Notes

Chapter 1: The Development of European Democracy

1. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), p.316. 2. Ibid., pp.2, 18-20,317-18. 3. See, for example, David Held, Models ofDemocracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), pp.254-64. 4. See Laski's letter of 2 November 1919 to Russell, in Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 1914-1944 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), p.Il3. 5. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 318-20. 6. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), pp.32, 73, 143,227.

Chapter 2: Mediaeval Flanders and the Seeds of Modern Democracy

1. There are two modem editions of Galbert's Latin narrative: H. Pirenne (ed.), Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, comte de Flandre (1127-1128) par Galbert de Bruges (Paris: Picard, 189 I) and J. Rider, Galbertus Notarius Brugensis. De multro, traditiolle, et occisione gloriosi Karoli comitis Flandriarum (Turnhout: Brepols, 1994, Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio MediaeuaIis, LXXXI). Dutch, English and French translations also exist (with extensive introductions): Galbert of Bruges, the Murder of Charles the Good, trans. 1.B. Ross (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1984, Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching); R.c. Van Caenegem (ed.), Galbert van Brugge, grafelijk secretaris: De moord op Karel de Goede: Dagboek vall de gebeurtenissen ill dejarenlI27-1128, trans. A. Demyttenaere (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1978), and R.C. Van Caenegem (ed.), Galbertde Bruges, secrtftai're comtal: Le meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, trans. J. Gengoux (Antwerp: Fonds Mercator, 1978). 2. See C.H. Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927) and C.N.L. Brooke, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London/New York: Thames and Hudson, 1969). 3. See R.c. Van Caenegem, 'Galbert of Bruges on Serfdom, Prosecution of Crime and Constitutionalism', in B.S. Bachrach and D. Nicholas (eds), Law, Custom, and the Social Fabric in Medieval Europe: Essays ill HOllor of Bryce Lyoll (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University Press, 1990), pp.89-112. 4. Forthe Flemish keuren in general, see F.L. Ganshof, 'La Flandre', in F. Lot and R. Fawtier (eds), Histoire des institutionsfrall('aises au moyen age. 1: Institutions seigneuriales (Paris: PUF, 1957), pp.343-426. For the oldest extensive Flemish borough charter, see R.C. Van Caenegem, 'The Borough Charter of Saint-Omer of 1127, Granted by William Clito, Count of Flanders', in R.C. Van Caenegem, Legal History: A European Perspective (London and Rio Grande: Hambledon Press, 1991), pp.61-70.

128 Notes 129

5. R.C. Van Caenegem, Geschiedenis van het strafrecht in Vlaanderen van de Xle tot de XIVe eeuw (Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Belgie, 1954, Verhandlingen Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Klasse der Letteren, no. 19), pp.I4-17. 6. R.c. Van Caenegem, An Historicallntroductioll to Westem Constitutional Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.15-21. 7. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, pp.138-41. See the comments by Van Caenegem in Galbert of Bruges, pp.102-7 and R.c. Van Caenegem, 'The Ghent Revolt of February 1128', in L. Milis et al. (eds), R.C. Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe (London and Rio Grande: Hambledon Press, 1994), pp.107-12. 8. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, cc.93, 94 and 95, pp.137-41. 9. V. Fris, Histoire de Gand depuis les originesjusqu 'en 1913 (Ghent: Tavernier, 1930), pp.126-7. 10. For recent surv,eys, see D. Waley, The Italian City- (London: Longman, 1978), and 1.H. Mundy, 'In Praise of Italy: the Italian Republics', Speculum 64, 1989, pp.815-34. II. P. Carson, James Van Artevelde: The Man from Ghent (Ghent: Story-Scientia, 1980). 12. See 1. Decavele (ed.), Ghent: In Defence of a Rebellious City: History, Art, Culture (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1989). For the position of Ghent in the earlier phase of the Burgundian state, see M. Boone, Gent en de Bourgondische hertogen ca. 13S4-ca. 1453: een sociaal-politieke studie van een staatsvorm­ ingsproces (Brussels: Paleis van der Academien, 1990, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 52, no. 133). 13. The most recent discussion of the republican strain, which started in the mediaeval cities of Flanders and culminated in the independent Dutch , can be found in W. Blockmans, 'De tweekoppige draak. Het Gentse stadsbestuur tussen vorst en onderdanen, 14e-16e eeuw', in 1. de Zutter, L. Charles and A. Capiteyn (eds), Qui valet ingenio: Liber Amicorum J. Decavele (Ghent: Stichting Mens en Kultur, 1996), pp.27-37. The author stresses the leading role of Ghent and analyses several plans of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres for the division of the county of Flanders into three city-states, with a common who would, however, depend on the recognition of his subjects and only wield limited power. The author underlines the fact that, two years before the Act of Abjuration, the city of Ghent had, on 6 August 1579, already renounced Philip II as legitimate ruler: the was said to have rejected reasonable proposals of peace so that his sovereignty had passed to the urban magistrate. 14. B1ockmans, 'De tweekoppige draak', p.34. The author (p.32) shows the pre­ ponderance of Flanders and Brabant by referring to the contribution of those two principalities in the total tax yield of the Netherlands. Indeed, the distribution of the taxation, established by the Estates General at the time of Emperor Charles V, was as follows: Flanders paid 34 per cent, Brabant 29 per cent, Holland and Zeeland together between 15 and 17 per cent, Guelderland 12 per cent, and the other regions much less. IS. See J. Gilissen, Le regime representat!! avant 1790 en Belgique (Brussels: La Renaissance du Livre, 1952), and C. Van De Kieft, 'De Staten-Generaal in het Bourgondisch-Oostenrijkse Tijdvak (1464-1555)" in S.J. Fockema Andreae 130 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

(ed.), 500 Jaren Staten-Generaal in de Nederlandell (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1964), pp.I-26. 16. I am thinking of W. Prevenier, A. Zoete and W.P. Blockmans, editors of the Handelingen vall de Leden en Staten van Vlaanderen for the Belgian Royal Commission for History since 1959. 17. It is of some importance to realise how the members of the Third Estate - that is, the burgesses (comparable to some extent to the English House of Commons) - were appointed, both in the earlier stage of the' aldermen of Flanders' (scabini Flandriae) and later. Generally speaking, the aldermen of the Flemish boroughs were, in the twelfth century, appointed by the count and, in the thirteenth, coopted by the sitting aldermen; whereas the fourteenth century witnessed a democratisation by which the common people, organised in guilds, crafts and corporations, played a dominant role in the selection of the town authorities and their spokesmen who sat in the urban 'general assemblies'. Nowhere in mediaeval Europe do we find the modem-type democracy with general franchise and secret ballot. Nevertheless, the numerous assemblies and estates of the later Middle Ages show that they could, in the course of time, develop into repre­ sentative bodies as we know them in the modern democracies. 18. Everything was ready. in 1473, for Charles the Bold to be made king of Lotharingia (a name going back to Carolingian times) by Emperor Frederick III who, however, withdrew at the last moment. So the Burgundian Netherlands remained what they had been before: that is, a union of principalities held together by a common ruler (who was count of Flanders, Hainaut, Holland and Namur, Duke of Brabant, etc.) and by ever-expanding common institutions. The title of king, which eluded the Burgundian dukes, would have been a consummation of what was in fact their status as princes with most of the attributes of . 19. See the recent survey by W. Prevenier and W. Blockmans, De BOllrgondische Nederlanden (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1983). 20. Ibid., p.198. 21. Ibid. 22. R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Methods of Proof in Western Medieval Law', in Van Caenegem, Legal History, pp. 71-113; R. Bartlett, Trial by Fire and Water: The Medieval Judicial Ordeal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflexions on rational and irrational modes of proof in medieval Europe', The Legal History Review 58, 1990, pp.263-79. 23. Van Caenegem, Geschiedenis, pp.280-307. 24. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, c.55, p.87. See the comments in R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Considerations on the customary law of twelfth-century Flanders', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.97-106. In the following centuries the towns produced a considerable body of legislation. For some recent surveys, see J.-M. Cauchies, 'Services publics et legislation dans les villes des anciens Pays-Bas: Questions d'heuristique et de methode', in L 'initiative publique des communes en Belgique: Fondemellts historiques. Actes du lie Coli. internat. Credit communal de Belgique (1-4 September 1982) (Brussels, 1984), pp.639-88; P.Godding, 'Les ordonnances des autorites urbaines au moyen age: Leur apport a la technique It~gislative', in J.-M. Duvosquel and E. Thoen (eds), Peasants and townsmen in medieval Notes 131

