both the learners and teachers. Thus, co-teaching is a valuable resource for us.
References
Sahlberg, P. & Leppilampi, A. 1994. Yksinään vai yhteisvoimin?: yhdessäoppimisen mahdollisuuksia etsimässä. Helsingin yliopisto.
Villa, R., Thousand, J & Nevin, A. 2004. A Guide to Co-teaching.
129
13.
Rauni Äärelä
Implementation and characteristics of Sámi language immersion
The purpose of this article is to introduce the special characteristics and implementation of Sámi language immersion in Finland in early childhood education. This article is based on my doctoral studies conducted at the University of Lapland’s Faculty of Education, Rovaniemi, Finland. The aim of the ongoing doctoral study is to first describe, analyse, and interpret how Sámi language immersion is carried out in the Sámi language nests. Second, the study highlights the experiences and views of the Sámi language nests’ implementation agents. It provides knowledge about how language immersion is pedagogically organized. The purpose of the study is to strengthen and develop the Sámi language immersion education for future demands. All three Sámi languages spoken in Finland are endangered and are targets of urgent recovery measures. Thus, Sámi language revitalization study is a socially timely topic.
Bronwyn Bethel (2006) points out that inclusion is a key consideration in learning futures. Further, it is a process of addressing learners’ diverse needs regardless of individual background. Additionally, it can be achieved through increasing participation in learning across cultures and communities, thereby reducing the accounts of exclusion within and from education. In that sense, language immersion is a method that is suitable for minority language revitalization, and allows children to gain access to the Sámi language environment. In addition, Sámi children have an equal right to their own language and culture. Thus, as a means of promoting the equal participation of the Sámi language environment, immersion is an important form of inclusion. Highlights of the inclusion are learning arrangements that emphasize the inclusion of all students. Flexible teaching arrangements, such as language immersion, help ensure that Sámi languages can be imported into equal education.
130
Language immersion
Immersion was developed in Canada in the 1960s. Language immersion is normally understood as a language learning method for the majority of language-speaking children. The idea of language immersion education is that the children do not need to be familiar with the immersion language in advance, and it is suitable for all children (Baker 2011; Cummins 1995; Laurén 2000). Immersion is defined as the doctrine in which the language of authentic interaction is adopted: teachers use the target language all the time, by speaking only the immersion language (Baker 2011; Laurén 2008). At times, the principle of immersion language education also serves the needs of minority languages. A minority language can be regarded as a region’s indigenous language, or is officially recognized as a language or languages spoken by immigrants (Baker & Jones 1998, 99−100).
Parents have been important promoters in the creation of immersion both in Canada and Finland (Björklund 1997; Laurén 2000). For example, parents in the Sámi language immersion practices have also studied the language in order to support the children’s language development (Olthuis, Kivelä, & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013). In Finland, the practice of language immersion first started in Vaasa in 1987 with kindergarten instruction of the Swedish language for Finnish-speaking pupils. Swedish-language immersion classes are provided with the specific consent of the Ministry of Education in Finland. Not only do parents need to be able to support their children as they learn their second language, but school and kindergarten should provide all the necessary support and knowledge for parents to do so (Carrera-Carrillo & Rickert Smith 2006).
Further, professional development and planning are the most important aspects of language immersion programs. It is important to provide mutual planning time for teachers as often as possible. The conditions of successful implementation of immersion in a language are incorporated into daily routines and especially in Sámi education. Typical language-using situations are a part of daily activities, such as dressing, eating, excursions, etc. It is important to speak to the child every day in daily situations and describe things using language plays. In addition to naming things, an adult can describe how the object works and what it does. An adult can also use extending sentences, so if the child does not know a particular word, the adult can include it in a sentence, repeating the new word and always answering the questions 131 the child asks.
