1 Module 11 Dissertation Irene Perrett 16/5/18 'An Investigation

Module 11 Dissertation

Irene Perrett

16/5/18

‘An investigation concerning the quality of trust and how this enhances the wellbeing of those involved, with particular reference to enabling the bond of trust between a Romanian rescue dog and his carer.’

Index

Preface 3

Acknowledgements 4

Aims and objectives 4

Introduction 5

Literature Review: The psychological and physiological states 6

The influence of stress 7 Calmness 9

Seeking trust 11

Methodology 16

Ethical statement 18

Reflexivity 18

Research 19

Discussion 27

Conclusion 31

Reference List 32

Bibliography 39

Appendix 1- Walter’s story 47

Appendix II - Interview questions 48

Appendix III - Survey questions & survey results 49

Appendix IV- Romania 52

Photographs Title page & figure 12 courtesy of Irene Perrett

Figures 1 – 8 & 10 courtesy of Lucy Cooper

Figure 9 courtesy of Matthew Cooper

Preface

Trust: ‘A firm belief in the reliability, truth or ability of someone or something’ (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018).

My inspiration for this dissertation are my own rescue dogs, to gain their trust and to continue to learn many of life’s lessons from them has taken me on a journey of self-discovery. Though I have lived and worked with animals all my life, my understanding of their needs, their sentience and emotional state has developed as I have learnt to observe the subtleties of their language and the sensitivity of their communication. Instead of instigating a conversation with an agenda they have taught me the value of empathy and compassion, and an awareness of how my energy, thoughts and silent language can enhance the relationship between us. It took time to learn to listen, really listen, and to adjust my beliefs. To see beyond the animal in front of me, the behaviours and reactions, and start to recognise that these are peripheral to the deeper emotions that truly represent an animal’s soul. Only through trust can any being allow another to touch those emotions which lie hidden within us, but once awakened we can express joy, friendship, love and laughter. To be given this gift is precious.

‘When weary with the long day’s care,

And earthly change from pain to pain,

And lost and ready to despair,

Thy kind voice calls me back again:

Oh, my true friend! I am not lone,

While thou canst speak with such a tone!’

(Bronte, 1846, p.96).

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank those who have helped me in the creation of this dissertation, your support has been invaluable; I’d also like to thank the rescue dogs who have inspired us all to look deeper into our hearts to find the bond of trust.

Aims and objectives

The aims for this investigation are;

To obtain and analyse information, concepts and studies concerned with the understanding of trust, and to investigate why trust plays a vital role in harmonious co-existence, and mental and physical wellbeing.

To recognise how we as carers can enable further advancement in building and maintaining a trustful relationship with a Romanian rescue dog.

The objectives;

• To investigate the concept of trust. • To examine how trust can enhance a relationship, and to study the effects that a trusting relationship has on developing positive emotions and behaviour. • To explore different methods which enable us to develop trust. • To utilise the findings to construct a holistic approach to creating continued and enduring trust.

Introduction

From my observations, when a dog finds himself in a position of vulnerability with limited choices to express himself in ways that have allowed him to survive and grow in the past, he will inevitably need to adopt different behaviours in order to cope with his emotions and the challenges he faces. For this study I am using the experience I have gained with Walter, my own Romanian dog, as an example (Appendix 1). Every dog is unique, and over the years each of my own dogs has been a special part of my life but to me there was something about Walter which was different. George Eliot said that ‘Those who trust us educate us’ (Eliot, 1876, p 236) and though it took many months to earn his trust, the journey to that moment and beyond has been one of immeasurable learning.

The very nature of an investigation into a quality such as trust will raise questions about what is trust, why do we need to feel and give trust, and what enhances or blocks the ability to trust? This is both a study and a personal exploration in to the quality of trust between dogs and humans. In this dissertation I will first review the literature that I have consulted in designing my research in order to examine current findings in reference to the psychological and physiological aspects of trust and their implications, and in seeking and creating trust. Secondly I will explain the methods I have chosen to use and describe the process for collecting data. I will then present the findings of each of my methods and discuss these findings from each set of data. Finally I will draw all the results together and discuss what this adds to our current knowledge about the development of trust between dog and carer. The purpose of this investigation is to explore the quality of trust and how it enhances the wellbeing of our Romanian rescue dog.

Being neither a canine professional nor an academic my investigation is taken from the perspective of a carer. The word science comes from the Latin scire which means to know (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018). It is a quest for understanding and knowledge to discover truth. I hope this dissertation will help to enhance our awareness and perception of the quality of trust through the interrelationship between science and our own humanity.

Literature Review

Psychological and physiological states.

Firstly I’d like to investigate what happens within the body that allows us to feel trust, and explore the variables which make our acceptance of trust individual to each of us. Though there are obvious differences between the human brain and those of other species, the similarities of how our brains and bodies work are becoming increasingly recognised and studied. It is difficult to separate our psychological and physiological states, both work together and influence one another to the extent that if one part of us is out of balance it effects our whole being. However, as individuals, our bodies and minds are influenced by our genetics, our past experiences, the environment in which we live and our individual personalities. Even at cellular level we may react differently depending on previous learning and how we have adapted to cope with various situations. Though we can develop an understanding of a general concept of cause and effect within ourselves, we need to remain aware of the possibility of alternative reactions. This highlights why it is essential to be able to gain an ability to observe, listen and empathise with those we wish to develop the bond of trust, and to discover the essence of connection between us that creates the first tentative steps towards allowing, and seeking that bond. This will be discussed further to show how inter-human bonding can be extended to the relationship of a carer and rescue dog.

