'49

THE MATERIALS AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE PEDAGOGY OF WOODWIND INSTRUMENT CLASSES AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

By

JTack W. Hudgins, Tr., B. M.

DalJ Txas

August, 1949 TABLE CF CONTENTS

Page . . . v LIST OFPLATES.. .

LIST OFILLUSTRATIONS.. . . . vi ...... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ......

Statement of Problem Significance of Subject Method of Investigation method of Presentation

II. THdE BCEHiM SY; TEM FLUTE ...... 3 History Care of the Flute Production of Tone and Embouchure Suggested Studies for the Flute

III. TE BOEThISYST iX CLARINET ...... 20

History Care of the Clarinet Production of Tone and Embouchure Suggested Studies for the Clarinet IV. THE CONSERVAT" RY SYST 1IOBOE ...... 37 History Care of the Oboe Production of Tone and Embouchure Suggested Studies for the Oboe

V. T E IECIEL SYSTEI11 BASSOON ...... 54 History Care of the Bassoon Production of Tone and Embouchure Suggested Studies for the Bassoon

iii TABLE OF CONLTELNTS--Continued

VI. CLAS3 ROCt PRGCEDU..V.C.ID. . .l. .. . 69 Classes of Similar Instruments Classes of Combined Instruments Suggested Studies for Combined Classes Conclusions

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . 0.0.0 ...... 74

iv LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

1. Correct Positions for Playing the Flute .. . 16 2. Correct Positions for Playing the Clarinet . 32 3. Correct Positions for Playing the Oboe - . . 50 4. Correct Positions for Playing the Bassoon . 66

V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONIS

Figure ge

1. The Double Flute . . 4 2. Panpipes of the Late Prehistoric Era - . . 5 3. English Recorder of the Twelfth Century. .. 5

4. Transverse Flute or "German" Flute . . . . 6

5. Seventeenth Century Transverse Flute . . . 7 6. Flute of 1847 by Theobald Boehm . . . . . 9

7. Modern Boehm System Flute ...... 11

8. Front View--Correct Position of the Flute on tieLips-. . . . . e.g-.-.-.-.-.-. . 15 9. Side View--Correct Position of the Flute on the Lips-...... -...... - .....-.. 15

10. Chalumeau of the Middle Ages . . . . . 20

11. Clarionet of the Eighteenth Century . . . 21

12. Modern Boehi System Clarinet ...... 26 13. Correct Position of the Clarinet on the Lips.....-...... 30

14. Correct Position for Tonguing . . . . . 31

15. Arabian Oboe "Zmar"-...... -.-.- .39 16. Fourteenth Century Shawra ...... 41 17. Sixteenth Century Shaaa ...... 41 18. Late Seventeenth Century Oboe - .- 43 19. Oboe of the Late Eighteenth Century by Milhouse...... 44

vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATION$--Continued

20. Modern Conservatory System Oboe...... 45

21. Position of Reed in the Mouth . . . . . 48

22. Correct Position for Tonguing ...... 48

23. Phagotum of the Sixteenth Century...... 55

24. Bass Ponmier of the Seventeenth Century . .. . 56

25. Bassoon of the Eighteenth Century - . . . .. 58 26. Modern Heckel System. . .Bassoon. 60 . .

27. Position of Reed .in. the. . 64 Mouth . .

28. Correct Position for Tonguing...... 65

vii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Problem

It is the purpose of this thesis to present some of the material to be employed in the pedagogy of the wood

wind instrument classes at the college level in order that this material may serve as a useful and beneficial guide

for the students and teachers of the woodwind instrument classes.

Significance of Subject

This study has been prepared in the belief that a most serious obstacle in the teaching of woodwind instru ment classes is the lack of a comprehensive text dealing with the fundamentals underlying the selection of teaching materials to be used. In a large number of instances young teachers are confronted with the necessity of developing a woodwind department in their schools without having had any systematic preparation for the task. This thesis attempts to meet this need.

The subsequent study is an outgrowth of the writer's own efforts to develop a course in the teaching of woodwind classes at the college level plus several years of experience

1 2

as a performer and student of the woodwind instruments. It is presupposed that the teacher has some acquaintance

with the various woodwind instruments, some background in the fundamental philosophy underlying present-day education, and some training in those aspects of general musicianship

which are indispensable for success in any field of musical endeavor.

Method of Investigation

The method of investigation was through research in available teaching material and practical experience.

Information on each method was formulated according to format, immediate musical value, permanent musical value, and educational value.

Method of Presentation

The results of this investigation will be presented in seven main sections: (1) the introduction, which includes the significance of the subject and the method of procedure, (2) the Boehm System Flute, (3) the Boehm System Clarinet, (4) the Conservatory System Oboe, (5) the Heckel System Bassoon, (6) class room procedure, and (7) bibliography.

Chapters II, III, IV, and V include material on the historyof the instrument, care of the instrument, produc tion of tone and embouchure, and suggested studies. CHAPTER II

THE BOEHM SYSTEM FLUTE

History

It is often assumed that the flute is the oldest of

all musical instruments. The fundamental principle of the

flute was probably discovered thousands of years ago by

some Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon man when he noticed that

the soft wind blowing across the top of a broken reed made

a pleasant sound. However, the origin of the flute is lost in the mists of antiquity, and its early history is extremely difficult to trace.

"Several ancient writers attribute the origin of the flute to Osiris, the Egyptian Water-God."l Primitive flutes have been found in Egyptian tombs that date several centuries before the Christian era. Flutes have existed in Sumer,

Islam, Mexico, and South America, where they were frequently made of clay. Early Egyptian wall paintings depict the flute more than any other instrument. It was a long, thin, straight pipe (called Saib, or Sebi) held obliquely and blown across the open end, which was held at an angle. "As a more

H. Macaulay Fitzgibbon, The Stor of the Flute, p. 4. 3 4

primitive instrument, however, it was known from prehistoric

days when it was probably used for trapping birds by imi tating their song as it has since been used for teaching 2 them to sing." It is assumed that from this practice it

received the name of Recorder, the phrase "to record" being applied to the notes of birds.

The double flute, as shown in Figure 1, was used by the

ancient Greeks and Romans in almos t every scene 'of life. It was played at joyous festivities, the Olympic games, sacri

Fig. I--The double flute fices, and even at death-beds and funerals. The date of this flute was about 283 B. C.

After man had conceived the idea of blowing across the top of a pipe to get one note, he discovered that if he put several pipes together he could get the whole scale. These

pipes all together were called Panpipes, after Pan, the

Arcadian woodland spirit and god of the hills. In later prehistoric times we find that the Panpipes show a distinct

2 Francis W. Galpin, Old English Instruments of Music, p. 139. 5

advance in their mechanism, for one or more holes for the fingers were provided, whereby the pitch of the sounds could be altered. Figure 2 shows the Panpipes with the holes for the fingers.

Fig. 2--Panpipes of the late prehistoric era

With the extinction of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans there is a gap in the history of the flute. There is nothing about the flute until about the twelfth century when it appeared as the flute-a-bee, so called from the resemblance of the mouth-piece to the beak of a bird. There were many varieties of this instrument, the English one being called Recorder (Figure 3).

Fig. 3--English Recorder of the twelfth century 6

The Recorder was an open pipe with a fipple head and mouthpiece like a whistle, having seven finger

holes and a thumb-hole at the back. There were complete

sets of recorders ranging in size and pit ch from sopranino to double bass, the latter being over eight feet in length. A complete set consisted of eight instruments,

and a full flute band numbered twenty-one players. These instruments enjoyed great popularity throughout

Europe as late as 1750, but by 1800 the recorder had begun to be replaced by the new transverse of "German" flute as shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 4--Transverse flute or "German" flute

The transverse or side-blown flute was formerly thought to be comparatively modern, but more recent dis coveries tend to prove that it was known in Europe early in the Christian era. There is no authentic evidence available among the numerous relics of the ancient Greeks,

Romans, or Egyptians to verify the existence of the transverse flute in pre-Christian Europe. The transverse 7

flute apparently made its first appearance in Europe during the tenth and eleventh centuries, and is generally said to be of Swiss origin. Early illustrations represent the transverse flute as a cylinder of equal diameter throughout, with very small finger-holes and without any joints. The two lines above the mouth-hole were evidently only for ornament (Figure 5). It is, however, to be observed that the bore

Fig. 5--Seventeenth century transverse flute

of the earliest Cross-Flutes was cylindrical; but towards the close of the seventeenth century, though the head joint remained the same, the rest of the tube was made conical and smaller at the open end than where it fitted into the head joint, an alteration which was probably the work of Hotteterre, the French flute-maker. The flute remained in this form until 1847, when Boehm set to work to improve the bore of the flute. After three hundred experiments (chiefly with metal tubes) on the proper positions of the holes, their size, the shape and 8

position of the mouth-hole, and the material of the

instrument , he produced his cylinder flute with parabolic

head-joint. Boehm reverted to the old cylindrical bore

for the lower part of the instrument and contracted the head joint at its closed end, thus completing a plan he had already tried unsuccessfully thirty years before. In this flute, Boehm adopted certain improvements in the mechanism which revolutionized flute playing.