The goal of language immersion is to increase communication. In the language immersion method, the student is the centre of attention and the teacher seeks to talk with each child. It is important that grammatical errors are corrected in a way that does not cause pressure on the willingness of the children to speak and affect their use of language. Children should not have to translate the conversation, nor should they learn to wait for the translation. The child learns to listen to the language and seeks to better understand it. It is important that the child becomes active as the language user, not as the compiler (Buss & Laurén 1997; Keskitalo & Määttä 2011; Laurén 2008; Øzerk & Juuso 1999).
Humans learn the basic values of their culture through social situations. In addition, it is important that talking about values and feelings happens in a safe environment (Carrera- Carrillo & Rickert Smith 2006; Juuso 2009; Koppinen 1989). The development of language always happens in a social context (Koppinen 1989). Thus, it is necessary to give means for self- expression (feelings, thinking, etc.), so the child learns to express his or her feelings. For these reasons, as the teacher, you should rationalize your actions and give reasons why you are doing something. It is necessary to model the action and create safe and stable relationships with adults. This is necessary for children’s growth. For example, if the child cannot go with you, you should explain why. In day care, having a regular schedule is also important, as it is well-known that rules and routines instil a sense of safety and help children to structure their environment. Also, the wider the range of functions the child’s play involves, the better are the chances that the child will describe similar cases later.
Language immersion and indigenous people
The technique of immersion is usually understood as a foreign language learning method; thus, in the Sámi language, it can be seen in two ways. Among Sámi people, regardless of whether Sámi was their passive or active native language, it can always be understood as their mother tongue. Due to earlier cultural assimilation, people may have partly or totally lost the Sámi language; therefore, it can be said that Sámi is their mother tongue despite the fact that the children cannot speak the language at the beginning of their language immersion. The main 132 objective of the indigenous language immersion can be considered language revitalization. Language revitalization means to re-activate or regenerate the regionally lost languages (Baker 2011; Linkola 2014, 40−43; Phillipson &, Skutnabb-Kangas 1995; Skutnabb-Kangas 2000). Like many other indigenous peoples around the world, the Sámi have been the subject of strong assimilation measures for decades. Assimilation has been carried out, in particular, through the offices of the church and the school, by banning the traditional beliefs and the use of the Sámi language (Kuokkanen 2009). Only in the last few decades have the Sámi people begun to demand their rights and be recognized. In particular, the linguistic rights have been significant. In Finland, the Sámi Language Act was passed in 1992 and renewed in 2004. The purpose of the Act is to safeguard the constitutional right of the Sámi people to do business and to have access to services in their own language (Lehtola 1997; Keskitalo, Rahko-Ravantti, & Äärelä 2014, 217−227).
In the Sápmi (area in the North of Norway, Sweden and Finland, North-West of Russia) there are nine different Sámi languages. The Sámi languages are divided into two groups: Western and Eastern. In Finland, there are three different Sámi languages: North Sámi (davvisámegiella), which is the Western Sámi language, and the Eastern Sámi languages of Inari Sámi (anarâškielâ) and Skolt Sámi (nuõrttsää'm). All the Sámi languages are endangered. The UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (2010) shows that the Inari Sámi and Skolt Sámi are severely endangered, and North Sámi is definitely endangered (Ager 1998; Sammallahti 1998; UNESCO 2010).
Indigenous peoples around the world have adopted their own language immersion methods as part of the revitalization of the language, e.g. Maori, Hawaii. The Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture set up a working group in 2010, whose task was to assess the situation of the Sámi language and the measures taken to improve it, as well as to prepare a proposal for a comprehensive and long-range revitalization of the Sámi language. The work was completed in 2012. Now that the work is done, one of nine priorities is to stabilize and extend the Sámi language nests. A language nest is the place where Sámi language immersion is carried out with children under school age (Olthuis, Kivelä & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013; Opetus – ja kulttuuriministeriö 2010; Saamelaiskäräjät 2009.)