How we process thought will influence our outlook and feelings. We can observe a link between empathy, intuition, and trust, and out physical responses through heartrate, breathing, touch and introceptive awareness. Gu et al (2012) describe empathy as an awareness and understanding of the sensory and emotional states of others, which involves perspective and social understanding. In part it is regulated by a region in the brain called the right supramarginal gyrus, an area of the cerebral cortex, which allows us to distinguish our own emotional state from that of others and promotes feelings of empathy and compassion (Silani et al., 2013). The critical neural substrate for emotion and interoception is the anterior insular cortex, which is associated with multiple functions including cardiovascular function, respiration, sensory and interoceptive awareness, emotional and cognitive processing, empathy, intuition, unfairness, risk, trust and cooperation (Gu et al., 2013). The insular cortex works in conjunction with a network of regions including the anterior cingulate cortex, the somatosensory cortex and the amygdala, though emotional feelings can originate from the brainstem and hypothalamus which then become enriched and refined by the insular cortex (Damaio et al., 2013). Research has shown different areas of brain activity relating to empathetic processes regarding pain, negative and positive emotions, with no activity shown in the anterior cingulate cortex when processing positive emotions (Gu et al., 2013). It’s been suggested that intuitive perception involves

6 both the heart and the brain, and possibly other areas of the body. McCraty et al (2004) found that when measuring brain and heart activity in humans, both appear to receive and respond to information about future emotional stimulus before experiencing that stimulus.

Our nervous system is comprised of over one hundred billion neurons, each are connected to around ten thousand other cells creating approximately one thousand trillion connections in the brain. These are made either through chemical or electrical signals. Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers which transmit the signals and interact with receptors located in the brain and body via the nervous system and assist in regulating the processes throughout the body (Scheiderer, 2018). Neurotransmitters work to stimulate an action or inhibit an impulse, excitatory neurotransmitters being glutamate, norepinephrine, and inhibitory neurotransmitters GABA, glycine, endorphins and serotonin. Some neurotransmitters such as dopamine and acetylcholine will both excite and inhibit neural activity. Many neurotransmitters have numerous functions, for instance dopamine is secreted in the basal ganglia to control levels of movement, into the prefrontal cortex to improve working memory, it allows increased focus, regulates perceived pleasure, increases motivation, creativity and risk taking, when released into the frontal lobe it regulates the flow of information received from other brain areas, in conjunction with melatonin it regulates sleep, and is released during unwanted, aversive or painful experiences (Hussein, 2018). It would be too simplistic to suppose it has just one function though it is normally regarded as being related to pleasure and the motivation to seek pleasure, and along with serotonin and oxytocin, has a significant role in regulating mood. Serotonin (5-HT) is mainly found in the gastrointestinal tract (around 90%), the platelets and central nervous system. It is derived from tryptophan and has been linked to regulating the gut, sleep, and mood including disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder, anxiety and affective disorders (Best et al., 2010). Neuropeptides oxytocin and arginine vasopressin have a role in regulating social cognition and behaviour (Heinrichs et al, 2009). They promote trust, cooperation and prolong social memory, but also influence the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and amygdala activity in the modulation of fear and anxiety (Wojciak et al, 2012). There is evidence of an association between oxytocin and vasopressin receptor variants and individual differences in prosocial behaviour (Stein, 2009). Cortisol is produced in the adrenal glands as a response to stress. It has several functions including reducing inflammation and bone formation though it can reduce the immune response, it aids short term memory but long term exposure will damage cells in the hippocampus resulting impaired learning and memory retrieval (Berglund, 2013).

The influence of stress.

It is essential to recognise the impact of stress, and the role it plays in influencing behaviour and learning. Studies have shown the immunoenhancing effects of positive emotions and long term immunosuppressive effects of negative emotions (Rein et al, 1995). Stress impairs the regulation of emotion, and the ability to carry out the process’s which enable avoidance of, or successfully coping with, undesired emotions and distressing situations. For example, some anxiety disorders are associated with the dysfunction of the neural systems which regulate fear responses (Hartley 2010). Behaviours such as withdrawal in relation to social deprivation, social conflicts or confinement can be linked to both raised and lowered cortisol levels, depending on the type and duration of stressors. Though stress hormones play an important role in allostasis which are beneficial to facilitating adaptation, prolonged or intense exposure to stressors can create allostatic overload. This may cause damage to the system so that it no longer responds appropriately and therefore changes the physiology, resulting in low cortisol levels, chronic pain or unresponsiveness (Pawluski et al, 2017). Unduly low or high levels of glucocorticoids have been shown to impair cognition, due to their inverted-U shape function. Moderate elevations will facilitate memory and learning (Mateo, 2007). Depressed or withdrawn behaviour may be caused by unmet welfare/social needs or pain. Reduced cortisol levels can be apparent in PTSD, chronic fatigue syndrome as well as depressed behaviour, with sufferers often showing apathy and lack of eye contact but also higher anxiety and emotional reactions (Fureix et al, 2012). However there is also a link between previous experience, particularly trauma in early life, to dysregulated HPA activity resulting in lower resting cortisol and blunted cortisol reactivity to stress (O’Conner et al, 2017). Serotonin levels are influential in the role of anxiety and social phobia, raised levels in the amygdala increase anxiety in social situations (Frick, 2015). Studies with canines have shown altered 5-HT 2A receptor binding indices in bilateral frontal, temporal and occipital cortical regions of the brain, with increased BI in impulsive aggressive dogs and reduced BI in dogs suffering from anxiety (Vermeire, 2011). Oxytocin can positively influence a decrease in stress by reducing cortisol levels and modulating the amygdala activity linked to fear (Videla, 2017). However, it also modulates the brain circuits associated with approach behaviour that are implicated in the reward process, including the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum. The caudate region of the striatum is involved with behavioural adaptions from processing feedback and reward learning about action- outcome contingencies, activation is reduced as it is learnt that rewards become more predictable. It has been shown the influence of oxytocin on brain activation occurs when it effects behaviour, and has a particular role in maintaining trust within social interactions (Baumgartner et al, 2008).

Stress can raise epinephrine and norepinephrine levels which stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and inhibit the parasympathetic nervous system, causing physiological changes including

8 increased heartrate, oxygen intake and alertness. The HPA will then trigger the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands. Eustress is a short term positive form of stress which motivates and improves performance. However, distress or negative stress may occur over a longer timeframe and produce habitual behaviour and thought patterns. The prolonged physiological responses to stress can also cause the Type 1 Slow Twitch muscle fibres within the striated muscles to contract. These are activated first, before the fast twitch Type 2a and Type 2b fibres, and may remain working continuously due to psychosocial demand. Over time this can cause pain, and exhaustion. When an individual can no longer make choices this can lead to withdrawal or learned helplessness (Marr, 2017).