Having studied acoustics under Schafhautl, Professor of Mathematics in the Bavarian University, Boehm was able to ascertain, by careful scientific investigation, the correct position of the holes on the flute for a near perfect tuning. By simplifying and enlarging the possi bilities of the fingering system, he succeeded in producing

a system by which the chromatic scale could be played.

Other improvements included the remarkable decrease in the weight of the instrument. Earlier flutes were large, clumsy, and difficult to manipulate because of their extreme length and awkward fingerings. Boehmts

achievement allowed dexterity in fingering as well as portability in size (now a mere seventeen ounces). Since the holes were too large for the fingers to cover them,

Boehm fitted them with keys, thus effecting another successful device in his improvement of the flute. 9

The model of 1847 (Figure 6) was awarded the gold medal at the London Exhibition of 1851, and also gained the gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1855.

6 Fig. --Flute of 1847 by Theobald Boehm

Since inventor's the day, the Boehm system has under gone many changes and experiments, but, with very few exceptions, these changes have not made an substantial improvement. The first of these improvements was made by Coche, who made one valuable addition--namely, the holes and keys for the C# and D# trills--which are now put on all good flutes. Briccialdi is sometimes credited with having invented a system of closing the F# hole by two rings or keys for the F natural and E natural holes, which has been largely adopted, but it is more probable that it was invented by Carte or For de. However, Briccialdi ' undoubtedly did invent the B flat lever now used on flutes 10

using the Boehm system. This invention dates from 1849, and is a decided improvement.

In 1851, Carte brought out a new patent flute in

which the open keys and equidistant holes of Boehm were retained, combined with much of the old eight-keyed

fingering, but a greater fingering facility was obtained, chiefly by means of an open D hole for the second and third octaves, thus placing less work on the thumb and little finger of the left hand, which are normally weak. In 1867, Carte introduced another flute known as "The 1867 Patent Carte and Boehm Combined Flute" which united the advantages of the cr iginal Boehm with those of Carte's 1851 flute. The principal changes were in the key mechan ism of the F natural, F sharp, and B natural, B flat.

This invention afforded a greater variety of fingerings for each note. Two other modifications of the Boehm which are still in use deserve notice. R. S. Rockstro, after many experi ments, in 1864 produced the model known by his name. This model featured the full adoption of the open-keyed system, the uniform diameter of the finger-holes, their increased size, and an extra F sharp key. Rockstro subsequently placed a tiny tube at right angles at the C sharp hole to improve the tone, and as an additional device, perforated many of the keys. J. Radcliff also devised a new model, 11

claiming the nearest approach to the eight-keyed fingering. Its principal features introduced a closed G sharp key

and a B flat key closed by the first finger of the right hand and operated by a separate lever on the F key.

The modern Boehm system flute (Figure 7) is now in

universal use in orchestras and bands throughout the world. Although other inventors have contributed addi

tional worthy devices to Boehm's invention, his flute is the groundwork of all modern flutes and his musical inventiveness remains unequaled.

Fig. 7--Modern Boehm system flute

Care of the Flute Even though the flute is kept from violent injuries, it will occasionally need repair. In practical use the keys will move thousands of times and, all metal being subject to wear, the appearance of defects from this cause is unavoidable. It is advisable to have an expert repairman work on a flute when it needs repair. 12

The first admonition for the student is that of removing the flute from the case and assembling the parts. The embouchure hole in the head joint should be in line with the tops of the keys, and the foot joint should be placed so that the keys may be easily reached by the little finger of the right hand. After the student has learned to assemble the parts he must learn how to separate the parts and return them to the case. Caution should be taken so that the student does not bend the keys for they are made of soft metal. Care should also be taken so that the G# key does not keep the case from going shut. If the case had to be shut by force, the instrument is not in the case correctly. In every flute case there is a metal rod approximately twelve inches long that is used primarily for the cleaning of the flute. A handkerchief, or some other cloth, attached to this rod makes an excellent swab for this purpos e. On this rod is a line, approximately three quarters of an inch from one end. This line is for the purpose of measuring the distance of the space between the cork in the head-joint and the middle of the embouchure hole. When the rod is against the cork and the line is in the middle of the embouchure hole, the cork is in the right place for the flute to be in tune. 13

When the cork is removed from the head-joint it should not be forced out the top of the head-joint but should be pushed with the rod out the bottom of the head joint. The bead-joint is conical, and if the cork is a tight-fitting. cork, it cannot be forced out of the top. The pads should be kept dry at all times to prevent them from rotting and cracking. It is a good practice to keep the fingerprints wiped from the flute at all times so that the acid from one's fingers does not deteriorate the metal. Unless a flute is in excellent physical condition it will be impossible for the student to produce satis factory playing results.

Production of Tone and Embouchure The tone of a flute is produced by a stream of air from the mouth striking the outer edge of the embouchure hole. The lips have (a) to form the air supply into a small stream which will not spread out unnecessarily before striking the embouchure hole, and (b) to alter the rapidity of this air stream at will. The student should close his lips gently and extend them towards the corners as he does when smiling--a rather sardonic smile perhaps--and as he does when expelling a small piece of paper from his lips. Taking the head-joint 14

of the flute, he should place the edge of the embouchure

hole moderately firm against his lower lip. On blowing towards the opposite edge, a small opening must be made

by the air stream in the middle portion of the lips which will cause the air column on the inside of the head-joint

to sound. The student should release the air stream by practicing gently a syllable beginning with the letter 't' such as 'too', 'ter', or 'te'.

After the student has produced a tone on the head joint, he should attempt blowing the flute as a whole.

The best note on which to start is b', third line on the treble staff.

The lips should be brought together by making the

distance between the upper and lower teeth as small as possible. No muscular action such as would produce any

compression or pressing together of the lips is required for this. Then the lips should be stretched across the

teeth as if expelling a small piece of paper from the

lips. There should be no turning inwards of the lips. While maintaining this formation of the lips the student should depress them at the corners, thus giving a firm ness on each side of the embouchure and centralizing the muscles of the mouth toward the embouchure hole. Keeping the head up, the student should blow across the center of the embouchure hole so the air stream forces the lips 15

open in the middle where they are not pressed together

(Figure 8). In order that the air stream may strike the

Fig. 8--Front view--correct position of the flute on the lips

outer edge of the embouchure hole at the angle best suited to set the air in the flute into vibration, the embouchure hole should be turned in slightly so that this outer edge is raised a little above the level of the inner edge. The proper amount of "in-turn" must be found by experiment (Figure 9).

Fig. 9--Side view--correct position of flute on the lips. 16

Plate 1--Correct positions for playing the flute. 17

The flute must be supported in such a way that it is quite steady on the lip and that there is little or no

interference with the freedom and lightness in action of

any of the fingers or of the thumb of the left hand. The student should stand or sit, as shown in Plate 1, the

elbows being raised and held well away, but not stiffly, from the sides. The shoulders should be kept moderately

firm, the muscular effort being sufficient to give a feeling of control over the weight of the arms and of the instrument.

The instrument is held against the lower lip as nearly horizontal as is convenient and the head-joint should be pressed moderately firm against the lip. Any excessive

pressure of the flute on the lower lip must be avoided as this may alter the lip formation and, therefore, the tone

quality. The flute is held firmly against the lip with the middle part of the third joint of the first finger of

the left hand, the exact point of pressure being that

which enables the thumb to act most c onf ort ably and easily on keys the assigned to it. The top part (near the tip) of the thumb of the right hand should support the flute and should help to oppose the moderate pressure of the first finger of the left hand by pressing a little against the underside of the instrument. The best position of the thumb is opposite a point halfway between the first and second fingers of the right hand. The thumb must not 18

interfere with the freedom of action of the fingers of the right hand.

All of the fingers should be curved over the keys

and, with the exception of the first finger of the left hand, should act quite freely from the knuckles nearest

the hand. The fingertips, when at rest, should always remain quite close to and ready to act on the keys assigned to them. Their action must be quite gentle so as not to affect the steadiness of the flute on the lip in any manner.