Indigenous language nest activities can be said to have started in New Zealand in 1981, when 133 the Maori began their Kohanga reo language immersion programme. It is based on the fact that the families of children under school age were collected with the older Maori-speaking women to learn Maori through play. The language programme was set up because only 20% of Maori people were speaking Maori. The speakers were older Maoris, who spoke the traditional language generally in the church. Also, in the Kohanga reo programme, parents were actively involved, and they even implemented it. The first Maori immersion primary school was opened in 1985 (Olthuis, Kivelä & Skutnabb-Kangas 2013; Pasanen 2003; Spolsky 2005).
Language learning and Sámi education
The child creates the perception of a people and their social structure, nature and the environment through language. It is one of many symbol systems that develop during childhood and represents the knowledge and insights that the child acquires through interactions with his or her environment. Social interactions and spending time together develop the capacity for the emergence of language. Above all else, language is a social interaction, which allows the child to acquire the necessary data and store it in his or her memory. Verbal interaction is the key to the progress of values, attitudes and growth. Among their peers, the child’s language skills have a significant influence on his or her social status. The child receives feedback about him- or herself and his or her actions, thus allowing the child’s self-image to develop (Koppinen 1989, 8; Laurén 2008, 38).
Language development is relevant from the birth of a child and the following first two years of life. During the first year of the child’s life, information processing skills are still narrow, but the child is already actively engaging in his or her environment. Linguistically, this is also the most susceptible age, during which any denial of the child’s linguistic identity may be harmful. As a teacher, providing an appreciative environment for the linguistic identity of the child is crucial to facilitate the child’s participation in linguistic interaction. During the second year, in general, the child will begin a multiple series of steps learning the arch of the language, lasting several years, in which the child learns the language, vocabulary and rules according to which words and phrases are formed and shaped (Koppinen 1989).
Sámi education is based on the freedom of the individual and the individual’s own choices, with 134 an emphasis on the natural connection for doing well (iešbirgejupmi), self-reliance (iešráđálašvuohta), durability (gierdavašvuohta) and release (friddjavuohta). Sámi education aims to support the development of the individual so that he or she can figure out any cognitive difficulties that can arise unexpectedly. The Sámi community expects the individual to have the capacity to cope with new challenges and, therefore, the child’s self-reliance is supported. The children’s language learning environment should consist of the Sámi symbols and materials that support the Sámi culture and Sámi language learning (Balto 2008, 57; Keskitalo 2010, 25).
Education is based on the way the Sámi live in the wild, practicing reindeer herding, fishing and hunting in the harsh northern nature. In those circumstances, humans have had to learn to stand alone and independently. The same breeding methods have been preserved up to the present and have assumed new forms in new contexts. Thus, immersion should be based on the Sámi education. The child’s language learning takes place as an individual and among children can make a big difference in how and in what timeframe they learn to speak the language (Keskitalo & Määttä 2011, 32−33).
Sámi language nests and Sámi language immersion
Sámi language immersion is also based on early total immersion in the language, in the same manner as Swedish immersion. This means that the entire language nest action is based on the Sámi language, and only the Sámi language is spoken. Kindergarten teachers and nurses can speak another language when communicating with parents, but only the indigenous language is spoken to and with the children. It would be beneficial if adults at the language nest would talk to each other only in the immersion language. When teaching the language in the language nest, kindergarten teachers and nurses use similar authentic situations as when learning a first language. The focus is solely on language learning in language situations, not on grammar. Fluent elders support the staff members, if the indigenous language is, for example, their second language (Keskitalo & Määttä 2011 32−33; Olthuis, Kivelä, & Skutnabb-Kangas 2013 51−52; Pasanen 2003).
Sámi language immersion follows the plan for the Sámi early childhood education. The plan has been prepared in cooperation with the municipalities of the Sápmi and the Sámi Parliament and 135 creates uniform standards for Sámi language immersion and early childhood education. The emphasis of the immersion is on the home, early childhood education services, and a basic education of common teaching, as well as the responsibility to recover the language. The plan for Sámi language immersion in Sámi early childhood education is centred on the language learning process, which is intended for a linguistic minority or indigenous people, and is one in which all the activities take place in the Sámi language (Saamelaiskäräjät 2009; Keskitalo, Määttä & Uusiautti 2013).