Europe: Studia in honorem A. Verhulst (Ghent: Snoek Ducaju, 1995), pp.185-20 1. 25. F. Vercauteren (ed.), Actes des Comtes de Flandre, 1071-1128 (Brussels: Palais des Academies, 1938, Commission Royale d'Histoire), 79, p.178. 26. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, cc.105, 108, pp.150, 154--5. 27. R.C. Van Caenegem and L. Milis, 'Kritische uitgave van de "Grote Keure" van Filips van de Elzas, graaf van Vlaanderen, voor Gent en Brugge (1165-1177)', Handelingen van de Koninklijke Commissie voor Geschiedenis 143, 1977, pp.207-57. 28. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, c.106, p.152. 29. F.L. Ganshof, 'Les origines du concept de souverainete nationale en Flandre', Revue d'Histoire du Droit 18,1950, pp.135-58. 30. See J. Van der Grinten, 'Het Plakkaat van Verlatinge', in Bijdragen Vaderl. Geschiedenis 01 Oudheidkunde, 5th series, II, 1932, pp.161-78; J.P.A. Coopmans, 'Het Plakkaat van Verlatinge (1581) en de Declaration of Independence (1776)" in Bijdragen en Mededelingen Geschied. Nederlanden 98, 1983, pp.540-67. 3l. See SJ. Fockema Andreae, De Nederlandse Staat onder de Republiek (Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandse Uitgevermaatschappij, 1961, 3rdedition, 1969), pp.3-5. 32. See the classic survey in Ganshof, 'La Flandre', and the recent detailed monograph by S. Dauchy, De processen in beroep uit Vlaanderen bij het Parlement van Par!js (1320-1521). Een rechtshistorisch onderzoek naar de wording von staat en souvereiniteit in de Bourgondisch-Habsburgse periode (Brussels: Paleis der Academien, 1995, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 37, no. 154). 33. See F.L. Ganshof, Vlaanderell onder de eerste graven (Antwerp: Standaard, 1944). 34. F.L. Ganshof, 'Trois mandements perdus du roi de France Louis VI interessant la Flandre', in Handelingen Genootschap Emulation de Bruges, 87, 1950, pp.llS-33; F.L. Ganshof, 'Le roi de France en Flandre en 1127 et 1128', Revue historique de droit franfais et itranger, 4th series, 27, 1949, pp.204-28. 35. See F. Dickmann, Der Westfiilische Frieden (MUnster: Aschendorff, 1965). 36. R.C. Van Caenegem, An Historical1ntroduction to Western Constitutional Law, pp.142-S0. 37. H. Pirenne, Les anciennes democraties des Pays-Bas (Paris: Flammarion, 1910) was published in English as Belgian Democracy: Its Early History (Manchester, 1915) and in paperback as Early Democracies in the Low Countries: Urban Society and Political Conflict in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (New York: Harper and Row, 1963). See, on Pirenne, B. Lyon, Henri Pirenne: A biographical alld intellectual study (Ghent: Story-Scientia, 1974); R.c. Van Caenegem, 'Henri Pirenne: Medievalist and Historian of Belgium', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.161-78. 38. D. Lambrecht (ed.), Acta Processus circa Synodum: Proces gevoerd door Brugge, D0111111e en het Vri,je tegen de bisschop van Doon1ik voor de officialiteit te Rei111S en de Curie te Rome 1269-ca. 1301 (Brussels: Ministerie van Justitie, 1988, Kon. Com. Oude Welten. Verzameling van de Oude Rechtspraak in Belgie, 7th series). 132 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

39. Text in J. Van Der Straeten, Her charter en de raad van Kortenberg, II (Leuven: University of Leuven, Brussels, 1952), no. I, pp.12-14, and in H.P.H. Camps, Oorkondenboek van Noord Brabant, I (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979), Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatien 883, pp.1074ff. See the comparative-historical comments in B. Lyon, 'Fact and Fiction in English and Belgian Constitutional Law', Medievalia et Humanistica, 10, 1956, pp.82-1O 1. 40. See, for a survey in English by a famous historian, P.C.A. Geyl, The Revolt of the Netherlands 1555-1601 (London: Williams and Norgate, 1932); see also Chapter 3, this volume, by E.H. Kossmann. For the rise of protestantism in Flanders see J. Decavele, De dageraad vall de Reformatie in Vlaanderen (1520-1565),2 vols (Brussels: Paleis der Academien, 1975, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 37, no. 76). The reader will find an interesting collection of texts (1570-87) in M. Van Gelderen (ed.), The Dutch Revolt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, Canlbridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). 41. C. Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Random House, 1965). 42. See, for a general but brief survey, R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflexions on the Place of the Low Countries in European Legal History', in Van Caenegem, Legal History, pp.149-63. 43. When we say that in the Burgundian Netherlands the state came before the nation, the reader may wonder why we, following Ganshof, already speak of 'national sovereignty' at the time of Galbert of Bruges; but it should be realised that a national feeling in the respective principalities, such as Flanders, Brabant and Holland, had existed for centuries before those provinces were lifted, in Burgundian times, into a wider pan-Netherlandish statehood and a new, wider political identity. 44. H.G. Richardson and G.O. Sayles, Parliaments and Great Councils in Medieval England (London: Stevens, 1961); E.B. Fryde and E. Miller (eds), Historical Studies of the English Parliament, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); G .0. Sayles, The Functions ofthe Medieval Parliament ofEng/and (London and Ronceverte: Hambledon Press, 1988). 45. D. Lambrecht and J. Van Rompaey, 'De staatsinstellingen in het Zuiden van de 11de tot de l4de eeuw', in Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, III, Haarlem, 1982, pp.129-34. 46. For Thierry, see Nationaal Biografisch Woordenboek, XIII (Brussels: Paleis der Acadamien, 1990), cols 224-42 (by Th. De Hemptinne). For Philip, see ibid., IV, 1970, cols 290-329 (by H. Van Werveke). For Baldwin IX, see ibid., 1,1964, cols 224-37 (by W. Prevenier). 47. See R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflections on the History of England', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.37-54.

Chapter 3: Republican Freedom against Monarchical Absolutism: The Dutch Experience in the Seventeenth Century

1. Staatsregeling voor het Bataafsche volk (I mei 1798): 'Het Bataafsche volk, zig vornemende tot eenen ondeelbaaren Staat .. .'. 2. L. de Gou (ed.), Het on twerp van COl1stitutie van 1797, vol. 1, pp.l73--4 (The Hague: Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatien, Kleine Serie 55,1983). Notes 133

3. For a synopsis of the problem, see H. Daalder, 'Oud-republikeinse veelheid en democratisering in Nederland' (1987), reprinted in H. Daalder, B.A.G.M. Tromp and J. Th. J. van den Berg, Politiek en Historie: opstellen over Nederlandse politiek en vergelijkende politieke wetenschap (Amsterdam: Bakker, 1990), pp.64-80. 4. Printed in English translation in E.H. Kossmann and A.F. Mellink, Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), pp.165-77. 5. Ibid., pp.216-28. 6. R. Fruin and H.T. Colenbrander, Geschiedenis van de staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val del' Republiek (The Hague: Nijhoff, 190 I, 2nd edition, 1922, reprinted by Martinus Nijhoff with an important introduction by I. Schaffer, 1980) is still the best compendium, though S.J. Fockema Andreae, De Nederlandse staat onder de Republiek (Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandse Uitgevermaatschappij, 1961, 3rd edition, 1969) has distinct merits. Jonathan I. Israel's recent The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, pb 1999) gives lucid surveys of the institutions and offers original interpretations of their working. 7. Cf. I. Schaffer's lively inaugural lecture, Ons tweede tijdvak (Leiden, 1962), reprinted in his Veelvormig ver/eden (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1987), pp.15-25. 8. See the detailed analysis by the Canadian historian F.G. Oosterhof, Leicester and the Netherlands 1586-1587 (Utrecht: HES Publishers, 1988). 9. Kossmann and Mellink, Texts, pp.272-3. 10. Ibid., Texts, pp.274-81.

Chapter 4: William III, the and the Development of Parliamentary Democracy in Britain

I. See Mark Goldie, 'The Revolution of 1689 and the Structure of Political Argument', Bulletin of Research in the Humanities 83 (1980), pp.473-564; Richard Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics and Locke's Two Treatises of Government (Princeton, NJ/Guildford: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp.39-74,6oo. 2. See the excellent recent essay by W.A. Speck, 'Britain and the Dutch Republic', in K. Davids and J. Lucassen (eds), A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.173-83. 3. Ibid., p.176. 4. Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics, pp.59l-6oo. 5. J.1. Israel, 'The Dutch Role in the Glorious Revolution', in Jonathan I. Israel (ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment. Essays Oil the Glorious Revolution alld its World Impact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp.l38-60. 6. In fact, 'one school' here is something of a misnomer as the tendency to deny that anything significant happened in 1688-89, which has long been the view of marxist historians such as Christopher Hill, is also the view of some particularly right-wing revisionists such as Jonathan Clark: see the discussion of 1688 in J.C.D. Clark, English Society, 1688-1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge 134 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