Suggested Studies for the Flute 1. Altes, Henry, Cple t Method for Flute, Published by Leduc, Paris, Part One, 3.35, Part Two, 13.65. Used best for private teaching. Has been used by the Paris Conservatory.

2. Barrere, Georges, Flutist's Formulae, Published by G. Shirmer, New York, 75#. Good for technique. Can be used for class or indi vidual work.

3. Brooke, Arthur, Modern Method for the Boem Flute, Published byCundy Bettoney, Boston, 73~55. A popular method for class or private work. 4. Camus, Method de Flute Boeh, Published by Leduc, Paris. Less popular for private teaching. Prohibitive because of procurement and price. 5. Fair, Rex, Flute Method, Published by M. M. Cole, Chicago, 75#. A reasonably priced, well planned method. Rex Fair heads the flute column of the School Musician. 19

6. North, Charles K., Charts of Finer , Published by Cundy Bettoney. A reputable list of fingerings, auxiliaries, and trills.

7. Petersen, P. N., Elementary Method for Flute, Published by Rubank, New York, $1.00. A very popular and inexpensive method.. Good for either class or private instruction.

8. Popp-Soussman Popp-Soussman Coalete Method for Flute, Published by Carl Fischer, New York,$2.50. An excellent flute method for the thorough development of the flute player.

9. Taffenel-Gaubert, Method for Flute, Published by Leduc, Paris, $8.00. Probably the finest private method available. Inadvisable for school either class or private, because of procurement and price. 10. Van Vactor, David, Music Educators Basic Method for Flute, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, Gl.00 One of the most popular methods because of price. May be used for class or private instruction. 11. Wagner, Ernest, Foundations to Flute Playing, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, x2.50. A very popular method, although a little more expen sive than others. Contains written descriptions of technical problems. CHAPTER III

THE BOEIHI SYSTEM CLARINET

History

The modern Boehm clarinet has a most interesting and ancient lineage. Its ancestor is mentioned in the Bible

as a "Shawm," and in Greek literature as an "Aulos." The

Italians claim that the name "clarinett" is Italian in origin, derived from "clarino," meaning trumpet, since

its brilliance in the upper register could be compared to the tone of the trumpet.

The immediate predecessor of the clarinet was a medieval, single-reed woodwind instrument known as the chalumeau (Figure 10). This instrument was similar in

Fig. 10--Chalumeau of the Middle Ages.

20 21

appearance and construction to the shalmey, the direct

medieval ancestor of the oboe. The one vital point of

difference between these instruments was the reed. The

shalmey used a double-reed while the chalumeau used a single-reed placed on the top of the mouthpiece.

Another type of chalumeau was called the "clarionet"

(Figure 11), deriving its name from the previously men tioned clarion. Because of the similarity in tone quality

and the difficulty of this high-pitched trumpet, the clarionet soon superseded the use of the clarion.

Fig. li--Clarionet of the eighteenth century.

The transition from the chalumeau to the clarinet in the latter part of the seventeenth century is credited to Johann Denner, the flute maker of~Nuremburg. About 1700, Denner made a constructional alteration which proved 22

very unsatisfactory. He produced the first clarinet with seven holes and only two keys. In order to produce the semitones, he used a system of releasing the lips and moving the mouthpiece. This awkward method could not be used successfully, and much time and effort had yet to be spent by other inventors to supply those improvements which were necessary to bring the instrument to any sem blance of its present form. Near the end of the eighteenth century, Barthold Fritz added the B natural key, which permitted the low E and third line B natural to be made. Joseph Beer, founder of the first clarinet school in Germany, invented the C sharp key, thus producing the low F sharp and C sharp in the third space. He also invented the key now used for the low G sharp and D sharp on the fourth line. Xavier Lefevre, professor of clarinet at the Paris Conservatoire, added the low C sharp key, which made possible the forma tion of the G sharp the first space above the stave. In 1809, the firm of Griessling and Schlott succeeded in producing a clarinet with ten keys, which was played by Heinrich Baerman. Iwan Muller and Heinrich Baerman deserve great credit for the improvements they made in the mechan ism of the clarinet. Baerman has been given credit for introducing the clarinet to the public as an important solo instrument through his unusual abilities as a performer. 23

The French critics were impressed by his beautiful tone

and his facility in technique, and hailed him second to none.

Iwan Muller made an experiment with the B flat clari net with the object of making it serve the purpose of the A and C clarinets to evade the troublesome changing in the orchestra from one clarinet to the other. However, even if Muller had succeeded, the better composers would not have used it as a substitute for the A and C instru ments because of the difference in tone quality. The development of Muller's ideas were hindered, not only by consideration of tone quality, but for mechanical reasons also, as it was impossible to produce a mechanism for the clarinet which would permit it to play with equal facility in all keys. Carl Baerman and Benedict Pentenrider spent years of work and speculation on a considerable num ber of experimental tests and finally produced an instru ment on which, by depressing a lever, the major scale of C was changed into that of C sharp, and with the same facility into other difficult keys. However, since the mechanism was so complicated to operate, this invention did not serve any useful purpose.

After Benedict Pentenrider's death, Carl Baerman persuaded Georg Ottensteiner of Paris to take up permanent residence in Munich and continue these experiments. On 24

the basis of the valuable experience gained with Penten

rider, they finally were successful in producing a thirteen

keyed clarinet. Although this was a decided improvement, their task was not wholly accomplished, because of the difficulty of getting the instrument in perfect tune.

Since the clarinet is tuned in twelfths and other wind

instruments are tuned in octaves, a perfect system of

tuning presented great difficulties. Baerman, through

his determination to overcome the remaining weak points

of the clarinet, again set to work and finally introduced an entirely new arrangement of the holes and simplified

the mechanism in order to facilitate its manipulation.

He also adjusted certain keys by which difficult passages can be fingered in more than one way, so that if one hand had difficulty in playing a passage, the other hand could be used to simplify the fingering pattern. This improve ment was a very important step in the development of the clarinet.

In 1843, Klose, professor of clarinet at the Paris

Conservatoire, decided to add rings to the clarinet.

With the help of Auguste Buffet, he set to work and produced rings on the lower joint of the instrument for the first time. This new invention was sufficient to satisfy almost every demand for the clarinet during that period. 25

Although the name of Boehm as associated with the Boehm clarinet has suggested that he applied his system

to this instrument, the real credit is due to Buffet, who in 1843, after a period of research, successfully

applied the system Boehrm invented for the flute to the clarinet. This included the discoveries of an F natural

with the first finger right hand and F sharp second finger

right hand, together with a B flat obtained by the first

finger of each hand. Later, several indispensable keys were added to the Boehm clarinet, developing its presenta tion and playing facility in a most advantageous manner.

In 1889, Evette and Schaeffer of Paris, music pub lishers and successors to the well-known instrument makers, Buffet-Crampon, were awarded the only Grand Prix given

for wind instruments at the Universal Exhibition in Paris. The success of the Boehm clarinet at this exhibition was

an indisputable indication of the superiority of its

technical facility over the old Albert system.

The necessity of using the Boehm system was now fully recognised by all the great masters, who introduced the instrument into the schools and academies of France and Belgium. 1

Figure 12 shows the modern Boehm system clarinet as it is today.

'Rudolph Dunbar, Treatise on the Clarinet, p. 10. 26

Fig. 12--Modern Boehm system clarinet.

Care of the Clarinet It is of primary importance that, before beginning

the study of the clarinet, the student should know the

names of the various parts of the instrument and the correct method of assembling them.

The clarinet consists of five separate joints or

divisions: the mouthpiece; the barrel-joint; the upper joint, which is operated by the left hand; the lower joint, which is operated by the right hand; and the bell.

Besides these parts, there are three additional fixtures 27

to the instrument: the reed, which is used for producing

the sound; the ligature, which binds the reed to the

mouth-piece; and the cap, which is used for protecting the

reed of the instrument when it is not in use.

Before assembling the parts, the corks on the joints

should be moderately greased with cork grease. The use of

this grease will allow the smooth adjustment of the joints

into their respective places without disturbing the cork and at the same time preserve it.