Sámi language immersion follows the Maori language nest concept. As early as 1988, Marjut Aikio, in her doctoral dissertation, considered whether Maori language immersion also benefits from the activities of the Sámi people (Aikio 1988). Children can begin immersion when they turn one year old. This is the time when the linguistic stage of a child’s speech development starts. The goal is that the child participates in immersion language learning during the most sensitive time and that his or her language learning be as easy and go as smoothly as possible. The most important part of the bilingualism is vocabulary growth during childhood. In support of this aim, kindergarten teachers, nurses, and parents, all the adults around the child, should speak the Sámi language as much as possible. This is the case even if they know only a few words of the language. The child’s language learning takes place through action. Between the ages of two and six years old, the child learns an average of nine new words per day (Øzerk & Juuso 1999.)
In concluding, Sámi language immersion occurs at language nests. Language nests are early childhood day care and pre-school arrangements for children from nine months old to school age. There are nine language nests in Finland, representing all three Sámi languages spoken in the country. The language nests are funded by the Ministry of Education and Culture. The first language nest was established in Inari in 1997 by the Aanar Saami Association. One of the nests is in the capital of Finland. The intention is to also start language nest operations in Oulu and Rovaniemi. The founding applicant is usually the Sámi Parliament of Finland. It also produces background reports regarding the need for establishing a language nest. Language nests are controlled by municipalities or Sámi associations (Saamelaiskäräjät 2013). Sámi language immersion and language nest activities need the support of the overall operation of the descriptive research, so that Sámi language immersion in the language nests can be viewed objectively and develop into a country-wide phenomenon. 136
References
Ager, S. (1998). Omniglot: The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/saami.htm
Aikio, M. (1988). Saamelaiset kielenvaihdon kierteessä. Kielisosiologinen tutkimus viiden saamelaiskylän kielenvaihdosta 1910–1980 [The Sámi People in a Cycle of Language Change. Language Sociological Research about Language Change of Five Sámi Villages 1910–1980]. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 479.
Baker, C. & Jones, S. P. (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Baker, C. (2007). A Parents and Teachers Guide to Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Baker, C. (2011/1993). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Balto, A. M. (2008). Sámi oahpaheaddjit sirdet árbevirolaš kultuvrra boahttevaš buolvvaide. Dekoloniserema akšuvdnadutkamuš Ruoŧa beale Sámis [The Sámi Teachers Transmitting the Traditional Knowledge to Next Generations. The Decolonizing Action Research in Swedish Sápmi]. Dieđut 4/2008. Guovdageaidnu: Sámi allaskuvla.
Björklund, S. (1997). Immersion in Finland in the 1990s: A State of Development and Expansion. In Johnson, R. K. & Swain, M. (Ed.) Immersion Education: International Perspectives. Cambridge: University Press.
Bronwyn, B. (2006). Critical Approaches to Inclusion in Indigenous Teacher Education in Queensland: The Case of RATEP. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning, 2 (3), 30-41. http://eprints.usq.edu.au/7106/1/Bethel_IJPL_v2n3_PV.pdf?origin=publication_detail
Buss, M. & Laurén, C. (1997). Kielikylpyyn tarvitaan laaja verkosto. Kansainväliset yhteydet tarjoavat uusia virikkeitä opetukseen [Immersion Needs a Wide Network. International Connections Provide New Impetus to Education.]. In Lehesvuo, P. (Ed.) Kielikylvyllä suu puhtaaksi [Mouth Clean by Immersion]. Vaasan ylisopiston täydennyskoulutuskeskuksen julkaisuja, 17–25.