University Press, 1985); see also W.A. Speck, 'Some Consequences of the Glorious Revolution', in D. Hoak and M. Feingold (eds), The World of William and Mary (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), pp.29-32. 7. 'Whatever modifications we may make to the classical Whig interpretation', observes Hugh Trevor-Roper, 'in the end it is difficult to contest Macaulay's thesis, that the English Revolution of 1688 saved England from a different kind of revolution a century later.' See H.R. Trevor-Roper, 'The Glorious Revolution of 1688', in H.R. Trevor-Roper, From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution (London: Secker and Warburg, 1992), p.247. 8. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.123-46; Robert Beddard, A Kingdom without a King. The Journal of the Provisional Government in the Revolution of 1688 (Oxford: Phaidon, 1988), pp.17-31; Tony Claydon, William J1/ and the Godly Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.122-4. On the weakness of James's field army on Salisbury Plain and estimate of its size at about 12,000 men, see BJ MS Add. 34510, 'Van Otters to States General', London, 7 December 1688. 9. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.126-31; J.1. Israel, 'William III and Toleration', in O.P. Grell, J.I. Israel and N. Tyacke (eds), From Persecution to Toleration: The Glorious Revolution and Religion in England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp.146-9. 10. See Claydon, William J1/ and the Godly Revolution, pp.26-8, 228-36; see also Tony Claydon, 'William Ill's Declaration of Reasons and the Glorious Revolution', The Historical Journal 39 (1996), pp.87-108. 11. On the orchestration of William Ill's propaganda campaign in the autumn of 1688, see Jonathan I. Israel, 'Propaganda in the Making of the Glorious Revolution', in Susan Roach (ed.), Across the Narrow Seas: Studies in the History and Bibliography of Britain and the Low COllntries presented to Anna E.c. Simoni (London: British Library, 1991), pp.167-77; Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.121-4. 12. Edmund Bohun, The History of the Desertion (London: 1689), p.123. 13. His Gracious Letter to the Meeting of the Estates of His Ancient Kingdom of Scotland (dated 17 May 1689), (Edinburgh: 1689), p.1. 14. His Majesties Most Gracious Speech to both Houses of Parlial1lent, on Friday the Fourth Day of November 1692 (London: 1692), p.4. 15. The Declaration of the Lords and Commons Assembled at Westminster, presented to their the Prince and Princess of Orange, at Whitehall the 13th of February, 1688/9, p.2; see also Lois Schwoerer, 'Propaganda in the Revolution of 1688-9',American Historical Review 82 (1977), pp.843-74. 16. For a reminder that Parliament and the people were 'incouraged to the demand of their Rights by the Declaration of his the Prince of Orange', see A Letter to Doctor Lancaster, Wherein The Resistance of the People Under the Conduct of the Prince ofOrange And the Placing ofKing William on the Throne Are Vindicated from the Odious Imputation of Usurpation ([nd Rebellion (London: 1697), p.7. 17. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.160-2. 18. For comparisons between the armada of 1588 and that of 1688, see Jonathan I. Israel and Geoffrey Parker, 'Of Providence and Protestant Winds: the Spanish Armada of 1588 and the Dutch Armada of 1688', in Israel, The Anglo-Dutch Moment, pp.335-64. Notes 135

19. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.117-20. 20. K.H.D. Haley, Th e British and the Dutch (London: George Philip, 1988), pp.136-41; J.L. Price, 'William III, England and the Balance of Power in Europe', Groniek. Gronings Historisch Tijdschrift 101 (1988), pp.68-9.

Chapter 5: The Constitution and its Roots in British Political Thought and Tradition

I. Michael Kraus, The Atlantic Civilization: Eighteenth-Century Origins (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1949), p.26. 2. Edmund Burke, quoted in H.T. Dickinson, 'The Eighteenth-Century Debate on the Sovereignty of Parliament', Tran sactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 25 (1976). p.199. 3. Gareth Jones (ed.), The Sovereignty of the Law: Selections from Blackstone's Commentaries 011 the Laws of England (London: Macmillan, 1973), pp.71-2; J.G.A. Pocock, Politics, Language alld Time (London: Methuen, 1972), p.132. 4. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill , NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), pp.49-50. 5. J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), esp. pp.506-52. 6. David L. Jacobson (ed.), The English Libertarian Heritage (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965). pp.106, 131,91.93; David N. Mayer, 'The English Radical Whig Origins of American Constitutionalism'. Washington University Law Quarterly 70 (1991). pp.131-207. 7. James Burgh. Political Disquisitions (3 vols) (London: 1774-75). Ill, pp.277-8; i, pp.3-4. 8. Colin Bonwick, English Radicals and the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), pp.17-26. 9. Thomas R. Adams, American Independence: The Growth of an Idea (Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1965); H. Trevor Colbourn, The Lamp ofExperience : Whig History and the Intelleclual Origins ofthe American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1965). 10. John Dickinson, 'August 13, 1787', in Max Farrand (ed.), The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (revised edition in 4 vols) (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press. 1937), II, p.278. II. Richard Bland, in Merrill Jensen (ed.), Tracts of the American Revolution: 1763-1776 (indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), p.125. 12. William Riker. 'Dutch and American Federalism', lournal of the History of Ideas 18 (1957), pp.495-521; Robert A. Rutland et a1. (eds), The Papers of lames Madison. vols IV and X (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1975, 1977): IX, pp.I I-18; X. pp.81 , 82-3n, 88, 89n, 101, 189,210,274, 320-4, 364, 406. 13. Winton U. Solberg (ed.). The Federal Convention and the Formation of the Union of the American States (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1958), p.9; S.E. Morison (ed.), Sources alld Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788 and the Fonnatioll of the Federal Constitution (2nd edition; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929), p.33. 136 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

14. Alfred H. Kelly et aI., The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development (6th edition; New York: W.W. Norton, 1983), p.27. 15. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time (6 vols) (Boston: Little, Brown. 1948-81), pp.70-2. 16. Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967), pp.55-6. 17. James Madison in Marvin Meyers (ed.), The Mind ofthe Founder (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), p.512; John Adams in Lester J. Cappon (ed.), The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and John Adams (2 vols) (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), II, p.463. 18. William Hooper in Elisha P. Douglass, Rebels and Democrats (Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books, 1965 [1955]), p.123. 19. Jack P. Greene, Peripheries and Center: Constitutional Development ill the Extended Polities of the British Empire and the United States, 1607-1788 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1986), p.I73; quotation from Peter Onuf, Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States, 1775-1787 (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), pp.21-2. 20. Wood, The Creation, pp.260-l. 21. Mayer, 'English Radical Whig Origins', p.I44. 22. Morison (ed.), Sources and Documents, p.149. 23. The Bill of Rights, 1689, 1 Will. & Mar. Sess. 2, c.2.; US Constitution and Amendments I to X. 24. K.M. Stampp, 'The Concept of a Perpetual Union', Journal ofAmerican History 65 (1978), p.1l. 25. Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorllln: The Intellectual Origins (~f the Constitution (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1985), p.209. 26. Greene, Peripheries, p.213. 27. Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), p.24. 28. Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution, ed. R.H.S. Crossman (London: Collins, 1963), p.94. 29. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Mysterious Science ~fthe Law (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1973 [1941]), pp.3-4. 30. J .R.T. Hughes, Social Control in the Colonial Economy (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1976), p.86. 31. Colin Bonwick, 'The Regulation of Political Power', in R.A. Burchell (ed.), The End of Anglo-America (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 199 I), pp.I-23.

Chapter 6: Proudhon and Anti-jacobin Federalism

1. See, in particular, Daniel Mornet, Les Origines illtellectuelles de la Revolution frmu;aise (Paris: Colin, 2nd edition, 1934), part 3, ch. viii; A. Aulard, Histoire politique de la Revolutionfram;aise (Paris: Colin, 3rd edition, 1905), pp.19ff. 2. Le Moniteur, vol. XVII, p.252. 3. 1.-J. Rousseau, Du Contrat social, II-IV. Notes 137

4. P.-J. Proudhon, Letter of 17 May 1845, Correspondance: edition Langlois (paris: Librairie internationale A. Lacroix, 1874-75). 5. P.-J. Proudhon, Premier 11le11l0ire sur la propriete, 1840 (reprinted Paris: Librairie Marcel Riviere, 1926), p.346. 6. P.-J. Proudhon, De l'utilite de la celebration du Di11lanche, 1839 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1926), p.61. 7. P.-J. Proudhon, Syste,ne des Contradictions econ011liques Oil Philosophie de la Misere, 1846 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1923). Marx's ironic and unfair riposte, The Poverty of Philosophy, was published in the following year. 8. P.-J. Proudhon, Idee generate de fa Revolution au XIXe siecle, 1849 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1923), p.395. 9. See Max Stirner, Der Einzige lind sein Eigentu11l (: 1845). 10. Proudhon, Premier memoire, p.13 J. 11. P.-J. Proudhon, De la Justice dans la Revolution et dans l'Eglise, 1858, much enlarged 2nd edition, 1860 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1930), and P.-J. Proudhon, Corpus des oeuvres de philosophie en langue fra/1l;aise (Paris: Fayard, 1988). 12. P.-J. Proudhon, Les confessions d'zlIl Revolutionnaire, 1849 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1920). 13. Proudhon, Idee generate de la Revolution. 14. Proudhon, De la lustice. 15. Proudhon, Premier memoire, p.144. 16. P.-J. Proudhon, La GI/erre et la Paix, 1861 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1927). 17. Proudhon, Correspondance, X, pp.38-9, 1860. 18. P.-J. Proudhon, Du Principe federatij et de la necessite de reconstituer Ie Parti de la Revoilltioll, 1863 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1959). 19. P.-J. Proudhon, De la Capacite politique des classes ouvrieres, 1865, posthumous (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1924). 20. Proudhon, Du Principe federat(f, p.319.