The barrel is attached to the upper joint of the instru

ment by gently forcing it with a twisting motion on the upper-joint until it reaches the margin of resistance. The next part to be assembled is the lower-joint, which is attached to the upper-joint. When assembling these two joints, great care must be taken so as not to bend the keys. Special care must be taken when adjusting the two levers projecting at the sides of the upper and lower joints of the clarinet. The adjustment of the bell is next, which is indeed a simple process. It should be connected gently until it reaches the margin of its resistance. The next and last part to be adjusted is the mouthpiece, which is connected by the same twisting method used for the other joints. The reed should now be affixed to the mouthpiece and its placing is very important. For the placing of the 28

reed, the student must exercise caution to see that the reed does not extend beyond the tip of the mouthpiece,

neither must it be below it. The top of the mouthpiece and the tip of the reed must coincide exactly; the liga

ture is then clipped over the mouthpiece and fixed by the two small screws, in order to hold the reed moderately firm in its place. The screws must not be tightened to the greatest extent, but just enough to keep the reed

from moving. In view of the fact that the reed is thin and fragile at the tip, it must be protected by the mouth piece cap when exposed to danger.

The bore of a new clarinet, before it is played, should be oiled with a small coat of bore oil that is made especially for this purpose. A thin coat of oil

in the bore will keep the moisture of the players breath from seeping into the grains of the wood and therefore prevent the cracking or rotting of the clarinet. It is a good practice to oil the bore of the clarinet occa sionally for the same reason. The clarinet can be oiled by means of a "pull-through" (a piece of oily cloth attached to a string with a weight at the end). A few drops of oil on the cloth are all that are necessary.

After the student has finished playing, he must, with care, remove the water from the instrument by means of a dry "pull-through." A piece of linen makes an 29

excellent swab for the cleaning of the instrument because of its oily finish and its absorptive quality.

Care must be taken so that water does not saturate the pads and, therefore, rot them. If the clarinet is

swabbed ever so often it will help to prevent the rotting and cracking of the pads.

The six holes in the upper and lower joints of the clarinet are always collecting small particles of dirt.

To prevent the clarinet from playing out of tune this

dirt should be removed by means of rotating a small damp cloth in the hole with the aid of a matchstick.

When the student has finished playing, he should not throw the instrument carelessly into the case. Each part of the clarinet should be laid gently into its respective place in the case.

Ever so often the screws and springs on the clarinet should be oiled to protect them from rust. By dipping a pin into some key oil and then applying it once to the key, the purpose is accomplished. The student should not use the oil too freely because it will run all over the pads and they will become saturated.

It is undesirable for the clarinet to undergo any extreme change in temperature because any such change will cause the instrument to crack.

The clarinet must always be kept in good playing condition so that each note will sound with ease and 30

certainty. In order that the instrument may be kept in good playing condition it should be taken periodically

to a workshop and overhauled. Unless a clarinet is in

good condition at all times, it will be impossible for the student to produce any satisfactory playing results.

Production of Tone and Embouchure

The student should place the mouthpiece in his

mouth as shown in Figure 13. The red portion of the

Fig. 13--Correct position of the clarinet on the lips. lower lip should be folded over the lower teeth giving the student a cushion for the reed. The upper teeth should rest on the top of the mouthpiece approximately from one half to three quarters of an inch from the tip. The lips should be drawn back moderately firm against the teeth as shown in Figure 13 and no pocket of air should appear under either lip (Figure 14). The 31

corners of the mouth should be depressed so as to cen tralize the muscles toward the mouthpiece.

Fig. 14--Correct position for tonguing

The approximate length of the mouthpiece that should be placed in the mouth will depend upon the reed and the mouthpiece that are used. The student must experiment

until he finds the exact point of pressure on the reed which will produce the clearest and purest tones. The reed should vibrate freely and accurately, and the pressure should be controlled by the teeth and lips. For correct tonguing, the tongue should be placed as shown in Figure 14. To attack the tone, the student should withdraw the tongue, allowing the air to enter the mouth piece without disturbing the embouchure. Accuracy in tonguing is acquired by careful practice.

After the student has produced a sound on the mouth piece, he should attempt blowing the clarinet as a whole. The best note on which to start is g', second line on the treble staff. 32

I/I

Plate 2--Correct positions for playing the clarinet 33

The position of the body in clarinet playing is very important, for it gives dexterity to the fingers and breathing becomes easier. The student should sit or stand straight so that the diaphragm is not cramped. Breathing from the diaphragm is essential in order that the flow of air is continuous. Plate 2 illustrates the correct playing position of the clarinet. Facility in clarinet playing depends not only on the fingers, but upon the freedom of the arms and wrists. The arms should fall naturally along the body; the wrists must be held firmly but without rigidity upon the clarinet, the fingers slightly curved must follow the line of the instrument, covering the six holes. The thumb of the right hand is placed under the hook at the back of the clarinet, thus supporting the instrument and keeping it moderately firm in its place. It should be kept in mind that a comfortable position of the body must be established, with the chest well expanded.

The right thumb must not interfere with the freedom of action of any of the fingers. All of the fingers should be slightly curved over the keys and should act quite freely from the knuckles of the hands. The finger tips, when at rest, should always remain quite close to and ready to act upon the keys assigned to them. Their action must be quite gentle so as not to affect the 34

steadiness of the clarinet in the mouth as this may alter the lip formation and, therefore, the tone quality.

Suggested Studies for the Clarinet

1. Baermann, Carl, Method for Clarinet, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, $1.50. Books I, II, III, IV, V, and VI. Book I is recommended only for the beginner. The other books are recommended only as supplementary material.

2. De Caprio, Clarinet Method, Published by Remick Music Corporation, New York, 75 . A good method for the beginner. Contains interesting material.

3. Gower and Voxmtan, Clarinet Method, Published by Jenkins Music Co., Kansas City, 75# Contains illustrations of the positions. used May be for class or individual instruction. Modern in all respects. Progresses logically.

4. Hinsley, Mark, Method for Clarinet, Published by Sam Fox, New York, 75#. Does not contain any illustrations at all. Can be used for individual, class, or band work. 5. Hovey, N. W., and Skornicka, J. E., Elementary Method for the Clarinet, Published by Rubank, Chicago, 75 The first section of this method is good. It may be used for individual, class, or band work. 6. Klose, H., Celebrated Method for the Clarinet, Revised by Simeon Bellison, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, Part One, $1.75, Part Two, 42 .00, Complete, 43.50. An excellent method. Contains illustrations, finger ing chart, scales, arpeggios, and melodies. Can be used for either class or individual work. 35

7. Klose and Prescott, Method for Clarinet , Published by Carl Fischer , New York, 1.00. Contains valuable material for the development of good clarinet players. Also contains illustrations of the positions. Can be used for either class or indivi dual instruction.

8. Langenus, Gustave, Modern Method for the Clarinet, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, :1.50. An excellent method. Contains illustrations that are quite adequate. May be used for class or individual work.

9. Langenus, Gustave, Fingered Scales, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 75#. Contains the major, minor, and chromatic scales through out the whole register of the clarinet. May be used for either class or individual teaching. 10. Lazarus, New and Modern Method for the Clarinet, Revised by Paul de Ville, Published.~by~Carl Fischer, New York, Part One, 41.75, Part Two, $1.75, Part Three x2.00, Complete, 64.5O. An excellent method for the development of the clarinet player. There is no better method published. Contains very adequate illustrations, scales, and fingering charts.

11. Liegl, Leopold, Music Educators Basic Method for the Clarinet, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 750. A good method for either class or individual instruc tion.

12. Moore, E. C., and Sieg, A. 0., Preparatory Instructor, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 750. A good method for supplementary use. May be used with children in the extreme lower grades. Can be used for class or individual instruction.

13. Pares, C., Daily Exercises and Scales for the Clarinet, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 50$. 36

A good presentation of the major, minor, and chro matic scales and their fingerings. Can be used for either class or individual work. 14. Reinecke, Carl 2., Foundations to Clarinet Playin , Published by Carl Fischer, New York, $1.50. An excellent method for the beginning student on the clarinet. Contains illustrations and studies. 15. Taylor, Maurice, Easy Steps to the Band, Published by the Mills Music Co., New York, 75#. A good method for the beginner. May be used for in dividual, class, or band instruction. 16. Whipple, Leyland, An Elementary Method for the Boehm Clarinet, Published by Cundy-Bettoney, Boston, 50. Not too good but useful in class instruction. CHAPTER IV

THE CONSERVATORY SYSTEM OBOE

History

In the second milleniui B. C., around 1500, a new instrument came into existence in Mesopotamia called the

Imbubu. This instrument had a double reed to be set into vibration by the player's breath. The double reed was made with two blades of cane, or tough grass, laid one on top of the other. The lower ends bound together

formed a tube that was inserted into the upper end of the

Imbubu. The upper ends of the reed were not bound to gether and, when looked at from the top, formed a narrow

oval opening. The instrument was cut from a slender cane about two feet long and less than a half an inch in dia meter. Usually there were four fingerholes in each cane. These instruments were used in pairs, two of them being

held loosely together in the mouth and blown simultaneously. The left one sounded a lower drone accompanying the melody produced by the right one. "This drone playing can be inferred from three facts: the peculiar arrangement of the fingers on Egyptian art works; the present practice in other countries, India for example; and, the excavation 37 of a pipe with all but one of the four fingerholes stopped with wax." 1

In the year 1000 B. C. the Hebrews used the same

sort of an instrument that was played at their joyous festivities as well as at their mourning ceremonies.