Carrera-Carrillo, L. & Rickert Smith, A. (2006). 7 Steps to Success in Dual Language Immersion. A Brief Guide for Teachers & Administrators. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Cummins, J. (1995). Canadian French Immersion Programs: A Comparison with Swedish Immersion Programs in Finland. In Laurén, C. & Puss, M. (Ed.) Language Immersion: Teaching and Second Language Acquisition. Vaasan yliopiston julkaisuja. Tutkimuksia No 192.
Juuso, J. (2009). Válddán giellan ruovttoluotta [I Revitalize Language]. Nesseby: Isak Saba guovddáš.
Keskitalo, P. (2010). Saamelaiskoulun kulttuurisensitiivisyyttä etsimässä kasvatusantropologian keinoin [Seeking Cultural Sensitivity of Sámi School by Education Anthropology]. Doctoral Dissertation. Dieđut 1/2010. Guovdageaidnu: Sámi Allaskuvla.
Keskitalo, P., & Määttä, K. (2011). Sámi pedagogihka iešvuođat, Saamelaispedagogiikan perusteet, The Basics of Sámi Pedagogy, Grunderna i samisk pedagogik, Основы саамской педаk. Rovaniemi: Lapin yliopistokustannus.
137
Keskitalo, P., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2014) “Language Immersion Tepee” As a Facilitator of the Sámi Language Learning. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 13(1), 70-79.
Keskitalo, P., Rahko-Ravantti, R., & Äärelä, R. (2014). Katsaus saamelaiskoulutuksen historian ja nykytilanteeseen - assimilaatiosta kohti saamelaiskulttuurin soveltamista [The Review of the History and the Current Situation of Sámi Schooling Issues. From Assimilation Towards the Integration of Sámi culture.]. In Laine, M. (Ed.) Kulttuuri-identiteetti ja Kasvatus.
Kulttuuriperintökasvatus kotoutumisen tukena. [Culture Identity and Education. Cultural Heritage Education in the Background of Integration]. Helsinki: Suomen Kulttuuriperintökasvatuksen seuran julkaisuja 8.
Koppinen, M.-L. (1989). Lapsen kieli ja vuorovaikutustaidot [Child Language and Interaction Skills]. Helsinki: Kirjayhtymä.
Kuokkanen, R. (2009). Boaris dego eana. Eamiálbmogiid diehtu, filosofiijat ja dutkan [Old Like the Earth. Knowledge, Philosophies and Research of Indigenous Peoples]. Kárášjohka: ČálliidLágádus.
Laurén, C. (Ed.) (1992). Kielikylpymenetelmä: Kielenkäyttö mielekkääksi [Language Immersion Method: Meaningful Language Usage]. Vaasan yliopiston täydennyskoulutuskeskuksen julkaisuja 1/1991. Vaasa.
Laurén, C. (2000). Kielten taitajaksi. Kielikylpy käytännössä [Becoming a Language Usage. Language Immersion in Practice]. Jyväskylä: Ateena.
Laurén, C. (2008). Varhain monikieliseksi. Kielen oppimisen teoriaa ja käytäntöä [Multilingual in Early Years. Language Learning Theory and Practice]. Jyväskylä: Gummerrus.
Lehtola, V.-P. (1997). Saamelaiset, yhteiskunta, taide [The Sámi People, Society, Art]. Inari: Kustannus Puntsi.
Linkola, I.-A. (2014). Saamelaisen koulun kielimaisema. Etnografinen tutkimus saamen kielestä toisen asteen oppilaitoksessa [The Lingual Landscape of Sámi School. Ethnographic Research about Sámi Language at Secondary School]. Doctoral Dissertation. Dieđut 2/2014. Guovdageaidnu: Sámi Allaskuvla
Olthuis, M.-L., Kivelä, S. & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2013). Revitalising Indigenous Languages. How to Recreate a Lost Generation? Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Opetus – ja kulttuuriministeriö. (2010). Toimenpideohjelma saamen kielen elvyttämiseksi [Program of Measures to Revive the Sámi Language]. Opetus - ja kulttuuriministeriön työryhmämuistioita ja selvityksiä 2012.