Chapter 7: Anglo-saxon Influences and the Development of German Democracy after World War Two

I. Walter Vogel and Christoph Weisz (eds), Akten zur Vorgeschichte der BUlldesrepublik Deutschland /945-1949, vol. 1, Hrsg Bundesarchiv und Institut fiir Zeitgeschichte (MiinchenIWien: R. OJdenbourg, 1976), pp.125-6. 2. Ibid., pp.15 Iff. 3. See Anthony Glees, 'The British and the Germans, 1945-92, From Enemies to Partners', in Christian Soe and Dirk Verheyen (eds), The Germans and their Neighbors (Colorado: Westview Press, 1993, pb 1995). 4. Noel Annan, Changing Enemies: The Defeat and Regeneration of (London: HarperCollins, 1995), p.211. 5. See Anthony Glees, Re-invel1ting Germany: German Political Development since 1945 (Oxford: Berg, 1996). 6. See Dick de Mildt, In the Name of the People: Perpetrators of Genocide il1 the Reflection of their Post-War Prosecution in (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996). Some recent German research concludes, moreover, that West Germany's successful overcoming of Nazism probably owed more to the determination of Germany's western occupiers than to the Germans 138 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

themselves and singles out British action against old and new Nazis as an important case in point. Following the initial process of de-Nazification, the Allies' latent threat to intervene if necessary had an effect on the development of the Federal Republic that can hardly be exaggerated; see Norbert Frei, Vergangenheitspolitik: Die AI~fiinge del' Bundesrepublik und die NS­ Vergangenheit, 2, durchgesehene Auflage (Munchen: C.H. Beck, 1997), pp.368-72, 376-84, 400. See also Anthony Glees, 'The Making of British Policy on War Crimes: History as Politics in Great Britain', Contemporary European History, vol. I, no. 2, 1992, pp.171-97, and 'War Crimes: the Security and Intelligence Policy Dimension', Intelligence and National Security, vol. 7, no. 3, July 1992, pp.242-67. 7. Quoted in Robin Day, But with Respect: Memorable Interviews with Statesmen and Parliamentarians (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1993), pp.123ff. 8. Wolfgang Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay und die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1987), p.11. See also Jeffry M. Diefendorf, Axel Frohn and Hermann-Josef Rupieper (eds), American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Ralph Willett, The Americanization (4 Gennany (London: Routledge, 1989); Hans Wallenberg, Report on Democratic Institutions in Germany (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1956); Edward N. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1978). 9. Interview with Robert Lochner, Berlin 6 December 1995. 10. See Vogel and Weisz, Akten zur Vorge schichte. II. Ibid., pp.32, 59. The authors suggest the British were always 'more careful and distant' in their dealings with German political leaders. 12. See Roger Morgan, The United States and West Germany 1945-73: a study in alliance politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp.16-17. 13. See Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay, esp. pp.31Off. 14. Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle: Memoirs of Ivone Kirkpatrick (London: Macmillan, 1959), p.205. See also Anthony Glees, Exile Politics During the Second World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp.142-3. Interview with Sir Frank Roberts, 28 June 1979. IS. Annan, Changing Enemies, p.157. 16. Ibid., pp.I84, 185,215. 17. Curt Garner, 'Public Service Personnel in West Germany in the 1950s', The Journal of Social History 29,1995/96, pp.25-80. 18. See Michael Balfour, West Germany (London: Benn, 1968), pp. 188-90. 19. For the drafting of the Basic Law, see Kurt Sontheimer, The Government and Politics of West Germany (London: Hutchinson, 1972), pp.29-32; Alfred Grosser, Germany in our Time (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp.J08-13; Glees, Re-inventing Germany, pp.58-63. 20. Morgan, The United States and West Germany, pp.l6-17. 21. Annan, Changing Enemies, p.215. 22. See John Ford Gorlay, The FOllnding of the Federal Repuhlic of Gemlany (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1958), ch. II, esp. pp.96-108. Notes 139

Chapter 8: The European Parliament and the Idea of European Representative Government

I. Altiero Spinelli, L 'Europa non cade dal cielo (Bologna: II Mulino, 1960), p.IS. 2. Altiero Spinelli, Come 110 tentato di dive/1tare saggio: 10, Ulisse (Bologna: I1 Mulino, 1984), pp.307-8, translation from Richard Mayne and John Pinder, with John C. de V. Roberts, Federal Union: The Pioneers (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), p.84. 3. See Walter Lipgens, A History of European Integration, 1945-1947 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p.612. 4. See Mayne and Pinder, Federal Union, p.lOO. 5. Altiero Spinelli, 'II Documento di Lavoro di Jean Monnet', in L'Europa non cade p.76, (reprint of an article written in July 1950). 6. Resolutions of the Congress of Europe, The Hague, May 1948 (Brussels: The European Moveni.ent, May 1988), p.42. 7. Martin Posselt, 'The European Parliamentary Union: 1946 to 1952', in Andrea Bosco (ed.), The F ederalldea, vol. 2 (London: Lothian Foundation Press, 1992), p.187. 8. Etienne Hirsch, Ainsi va la vie (Lausanne: Fondation Jean Monnet pour I'Europe, 1988), p.107. 9. Jean Monnet, Les Etats-Unis d'Europe ont commence: la Communaute de Charbon et de I 'Acier - discours et allocutions (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1955), pp.57-8. 10. Debates of the Common Assembly, September 1952, p.21 (author's translation). II. Hendrik Brugmans, in Le Parlement europeen: pouvoirs, election, role, .filtur, Colloque of the Institut d'Etudes Techniques Europeennes (IEJE), University of Liege, 1976, p.287 (author's translation). 12. Ibid., p.l67 (author's translation). 13. Georges Vedel, 'Mythes de I'Europe et Europe des Mythes', Revue du Marche Commun, October 1967 (author's translation). 14. The development of the role of MEPs, together with other aspects of the European Parliament's development, is analysed in Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in European Union Integration (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). 15. See Commission of the European Communities, 'The Budget: Facts and Figures', in SEC(93), (Brussels: Commission, 1993), p.l3. 16. Miriam Camps, European Unification in the Sixties: From the Veto to the Crisis (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1966), p.59. 17. Debates (!f the European Parliament. 24 May 1984. 18. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Institutional Affairs ('Dooge Committee'), Bulletin of the European Communities 3-1985, p.102. 19. EP document A2-0332/88, 'Report drawn up on behalf of the Committee for Institutional Affairs on the strategy of the European Parliament for achieving European Union' (rapporteur Mr F. Herman), voted on 16 February 1989, Official JOlll11al of the European Communities 69, 20 March 1989, p.145. 20. EP Minutes. II July 1990, Official Journal of the European Communities 23, 17 February 1990, p.97. 140 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

21. EP Minutes, 10 February 1994, Official Journal of the European Communities 61,28 February 1994, p.l55.

Chapter 9: Foundations for Democracy in the European Union

1. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), pp.2, 18-20, 316-20; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modem State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), pp.32, 73, 143,227. 2. Dahl, Democracy, p.31. 3. E.H. Kossmann, 'Freedom in seventeenth-century Dutch thought and practice', in Jonathan 1. Israel (ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays 011 the Glorious Revolution and its World Impact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp.29 1-2. 4. Jonathan 1. Israel, 'The Dutch role in the Glorious Revolution', in Israel, The Anglo-Dutch Moment, pp.120-3; and 'General Introduction', in Israel, ibid" pp,17-19. 5. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', p.161. 6. Hans Daalder, Ancient and Modem Pluralism in the Netherlands, The 1989 Erasmus Lectures at Harvard University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989-90),pp.13-14. 7. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 30, 317-18. 8. Israel, 'General Introduction', p.30. 9. Israel, Ibid., p.38. 10. Israel, Ibid., p.25. 11. See, for example, John Keane, Tom Paine: A Political Life (London: Bloomsbury, 1995), pp.108-29, 304-44 and ch. 10. 12. Cited, in notes from Lord Acton's unpublished manuscripts, in G.E, Fasnacht, Acton '.I' Political Philosophy (London: Hollis and Carter, 1952), p.243. 13. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 319. 14. David Held, Models ofDemocracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp.254-99; citation from p.299. 15. See Laski's letter of 2 November 1919 to Bertrand Russell, in Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1914-1944, vol. 2 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), p.1l3, in which he wrote that Proudhon's DII Principe federatif and De La Justice dans la Revolution were 'two very great books' . 16. Held, Models of Democracy, pp.72ff, 200, 282-99. Held cites in particular the works of C.B. Macpherson, Carole Pateman and Nicos Poulantzas. 17. Dahl, Democracy, p.2. 18. Held, Democracy and the Global Order, p.97. 19. Declaration by Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, 9 May 1950. 20. Jean Monnet, 'Discours au Seance d'!nauguration de la Haute Autorite', in Monnet, les Etats-Ullis d'El/rope o/1t commence: la Commlllwute Europeenne de Charbon et de I 'Acier- discollrs et al/ocutions (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1955), pp,56-8. 21. Louis Joxe, Victoires sur fa Iluit: Memoires 1940-1946 (paris: F1ammarion, 1981), cited in Henri Rieben, Des Guerres Europeenlles a l' Union de f 'Europe Notes 141