Around the sixth century B. C. only one of these instru ments was used--that is, only one cane of the Imbubu.

It is difficult to decide for which of several reasons

the two canes played together were less agreeable. Per

haps they were played in unison, thus causing unpleasant

pulsations when not tuned or blown with perfect exact ness; or, they might have played separate parts, possibly

and even probably in the manner of a drone, as was cus tomary in more ancient civilizations.

Around the second century A. D. the cylindrical cane form of the Oboe, which resembles the Oboes of Mesopo

tamia and Egypt, must have been replaced by a conical

shaped model. Jewish coins have been found showing pairs of wind instruments that are probably Oboes.

The stout shape, the reedlike top, and the disk that supports the lips, and the bell are all features of the

Modern Arabian Oboe "Zmar" (Fig. 15) and its relatives.

With the Mohammedan conquest, this conical Oboe spread

1 Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments, p. 98. 39

M

Fig. 15--Arabian oboe "Zmlar"

over the world of Islam, from Turkey to Madagascar, from

Morocco to the Maylayan Archipelago, and even beyond to Tibet and the Far East. It is generally assumed that this conical shaped instrument was introduced into Europe during the time of the Crusades which brought the Euro pean and Eastern peoples closer together. The reed of this conical Oboe was not placed between the lips of the player but thrust entirely into the mouth, the lips pressing against a metal disk that was attached to the reed tube. The tone was very raucous and uncertain; though the instrument, used in this way, is still found in Turkey as the Surra, or in Greece as the Surras.

In medieval Europe this instrument was known as the

Shawm, a name coming from the Latin word "calamus" which 40

means "reed." It was also known as the Schalmrei,

Chalemie, Chirimia, or Cialamelia--all coming from the

same word. The conical tube of the Shawm was con

siderably lengthened however. According to the practice

of the time, the Schawms were grouped in a complete

family from the high treble instrument, about seventeen

inches in length, to the great bass Ponmer, over ten

feet in length.

Manuscripts by Prudentius dating back to the eleventh century show the double pipes as an accom

paniment to the dance; however, little is known about

the evolution of the Oboe during the Dark Ages (476 A. D.- 1200 A. D.).

In England it is in the Norman carving (c. 1200 A. D. ) that we first observe reed-pipes of the typical Shawm

class with an expanding bell and a conical tube. In this form the single pipe appears grotesquely but clearly

portrayed in the mouth of a goat on one of the capitals

in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral.

The Shawras of the fourteenth century had tuning holes bored in the bell that could be stopped with wax so that the lowest note could be changed. This is charac teristic of earlier Shawms and also of the Oriental in struments of the present day. (Figure 16) 41

"

Fig. 16--Fourteenth century Shawm

The Shawvrs of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,

called Bombardes in French and called Pornern in German, had a bore that was narrow and slightly conical and, like all reed pipes of that time, a double reed. The sixteenth century Shawm, shown in Figure 17, had six fingerholes, formed in groups of three; a seventh fingerhole was provided with an open key which lay inside a protective cylinder.

Fig. 17--Sixteenth century Shawm 42

These Shawras were built in seven different sizes:

Name Length Lowest note Small Discant Shawm (c.) 21 inches bt

Discant (c.) 24 inches dt

Small Alto (c.) 30 inches g Big Alto (c.) 36 inches c

Tenor (c.) 52 inches G

Bass (c.) 75 inches C

Double Bass (c.)l00Oinches F1

The chromatic scale was obtained by a system of cross fingering on all of these instruments.

In the sixteenth century the Discant Schalmei became known in France as the "Hautbois," (i. e. high-wood),

and in England as the "Howeboie."t This English word, which

is variously spelled as above, and also as Hoboy, Hoeboy

(as in Shakespeare), Howboy, Hautboy, and now as Oboe, is probably derived from the pitch, and appears to have

been applied in France to the Discant Schalmei, perhaps

with an improved reed or bore, which enabled the player

to ascend three or four notes higher than the ordinary instrument.

The Oboe of the seventeenth century was treated by the writers on musical instruments as identical with the

Shawm, but in Scottish and English literature it is dis tinguished from the Shawm. 43

The earliest form of the modern oboe, such as found

in specimens made between 1660 and 1760, had a slim coni cal bore, the diameter of the lower end being twice the

diameter of the upper (Figure 18). The head was always cup-shaped, probably a last vestige of the Oriental lip

supporting disk. As a distinguishing characteristic, this

Fig. 18--Late seventeenth century oboe

form of oboe had two pairs of smaller holes pierced side by side instead of two middle fingerholes, which allowed

the player to produce f t , f# , g', and g? by stopping

either one or both holes of a pair. Moreover, the oboist had three keys at his disposal--one open to add c', and

two more, one on the.right and one on the left side, to produce d ', either by the right or by the left hand.

By the first of the eighteenth century the oboe had changed considerably. The heavy build of the old shawm, with its trumpet-like bell, had given way to the graceful lines and rounded bell now associated with the instrument. 44

"To the perfection of the oboe many French makers have

attributed, such as Bizey (early eighteenth century),

Delusse (late eighteenth century), Brod and Buffet (both

of the nineteenth century).." 2 In England, quite a bit of work was done on the oboe by Uilhouse in the eighteenth

century (Figure 19). This oboe was often fitted with an

additional upper and lower joint, by the use of which the

pitch could be lowered a quarter of a tone.

r

Fig. 19--Oboe of the late eighteenth century by Milhouse.

"The oboe of today is largely the result of the inven tive genius of two men; Appolon Barre (b. 1804; d. 1879),

2 Francis W. Galpin, A Textbook of European Musical Instruments, p. 197. 45 and Charles Triebert (b. 1810; d. 1867), who contributed many improvements to the instrument.*,3After failing in their attempt to adapt the Boehm system of fingering to the oboe, they invented the Conservatory Sys ter: of fin

ering, so called because both Bien, at the time, were connected with the Paris Conservatory. This system is now universally used (Figure 20).

Fig. 20--Modern Conservatory Systen oboe

Care of the Oboe

The first admonition for the student should be that of removing the oboe from the case and assembling the parts. Extreme caution should be taken in this procedure because

3V. Bakaleinikoff and M. Rosen, The Instruments of the Band and Orchestra, p. 15. 46

of the very delicate mechanism of the keys. The parts

should be put together with a gentle twisting motion so

that the levers on the sides of the joints will not be

bent. A small portion of cork grease can be used on the corks if assembling the parts is difficult.

After the student has assembled the parts, he should

learn to take the oboe apart and return it to the case.

The oboe should be taken apart by a gentle twisting motion

so that the levers will not be bent. If the case has to be forced shut, the oboe is not in the case correctly.

It is a very good practice to oil the bore of a new

oboe before it is blown. This is done so that moisture

from the player's breath will not rot or crack the oboe

by seeping into the grains of the wood. Because of the

smallness of the bore in the upper joint of the oboe, oboists have employed the simple but effective device of using an oiled turkey feather for oiling this joint.

A few drops of bore oil, especially for this purpose, on a feather are sufficient. The importance of oiling the oboe should be stressed and the procedure should become a regular practice.

A dry turkey feather should be used to remove the moisture from the oboe after it is played. The pads should be kept dry at all times to prevent them from rotting or cracking. 47

Every two or three months the screws and springs

should be oiled. They, however, must not be lubricated

too liberally, because the oil will run all over the

pads and they will become saturated. In order to be accu

rate with the amount of oil, the student should take a straight pin, dip it in the oil, and apply it once to

either the spring or screw. That is enough for lubricating

and protecting them from rust. Periodically, the student

must remove, by the aid of a small paint brush, the dust

which gathers under the springs and keys.

It is of utmost importance to avoid exposing the oboe

to any extreme changes in temperature. Any such changes

are likely to cause the oboe to crack from the top to the

bottom.

Unless an oboe is kept in excellent condition, it will

be impossible for the student to produce any satisfactory

playing results.