The parasympathetic nervous system works to inhibit the stress response and control homeostasis by triggering the release of acetylcholine which lowers the heartrate (Harvard 2016). One of the 12 pairs of nerves of this system, the vagus nerve, supplies motor parasympathetic fibres to the organs from the neck down to the second segment of the transverse colon with the exception of the adrenal glands. It helps to slow the heartrate and influences the mind-body connection, the heart’s responds to emotions, and how the stomach and intestines are affected by stress (Blakeway, 2014). The central nervous system responds to environmental cues which enable it to achieve and maintain homeostasis. Because stress disrupts the rhythm and balance of the autonomic states it also can disrupt subsequent behaviours. However, heartrate speed and variability can be influenced by several factors including changing and slowing breathing patterns which calm the vagus nerve, enabling the release of acetylcholine and strengthen the role of the parasympathetic nervous system which impacts the physiological effect of stress (Sircus, 2014). The prolonged physiological responses to stress can also cause the Type 1 Slow Twitch muscle fibres within the striated muscles to contract. These are activated first, before the fast twitch Type 2a and Type 2b fibres, and may remain working continuously due to psychosocial demand. Over time this can cause pain, and exhaustion. When an individual can no longer make choices this can lead to withdrawal or learned helplessness (Marr, 2017).

Calmness

By examining how we respond to adverse stimulus and the effects it has on us both mentally and physically, we can start to adjust how the mind is thinking and how it is possible to enable others to find a better mind state. If we find a relaxed and focussed way of being it has a positive effect beyond ourselves, it is not just our actions which encourage another to start to gain trust in us, but also our energy, consistency and empathy. Being mindful of how we impact on others and acting calmly with awareness of our response to their emotional, spiritual and physical needs enables us to become more open minded with our approach to developing a relationship of trust. It has been shown in research by Grossman et al (2016) that people with higher heart rate variability, influenced by cardiac vagal

9 tone, are more able to show superior decision making skills and working memory, be more flexible and adaptive in emotional response and self-control, and have enhanced social information processing. They suggest that by self-distancing (looking from an observer’s perspective rather than a self-immersed perspective), higher HRV allows better wisdom-related judgement, and reinforces previous research (Wakslak et al, 2008; Legerwood et al, 2010) that it promotes greater consistency between core-self, intentions and behaviour. The vagus nerve has a fundamental role in regulating the physiological systems which support prosocial behaviour including empathy for another’s and our own emotional states and emotional expression. However, extremes of high or low vagal nerve activity can be detrimental to prosociality (Kogan, A. et al, 2014). By understanding how to inhibit the fight or flight responses when they become over activated, the parasympathetic nervous system can be influenced to enhance a calmer and more measured way of thinking.

There are many different approaches to creating this, but essentially the brain and body need to work in unison to feel focused and relaxed. A correlation between positive emotions, social connections and physical health has been shown to promote a self-sustaining increase in wellbeing (Kok et al, 2016). Practising meditation can modulate brain activities associated with cognitive control, emotion regulating and empathetic concern, and aid social and non-social decision making by enabling enhanced reflexive qualities (Sun et al, 2015). Studies have suggested that the biological systems underlying emotions respond rapidly to stimulus but the emotional experiences themselves unfold and reverberate over a longer period of time. Because of common neurological pathways this creates a feeling of that emotion lasting minutes or hours, and also can influence future experiences. Positive short term emotional experiences which activate the reward circuitry can lead to sustained feelings of wellbeing and affect an individual’s perspective and ability to interact (Heller et al, 2015). I will explore this theme further through my research. The capacity to recognise and regulate negative emotions and decrease their duration will promote resilience. As humans we can learn to systematically retrain our minds to focus on positive mental states and challenge negative mental states because of the plasticity within our brains (Dalai Lama & Cutler, 1998). The variability in how individuals react emotionally, and the regulation of those emotions is dependent on that individual’s affective processing. By developing resilience and the ability to create meaning from a negative event the recovery time is shortened and has less negative impact (Davison, 2004).

Reflecting on life for a dog in the confines of a shelter, noise plays a huge role in advancing stress levels which can effect cognitive abilities and emotional responses. Even in sleep the amygdala, which assists in the formation of memory and emotion, can be activated causing the release of stress hormones. Chronic exposure to noise can raise blood pressure, create sleep loss and heart disease due to stress levels remaining raised over long periods of time (Gross, 2014). In studies on the effects of

10 auditory stimuli, it was concluded that whilst the regulation of neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons) responds differentially to different auditory stimuli, loud or prolonged noise can be a strong source of stress, as can unnatural silence. However, longer periods of silence allowed the development of new hippocampal cells (Imke Kirste et al, 2015). Even short periods of silence produce a beneficiary effect, in one study (Berardi et al, 2006) it was noted that the greatest levels of relaxation and corresponding physiological states were found when a two minute silence was inserted between excerpts of music. When our brain isn’t disturbed by noise or cognitive tasks, it enables the integration of internal and external information in order to find its own position in our internal and external worlds (Moran, 2013). Self-reflection and deciding which direction our thoughts should travel allows us a greater insight to understanding ourselves and the world around us. Humans may have over 50,000 thoughts each day with 50% being negative (Ackerman, 2017). If we wish to gain trust with an animal who is highly sensitive to our moods, expressions and behaviours, we need to become attuned to our own thought processes, and our motivations related to them. Intrinsic motivation allows learning, flexibility and creative response which enables better focus, however extrinsical motivation, for example setting performance goals, may create feelings of pressure and actually reduce performance and learning (Ohlin, 2016). By incorporating both introspection and self-distancing as tools to heighten self-awareness we create a balanced approach to forming a trusting relationship.

Seeking trust.