(Lausanne: Fondation Jean Monnet pour l'Europe, 1987), pp.352-3; and personal information. 22. Altiero Spinelli, Diario Europeo 1948/49, a cura di Edmondo Paolini (Bologna: II Mulino, 1989), p.142. 23. See Chapter 8, this volume. 24. See Sergio Pistone, 'II ruolo di Altiero Spinelli nella genesi dell'art.38 della ComunWt Europea di Difesa e del progetto di Comunita Politica Europea', in Gilbert Trausch (ed.), The European Integration from the Schuman Plan to the Treaties of Rome (Baden-Baden and Brussels: Nomos Verlag and Bruylant, 1993). 25. Article 31 ECSC; Article 164 EEe. 26. T.e. Hartley, The Foundations ofCommullity Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994, I st edition, 1981), p.55. 27. See Dahl, Democracy, p.320. 28. Jean-Victor LOl,lis, 'La constitution de I'Union europeenne', in Mario Telo (ed.), De,nocratie et Constitution Europeenl1e (Brussels: Editions de l'Universite de Bruxelles, 1995), pp.332-3. 29. This is suggested in Dahl, Democracy, pp.338-9 and Held, Democracy and the Global Order, p.280. 30. Held, Models, p.289. 31. Held, Democracy, pp.22-3. 32. For a review of those policies, see John Pinder, 'The European Community and Democracy in Eastern Europe', in Geoffrey Pridham, Eric Herring and George Sanford (eds), Building Democracy? - The International Dimension of Democratisation in Eastern Europe (London: Cassel, 2nd edition, 1997; 1st edition London: Leicester University Press, 1994); and Pinder, 'Community against Contlict: The European Community's Contribution to Ethno-National Peace in Europe', in Abram Chayes and Antonia Chayes (eds), Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1996). 33. Literature on this subject is reviewed and references are given in Eric Herring, 'International security and democratisation in Eastern Europe', in Pridham et al., Building Democracy? Index

Abjuration, Act of (1581), 22-3,108, 129n Bangemann. Martin. MEP. 96 absolutism, 1,33-4; divine right, 33; in Bank of England, III Italian city-states, 16-17; oligarchic, Batavian Republic (1798-1813).19-20 30; and property, 62; rejected by Bavaria. political parties. 79 Dutch Republic, I, 22, 109, III; of Belgium, 7; and Europe. 97. 100. 106. 122 Spain in Netherlands, 13, 14, see also Berlin, blockade and airlift, 76-7. 117 Beveridge, Sir William. 83, 87 accession treaties, to EC, 99, 102 Bevin, Ernest, 80, 81 accountability, 3; in EU, 93, 100, 124 Bill of Rights (1689). x, 38. 52, III. 112 Acton, Lord, 114 BilI of Rights, American, 52, 58 Adams, John, 42, 46, 47, 49 Bismarck, Otto von, 116 Adenauer, Konrad, 78-9, 84, 85, 89,117; Blackstone, Sir William: on British and European parliamentary Constitution, 43-4. 113; theory of Assembly, 90, 91 sovereignty, 45-6, 51, 56 Agnelli, Susanna, MEP, 96 Blair, Tony, UK Prime Minister, 104 Albu, Austin, MP, 80 Bland, Richard, 47 America see United States of America Bockler. Hans. 82 American War oflndependence, 13,56 borough charters,S Amsterdam Treaty (1997),104,105,121, bourgeoisie, in France. 60. 61 123 Bourlanges, Jean-Louis. MEP. 103 anarchy, Proudhon's use of word. 63, 64 Brabant. 7, 12. 129n Annan, Noel, 72, 80 Bracton. Henry de. 51 Antwerp, fall of (1585), 13 Brandt. Willy, MEP, 96 arbitration, in mediaeval Flanders, 9 Brissot, Jacques-Piene. Girolldin leader. 60 Aristotle, 44 Blitish Constitution, 1.7.43-4; checks and armed forces, and state sovereignty. 54. 125 balances. 36, 43-4; codification of. Arndt. Rudy. MEP. 96 55-6; compared with American, 55-7; Aron, Robert. 68 and myth of anglo-saxon purity. 45. 49 AItevelde. James van. 6 Brok. Elmar. MEP. 103 assemblies. popular, 6, 107 Bruges, 6. 11-12. 129n assent procedure. European Parliament, 99, Brugmans. Hendrik. 91 102, 105 Brussels Treaty (1948), 84 association agreements, with EU, 99 budget see parliamentUry control of budget Athens, city-state, I, 44, 112 Buffon, Comte de. 42 Attlee, Clement, 73 Burgh. James, Political Disquisitions. 46 Australasia, 119 burghers: Dutch Republic, 109. 130n, see Austria, 99, 102. 118-19 also : in Italian city-states. 16-17; Burgundian Netherlands: as federal revolutions against. 13-14 monarchy, 7-8. 16. 130n. 132n; autonomy: democratic, 115, 125-6; local, provincial autonomy. II, 16; self 116; of nation-states. 3, 31; and govemment in. 107-8 nationality, 66; organisational, I, 2, Burgundy, House of. and unification of Low 63-4, 66-7, 115-16, see al.w Countries, 6, 7-8 provincial autonomy; sovereignty Burke, Edmund, 43

Bacon, Francis. 43 Cahiers des doleances (1789 l. 60 Bagehot. Waiter. 56 Calvin, John, 42 balance of power, William III's policy, x. xi Canada. 119 Baldwin IX. IS Canute IV, King of Denmark, 4 Balfe. Richard. MEP. 96 capitalism, and democracy, 79

142 Index 143

Cartwright, John, 46 constitutionalism,S, 15; American Colo's Letters 0721-22), 45--ti compared with British, 57-8; British Central Europe, 119, 126 model of, 48; of William III's centralism: Bismarckian Gennany, 116; in Declaration, 37, 39-40 France, 59, 61 constitutions: 'anglo-saxon', 45; approved Charles the Bold, 6, 15, 130n by people, 50, 53, 85; based on Charles the Good, count of Flanders, 4, 5, 9, colonial charters, 48; early national, 11 15; written, 19, 41, 50-1, 55, see also Charles I, King, 33 European constitution Charles II, King, 35, 110 contract: between prince and people,S, Charles Y, Emperor, 7, II, 17 9-10,21, 108; Proudhon's rule of, charters: American colonial, 48; as 63-4, 66, see also compact legislative texts,S, 12-13, see a/so cosmopolitan democracy 126 Kortenberg; Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard, 88 Christian Democrats (CDU) (Gennany), 81, Council of Europe 88-90 82, 84, 85, 117 Council (of Ministers), 68, 89, 97-8; co­ churches, organisational structure, 45, 51 decision with Parliament, 93, 97, 105; Churchill, W.S., 68, 73, 89 and co-operation procedure, 99; and Cicero, 44 ConmlUnity budget, 93, 105; citizens' rights, 107, 121 conciliation procedure, 95; executive city-states: Athenian, I, 44, 112; direct powers of, 87, 121; indirect represen­ democracy in, 125: Italian, 6, 15-17, tation, 122, 124; legislative powers of, 107 121-2,124; and Maastricht Treaty, civil rights: in Dutch tradition. 29; as 10 1-2; and Parliament" s participation insufficient, 116 in IGC, 103; pre-democratic nature of, civil society, I, 114 121; pressure for majority voting, 100, Clarke, Jonathan, 133n 104, 106; unanimity procedure, 92-3, Clay. General Lucius D .. 70-1, 76, 77-8. 122 79; and West Gemmn constitution. 84, Court ofJustice (of EU), 105, 120, 121, 117 124; ruling on Parliament's delaying Clito. William. 4, 5, 9 powers, 95-6 co-decision procedure see European Cromwell, Oliver, 33 Parliament crowned republic, Britain as, 41, 56, 111 co-operation procedure see European culture: Anglo-American links, 42-3; Parliament British policy in Gennany, 83 Cold War, 73 currency: Gennan refonn (1948),76; colonial government (BIitish): in America, monetary union in Burgundian 47-8: federalism and, 84-5; principle Netherlands, 8; single European, 100, applied to Gennany, 80 106,123 Commission of the EC/EU see European custom: as ancient freedoms. 14; Commission codification of, 51; reference to, 21, common agricultural policy (Eq, 94 31, 43; superseded by law-making, common law, 14.51; American adoption of 8-9,108 principles. 48, 52. 56, 112 compact: Calvinist doctrine of. 51; Lockean, Dahl, Robert A., 1,2, 112, 114, 119 51-2, see a/so contract Dandieu, Arnaud, 68 conciliation procedure. between European Dankert, Piet, president of European Parliament and Council. 95, 101 Parliament, 97 Confederation, Articles of ( 1781), 50. 52, De Gasperi, Alcide, 68. 120-1 113 de Gaulle, Charles, French President, 94 conscience, freedom of, 22, 31 De Guch!, Karel, MEP 96 consensus, Netherlandish tradition of, 16, 20 decentralisation, 2, 116; of postwar consent see government by consent Gennany, 70-1, 73-4, see also Constant, Henri, 61,115 Proudhon; provincial autonomy 144 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union decision-taking, in European Community, Edwards. Jonathan, 42 87,100 Eisenhower, General Dwight, 77 Declaration of Independence (American), elections, 30, 44. 53; to European 52,58 Parliament, 91-2, 120, 122; to Gernlan Declaratory Act (1766), 49 Lander assemblies, 70, 71, 117 Delors, Jacques, 68 Eliot, T.S., 83 demilitarisation. of Germany, 71, 73 Elizabeth I, Queen, 27-8 democracy: at local level, 15.27; at national England: attack on United Provinces (1672), level, 15; beyond nation-state see 30, 38-9. 110; compared with democratic transformations; mediaeval Low Countries, 14---15; continuing development, 2. 125, 127; eighteenth-century political model, 2; direct, 6, 125; in Europe, 1; and ideological divisions, 33--4, 39; as German postwar constitution. 118; unitary nation-state, 14; war against indirect, 6, 7, 122, 124, see also repre­ France. 36, see also Blitish sentative institutions Constitution; Glorious Revolution; liberal, I, 107, 118; parliamentary, I, Parliament; 107, 111-12; and popular English Civil War, 14,33 sovereignty, 29, 32, 113-14, see Enlightenment, the, 68, see also Scottish also democratic transformations; Enlightenment participatory democracy equality: of all men, 46; deemed essential to democratic accountability see accountability liberty, 45, 62, 115, 116; French democratic transformations, 1,2-3; first passion for, 59-60; and pmlicipatory (city-stutes), 1,112; second (represen­ democracy, 125-6 tative within nation-state), 112-19; Erhard, Ludwig, 76, 78, 79 third (beyond nation-state), 2-3, 106, estates (assemblies of): in England, 43-4, 107, 114, 125, see also cosmopolitan 53; France, 60-I; in Low Countries, 7, democracy 14,30, 108, 130n democratisation, of Gennany, 73, 84 Estates General (in Low Countries), 7, 11, Denmark,98 14, 30, see also States General Dickinson, John, 46, 47, 48 EU member-states: and control of EU Dutch Refonned Church, 45 budgets, 94; six founders, 120; Dutch Republic, x, 2, 19, 21--4; character of, inequality among, 126; market 23--4.26-7,32; federal elements, II, economies, 126-7; and suppmt for 22, 24---5, 47; historical perspectives draft EU treaty, 97, 122; support for on, 26-7; influence on American single market, 123 constitution, 45, 47; provincial Europe: federalist movement, 68, 91; autonomy under, 10; role in Glorious influence of British parliamentary Revolution, 38-40, 110; role of government, 112; inter-governmental Stadholder, 25-6, 30. 38-9, 108-9; view of, 89, 90; links with revolution­ States General. 24-5; success of, 30--2, m)' America, 42, see also European 109; and threat of France, 39, 110, see Community; European Union also Revolt of the Netherlands European Central Bank, 102 European Coal and Steel Conmlllnity East German state, 72, 86, 116 (ECSC), 68, 88, 119-20, 123; High Eastem Europe, 119, 126 Authority of, 90, 120 economic and monetary union (EU), 100--1. European Commission, 90, 91; European 106, 123 Parliament's powers over, 90, 91, 93, economy: EU federal powers on, 105-6; 96, 105, 124: executive powers, 90, German reconstruction. 75-6; 93, 124; Parliament's vote on choice Proudhon's federalisation of, 63-4, 67, of President, 102, 104, 123 see also economic and monetary European Connnunity (EC): common union; single European market agricultural policy, 94; democratic Eden, Anthony, 89 accountability in, 93; EEC, 90, 91, Edward III, King of France, 6 121; and principle of subsidiarity, 92, Index 145