Production of Tone and Embouchure

The student should place the reed alone in his mouth

as shown in Figure 21. The red portion of the lower lip

should be folded over the lower teeth and the red portion of the upper lip should be folded over the upper teeth, Fig. 21--Position of reed in the mouth

giving the student a double cushion for the reed. The lips

are drawn back moderately firm against the teeth as shown in Figure 21 and no pocket of air should appear under either lip (Figure 22).

Fig. 22--Correct position for tonguing

The corners of the mouth should be depressed so as to centralize the muscles toward the reed.

The approximate length of the reed that should be placed in the iouth will depend on the reed used. The 49

student must experiment until he finds the exact point of

pressure on the reed which will produce the clearest and purest tones. The reed should vibrate freely and accu

rately, and the pressure should be controlled by the teeth and the lips.

For correct tonguing, the tongue should be placed

as shown in Figure 22. To attack the tone, the student

should withdraw the tongue, allowing the air to enter

the reed without disturbing the embouchure. Accuracy in lipping and tonguing is acquired by careful practice.

After the student has produced a tone or a 'quacking'

noise on the reed he should attempt blowing the oboe as

a whole. The best note on which to start is b', third line on the treble staff.

The oboe should be held at an angle of about forty five degrees from the floor. If the player is sitting

and facing forward, the oboe should be pointing to a point located between the knees.

The oboe must be supported in such a manner that it is quite steady on the lip and titat there is little or no interference with the freedom and lightness in action of any of the fingers or of the thumb of the left hand.

The student should stand or sit as shown in Plate 3, the elbows being held moderately close, but not stiffly, to the body. The shoulders should be kept moderately firm, 50

cK

NQ t

rlate 3--Correct positions for playing the oboe 51

the muscular effort being sufficient to give a feeling

of control over the weight of the arms and of the instru

ment.

The oboe is held primarily by means of the pressure

of the lips and the right thumb. The top part (near the

tip) of the thumb of the right hand should support the oboe and should help to oppose the moderate pressure of

the fingers of the right hand when in use. The right

thumb should rest on the thumb rest at the point on the

thumb where the thumb nail begins.

The left thumb should remain free to press the

octave key when needed. Neither of the thumbs must inter

fere with the freedom of action of the fingers of either hand.

All of the fingers should be curved over the keys and should act quite freely from the knuckles of the hands. The fingertips, when at rest, should always remain quite close to and ready to act upon the keys assigned to them. Their action must be quite gentle so as not to affect the steadiness of the oboe in the mouth. Any unsteadiness must be avoided as it may alter the lip formation and, therefore, the tone quality.

Suggested Studies for the Oboe 1. Andraud, A. J., First Book of Studies for the Oboe, Published by Andraud, Cincinnati, _1.75. 52

A very good method for the beginner. Contains scales, melodies, arpeggios and other studies. Good for either class or individual work. 2. Barret, A. M. R., A Complete Method for the Oboe, Published by 1. R. Lafleur and Son, London, $7.50. An excellent method. There is no better method for the thorough development of the oboe player. 3. Bas, Louis, Methode Nouvelle de Hautbois, Published by Enoch and Co., Paris,T5.00. Good presentation of the material. The work is pro hibitive, however, because of procurement and price. 4. Carey, Milburn, The Music Educators Basic Method for Oboe, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 75#. A good method for the beginner. Well graded material. Contains instructions on the care of the instrument. 5. Fischer, Carl, Carl Fischer Oboe Method, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 42.50. An average method for the beginner. Contains good scale studies.

6. Gekeler, Kenneth, Gekeler Method for Oboe, Published by Boosey Hawkes and Belwin, New York, Part One, $1.00, Part Two, $1.00. A very popular method for the beginner. May be used in class or individual work. 7. Gillet, Method for the Beginning of the Oboe, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 44.00. An excellent method. Good presentation of the material. A little more expensive than the average method. Good for either class or individual instruction.

8. Hetzel, Jack, Visual Class Method for Oboe, Published by Oliver Dison and Co., Philadelphia, $1.50. A very good class method. Contains pictures and illustrations of all the positions.

9. Hovey, M. W., Elementary Method for the Oboe, Published by Rubank, Chicago, 75#. 53

A very popular method for the beginner. Has been used in nearly all the grade and high schools in this country. 10. Labate, Bruno, and Niemann, Theodore, Oboe Method, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, q2 .50. ritten by Theodore Niemann and revised by Bruno Labate. Certainly the most popular method for the beginning oboist. An excellent method.. Contains illustrations, scales, studies, and exercises, in very logical order. 11. Pares, G., Technical Exercises and Complete Course of Scale studies for Oboe, PuTished by Carl Fischer, New York, 50. Contains excellent scale studies. Can be used as a supplement to any method.

12. Sellner, G. , Method for Oboe, Published by E. Ricordi, New York, Part One, 3.00, Part Two, ;3.00. Modern oboe method. Progresses logically. 13. Singer, Metado per Oboe, Published by Baxter-Northup, Los Angeles, Part One, 2.50. A good method although not very frequently used. May be used as supplementary material. CHAPTER V

TE ECKEL SYSTEM BASOON

History The bassoon is the bass of the oboe family, but this relationship exists only in name. Actually, it differs radically from the oboe in construction, and its tone quality is peculiar to itself. The word "bassoon" has not been in use in English for more than two centuries. Until 1706, when the word occurred in Phillip's New World o~f Words, the instrument was known as the Curtall (or Double Curtall), and the earliest recorded use of this word for the instrument in English appears to be in 1574 when it occurs in the House hold Accounts of Sir Thomas Kytson in Suffolk. In 1575, the Double Curtall is mentioned as a component of the Waits Band of Exeter, and in 1597, the Chamberlain of the Corporation of London was ordered to provide a curtall for the musicians at the charge of the city. The origin of the bassoon is obscure, and probably will remain a mystery. It is probable that the device of using two parallel channels connected in U-shape to form a more compact sound column can be attributed to the Italian Canon, Afranio of Ferrara, who before 1521 was experimenting

54 55 with an instrument termed "Phagotum" employing two such

U-tubes. The inventor, by employing the orthodox skin bag pressed under the left arm and small bellows beneath the right elbow, constructed a melodic instrument by means of parallel chanters, each pierced with a double cylindrical tube and amply provided with keys (Figure 23).

Its key mechanism was far in advance of any similar work of its period and music in one or two parts could be played at will. For many years, Afranio had difficulty

Fig. 23--Phagotum of the sixteenth century in controlling the reeds placed with the caps of his chanters; but, by using two single-beating reeds, one of silver and the other of brass, for the respective tubes, he perfected it sufficiently to enable him to perform on it at a banquet in 1532. In 1539, the Phago tum was depicted by Afranio's nephew, Ambrosio, in his 56

work on the Chaldean language, and in some manuscript

instructions of 1565, each tube was mentioned as a

"fagotto."

In a paper on the bassoon which was presented to

the Musical Association in London in 1939, Lyndesay G. Langwill states that

It is quite incorrect, however, to attribute the invention of the bassoon to Afranio, as almost every work of reference has done until in recent years. The Phagotum has bellows, single reeds of metal and twin U-tubes with cylindrical bore. The bassoon, with its double reed of cane, consists of one continuous U-shaped tube with conical bore. 1 It is now generally assumed that the bassoon is a direct descendant of the bass pominer (Figure 24), a member of

Fig. 24--Bass Ponimmer of the seventeenth century

1 Lyndesay G. Langwill, "The Bassoon: Its Origin and Evolution," Proceedings of the Musical Association, Vol. LXVI, p. 2.~~~~ 57

the Shawm family, and that the Phagotum is an instru

ment of the bagpipe class. However, there is little

doubt that the Phagotun had a great influence in the

evolution of the bassoon, and although the bassoon owes

its double reed and conical bore to its ancestors of

the Shawm family, the convenience and portability of the

U-shaped tube is a device borrowed from the Phagotum.

In 1555, another mention of the contrabass instru ments called "fagotas" occurred in a Spanish catalogue of instruments belonging to the Flemish band of Marie de Hongrie, but there is no information as to the nature of these "fagotes." Almost half a century later,

Zacconi's Prattica de Musica mentions one type of bassoon, the "Fagotto Chorista." The name suggests that this primitive bassoon was regarded as peculiarly adapted for supporting the voices in church--a use to which the instrument was put in England down to the last part of the nineteenth century.

