Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Human Movement Sciences Theses & Dissertations Human Movement Sciences Fall 2016 Sport, Twitter Hashtags and the Public Sphere Brendan O'Hallarn Old Dominion University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/hms_etds Part of the Social Media Commons, and the Sports Management Commons Recommended Citation O'Hallarn, Brendan. "Sport, Twitter Hashtags and the Public Sphere" (2016). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, Human Movement Sciences, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/t2zk-yq36 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/hms_etds/9 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Human Movement Sciences at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Human Movement Sciences Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. i SPORT, TWITTER HASHTAGS AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE by Brendan O’Hallarn Bachelor of Journalism, 1993, Ryerson Polytechnic University Master of Education, Sport Management, 2012, Old Dominion University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY December 2016 Approved by: Stephen L. Shapiro (Director) Lynn Ridinger (Member) Marion E. Hambrick (Member) Dylan E. Wittkower (Member) ii ABSTRACT SPORT, TWITTER HASHTAGS AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE Brendan O’Hallarn Old Dominion University, 2016 Director: Dr. Stephen L. Shapiro Sport and social media researchers have been challenged to go beyond simply analyzing the content of public social media posts, and to incorporate different critical frameworks to seek more meaningful findings about these relatively new online phenomena. This three-paper format dissertation attempts to frame interactions through sport-themed Twitter hashtags sociologically by incorporating a critical theory rarely deployed in the study of sport—the public sphere. In paper one, the study introduces a theoretical model which suggests sport consumption patterns and the unique architecture of Twitter can promote public sphere-like discourse in hashtags connected to sport. The model suggests amplifiers and barriers which promote or inhibit the creation of an online space for pro-democratic, rational-critical discourse. The second and third papers are empirical tests of the theoretical model—a qualitative case study examination of Twitter hashtag discussions, and they impact they have on participants, following the firing of former Major League pitcher Curt Schilling by ESPN; and a quantitative survey of users of three different types of sport-themed hashtags to assess the generation of social capital as a byproduct of public sphere-like interactions. Together, the three studies comprise the first comprehensive analysis of the public sphere as a way to explain online discussions on Twitter. Given the prevalence of the social media site, and its strong pull among sport fans, better understanding of the motivations for online behaviors—whether reflective of the public sphere or not—can help inform a wide range of issues connected to sport. iii Copyright, 2016, by Brendan O’Hallarn, All Rights Reserved iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This “accidental journey” to a Ph.D. would not have been possible without the help of so many people. I am humbled to be surrounded by supportive friends and family members, who have provided me with encouragement and advice, and empowered me with belief. A little more than nine years ago, I arrived in my adopted country of the United States with no Green Card (yet), no work prospects, with one child and another on the way. Crossing the stage at the Ted Constant Convocation Center in December to receive a doctorate from Old Dominion University, and a handshake from my first ODU professional contact President John R. Broderick, feels like a fantasy. I left my undergraduate alma mater Ryerson in 1993 with a C average and no plans to return to school—ever. Now I may never leave university again. Life takes strange turns. To begin with, I need to thank my adviser and dissertation committee chair, Dr. Stephen L. Shapiro, the kindest, most supportive doctoral mentor I could imagine. Providing near-weekly reassurance that no, I was not going to fail at this process, he may be as happy to see the end of this project as I am. Dr. Shapiro has helped me grow throughout this process of doctoral education, and it’s largely thanks to him I feel prepared to (hopefully) take the next step into a faculty position. I feel like I was also blessed with the perfect dissertation committee for me. Dr. Lynn Ridinger, chair of the Department of Human Movement Services, volunteered to serve on my committee though she is not even on Twitter. Yet it was her suggestion to create a conceptual model of public sphere-like interactions that focused my entire dissertation project. As well, her office door has been open for guidance and encouragement at any time as I struggled to balance a full-time job, a part-time doctoral degree and a family. Attending my first conference in Austin, Texas, I nervously approached a social media scholar whose impactful research I had just read. v Dr. Marion Hambrick may not have realized how intimidated I was, but could not have been more friendly, supportive and welcoming at the very beginning of my doctoral journey. He has also provided indispensable advice throughout the dissertation process. Finally, Dr. Dylan Wittkower is a scholar who I first encountered in my role in public relations for Old Dominion University. He introduced me to the concept of the public sphere, mentored me as I wrote my first manuscript, and has continued to provide guidance and friendship. Also, as a world- renowned expert in the philosophy of technology, he asked terrifying questions during my comprehensive oral examination, and proposal and dissertation defenses. This project is better because of his wisdom, and indeed the insight of my entire committee. Besides my dissertation committee, my time at Old Dominion has been filled with encounters with special people, who have helped me along my doctoral journey, or helped me enjoy day-to-day life here more. My first boss, Jennifer Mullen Collins, and my current boss, Giovanna Genard, have empowered and supported my educational dreams. They have invested in my doctoral education, and I hope I have repaid their kindness through diligent work. My current supervisor Jon Cawley has not only accommodated a serious juggling act by an employee in our understaffed public relations office, he has patiently listened to me repeatedly describe arcane academic terms like confirmatory factor analysis in far more detail than necessary. Other colleagues, past and present, Jim Raper, Steve Daniel, Susan Malandrino, Lisa Sinclair, Jason Phenicie, Chuck Thomas, Tom Robinson, Karen Smallets, Ericha Forest, Caitlin Chandler, Lisa Jones, Elise Kluge, Kim Sawyer, and fellow and former building denizens Christina Lipuma, Karen Meier, Jim Clanton, Son Nguyen, Kelly Schumacher Fuller, Ashley Puvogel, Tami Park- Farinholt, Cecilia Tucker—plus many others I have surely forgotten—make Koch Hall a memorable place to have spent the past eight years. vi Two fellow travelers in the Old Dominion community need my special thanks. Bill Heffelfinger has been a cherished ally, confidante, encourager, problem-solver, coffee companion and fellow ODU basketball nut from the moment I set foot on campus. I know this process would have been significantly harder without his warm and kind friendship. And Dr. Craig Morehead, who beat me to the finish line by six months, has been an incredible friend. We have shared our Ph.D. journey—and frustrations, despair, discouragement, and paranoia—but have helped each other through a process that neither of us thought was possible. I look forward to a long career of research collaboration, and sending him several million worried text messages over that time. That leaves my family, the true MVPs of my doctoral journey. My father Bill and mother Pat Moulson have spent hundreds of hours on the phone with me celebrating every tiny victory, and helping me through every setback. My mother- and father-in-law Cassianne and Bruce Booth have filled me with self-belief for my entire doctorate. I am convinced they have more faith in me than I have in myself. My siblings Julia, Meg, and Bob (and their spouses Ian, Rupinder and Anjali) have all been so supportive and encouraging, despite the miles of distance. My brother-in-law Steve Booth and his wife Lynn have been kind and helpful as well. Truly, however, this dissertation is completed because of three people. Summerlin and Gene, my two sweet children, have heard “no” from their father far more than any child should. I feel heartbroken to have missed so many experiences as I have worked on this opus. I promise to spend the rest of my days trying to capture that lost time. And Reva, my heart and soul, thank you. You made this possible. You give me freedom to dream, and support while I pursue those dreams. You have dealt with my temper, my impatience, my distraction, my absence, and my insecurity. This dissertation is dedicated, with all of my heart, to you. I love you. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................1 STUDY 1 PROBLEM STATEMENT........................................................................................6