Looking into an animal’s eyes gives us an insight into their internal world, the eyes can reflect what the animal is feeling (Bekoff, 2006). The existence of an internal world in other animals raises ethical and moral implications. Affective feelings are common to both humans and non-humans, the brain mechanisms are evolutionarily related in all mammals. We all have the ability to feel satisfaction or suffering, to seek happiness and safety. The SEEKING system is involved with motivational processes, and promotes learned incentive salience and engenders specific expectancies. It is a dopamine energized network which coordinates the connections between the mind (the experience of oneself in the world) and the brain, allowing feelings of anticipation, purpose and persistence whilst enabling planning and foresight. Because of this the SEEKING system is also seen to play a part in regulating the other affective systems (Panksepp, 2010). The initial motivation for a dog to seek the feeling of trust may be fragile, trust is built in small moments of connection which gradually assemble over time (Gottman, 2011). However, as this becomes more familiar and pleasurable, the feelings of positive anticipation will create further motivation.

The link between feelings of social connection, parasympathetic activity and positive emotions is shown to create an upward spiral in which increased vagal tone and psychosocial wellbeing are able

11 to reciprocally predict one another (Kok & Fredrickson, 2010). Furthermore, there appears to be a link between one being and another which enables us to reciprocate a smile or echo another’s movement. Within the brain there is a circuit of particular neurons called mirror neurons in the premotor cortex and inferior parietal cortex which become activated both when an action is performed and when it is seen to be performed. They have been shown to be an important element of social cognition and interaction with others (Lehrer, 2018). It is possible to analyse which area of the brain needs to function for which task by using a method that magnetically stimulates specific areas of the brain (using continuous theta-burst stimulation) to temporarily block those area and cause difficulty in task performance (Michael, 2014). Mirror neurons allow mental rehearsal to fine tune motor skills and enable the ability to empathise with another’s emotions. An increase in the volume of neurons and neural connections can be seen through the repetition of empathetic thoughts and using meditation or mindfulness techniques (Bergland, 2014). Berns states that ‘brains simulate possible actions and future outcomes so as to make the best possible decision for the situation at hand’ (Berns, 2017, p 59). Therefore, by the repetition of empathetic thought the neural synapses will increase in connection with the growing feeling of trust. When studying the caudate activity in canines, Berns concluded that dogs care intensely about the meaning of human signals and attempt to intuit our thinking just as we do theirs. He sensed that by looking into a dog’s eyes there was a mutual communication of intention. Mirror neurons respond both when we observe dogs and when they observe us, leading to the possibility of canine theory of mind. Evidence has been found within the inferior temporal lobe, (the part of the brain associated with memory), that even without their particular human present dogs can remember them through scent. Furthermore, the corresponding caudate activation showed a positive feeling to that memory which resembled love when compared with similar trials on humans (Berns, 2013). It is important to recognise in our role as carer that our dog has a unique and different perspective and centre of experience, (Hagman, 1997) in order to engage with sensitivity, empathy and to be mindful of his needs which will further enhance the mutual bond (Brown, 2013).

According to Goleman (Ovans, 2015), empathy takes three forms; cognitive empathy- the ability to understand another person’s point of view, emotional empathy- the ability to feel what someone else feels, and empathetic concern- the ability to sense what another person needs from you. Each originates in a different brain area and enable us to make accurate and compassionate assessments about the state of another individual which are important for developing strong social relationships. Empathy is an essential component in the formation of trust, but it doesn’t stand alone. As we are looking in particular at the bond between dog and human, then we must include other qualities including integrity- the ability to be honest both with ourselves and with those with whom we are creating a bond; consistency- the reliability and good judgement in the relationship and in decision

12 making; compassion- that we care for the needs of the individual; and patience. We cannot force the pace of trust. We must allow the dog time to come to terms with the situation in which he finds himself, give him the opportunity to make choices within his environment, offer him safety and meet his day to day needs without pressure or expectation.

Interaction with another individual creates a shared attention, intention or motivation. Eye contact is important for social interaction, mutual gaze can create shared attention which is a complementary action due to its social salience (Pfeiffer et al, 2013), showing synchronized neural activity in the right inferior frontal gyrus (an area of the brain associated with social communication and empathy) which represents learned shared attention (Koike et al, 2015). Though prolonged direct gaze is unusual between dogs, they have learnt to use eye contact to communicate with humans. Humans use eye contact and receive social cues from around the eye region which is known to release oxytocin, produced in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the hypothalamus (Burbach, et al, 2006), to receptors in the social regions of the brain (Lavine, 2016). Oxytocin is prominent in the formation of attachment bonds and prosocial behaviour, which can enhance relationships and trust between one species and another (Diaz Videla & Lopez, 2017). Looking at a genetic basis for the development of the oxytocin gene in a study of dogs and wolves, there are two markers (primers 5 and 6) close to the OXTR gene which are different between the two species. Variants of the transmembrane enzyme CD38 are thought to be linked with oxytocin secretion and social behaviours. It is possible that certain breeds of dogs may also affect behavioural phenotypes with regard to gaze and friendliness though may also be associated with the dog’s individual cognitive flexibility, and prior training. Certainly a history of frequent early positive socialisation as a puppy, stimulating the oxytocinergic system by the provocation of a hormone receptor by a circulating hormone, is essential to create sufficient receptor cells in order to bind with the hormone. The inability to bind in sufficient quantity will create faulty imprinting and lead to a lower take up of oxytocin in later life. This can affect the acceptance of humans, especially if the dog has been deprived of human interaction within the critical 3-10 week period (Oliva et al, 2016). There is a question whether the oxytocin-mediated positive loop may stem from the convergent evolution of humans and dogs through domestication, or from maternal bonding. It has been suggested that there is an intraspecies benefit when gaining eye contact and, neural systems have evolved which activate in both the human and canine oxytocin attachment systems including gaze-mediated oxytocin release (Nagasawa et al, 2015).