100; provision for 'own resources'. federal executives: Europe. 87; Germany, 94-5. see also European Union 84-5: US administration, 53, see also European constitution, 88. 96. 102 European Commission European Council: and draft treaty. 97. 98: federal monarchy. Burgundian. 7-8, 10-11, and Single European Act. 98; and 16. 108, 130n Maastricht Treaty. 100. 10 I: and federal system: and division of powers, 54; Amsterdam Treaty, 102. 103. 104 Dutch Republic, I I. 22, 24-5, 47; European Defence Community (1954), 91. European Union. 124-5; United 120--1 States, 2, 41, 54-5, 67.113-14; West European Parliament. 87. 89; and 19961GC, Germany, 84-5, 117-18 103-4; assent procedure, 99; co­ federal union. EU as. 106, 125 decision procedure. 93. 97, 100. 101 , Federal Union movement. 87. 120 104. 105, 123-4; and competences of federalism: and European Parliament. 87-8. European Community. 92, 100: 89; and Girondins 60-1; Monnet's conciliation procedure. 95. 10 I: and concept. 88. 89. 120: Proudhon·s. control of EC budget. '94-5. 123 ; 66-9; Spinelli's model for EU. 87-8, cooperation procedure, 99, 10 I. 102; 96-9. 106, 120. see also federal development of. 3, 90--3. 122-4; direct democracy; federal monarchy; federal elections to, 91-2, 120. 122; and draft system; hamiltonian federalism; treaty for EU. 96-9, 122-4: proudhonian federalism; provincial Institutional Committee. 100. 102 autonomy powers, 91-2. 105: delaying. 95-6: Federalist, The. 46, 60. 120 legislative, 95, 122-3; over Ferri, Enrico, MEP, 98 Commission. 90, 93, 96. 102. 123 ; Finland. 99, 102 relating to European Central Bank, First International. 67 102; of scrutiny. 102; pressure for Aanders; early democratic elements. 4-8; constitutional revisions, 100--1. and provincial autonomy. 10, 108; rep­ 102; and process of European resentative institutions. 7. 14; urban integration, 87, 90-1; relations with nature of. 14, 15 Council, 92-3, 97.123-4; and role Fontainebleau European Council. 97-8 of Commission, 93; Rules of Fortescue, Sir John, 51 Procedure. 96, 99; selection of ombudsman, 102; and treaty France: centralism in, 59, 60-1; early revisions, 99-105, 122-4 national government in. 16; British European Parliamentary Union, 88 , respect for. European Union (EU), xi-xii, 106, 126; 2.112.114 draft treaty, 96-9. 122; economic and Europe. 103. 106.121; budgetary powers, 105; enlargement of. 126-7; control. 94; and draft EU treaty, 97, federal powers of, 105''{); Oligins of, 122-3; enthusiasm for. 59, 123 119-20; powers on security, lOS; pre­ and Netherlands: attack on (1672), x, 30, democratic nature of, 3, 121-2; 38-9, 110; influence on modem subsidiarity in. 68-9. see also Council; Netherlands, 19-20. 26; and Court of Justice; European mediaeval Aanders, 6, 10-11 Conununity (EC); European Council; and postwar Germany. 75, 83, 116; European Parliament policy on constitution, 84. 86, 117 European Union of Federalists, 68 see also Proudhon executive: in American constitution Franche-Comte, Swiss influence in. 62, 67 (presidential), 53. 87; in British Franco-German partnership, 100-1, 118, constitution. 44: in colonial America, 123 48; parliamentruy. 44. 85. 87. see also Franco-German Treaty (1963), 83 Council; European Commission Franklin, Benjamin, 42 freedoms: ancient, 14.31; of conscience, 22, federal democracy: Gernmn commitment to, 31; four principles of Dutch Republic, 8S"{). 106. 116-18, see also federalism 21,31-2.109 146 Foundations of Democracy in .the European Union

French Revolution, \3, 19-20; early Guigou, Elisabeth, MEP, 103 aspirations of, 2, 60, 112, 114; tricentenary, 18 Hague Congress, 68, 88-9 Friedrich, Bruno, MEP, 96 Hainaut, representative institutions, 7 Fruin, Robert, historian, 26 Hamilton, Alexander, 46, 57, 67, 112-13, Fuchs, Dr, 78 120 fundamental rights, 58, 121 hamiltonian federalism, 67, 69, 87, 113, 120, see also United States Gaiotti, Paola, MEP, 96 Constitution Galbert of Bruges (diarist), 4, 9, 10 Hansch, Klaus, MEP, 103 German Protestant states, 38, 112 Held, David, 3, 115, 116; and democratic Germany, 2, 71-2; American occupation autonomy, 125-6; and cosmopolitan policy, 77-9; Basic Law and democracy, 126 Constitution, 84-5, 118; Bundesrat, Henry I, King of England, 4 84-5,95, \17-18, 122; civil service, Henry V, King of England, 14 82-3; colonial-constructive paradigm, HernJan, Fernand, MEP, 98 71,72, 75-7;de-Nazification, 70, 72, Hesse, plebiscite, 79 74-5,79, 116, 137-8n; decentralisa­ hierarchy, in English society, 33 tion of government, 70-I, 73-4; Hill, Christopher, \33n democratic tradition in, 70, 71, \16; historical perspectives: on Dutch RepUblic, economic restoration, 75-6, 79, 81; 26-7; on Glorious Revolution, 34-8, education, 83; elections to Lander 133n, 134n assemblies, 70, 71, 117 Holland (province of): dominance in Dutch and Europe, 95, 117-18, 122; and EU Republic, 24, 25, 109; and representa­ security, 106; support for draft EU tive institutions, 7, 25,30 treaty, 12,97; Franco-German Holy Roman Emperor, in Italy, 16 partnership, 100-1, \18, 123 human nature, theories of, 46-7 Lander governments, 78, 82, 85, \17-18; human rights, 1; in EU, 121; in Gemlan nature of occupation, 70-I, 72-3, Basic Law, 84, 1 J 8; in mediaeval Low 74,85-6; newspapers, 83, 117; Countries, 11-13; in US, 58, 1\3 Nuremberg Tribunal, 74-5; popular Hume, David, 46, 112 support for democratic constitution, Hutcheson, Francis, 46 85-6, 118; and Potsdam Hynd, John, Minister for Gennany, 80 Conference, 73-4; unification of, 65,116 ideology: and American constitution, 43-7, Ghent, 6-7, 8, 129n 57; Whig, 33-4, 110 Girondins, pluralism of, 60, 114 implied powers, doctrine of, 57 Globke, Hans, 82-3 India, liberal democracy in, 119 Glorious Revolution, x, 18; Bill of Rights individualism, 29, 64; in Locke, 44 (1689), x, 38, 52, Ill; and constitu­ infonnation technology, and direct tionalism of Declaratioll, 37-8, 39-40, democracy, 125 110-11; effect on ideological inter-governmental conferences: on co­ divisions, 34-5; historical perspectives decision and further integration, on, 34-8, 133n; role of Dutch army, 102-4; on economic and monetary 36,39, 110; tercentenary, 18, 35, see union, 100-1; on political union, 101; also Parliament, English Reflection Group, 102-4; to revise EC Gordon, Thomas, Cato's Letters, 45 treaties, 98-105 government: as despotic oppression interdependence, among nation-states, 3, (Proudhon), 64; limits on power of, 112 53; and theories of human nature, Ireland, 33, 35, 38, 55 46-7, see also state Italy, 65,119; city-states, 6,15-17; and government by consent, concept of, 5-6, 107 Europe, 100, 106, 120; and Single , 98, 119 European Act, 99; support for draft Grotius, Hugo, 44, 51 EU treaty, 97,122 Index 147

