Future Spacecraft Propulsion Systems Enabling Technologies for Space Exploration (Second Edition) Paul A. Czysz and Claudio Bruno Future Spacecraft Propulsion Systems Enabling Technologies for Space Exploration (Second Edition) Published in association with Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK Professor Paul A. Czysz Oliver L. Parks Endowed Chair in Aerospace Engineering Parks College of Engineering and Aviation St Louis University St Louis Missouri USA Professor Claudio Bruno Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautica Universita` degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza Rome Italy SPRINGER–PRAXIS BOOKS IN ASTRONAUTICAL ENGINEERING SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason, M.Sc., B.Sc., Ph.D. ISBN 978-3-540-88813-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Springer is part of Springer-Science + Business Media (springer.com) Library of Congress Control Number: 2008939148 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. First Edition published 2006 # Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2009 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project management: OPS, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk, UK Printed on acid-free paper Contents Preface ............................................. xi List of figures ........................................ xv List of tables ......................................... xxiii Introduction .......................................... 1 1 Overview ......................................... 11 1.1 The challenge .................................. 11 1.1.1 Historical developments ...................... 12 1.2 The challenge of flying to space ...................... 13 1.3 Operational requirements .......................... 15 1.4 Operational space distances, speed, and times ............. 18 1.5 Implied propulsion performance ...................... 23 1.6 Propulsion concepts available for Solar System exploration .... 28 1.7 Bibliography................................... 34 2 Our progress appears to be impeded ....................... 35 2.1 Meeting the challenge. .......................... 35 2.2 Early progress in space. .......................... 36 2.3 Historical analogues .............................. 41 2.4 Evolution of space launchers from ballistic missiles ......... 43 2.5 Conflicts between expendable rockets and reusable airbreathers . 52 2.6 Commercial near-Earth launchers enable the first step ....... 59 2.6.1 On-orbit operations in near-Earth orbit: a necessary second step .............................. 63 vi Contents 2.6.2 Earth–Moon system advantages: the next step to estab- lishing a Solar System presence . .............. 65 2.6.3 The need for nuclear or high-energy space propulsion, to explore the Solar System ..................... 65 2.6.4 The need for very-high-energy space propulsion: expand- ing our knowledge to nearby Galactic space......... 66 2.6.5 The need for light speed–plus propulsion: expanding our knowledge to our Galaxy ..................... 66 2.7 Bibliography .................................. 66 3 Commercial near-Earth space launcher: a perspective ............. 69 3.1 Energy, propellants, and propulsion requirements .......... 73 3.2 Energy requirements to change orbital altitude ............ 75 3.3 Operational concepts anticipated for future missions......... 78 3.4 Configuration concepts ............................ 80 3.5 Takeoff and landing mode.......................... 93 3.6 Available solution space ........................... 97 3.7 Bibliography................................... 103 4 Commercial near-Earth launcher: propulsion................... 105 4.1 Propulsion system alternatives ....................... 106 4.2 Propulsion system characteristics ..................... 108 4.3 Airflow energy entering the engine .................... 109 4.4 Internal flow energy losses.......................... 113 4.5 Spectrum of airbreathing operation .................... 120 4.6 Design space available—interaction of propulsion and materials/ structures..................................... 122 4.7 Major sequence of propulsion cycles ................... 127 4.8 Rocket-derived propulsion.......................... 132 4.9 Airbreathing rocket propulsion....................... 135 4.10 Thermally integrated combined cycle propulsion ........... 138 4.11 Engine thermal integration ......................... 141 4.12 Total system thermal integration ..................... 142 4.13 Thermally integrated enriched air combined cycle propulsion . 147 4.14 Comparison of continuous operation cycles .............. 150 4.15 Conclusions with respect to continuous cycles ............. 156 4.16 Pulse detonation engines ........................... 158 4.16.1 What is a pulse detonation engine?. .............. 158 4.16.2 Pulse detonation engine performance ............. 159 4.17 Conclusions with respect to pulse detonation cycles ......... 165 4.18 Comparison of continuous operation and pulsed cycles ....... 166 4.19 Launcher sizing with different propulsion systems .......... 170 4.20 Structural concept and structural index, ISTR............. 172 4.21 Sizing results for continuous and pulse detonation engines..... 174 4.22 Operational configuration concepts, SSTO and TSTO........ 179 Contents vii 4.23 Emerging propulsion system concepts in development ........ 185 4.24 Aero-spike nozzle ............................... 195 4.25 ORBITEC vortex rocket engine ..................... 196 4.25.1 Vortex hybrid rocket engine (VHRE) ............. 197 4.25.2 Stoichiometric combustion rocket engine (SCORE) .... 199 4.25.3 Cryogenic hybrid rocket engine technology ......... 200 4.26 Bibliography................................... 200 5 Earth orbit on-orbit operations in near-Earth orbit, a necessary second step ............................................ 209 5.1 Energy requirements.............................. 212 5.1.1 Getting to low Earth orbit: energy and propellant require- ments .................................. 212 5.2 Launcher propulsion system characteristics ............... 216 5.2.1 Propellant ratio to deliver propellant to LEO ........ 216 5.2.2 Geostationary orbit satellites sizes and mass......... 220 5.3 Maneuver between LEO and GEO, change in altitude at same orbital inclination ............................... 221 5.3.1 Energy requirements, altitude change ............. 223 5.3.2 Mass ratio required for altitude change ............ 223 5.3.3 Propellant delivery ratio for altitude change ......... 228 5.4 Changes in orbital inclination ....................... 230 5.4.1 Energy requirements for orbital inclination change .... 231 5.4.2 Mass ratio required for orbital inclination change ..... 234 5.4.3 Propellant delivery ratio for orbital inclination change . 237 5.5 Representative space transfer vehicles .................. 240 5.6 Operational considerations ......................... 242 5.6.1 Missions per propellant delivery................. 243 5.6.2 Orbital structures .......................... 244 5.6.3 Orbital constellations ........................ 245 5.6.4 Docking with space facilities and the International Space Station ................................. 247 5.6.5 Emergency rescue vehicle with capability to land within continental United States ..................... 252 5.7 Observations and recommendations.................... 252 5.8 Bibliography................................... 253 6 Earth–Moon system: establishing a Solar System presence ......... 255 6.1 Earth–Moon characteristics ......................... 256 6.2 Requirements to travel to the Moon ................... 259 6.2.1 Sustained operation lunar trajectories ............. 262 6.2.2 Launching from the Moon surface ............... 263 6.3 History ...................................... 268 6.3.1 USSR exploration history .................... 268 6.3.2 USA exploration history...................... 269 viii Contents 6.3.3 India exploration history ..................... 270 6.3.4 Japan exploration history ..................... 270 6.4 Natural versus artificial orbital station environments ........ 270 6.4.1 Prior orbital stations ........................ 271 6.4.2 Artificial orbital station ...................... 271 6.4.3 Natural orbital station ....................... 274 6.5 Moon base functions ............................. 277 6.5.1 Martian analog............................ 277 6.5.2 Lunar exploration .......................... 278 6.5.3 Manufacturing and production site. .............. 280 6.6 Bibliography................................... 280 Patent literature on MagLev ........................ 282 Websites on MagLev ............................. 282 7 Exploration of our Solar System .......................... 283 7.1 Review of our Solar System distances, speeds, and propulsion requirements................................... 283 7.2 Alternative energy sources: nuclear energy . .............. 288 7.3 Limits of chemical propulsion and alternatives