The sensation of gentle touch also raises oxytocin levels and releases a feeling of wellbeing and trust due to cells under the skin which activate release. Touch is something we are aware of even before birth, in the womb vibration of a mother’s heartbeat is amplified by amniotic fluid. As we grow, understanding touch is an instrumental part of our development which enhances attachment (Chillot,

2013). The primary somatosensory cortex can differentiate the qualities of touch and the meanings associated with this. Both positive and negative facial expressions can intensify the feeling of the associated touch, with pupillary responses showing attentional allocation particularly in regard to positive touch (Ellingses et al, 2014). Tactile communication enhances prosocial cooperation and intent with touch enhancing and intensifying emotional related communication (Hertenstein, 2006). Studies have shown that when oxytocin is released by gentle sensory stimulation it increases anti- stress effects, the function of the gastrointestinal tract and the pain threshold. Additionally, it has been identified that carer and dog oxytocin levels tend to be closely related. Carers with lower oxytocin levels have been found to touch their dogs more frequently, raising both the carer and dog’s levels. Results have shown that cortisol levels can be higher in the dogs initially during an interaction because of positive arousal (the anticipation of play) but become lowered through calming touch. There is a correlation between the levels of cortisol and oxytocin, and carers and their dogs, with calming or excitable behaviours influencing the other’s levels, showing a mutual awareness of behavioural cues and emotional states (Petersson, et al, 2017). Positive interaction has been shown to increase beta-endorphin, prolactin, beta-phenylethylamine, oxytocin and dopamine levels (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003) alongside raised serotonin levels (Johnson, 2004).

When monitoring brain patterns for different forms of touch, for example stroking or massage, studies have shown brain wave patterns differ depending on the methods used. For example, research into brainwave patterns when delivering TTouch has shown activation/re-awakening of unused neural pathways, healthy cell function stimulation, increased learning and body awareness. The brainwave pattern suggests that TTouch can simultaneously relax the body and brain whilst enabling an alert thinking state (Richmond, 2010). The Mind Mirror series of EEGs, devised by Cade and Blundell in the 1970s, produced a process to evaluate brainwave states that correlated with the subjective mind, creating the opportunity to measure an ‘awakened’ brainwave pattern. This is the state of consciousness which allows a greater flexibility in thinking whether through healing and self- knowledge or problem solving and emotional awareness. There is flow between the conscious, subconscious and unconscious which enables the integration of intuition, insight and empathy (Tellington-Jones, 2003), and involves delta, theta, alpha and beta waves working in unison to create a higher state of consciousness. This brainwave state has been found in both those who administer the touch and those who receive it (Wise, 2018). The mindful approach promotes a philosophy of cooperation, awareness and respect in any interactions which promotes an enhanced human-animal bond (Fredlani in Richmond, 2010). The method of Tellington TTouch evolved from Linda Tellington- Jones’ work with horses and her study of the Feldenkrais Method of human mind-body integration. Feldenkrais theorised that the potential for learning could be enhanced by using non-habitual

14 movements which activated unused neural pathways and awakened new brain cells. Linda moved this forward because she recognised the intelligence of the independent cells, with each cell functioning individually but also cooperating with the other cells in the body. She quoted Charles Sherrington as saying ‘…every cell knows its function within the body, as well as its function within the universe’ (Sherrington in Tellington-Jones, 2012, p 6). By using touch the cells within our own fingers can convey messages to another at cellular level (Tellington-Jones, 2012).

Bringing mindfulness to the relationship between a carer and their dog will help to develop a stronger bond of trust. Blocked emotional processes caused by emotional trauma from recent or past experiences can accumulate as tension. The Trust Technique is a method that has been shown to reduce levels of anxiety allowing the brain to come into less aroused state and therefore encouraging the mind and body to relax. As both minds become peaceful the dog can start to feel our thoughts. This feeling of peace enhances the environment for the brain to learn and to gain a connection, ultimately creating a deep relaxed state where healing can take place (French, 2018). The need for peace in our lives is strong within all of us, it facilitates resilience and allows us to make better judgements and choices. By finding a place of inner peace and calmness in ourselves we can extend this in the form of trust to others. Trust grows from vulnerability as a result of positive experiences. Being aware of our own inner feelings and regulating our emotions has implications on other’s perceptions of our trustworthiness, highlighting the link between demonstrating trustworthiness and the development of trust (Buist, 2006). The investigation will add to our knowledge of trust and its effects, with particular reference to Romanian rescue dogs.

Methodology

I have used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to collate both primary and secondary sourced data to evidence which factors influence creating and maintaining a trusting relationship, the psychological and psychophysiological aspects which determine an individual’s capacity to understand and process relevant communication, and how our own self-awareness can influence the formation of trust and facilitate others in creating social bonds. I have identified themes by using multiple methods such as comparing and contrasting information, and scrutinising literature and the results of a case study, interviews and an online survey in order to collect data, and also to abstract underlying or latent ideas. There was, in part, a reflexive quality to identifying themes and patterns. The themes were to understand trust and the emotions involved, and to further investigate whether short term positive emotional experience could affect sustained feelings of wellbeing, future perspective and the ability to interact (Heller, 2015). I have evaluated methods used to create mutual trust between the dog and their carer, and analysed the data to infer this concept. By identifying the theoretical concept of trust I have investigated how the idea of trust is manifest, and from the analysis of data collected I have identified a relationship between our connection with Romanian rescue dogs and the methods used to gain their trust. There may be evidence to promote particular practices in given situations, and argue that the creation of trust is an essential quality in our relationship with our dogs.

In order to explore the quality of trust and how it enhances wellbeing, I have employed a mixed method approach employing three separate but related methods: a case study with my own dog Walter in order to evaluate the findings from a familiar Romanian rescue dog; two interviews with carers of rescue dogs, and then constructed an online survey using the information gathered from the interviews, case study and relevant information drawn from the literature review, to gain a broader perspective of the understanding and viewpoints surrounding this investigation. Each method has been undertaken separately and the findings from each brought together to form a coherent picture from which tentative conclusions can be drawn. I have chosen this range of methods in order to examine the effects that trust enhancing techniques may promote within an individual dog, and to identify patterns within a larger population.

Case study:

I have investigated three methods used to promote trust, and evaluated their efficacy with Walter.

• Trust Technique (French, 2018): calming techniques which generated a relaxed state to encourage Walter to feel peaceful. This method enables an intuitive connection through trusted cooperation. I monitored arousal levels in Walter and any associated behavioural changes. • Touch: still touch, circular finger movements allowing the skin to glide over muscles in head, ear, neck, shoulder, back and hindquarter areas, and long smooth strokes over the truck of the body. When using touch I identified changes in behaviour which could indicate emotional change. • Eye contact: to note when Walter instigated/avoided or had intermittent eye contact and which behaviours correlated with this. I monitored the different qualities within the eye contact and analysed which enhanced or detracted from the relationship.