Øzerk, K. & Juuso, R. (1999). Pedagogalaš jurddagirji guovttegielalaš mánáidgárddiide. Sámi oahpahusráđđi. GCS Multicommunications AS.
Pasanen, A. (2003). Kielipesä ja revitalisaatio. Karjalaisten ja inarinsaamelaisten kielipesätoiminta [The Language Nest and Revitalization. Language Nests of Karelian and Inari Sámi People]. Pro gradu- tutkielma. Helsingin yliopisto. Suomalais-ugrilainen laitos.
Phillipson, R. & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1995). Linguistic Human Rights. Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Saamelaiskäräjät. (2009). Saamelainen varhaiskasvatussuunnitelma. Inari.
138
Saamelaiskäräjät. (2012.) Saamelaiskäräjien toimintaohjelma ja taloussuunnitelma 2012-2015. Inari.
Saamelaiskäräjät. (2013). Saamelaisen varhaiskasvatuksen arjen käytäntöjen opas 2013. Inari.
Saamen kielilaki 1086/2003 [Sámi Language Act]. http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2003/20031086
Sammallahti, P. (1998). The Saami Languages. An Introduction. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji OS.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah, New Jersey/London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Spolsky, B. (2005). Maori Lost and Regained. Teoksessa Bell, A., Harlow, R., ja Starks, D., (toim.) Languages of New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press.
UNESCO. (2010). UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger. Paris. http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php
139
Writers
Afonkina, Yulia PhD (Psychology). Yulia Afonkina is the Head of the Department of Special Pedagogy and Special Psychology at the Murmansk State Humanities University in Russia. Head of the scientific school at the department “A child with special educational needs as a subject of educational relations in conditions of education development”. She is also a Kindergarten teacher and a Special Teacher. The range of her research interests includes the study of psycho- pedagogical conditions and organization of support for children from migrant families, the organization of networking of educational institutions and social partners on the socialization and integration of children with special educational needs.
Anttila, Katja M.A. (Ed.), special teacher. Katja Anttila graduated from University of Lapland as a class teacher in 1997 and got her degree as a special teacher from University of Jyväskylä in 2001. She has been working in every class grades at elementary school levels, and these last five years she has been teaching primary education in Nivavaara School at Rovaniemi.
Bulanova, Svetlana PhD (Pedagogy), assistant professor. Svetlana Bulanova is a Deputy Director of the Institute of pedagogics and psychology at the Northern (Arctic) Federal University in Russia. She has been a teacher of Russian language and literature for 5 years in educational institutions in Arkhangelsk, 22 years in higher education institutions as a lecturer, and 3 years as a head of the department. She is an author of 82 research articles, 3 monographies, and 10 educational- methodical works.
Diaz Castro, Juan Miguel M.A. (Education). Juan Miguel Diaz Castro is a language teacher from Málaga, Spain. He has studied in a programme "Education & Globalisation" at the Department of Education, University of Oulu. He is currently working as a Coordinator of the Spanish teachers in the Oulu region and as a Spanish teacher in Oulu's adult high school. He has worked as a Research Associate at the Institute of Education (London) assessing the global dimension in classrooms in schools in the UK.
Florian, Lani Lani Florian is Bell Chair of Education at the University of Edinburgh and Academician of the Academy of Social Sciences (UK). She is editor of The SAGE Handbook of Special Education, now in its second edition, and co-author of Achievement and Inclusion in Schools, winner of the 2008 NASEN/TES academic book award. Recently she served as Scotland¹s national expert on the European Agency for Development of Special Needs Education multinational study, Teacher Education for Inclusion.