Five types of fagotte are depicted in Praetorius's commendable work, Syntagma Musicum. Lyndesay G. Langwill has made a comparison of (1) shalmeys and pommers--the immediate precursors of oboe and bassoon, (2) fagotte, and (3) the modern survivals, in his paper on the origin and evolution of the bassoon. Langwill contends that:

1. Gross Bass Pommer gave place ultimately to the Doppel Fagott and the modern Contrabassoon. 2. Bass Pomer to the Chorist Fagott or Dulzian and the modern bassoon. 3. Alt Pomiaer to the Oboe da Caccia and the modern Cor Anglais. 4. The Schalmiey to the modern Oboe. 2 At the beginning of the seventeenth century the bassoon had but two keys for D and F, but by the middle of that century a third key for B flat was added and the instrument was lengthened to receive it. The bassoon assumed much of its present form in the second half of the seventeenth century and the six-keyed bassoon was standard toward the close of the century. The G sharp key appeared on the bassoon in the second quarter of the eighteenth century (Figure 25), and in the latter half of the century the D sharp and F sharp keys were added. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the

Fig. 25--Bassoon of the eighteenth century

2Ibid., p. 3. 59

bassoon had eight keys, as well as two keys for the

higher overtones. During this period there was felt the need for extending the upper register of the bassoon.

The bassoon's true position as a tenor instrument was then realized, and it was no longer relegated to doubling

the bass. At this time the German and the French types

began to evolve, and each acquired peculiarities of con

struction, key mechanism and bore, which radically affected

the tone quality. Towards its ultimate perfection the

names of Almenraeder, Savari, and Boehmi stand out as pre-eminent, while later bassoon makers, particularly

Heckel, have simplified its fingering and improved its intonation.

Through the formation of a partnership between

Almienraeder and J. A. Heckel in 1831 at Biebrich am

Rhein, the development of the bassoon family was con

tinued in the factory of three generations of Heckels.

Some of the improvements attributed to Heckel include a

simplified fingering system, a change in the bore, and

the attainment of a better tone quality and more perfect

intonation. The usual contrabassoon of today is by

Heckel of Biebrich, who made several types descending

to C, or to b flat2 and A2 , an incredibly low note to be reached with full round smooth tone. In 1889, Wilhelm

Heckel patented the ebonite lining of the wing and the narrow tube of the butt, and this device was later widely 60

adopted. Almenraeder's Fagottschule, or "School of

Bassoon" appeared first in 1841, but Weissenborn's

Schule of 1885 dealt with the twenty-one keyes "Heckel bassoon" (Figure 26) which by then had largely become

standardized and which is in use at the present time.

Fig. 26--Modern Heckel system bassoon

Care of the Bassoon

It is of primary importance that, before beginning the study of the bassoon, the student should become thoroughly familiar with the names of the various parts of the instrument and the correct method of assembling them. 61

The bassoon consits of five separate divisions, or joints: the bocal, which is sometimes referred to as the metal crook; the wing-joint, which is operated by the left hand; the double-joint, or butt-joint, which is operated by the right hand; the long-joint, which is operated by the thumb and little finger of the left hand; and the bell. Besides these parts there are four addi tional fixtures to the instrument: the reed, which is used for producing the sound; the crutch, which is used as an aid in the holding of the instrument; the neck strap, which is another aid in the holding of the instru ment; and the pin, which is used to connect the wing joint and the long-joint.

Before the instrument is assembled, the cork joints should be moderately greased with cork grease, which is made especially for this purpose. The use of this grease will allow the smooth adjustment of the joints into their respective places without disturbing the cork and will at the same time preserve it.

The wing-joint is connected with the double-joint by gently forcing it with a twisting motion until it reaches its margin of resistance. W'hen connecting these two joints, great care must be exercised so that the lever projecting at the side of the wing-joint will not be bent. 62

The next part to be assembled is the long-joint

which is connected to the double-joint and side by side

with the wing-joint. Extreme care must be taken during

this procedure so that the keys on both sides of the

long-joint will not be bent. The long-joint is connected

to the double-joint by gently forcing it with a slight twisting motion until it reaches its margin of resistance.

The pin is then placed in the hinge at the top of the

long-joint, thus connecting the long-joint to the wing joint.

The bell is the next part to be adjusted. It is

connected to the long-joint by gently forcing it with a slight twisting motion until it reaches its margin

of resistance. At this point, care should be taken to

avoid bending the level projecting from the side of the bell.

The crutch and the neck-strap are then affixed to

the double-joint and the neck-strap is placed around the neck of the player. Then the reed is attached to the bocal. After the reed is slipped onto the bocal, the instrument is ready to be played. The reed is very fragile, and often when the student is engaged with the position of the instrument the thin end of the reed comes into contact with the clothing or some object within close proximity, thus permanently damaging the reed. To prevent any such mishap, the student should remove the 63

reed from the instrument and place it in his mouth when

it is exposed to any possible danger.

The bore of a new bassoon, before it is played,

should be oiled with a coat of bore oil made especially

for this purpose. A thin coat of oil in the bore will

prevent the moisture of the player's breath from seeping

into the grains of the wood, and will keep the wood from

cracking and rotting. It is a good practice to oil the

bore of a bassoon occasionally to guard against the effects

of irmoisture. A few drops of bore oil on a swab may be

used for this purpose.

After the student has finished playing, he must, with

care, remove the water from the bassoon by means of a dry

swab. The "U joint," at the bottom of the double-joint,

may be removed to simplify the cleaning of the instrument.

The pads will rot through contact with oisture, so

one should be extremely careful that this does not happen.

The bassoon must be swabbed often to help prevent the rotting of the pads.

When the student has finished playing the instrument, he should not throw it carelessly into the case. Each part of the bassoon should be laid gently into its respective place in the case.

The screws and springs on the bassoon should be oiled occasionally to prevent them from rusting. A pin, dipped 64 in oil and applied once to either the spring or screw, will accomplish this purpose.

The bassoon must not be exposed to any extreme changes in temperature. Extreme temperature changes will cause the instrument to crack.

The bassoon must always be kept in good. playing condi tion so that each note will sound with ease and certainty. To further insure a good playing condition, the instrument should be taken periodically to a reputable workshop and overhauled. Unless a bassoon is in a perfect condition at all times, it will be impossible for the student to pro duce any satisfactory playing results.

Production of Tone and Embouchure

The reed should be placed in the mouth as shown in

Figure 27. The red portion of the lower lip should be folded over the lower teeth and the red portion of the upper lip should. be folded over the upper teeth, giving

Fig. 27--Position of reed in the mouth 65

the student a double cushion for the reed. The lips should

be drawn back moderately fire against the teeth as shown

in Figure 27, and no pocket of air should appear under

either lip (Figure 28). The corners of the mouth should

be depressed, centralizing the muscles toward the reed.

The upper lip should be held forward and the lower lip

should be held back so that the top blade of the reed is

free from pressure and the lower blade of the reed is con trolled by the lower lip.

Fig. 28--Correct position for tonguing

The approximate length of the reed that should be

placed in the mouth will depend on the reed used. The

student must experiment until he finds the exact point

of pressure on the reed which will produce the clearest

and purest tones. The reed should vibrate freely and accurately, and the pressure should be controlled by the lower lip and teeth.

For correct tonguing, the tongue should be placed as shown in Figure 28. To attack the tone, the student 66

-1 rL 7

Plate 4--Correct positions for playing the bassoon 67

should withdraw the tongue allowing the air to enter the

reed without disturbing the embouchure. Accuracy in

slipping and tonguing is acquired by careful practice.

After the student has produced a sound on the reed,

he should attempt blowing the bassoon as a whole. The

best note on which to start is F, fourth line on the bass

staff.

The bassoon must be supported in such a manner that

the reed is quite steady in the mouth and that there is little or no interference with the freedom and lightness in action of any of the fingers and thumbs.

The student should sit or stand as shown in Plate 4, the elbows being held moderately close, but not stiffly, to the body. The shoulder should be kept moderately firm, the muscular effort being sufficient to give a feeling of control over the weight of the arms and of the instrument.

It should be kept in mind that a comfortable position of the body must be established, with the chest well expanded.

All of the fingers should be slightly curved over the keys and should act quite freely from the knuckles of the hands. The fingertips, when at rest, should always remain quite close to and ready to act upon the keys assigned to them. Their action must be quite gentle so as not to affect the steadiness of the bassoon in the mouth as this may alter the lip formation and, therefore, the tone quality. Suggested Studies for the Bassoon

1. Lentz, Don, Bassoon Method, Published by Boosey-Hawikes-Belwin, New York, 2.50. A good method for the beginner. Can be used for either class or individual instruction.