I compared levels of calmness and arousal between each method, and how each may advance trust. The study took place in a familiar environment with general activity and noise.

One-to-one interviews:

From these findings I drew up questions relating the bond of trust between a rescue dog and their carer with which I formulated an interview. This involved two separate participants each with two dogs, and differing levels of experience regarding canine behaviour and guardianship of a Romanian rescue dog. The interviews were semi-structured with key questions using a qualitative approach to allow a consistent framework, but scope to pursue a detailed response into the role of trust when adopting a Romanian dog including the history, characteristics, triggers, trust development and future trust. The list of questions was given to both participants prior to the interviews (Appendix II). The questions were designed to gain an understanding of environmental factors, and the carer’s perspective of the dog’s emotional state in relation to the development of trust. Drawing from results of the literature survey they also touched on the recognition of the impact of stress and corresponding psychophysiological states, related behaviours and their relevance to successful trust formation. The findings were analysed to investigate a possible relationship between these factors and the quality of trust.

Online survey:

I then constructed an online survey using the information gained from the interviews, case study and relevant information drawn from the literature review, in order to gain a broader perspective of the understanding and viewpoints surrounding this investigation. The survey consisted of ten

17 questions (Appendix III) targeted to responders who have cared for a Romanian rescue dog, to evaluate the carer’s perspective on the relationship of trust with their dog, methods used and whether trust evolved. The survey was distributed through a selection of relevant pages on Facebook including the ISCP. Using different question types including slide rating, multiple choice and open ended enabled me to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. The findings were evaluated and recorded in table format (Appendix III).

Ethical statement

Consideration of each dog’s welfare and responder’s anonymity were maintained throughout the research. Walter had free access to come and go as he wished with no restraint. I observed body language and behaviour in order to monitor his wellbeing, and though he was familiar with the methods I’d chosen to explore I would withdraw from the study if he showed any discomfort. Each interviewee was given a consent form which informed them about the study, confidentiality and how the data would be presented with names changed to maintain confidentiality. The information from the survey was published in an anonymized form as stated. Note: methods should be used to engender trust, if we recognise our dog showing discomfort when receiving eye contact/touch or any other method then it is essential to listen and reassess.

Reflexivity

The methods, questions and analysis are subjective and whilst I have endeavoured to maintain objectivity I recognise this is not always possible. However, my own closeness to this topic gives an intimate insight into the issues and therefore has merit in its own right. The circumstances of every relationship between rescue dog and carer is unique and therefore cannot be generalised, but I hope this investigation will draw together findings that lead us to a better understanding of the quality of trust.

Results

In this section I present the results of the methods used in the previous chapter to investigate the enhancement of the bond of trust with a Romanian rescue dog, and to advance the themes brought forward in the literature survey regarding sustained feelings of wellbeing and future perspective being created from positive experience.

Case study

Trust Technique: Having settled Walter on the rug I sat beside him and used slow regular breaths to lower my heartrate and respiration. With this calmer mind state I remained focused on stillness, and the feeling of peacefulness which heightened awareness but enabled a detachment from the world around. The sensation of clarity and sensitivity to the moment induced a feeling of peace. My aim was to reduce Walter’s anxiety or arousal levels and bring about a more relaxed mind and body state. I used short periods of stillness of 30 - 60 seconds followed by a few seconds relaxation which I repeated over a period of 15 minutes. This feeling of peacefulness can extend to those around us (figure 1), and in this state Walter was non-reactive other than through small ear movements. He remained in relaxation for a period of 10 minutes (figure 2) and then I gently moved and raised his awareness again.

Figure 1 Figure 2

He appeared to carry this feeling of peacefulness for the evening after the session. I used no physical touch with this method, though Walter chose to make a connection when he was in relaxation. After

19 conducting this study I would suggest that Walter’s anxiety levels remained lowered, evidenced by more relaxed behaviours. When repeating the exercise he was quicker to respond and less reactive to external influences which have previously caused a rise in anxiety led behaviours. I would conclude from this that it appeared he was associating with the feeling of relaxation from the study, and this had created a change in his perspective regarding triggers which had previously caused raised stress levels.

Touch: I invited Walter to settle beside me in whichever position he chose to feel comfortable. Having given a few moments to create stillness, I worked with soft circular finger movements around the ears, temporomandibular joint and forehead, and slowly used the same method throughout the areas of muscle on the neck, shoulders, truck and hind limbs (figures 3 & 4).

Figure 3 Figure 4

Though Walter remained relaxed he participated in the massage both verbally and by using his body to show which areas he preferred me to work. I interspersed the rotations with long whole body strokes (figure 5) to break up the intensity of the work and occasional periods of still touch (figure 6). By his expression he appeared to be internalising the physical sensation of touch, and indicated appreciation during the study. Afterwards he reciprocated his feelings of wellbeing and enjoyment with me through play (figure 7). Repetitions established improved connection and a corresponding feeling of physical relaxation. Enjoying the experience of touch has appeared to encourage him to become more tactile and seek positive social interaction.

Figure 5

Figure 6 Figure 7

Eye contact: Walter had instigated eye contact several times during the touch session when I felt he chose to draw my attention to work on a particular area by holding my gaze for one to two seconds (figure 5). He appeared to use it to make a connection to ask a question or as an acknowledgement when I hit the spot! The nature of the eye contact was dependent upon several variables with particular relevance to the reciprocity of expression and intensity of gaze. The appraisal of body language, environment and history were essential in the formation of developing eye contact, and the development fundamentally at the dog’s pace. If I noticed a rise in anxiety levels I would redirect my gaze to use my peripheral vision therefore avoiding direct contact. However, during play including training (figure 8) when his excitement levels were raised there was a longer duration of eye contact (up to approximately 5 seconds). Conversely when he was in a more relaxed state, I needed to soften

21 my expression in order to prolong contact. The use of verbal cues, happy and smiling facial expressions and relaxed body language encouraged eye contact (Figures 9 & 10). There appeared to be a relationship between Walter’s emotional state and the quality and duration of eye contact, when his confidence was buoyant the contact became more secure. I would also suggest that a dog spends time observing his humans, and exchanging appropriate eye contact at this moment also conveys our mutual emotional reciprocity.