Flotskaya, Natalia PhD in Psychology, professor. Natalia Flotskaya is the director of the Institute of pedagogics and psychology at the Northern (Arctic) Federal University. She has experience of 27 years in the higher education institutions as a dean of the faculty of correctional pedagogy, Deputy Director of the Institute of pedagogy and psychology, professor of the department of special pedagogy and psychology. She also served as Deputy Ministry of Education and science of the Arkhangelsk Region for a year and at the same as the head of the Department of science of the 140 higher education in the Ministry.
Hakoköngäs, Kerttu M.A. (Ed.), class teacher. Kerttu Hakoköngäs graduated as a class teacher from University of Lapland in 2000. After that she carried out her literature studies at Oulu University in 2010. She has been also working as a kindergarten teacher for seven years. As a class teacher, she has been teaching students in grades 1 to 6. At Nivavaara School in Rovaniemi, she has been working now for seven years.
Kangas, Hennariikka M.A. (Ed). Hennariikka Kangas is working as a class teacher in the Municipality of Rovaniemi. She has coordinated the Project Multiagency at School in the Teacher Training School of the University of Lapland during 2013-2014. Before that she has worked as a special education teacher and a class teacher at the Teacher Training School and the Municipality of Rovaniemi since 2009.
Karppinen, Seppo PhD, special teacher. Seppo Karppinen is a teacher, researcher and lecturer having over 30 years of experience in teaching and developing Special Education and alternative methods through national projects in Finland. At the moment he works in Hospital School at Children and Youth Psychiatric Department of Oulu University Hospital. He has taught for a wide range of audiences at universities and upper levels of education in Finland and his specialty is in understanding how children and adolescents learn to construct knowledge and social- emotional development through experiential and reflective learning.
Kesälahti, Essi M.A. (Ed.) Essi Kesälahti is currently working as a project assistant at the University of Lapland, Faculty of Education. After finishing her studies in educational science, she is now starting her teachers’ pedagogical studies while continuing her studies in her second major subject, administration science. The article in this conference publication is based on her master’s thesis that she has carried out for the A School for All – Development of Inclusive education research and development project.
Kuzmicheva, Tatiana PhD. Tatiana Kuzmicheva is the director of the Institute for Psychology and Pedagogy and she has experience as a teacher of primary school and a special Teacher. The spectrum of her research interests include issues of special education, and training for special education. She is a member of the regional advisory council for the development of innovative educational activities, and of the Council on the implementation of Federal State Educational Standards (FSES) for general primary education for people with disabilities.
Kärki, Marja M.A. (Ed.), class teacher, physiotherapist. Marja Kärki graduated from Oulu Healthcare school in 1982 as a physiotherapist, and from University of Lapland as a class teacher in 1994. As a physiotherapist, she worked a lot with children who had different kinds of special needs. As a class teacher, she has been working mostly in primary education teaching art- and science- 141 subjects. In Nivavaara School, Rovaniemi, she has now been working for 18 years.
Latomaa, Timo PhD, LicEd, MA. Timo Latomaa is a university researcher and lecturer in Psychology at the University of Oulu. He is also a psychologist and a cultural anthropologist. His special field is psychological methods and theories of development, mental disturbances and counselling. He has co-operated with Seppo Karppinen in various fields, especially developing and teaching experiential and alternative methods in special education and further education of hospital teachers and staff. Timo Latomaa has published books and articles related to theory of mind and pedagogy, human experience and interpretative methods in psychology. He has co-edited several books.
Pynninen, Tanja M.A. (Ed.). Tanja Pynninen is currently working as a research assistant at the University of Lapland, Faculty of Education. She has experience from different projects at the university in Faculties of Education and Social Sciences. She has compiled the survey report considering Voices from the North: Calling for Inclusion in Education-conference and she has been a part of the joint research group and has co-edited this conference publication with Sai Väyrynen.