2. Skornicka, Joseph, Elementary Method for Bassoon, Published by Rubank, Chicago, 750. A very popular method for the beginning grade or high school student. Can be used for either class or individual instruction, preferably class instruction.

3. Weissenborn, Method for Bassoon, Revised by Louis Pietrini, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, Certainly the most popular and most widely used method for the bassoon. An excellent method. CHAPTER VI

CLASS ROOM PROCEDURE

Classes of Similar Instruments

These classes are composed of the same kind of instru

ments, such as clarinet, flute, or oboe. From experience

the writer claims the following advantages of similar in strument classes: (1) progress is more rapid because

students can be checked more closely; (2) good habits in playing are more readily formed since the instructor has

greater opportunity to anticipate and avoid faults;

(3) technical problems, such as fingering, tone quality,

and embouchure, are so peculiar to individual instruments

that it is very difficult to give instruction to all of

the woodwind instruments at the same time; and (4) problems

of key and range make it difficult to secure sufficient materials that are suitable for all of the woodwind instru ments in the beginning.

This plan of instruction, though comparatively simple

from the standpoint of the number of problems involved, is prohibitive in cost for the average small college. An instructor will usually experience little difficulty in securing an adequate number of clarinets or flutes to form

69 70 a class. However, in teaching the more unusual instruments such as the oboe or the bassoon, this type of instruction, especially in smaller colleges, usually results in indivi dual lessons.

Because of the similarity of problems involved, stu dents are able to progress more rapidly in solving the particular technical problems of their instruments. For the advanced student this type of instruction has a decided advantage over other plans as it enables the instructor to meet more effectively the increased number of differences which develop with greater instrumental skill.

Classes of Combined Instruments For beginners there is a decided trend toward classes of combined instruments. The writer's experience has shown that four students, each studying a different wood wind instrument, meeting for group instruction three times a week learn much faster than four other students, each studying a different woodwind instrument, meeting for individual instruction once a week. This evidence is too convincing to ignore.

There are two valid reasons for beginning classes in combined instruments: (1) educational reasons, and

(2) economical reasons.

Classes of combined instruments are educational to the students. Not only do the students learn facts about 71

their own instrument but also pertinent facts about the

other instruments, which widens and broadens the student's

practical knowledge of instruments.

The economic factor is without a doubt a strong argu ment. Segregated classes of instruments vwill be rela

tively small, at least in a small college. A vast amount

of time can be saved by the combination of two or three

such small classes.

Suggested Studies for Combined Classes

1. Griffin, F. 0., Foundation to Band Playing, Published by Jenkins Music Co., Kansas City, 75# each. woodwind parts are good. Not for first day beginners.

2. Lockhart, L. M., and Goehring, Edmund, The Lockhart Band Class Method, Published by +Witmark and Sons, New York, 30$ each. A good method for combined woodwind instruments. Has been used by many high schools because of its price.

3. Moore, E. C., The Moore Band Course, Published by Carl Fischer, New York, 75# each. Good for a class after a month of fundamentals. Not for beginners.

4. Smith, Yoder, Bachman, Smith-Yoder-Bachman Ensemble Band Method, Published by Neil A. Kjos Music Co., Chicago, 65# each. An excellent method for the beginning of the woodwind classes. Contains excellent fingering charts, illus trations, and studies. Also tunes, solos, and band numbers.

5. Webber, Carl, Band Fundamentals, Published by Witmark and Sons, New York, 50# each Contains good explanations. Well written. Contains tunes rather than exercises. 72

6. Webber, Carl, Modern Approach to Scale Playing, Published by White Smith Music Co., 400 each. Excellent for the teaching of scales. May be used with any class or band method.

7. Victor, Victor Method, Published by Victor Publishing Co., Dallas, 75# each. Books I through VIII. A good method for the development of the woodwind class. Can be used with any combination.

Conclusions

The scope of this work forms a treatise patterned

for the pedagogy of woodwind classes at the college level.

The abridged chronicle of the writer's experiences with woodwind professors and the difficulties and.problems of

fellow students has furnished a source of valuable material

for the writing of this thesis, which is the result of

sixteen years' experience of learning, playing, and. teaching.

In the study of the literature for the woodwind instru ments the writer has found that there are many merits in

the Popp-Soussman Complete Method for the Flute. The basis

in this choice lies in the fact that the material is very well arranged for the logical development of the student's

technic facility and musicianship. This method can be used in a flute class to a great advantage.

In the evaluation of the clarinet literature, the Klose-Prescott Method, the Baerman Method, and the Langenus

Method have been chosen because of their logical presenta tion of studies and problems. 73

For the oboe, the Method for Oboe by Labate and

Niemann has been chosen because of its complete develop

ment of the oboist.

For bassoon, the Weissenborn Method is suggested for the class instruction because of its thorough and systematic

presentation of studies and problems.

The Smith-Yoder-Bachman Band Method merits particular

attention as a class method for the combined woodwind

instrument classes because of its systematic arrangement

of well-organized material. The Victor Method is also

recommended because its material is valuable for the en

largement of fundaamental techniques and for its content

of comprehensive exercises and tunes.

This study of the materials and methods to be used

for college woodwind classes has been based primarily on

the adaptability and usefulness of its content for class work which features either classes of similar instruments,

or classes of combined instruments. To the writer's knowl

edge, there is no text available which deals with the problems involved in the teaching of woodwind instruments in classes, and it is hoped that the material presented in this study will serve as a beneficial guide for the teacher and student of woodwind instruments. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Apel, Willi, Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1947.

Bakaleinikoff, Vladimir, and Rosen, Milton, The Instru ments of the Band and Orchestra, New York, Boosey and Hawkes, Inc., 1940.

Boehm, Theobald, The Flute and Flute Playing, translated by Dayton C.~Tiller, London, Rudall, Carte and Co., 1922.

Chapman, F. B., Flute Technique, London, Oxford University Press, 1936.

Dunbar, Rudolph, Treatise on the Clarinet, Glasgow, John E. Dallas and Sons, Ltd., 1939.

Dykema, Peter W., Music for Public School Administrators, New York City, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931.

Dykema, Peter N., and Gehrkens, Karl wa., The Teaching of High School Music, Boston, C. C. Birchrd and Co. 1940.

Edgerly, Beatrice, From the Hunter's Bow, edited by B. E. Nelson, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1942.

Fitzgibbon, H. Macaulay, The 2tory of the Flute, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.

Forsyth, Cecil, Orchestration, New York, The Macmillan Co., 1914.

Forsyth, Cecil, Progressive Series History of Music, Art Publication Society, St. Louis, 1923.

Galpin, Francis W., A Textbook of European Musical Instru _ents, London, Williams and Northgate, Ltd., 1937.

74 75

Galpin, Francis .. , Old English Instruments of Music, London, Menthuen and Co., Ltd., 1932.

Gehrkens, Mark W., An Introduction to School Music Teaching, Boston, C. C. Birchard and Co., 1929.

Hipkins, A. J., Musical Instruments, London, A. and C. Black, 1921.

Johnstone, Arthur E., Instruments of the Modern Symphony Orchestra and Band, New York, Carl Fischer, 1917.

Kelly, Edgar S., Musical Instruments, Boston, Oliver Ditson Co., 1925.

Kwalwasser, Jacob, Problems in Public School Music, New York, M. Witmark and Sons, 1932.

Miller, Dayton, C., The Flute, Cleveland, Privately printed, 1935.

Mursell, James L., Human Values in Music Education, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1934.

Mursell, James L. , and Glenn, Mabelle, The Psychology of School Music Teaching, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1931.

Normann, Theodore F., Instrumental Music in the Public Schools, Philadelphia, Oliver Ditson, and Co., 1941.

Prescott, Gerald R., and Chidester, Lawrence W., Getting Results with School Bands, Boston, Paul A. Schmitt Music Co., 1938.

Righter, Charles B. , Success in Teaching School Orchestras and Bands, Boston, Paul A. Schmitt Music Co. , 1945.

Sachs, Curt, The History of Musical Instruments, New York, Norton and Co., 1940. Van Bodegraven, Paul, Organizing a School Band, New York, Ironsnell Printing Co., 1938.

Ward, Sylvan D., The Instrumental Director's Handbook, Chicago, Rubank, Inc., 1940.

Wilson, Harry R., Music in the High School, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1941. 76

Articles

Langwill, Lyndsay G., "The Bassoon: Its Origin and Evolution," Proceedings of the Musical Association, LXVI (1939-1940 ) .

Lockhart, Lee M., "Classes of Heterogeneous Instru~ments," Music Educators National Conference, Yearbook, 1936.