Figure 8 Figure 9 above, figure 10 below

Interviews

To further develop the theme that short term positive emotional experience can affect long term feelings and perspective, I selected the interview questions for two interviewees each with two dogs, to investigate the possible relationship between the development and quality of trust, and the methods used.

The interviewees described several methods they had used to promote trust including interaction through play, which the carers thought had promoted changes in confidence levels, quality of eye contact and empathetic communication. It was reported that play had appeared to enhance both the short and longer term feelings of wellbeing, in particular Clara had changed her behaviour and perspective during interactions with her carer. Important components of trust development were stated as recognising triggers which raised anxiety and taking appropriate action, and allowing the dog time to assess and feel comfortable within his/her environment and corresponding interactions. The carers suggested that their dogs’ confidence and trust levels were enhanced by contact with a dog already living in the home or when a new dog was introduced to the home, indicating a possible benefit to both the inter and intra-species relationship. The feedback obtained from the interviews allowed me to construct appropriate questions for the survey.

Interview responses

Figure 11

Dog’s name Sophie Penny Clara Henry History Romania Romania Romania Privately Romania Public shelter/ Public shelter funded shelter Privately funded UK foster shelter General More confident Prefers to Unused to home Initially needing characteristics with people than instigate contact. environment, reassurance. dogs. High anxiety on withdrawn but arrival. Confident accepting. Gained with another dog. confidence from resident dog. Triggers Motorbikes, Anxiety on Birdsong, rustling Motorbikes, snapping noises, entering vehicle. noises causes shows anxiety harness put on. bolting, high state with other dogs if of alert. with toy. Levels lower quickly.

Trust Anxiety levels Behavioural Early High energy and development lower quickly changes after 12 development of enjoys play and once stimulus months, reduced trust, raised tasks but also removed, gained anxiety and confidence levels gentleness. confidence when increased eye through play second dog contact. interaction. arrived. Future trust Recognition of Offering space & Move forward at Solid mutual bond triggers, dog time to process dog’s pace with of trust. centric approach, environment and awareness of Recognise when development of improve relaxed when to step calmness needs eye contact, interactions with back. Recognition to be introduced enjoys touch and people. of changes in to enable focus play. anxiety levels. and relaxation.

Survey

The survey was conducted using the online service Survey Monkey from 23/4/18 for a period of 7 days and received 285 responses. There were limitations regarding the online survey due to the subjectivity of each individual’s interpretation of the questions, however with the number and quality of responses it was possible to analyse the data to gain additional information on a range of patterns concerning the processes and perspectives concerning trust.

According to the survey I conducted, the length of time that the dogs had been adopted to their home was from 3 days to 5+ years with 64% coming directly from a Romanian shelter. Though around a third of dogs showed relaxed and/or playful behaviours in the first week the respondents also recognised several stress related behaviours. Withdrawn and anxiety led behaviours particularly featured, with dogs displaying multiple stress signals which included looking to escape, over excitability, excessive licking, chewing and biting, and vocalisations. These behaviours have been shown to be symptomatic of coping behaviours in a shelter environment (Appendix IV) and responses from the survey indicated that they decreased as trust levels increased. Responses for the level of trust shown in the first week ranged from no trust shown to extremely trusting with an average trust level of 54%. However this measured the respondent’s perception of trust rather than actual trust and therefore required further evaluation with the behaviours shown.

Question 4

It was more common for respondents to assess that trust developed by increments, though 19% of respondents thought that there had been a pivotal moment in the development of trust. 89% responded that there was a change in trust levels since rehoming, with perceived present trust now averaging at 89%. Each of the methods suggested in the survey to enable the advancement of trust had been taken up by at least 10% of respondents, with creating a safe environment and remaining fair, calm and consistent with your dog fronting the list. There were 71 additionally responses with several respondents commenting that giving the dog time was an essential component to building trust.

Question 7

There were 152 responses for Question 10, which I have summarized in order to maintain anonymity. From the feedback given it was evident that each situation between rescue dog and carer is individual, however there were some patterns which appeared within aspects of trust development such as having another dog to take on the role of mentor and confidence giver. The importance of this relationship was highlighted by one response with an older blind dog receiving friendship and guidance from the resident dog. Another pattern was the ability to recognise triggers and prevent exposure to perceived adverse experiences. Dogs who had spent longer in their home environment appeared to be more trusting, however this may have been because the carers had developed an awareness of strategies which best suited their dog’s needs. Dogs who had been more recently homed tended to display a wider range of behaviours, leading to a more varied range of trust/anxiety responses from their carers. With a few exceptions, the more recently homed dogs were appearing to display behaviours associated with stress though this didn’t always correlate with the assessment of trust. There was a high level of commitment to the care, understanding and wellbeing from the respondents to their dogs, with an emerging pattern developing on the recognition of trust. Several respondents stated that as their trust of the dog grew they became less anxious, in return their dog appeared to become more trusting and affectionate. This would further suggest that a positive short term emotional experience can activate the reward circuitry and affect future perspective and interaction.

A full table of survey questions and results can be found in Appendix III.

Discussion

The starting point for this investigation has been a Romanian rescue dog, and our wish to develop the bond of trust that is essential to enhance the mutual relationship beyond that of simply satisfying the needs for existence, to one of creating a strengthened partnership involving empathy, friendship and understanding. The fact that every relationship is unique, and therefore each is created with its own nuances and tones individual to that partnership, has been encapsulated in the study. However there are common factors that I have drawn from the investigation which affect trust formation, the three most influential factors appear to be;

1. The psychological and psychophysiological role of stress and its ability to affect the process of thought, emotion and learning.

2. The self-awareness of the carer in their interactions with the dog, and their sensitivity in understanding and reacting appropriately to behaviours and communication.

3. Allowing the dog choice and time to make unpressured decisions, in which he can assess and feel comfortable within his environment and interactions therefore enabling an enhanced emotional state.