I van of Aalst, 5 Locke, lohn, 42, 43, 44, 45, 110; influence of, 60, 62, 112, 115; theory of Jacobins, centralism of, 60-1. 114, 115 compact. 51-2 James II, King, 35, 36, 39, 110 Locker, Hans, MEP, 96 Japan, liberal democracy in, 119 Lothian, Lord, 87 lay, lohn, 120 Louis Napoleon, King of Netherlands, 20 lefferson, Thomas, 42, 43, 46, 48, 49 Louis VI, King of France, 4, II lohn II, Duke of Brabant, 12 Louis XIV, King of France, xi, 38, 39, 110 Johnson, Stanley, MEP, 96 Louisiana, Napoleonic code in, 56 judicial review, doctrine of, 5, 56, 57 Low Countries, 4, 14; liberal traditions, 7, judiciary, independent, 1,44 18, see also Batavian Republic; 1uliana of the Netherlands, Princess, 89 Burgundian Netherlands; Dutch justice, 12; Proudhon's view of, 65 Republic; flanders; Netherlands (modem) Lower Saxony, 82 Key, Brian, MEl', 96 Kirkpatrick, I vone, 80 , Maastricht, Treaty of, 101-2, 105, 121, 123 Kohl, Helmut, 100 Macaulay, Catherine, History of Eng/and, Kortenberg, Charter of (1312), 12-13, 15, 46 129n Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 134n Mackay, Ronald, MP, 89 Labour Party (Blair administration), 104 Macmillan, Harold. 89 Labour Party (British postwar), centralising Madison, James, 46, 47, 49, 112. 120 tradition, 80-1, 117 Magna Carta (1215), 12, 13, 15 Laski, Harold, 2, 115 Mansholt, Sicco, 91 Latin America, development of democracy Marc. Alexandre, 68 in,119 market economy, 126-7 law, rule of see rule of law Marshall Aid, 76, 117 law courts, mediaeval, 9 Marshall, lohn, US Chief Justice, 57 leadership, of kings, x, 14-15 Martin, David, MEP, 100, 103 legislation: by German federal parliament, Marx, Karl, Proudhon and, 61, 63 117-18; in Low Countries, 8-9, 22, Mary of Burgundy, 8 see a/so Council of Ministers; Massachusetts, state constitution, 48, 50, 52 European Parliament Mitterrand, Fran<;ois, 97, 100, 122 legislature: monarchy: absolutist, I, 33-4; constitu- bicameral: American, 52, 53; European, tional, 1,7,23,26, Ill, 1l3; crowned 93,101,104,105,122,124 republic, 41, 56, Ill; and democracy, in colonial America, 48; elections to, 44, 6,7; nature of sovereignty,S, 21, 23, 108; and popular sovereignty, 9-10; as 53; independence of, 44 unifying, 6-8, see also federal Leicester, Earl of. 27-8 monarchy Leiden, siege of, 13 Monnet, lean, xi, 59, 68, 90; and federal Leonardi, Silvio, MEP, 96 Europe, 88, 120 liberal democracy see democracy Montesquieu, Charles de, 44, 60, 112, 115 liberal tradition, Dutch model, 18, 19,31 Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard, 80 liberalism. in France. 59-60, 61 Moreau, lacques, MEP, 96 libelties, charters of, 12-13, 15 Morgenthau, Henry, 77 liberty, 18,31,32; as fundamental, 45; and Munster, Peace of, 24 need for equality, 45. 115; and power, mutuality: in Proudhon' s vision, 64, 66, 20,49,65; and role of property, 115, 115; in trade unions, 67-8 see a/so freedoms; rights local government: in Dutch Republic, 27; in Napoleon Bonaparte, centralism of, 61, 114 England, 15; participation in, 2, 66, Napoleonic code, 56, 62 116 nation, relationship to state, 14, 125, l30n 148 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union nation-state, 119; Britain as early, 14; participatory democracy, 2, 107, 116, 125; democracy in, I, 112; and beyond, in economic and social organisations, 2-3, 106, 107, 114, 125 2, 116; need for equality, 125-6 nationalisation of industry, in Germany, 79, particularism, 66 80-1 Patijn, Schelto, MEP, 91 nationality: and autonomy, 66; in Patton, General George, 79 Burgundian Netherlands, 132n Pearl Harbor (1941), 57 national sovereignty see state sovereignty Pennsylvania, state constitution, 50, 53 natural law, 45, 51 people: as organic whole, 29, see also Nazism: in civil service, 82-3; criminalisa­ popular sovereignty tion of, 70, 72, 74-5, 79, 116, 137-8n personalism, 115, 116 Netherlands, 7, 19-20, 119; and EC Pfenning, Gero, MEP, 96 budgetary control, 94, 123; influence Pflimlin, Pierre, MEP, 98 on development of EU, xii, 97, 106, Philadelphia Convention, 52-3, 87, 88, 122, see also Dutch Republic; Revolt 112-13 of the Netherlands Philip of Alsace, Count, 9, 15 New Hampshire Constitution, 50 Philip, Andre, 90 New Ordinance (1433) (Netherlands), 8 Philip the Good, King, 7, I I New York, state constitution, 52 Philip II, of Spain, 2, 7; his sovereignty newspapers, in Germany, 83, 117 denied (1581), 20, 23, 27,108, 129n Newton, Sir Isaac, 42, 43 philosophy, AnglO-American links, 42 Nine Years' War (1688-97),36 Pinckney, Charles, 48 Nord, Hans, MEP, 96 Pinckney, Charles Cotes worth (cousin), 48 North, Lord, 44 pluralism, I, 18,20,31, 116 North Rhine-Westphalia, 81, 82 political parties: in America, 56-7; and Northern Ireland, 35 MEPs, 92, 97; in postwar Germany, nuclear war, threat of, 73 78-9,81, 1l7, see also Tories; Whigs Nuremberg Tribunal, 74--5 Polybius, 44 popular sovereignty, 1-2,46; in American : in Dutch Republic, 25-6; and Constitution, 50, 51-2, 53, 107, nature of popular sovereignty, 29-30 113-14; and democracy, 29, 32, ombudsman, European Parliamentary, 102 113-14; in Dutch Republic, 21, 24, Orange, house of, 25, 108, see also William 28-9; in mediaeval Flanders, 9-10 III ordeal, trial by, 9 popular unrest. Dutch Republic's approach to. 27, 32 Paine, Tom, 113 P0l1ugal, 119 Paley, William, 51 Potsdam Conference. 73-4 Parliament, English: effect of Glorious power: given by social contract, 114; and Revolution on, 26, 36-7, 40, 111-12; liberty, 20. 49, 65; protection of. 60-1 House ofComruons, 122; origins and powers: European ConmlUnity, 92, 100; nature of, 14, IS; role in Glorious implied, 57; US federal, 52-3, 54, see Revolution, 34--5, 38, llO-II; also separation of powers sovereignty of, 8, 43-4, 122 Prag, Derek, MEP, 96 parlianlentary control of budget, 52; after Prague, communist coup (1948), 84, 117 Glorious Revolution, 26, III; in pre-democratic institutions, I, 2; in Dutch Republic, 26, 94, 123; in European Community and Union, 3, European Union, 93-5, 105, 123 120-5,127; in mediaeval Low parliamentary sovereignty, 43-4, 55, 107; Countries, 107-8, see also Dutch rejected by Americans, 49, 113 Republic; Flanders parliaments: Estates General (Low pre-federal European institutions, 120, 124 Countries), 7, 14; of EU member Price, Richard, 46 states, 97, see also Parliament, Priestley, Joseph, 46 English; European Parliament prope11y, absolutist view of, 62, liS Index 149