Seppälä-Pänkäläinen, Tarja PhD (Education). Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen passed her matriculation examination at the Korkalovaara Upper Secondary School (Rovaniemi) in 1982, and was accepted to study general history at the University of Jyväskylä. She acquired her MA in education in the class teacher programme at the Chydenius Institute in Kokkola in 1994. After her graduation, she worked as a class teacher in Toivakka and Leivonmäki. In 1996, Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen was recruited in the Jyväskylä municipality education authority, and she worked several years in Keljonkangas School as a class teacher. Since 2006 she has worked at Säynätsalo Comprehensive School, and 2007 – 2009 she was appointed as lecturer at the University of Jyväskylä Teacher Education Department. Her doctoral dissertation (2009) explored the challenges and possibilities of interlearning among the adults in a Finnish school. Currently, Tarja Seppälä-Pänkäläinen is appointed as principal at Säynätsalo Comprehensive School.
Siivola, Jenny M.A. (Ed.). After finishing her Master studies (major Media Education), Jenny Siivola started her postgraduate studies in 2013 at the University of Lapland. In her thesis, she studied the use of social media by people who live in the area of dispersed settlements in Lapland. She has been a part of the School for All-project as a researcher.
Tikhonov, Andrey Andrey Tikhonov is a teacher of English, adaptive computer technologies and independent living skills for students with visual disabilities in Arkhangelsk secondary mainstream school 5. He also teaches music and sound engineering in Arkhangelsk Center of Adaptive Technologies. He is the head of division of Charitable Non-profit Foundation "World of Art" in Arkhangelsk region, and leader of young activists with disabilities. Andrey Tikhonov took part in Professional Fellows Program 2013 in Chicago, (US) and Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistance Program 2008 - 2009 in East Lansing, (US).
Usova, Zoya Zoya Usova has a background as a teacher of children with intellectual impairment, with 142 additional specialization as speech therapist. She has been appointed as the Head of the inclusive education resource centre at. She has worked as assistant of the department of special pedagogics and psychology of the Institute of pedagogy and psychology at the Northern (Arctic) Federal University. She has worked 5 years in higher education institutions as a lecturer. She has authored 5 scientific articles, and book on geography for special (correctional) schools.
Valanne, Eija PhD (Education). Eija Valanne has been the principal of Teacher Training School of the University of Lapland since 2003. Before that she worked as a principal and a teacher in the field of special education and early childhood for twenty years. In the international level she has been worked as a principal in an Emirati-Finnish Fusion School in Abu Dhabi (2010-2013).
Volskaya, Olga PhD (Education), assistant professor. Olga Volskaya is a teacher of pre-school pedagogy and psychology, special education teacher, speech therapist. She works as the Head of the department of special pedagogics and psychology of the Institute of pedagogy and psychology at the Northern (Arctic) Federal University. She has worked 7 years as a special education teacher, and speech therapist in educational institutions of Arkhangelsk; 15 years in Higher educational institution as a lecturer, and 7 years as a head of the department of special pedagogics and psychology. She is an author of 42 scientific articles, one monography, 15 educational and methodical works. Her research interests include Education and upbringing of children with disabilities and inclusive education.
Väyrynen, Sai PhD (Education). Sai Väyrynen has been involved in the development of inclusive education since 1993 from early childhood education to university. She has a teaching career as a primary school teacher, and she has also worked as a special needs education teacher. She has more than a decade of service in international education as an adviser to a number of Ministries of Education in developing countries. In Finland, Sai Väyrynen has been involved in developing inclusive education from early childhood education to university. Her research interests are related to development of inclusive education, ethnography and critical theory. She works currently as a Senior Lecturer in Special Needs Education at the Faculty of Education, University of Lapland, and serves as the scientific director of the School for All-project.
Äärelä, Rauni M.A. (Ed.). Rauni Äärelä works as a class teacher and Sámi-language teacher in Sodankylä, Northern Finland. She is a member of the Finnish Sámi Parliament for the second legislative term. In the Sámi Parliament she is the vice chairperson of the educational board. She is also a chairperson of Vuotso Sámi Association. Her doctoral research focuses on Sámi-language immersion.