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 2, ch. 6 (passim), also Bill of Rights; freedoms; human 115, 116; Dli Principe federatif, 2, 67; rights on function of state, 65-6, 115; on Rittenhouse, David, 42 property, 62. 63. 115; rule of contract. Robbins, Lionel. 87 63-4; and self-government. 66. 67; use Robertson, General Sir Brian, 80 of word 'anarchy'. 63, 64 Roman Republic, political traditions, 44 proudhonian federalism 2, 62-3, 66-9, Rome, Treaty of, 90, 120-1 115-16 Roosevelt, F.D., 73 Prout. Sir Christopher. MEP, 99 Rougemont, Denis de, 68 provincial autonomy; in Dutch Republic. 22. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 60, 114 24-5,31; in mediaeval Flanders. rule of law, 4-5, 18, 107; and EU Court of 10-13,24, 108 Justice, 87, 12l. 124; rights-based, I, public duty, 44-5. 46-7,51 12-13 public opinion: and Glorious Revolution. Russell, Lord, 33 34-5,37,38; and perception of Russian Revolutions (1917),13,68 European Parliament, 92 Rutledge, John, 48 Pufendorf, Samuel von, 51,112.116 Rye House Plot (1683), 33 puritanism, influence in America. 44-5. 51 Saint-Simon, Claude de, 68 qualified majority voting, 100, 103. 104. Sandys, Duncan, MP, 89 106, 122. 124 Scandinavia, 7, 119 Schaffer, Fritz, 79 radicals, and American constitution. 46 Schleswig-Holstein, 82 Ramadier, Paul. 89 Schumacher, Kurt, 80, 85 Reeve, Tapping. Judge. 56 Schuman Declaration (1950), 119 Reflection Group. to prepare 1996 IGC, Schuman Plan, for ECSC, 88 102-4 Schuman, Robert, 59, 68 Reformation. 13 science, Anglo-American links, 42 regents. Dutch Republic. 23-7, 39, 40. 109 Scotland, 33, 55; William Ill's Declaration religion: in English ci vii wm·. 14; freedom for, 37 of conscience, 22; uniformity, 33, see Scottish Enlightenment, 46 also puritanism; William III security, EU federal powers on, 10 I, 105-6, representative government. I, 18, 21; in 124-5 Europe, 87, 93.121-2; and extension Seefeld, Horst, MEP, 96 of democracy. 114; indirect (Council Seeler, Hans-Joachim, MEP, 96 of Ministers). 122, 124; in US separation of powers, 44, 46, 52; in constitution. 53. see also democracy; American constitution, 53, 54 European Parliament; Parliament Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of, 34 representative institutions: in British Shawcross, Lord, 75 tradition. 14.30,113; in Dutch Single European Act, 98-9, 100, 105, 121, RepUblic, 24, 29-30; in Flanders, 7, 123 108, 130n; and participatory single European currency, 100, 106 democracy, 125 single European market, 98, 100, 123 repUblicanism: and concept of duty, 44-5, Smith, Adam, 47 46-7,51; as fundamental American Social Chapter (Amsterdam Treaty), 104, principle, 44, 50; mediaeval, 6-7 126 Restoration (of English monarchy 1660),33 social contract, 51; Rousseau, 60, 114 Revolt of the Netherlands, 7,13-14,21-3 Social Democrats (SPD) (Germany), 81, 82, Reynaud, Paul, 89 85,117 rights: in American Constitution, 52, 58; socialism, influence of Proudhon on, 68 citizens', 107, 121; of Englishmen, 48, South Carolina, state constitution, 50 58,112,113-14; in European Union, sovereignty: concept of, 23; divided, 54; in 121; in Gennan Basic Law, 118; of Dutch Republic 25-9, 108-9, see also people against government, 45, 46. see parliamentary sovereignty; popular 150 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

sovereignty; state (national) Truman, Harry, US President, 73. 75-6. 77 sovereignty Soviet Union, 2; Berlin blockade, 76-7; and unanimity rule: in Council of Ministers, postwar Gemlany, 72, 84, 86, 116, 117 92-3, 105. 122; in Dutch States . Spaak, Paul-Henri, 68 General, 24. 109 Spain, 7, 119; and Revolt of Netherlands, United Kingdom: complexity of. 41, 55; as 13, 14, 108 crowned republic. 41. 56. III Spinelli, Altiero: and European constitution, and Europe: and development ofEU 96-9, 120, 122; federalism of, 87-8 Parliament, 89, 99. 103, 104. 106; stadholder: limits on, 26, 31; role in Dutch and federal constitution. 88. 98, Republic, 25-6, 30, 38-9; sovereign 120; inter-governmental view, 89; rights of, 25-6, 108-9 relations with ECIEU. 106. 122, 127 Stalin, Joseph, 73, 76-7, 84 and postwar Gernlany, 71, 78. 79-84. state: relationship to nation, 14, 125, 132n; 116; constitution. 84-5. 117; role of, 5, 60-1, 65-6; sovereignty, 10, cultural policy. 83; de-Nazification. 119,125 138n; economic restoration. 75; states see EU member-states; nation-states; state ownership of indusliy, 79. United States of America 80-1 ; trade unions. 81-2 States General (Dutch Republic), 24-5; and refonus. political. 55-6; transatlantic Act of Abjuration (1581), 22-3, 108; links, 42-9. see also British claim to sovereignty, 27-8, 29; Constitution; England; Parliament. relationship to provinces, 28; and English William Ill's invasion, 39-40 United Provinces, Republic of see Dutch states' house: Bundesrat, 84-5,117-18, Republic 122; Council of Ministers, 87, 88-90, United States of America; and British 93, 122, 124; US Senate, 53-4 tradition, 41, 42-9, 112-13; Civil War. Strang, Sir William, 80 67; early Congress. 52; exceptional­ Stuttgart Solemn Declaration, 98 ism. 41; federal system. 2. 4 I. 54-5. subsidiarity, principle of, 68-9, 92, 100, 116 67, 113-14; French Revolutionary Sweden, 99, 102 view of, 60; political influences in. Switzerland, 119; and federalism, 2, 47, 67, 45-7; political parties. 56-7 115 and postwar Germany: constitution. Sydney, Algernon, 33 84-5.86.117. 118; economic restoration, 75-7. 116-17; occu­ tariffs, EC common external, 94 pation policy. 70-1, 77-9, 116. 117 taxation: Dutch Republic, 22, 24, 109, 129n; Stamp Act Congress (1765). 48; state limitations on, 12-13; in mediaeval constitutions. 50, 51, 52. 54-5, 113. Flanders, 5; US federal, 54, 113; see also United States Constitution William III and Parliament, 36, III, United States Constitution (1787). 50; see also parliamentary control of checks and balances, 52. 53-4; civil budget society and, 114; Constitutional Templer, General Gerald, 71 Convention (1787). 52-3; divided Thierry of Alsace, 4, 15 sovereignty. 54; doctrine of implied Tindemans, Leo, MEP, 96 powers, 57; federal powers in. 52-3, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 59, 61, 62, 114, 115 55; modification of. 55. 56-7; and tolerance: in Dutch Republic, 31; England, popular sovereignty. 1-2,51-2.53. 39; principle of, xi, 18, 20 107.113-14; powers of president. 56; Tories, principles, 33-4, 110 conffi1on law in. 56; Senate and Tournai, bishop of, 12 electoral college. 53; separation of trade unions, in postwar Germany, 81-2, powers in. 52 117, see also workers' movement Utrecht, Union of (1579). 10. 22, 31 transnational institutions, 119, 127 Trenchard, John, Cato's Letters, 45-6 Vattel, Emmerich de, 44 Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 134n Vedel. Georges. 91 Index 151

Verdun, Treaty of (AD 843), II William III. King. x-xi. 35-{); constitution­ Virginia. state constitution. 50 alism of. 110, III; Declaration Virginia Declaration of Rights. 51 (October 1688), 37-8, 40; Declaratioll Vi ssentini, Bruno. MEP. 96 for Scotland. 37; Dutch traditions of. Voltaire, 42. 112 18,19.26; and religious tolerance. 35. Vranck. Franchois. 28-9 see also Glorious Revolution Wilson. James, 49 Wales. 55 Wogau. Karl von. MEP. 96 Wootton. Barbara. 87 wars. British enthusiasm for, 14-15 workers' movement, Proudhon's influence Washington, George. 46, 56 on, 67-8, 115 Westphalia, Treaties of (1648), II; and state sovereignty, 119 Ypres,6, 129n Whigs: ideology. 33--4. 110; view of Glorious Revolution. 34-5. 110-11. Zecchino. Ortensio, MEP 96 133n. 134n Zeeland. provincial autonomy, 24 Wieczorek-Zeul. Heidi, MEP, 96 Zeeland. Paul van, 89 Wilkes. Thomas. memorandum on Zhukov. General. 81 sovereignty (1587). 28 Willem I ('the Silent'). 25. 108 Willem III see William III bzdex compiled by Auriol Griffith-Jones