The ability for individuals to have choices and make decisions to an extent will determine their level of wellbeing. They need to have the opportunity to create a positive resolution to problems and dilemmas, or to distance themselves from the environment physically or psychologically. When neither of these solutions are possible the individual will go through a process of cognitive perseveration, worrying or dwelling on an unsatisfactory outcome. Over time if an individual can no longer make choices this can lead to pain, exhaustion, withdrawal or learned helplessness (Marr, 2017). A dog who has spent a prolonged period of time in a shelter environment may display this behaviour, or give the appearance of holding physical pain and tension. The study results suggest that once in the home environment it is important to allow the dog options so he can formulate fundamental decisions for himself, for example making simple choices about where he feels safe to rest. Many Romanian dogs have been through the traumatic experience of capture from life on the street where they have lived a semi feral existence, and have never experienced a home environment. Even mundane events and objects may cause fear, anxiety or overstimulation, a dog who appears to be coping may in fact have become withdrawn and/or susceptible to showing behaviours that are unanticipated such as fear aggression or flight. Over half of the survey respondents stated that they recognised withdrawn behaviours, with some commenting that their dogs appeared to show anxiety or coping behaviours several years after adoption, indicating that past experience (O’Conner, 2017)

28 and the individual’s resilience has bearing on the ability to regulate the impact of negative events (Davison, 2004), and that each is individual concerning duration and methods of rehabilitation.

Recognising a dog’s anxiety levels and corresponding behaviours enables an evaluated response. There are multiple elements to consider when making this assessment which include the effects of past experience, environment, individual characteristics and emotional resilience. The complexity of this analysis can raise differing opinion. Findings from the survey indicated that some respondents perceived a high level of trust in the first week but also stated the dog was showing behaviours indicating raised anxiety levels. This could suggest that the dog was seeking a social attachment with their carer in order to promote improved feelings of wellbeing, or that behaviours expressed by the dog may have been misinterpreted. Learning and understanding each individual’s communication signals and corresponding behaviours is pivotal to increasing an empathetic awareness (Goleman, 1996). Having assimilated an understanding from experience and observation, we can construct and shape methods most suitable to creating an environment of trust.

Our cognitive control and emotional regulation are essential in the formation of trustworthiness, the acceptance of the present using non-judgemental thought processes which will heighten our awareness of affective cues and empathetic responses (Buist, 2006). Gaining trust takes time and essentially has to be given through choice, but the benefits promote confidence, companionship and authenticity. Using methods which create a positive emotion have been shown to lead to sustained feelings of wellbeing (Heller, 2015). In the case study, the findings suggested that Trust Technique, touch and certain qualities of eye contact each created short term positive emotions which appeared to reverberate over longer periods of time. This argument is further strengthened in Survey Question 7, when I examined methods chosen to develop trust. Certain methods appear to lower anxiety levels by offering the dog a known resource such as a safe environment or consistency from his carer, whilst others such as positive training, play, rewards and TTouch, activate the reward circuitry helping the dog feel better about himself and the interactions with his carer. In the interviews play was reported to improve self-perspective and human-canine interaction which further progressed the dog’s ability to cope with external triggers. By combining techniques to lower anxiety and raise reward expectation we may start to encourage resilience and positive affective processing.

From the perspective of carer, we also need to become attuned to our own feelings. How we perceive the relationship with our dog can determine the outcomes. Intrinsic motivation- that the enjoyment of being with our dog brings its own internal rewards (Ohlin, 2016), coupled with mindfulness of our emotional balance, enables a focused and empathetic awareness (Sun, 2015). The studies suggested that our expectation of certain behaviours can inhibit positive outcomes, due to the

29 relationship between mutual awareness of behavioural cues and emotional states and the cortisol/oxytocin balance, which can raise or lower our ability to interpret and respond to each other (Petersson, 2017). Respondents had stated that they recognised a change in behaviours that would indicate developing trust when they became less anxious, or more confident and relaxed in the relationship with their dog. The spiralling effect of raised anxiety levels can affect both ourselves and our dogs, leading to an underlying level of stress with long term implications on psychological and physiological wellbeing (Rein, 1995; Pawluski, 2017). By recognising the signs of stress we can instigate measures which can positively impact resilience and affective processing. Social connection, empathy, integrity, consistency, compassion and patience are qualities which enable trust to form, these become more accessible to us when we remain calm and mindful. Simply clearing our mind and focusing on slowing our breathing will help to activate the vagus nerve, which in turn regulates the physiological systems which support prosocial behaviour (Kok, 2016). Common neurological pathways related to short and long term emotional experiences can reinforce the feelings of reward and wellbeing, which create an upward spiral of connection and lead to a positive perspective regarding the relationship (Heller, 2015). In the studies respondents said that they recognised that reinforcing the bond of trust enables changes in behaviour. This links with the reasoning that oxytocin is influential in the development of prosocial bonds, approach behaviour and has a particular role in maintaining trust within social interactions (Baumgartner, 2008). By using methods to enhance the levels of oxytocin we can correspondingly enhance bonding. The study showed both a wide variation in the time it took for respondents to develop trust with their dog, and the individual strengths within the bond. I would argue that there are many variables which affect the quality of the bond, and comparison is invalid because the components within each relationship are unique. It is this uniqueness which makes every relationship between a dog and their carer special. This was highlighted by the statements relating to commitment, empathy and care in regard to building trust, given by the respondents in the interviews and survey.

Conclusion.

‘Without trust, there can be no genuine peace, neither in politics, nor in the quiet individuality of the heart and spirit’ (Zahn, 2011, p. 38).

When considering the findings of this investigation I would conclude that the essential qualities in the formation of trust are integrity, empathy and regard for those with whom we wish to engender trust, in seeking those qualities we can create a relationship of mutual connection and understanding. We become aware of our dog’s emotional state; how stress may adversely influence the ability of the brain and body to function efficiently, but conversely that activating the brain’s neurological reward centres can promote feelings of resilience and wellbeing. The Dalai Lama stated that ‘Building trust depends on concern for others and defending their rights, not doing them harm’ (Dalai Lama 2016), words which resonate through the relationship of trust with our dog. Throughout the studies I sensed a passion and commitment from each carer to be a voice for their dog, they offered sanctuary to those who were scared, patience to those who needed time, enabled learning whilst listening, and offered love without boundaries. Let’s evaluate our own agenda regarding the partnership with our dog, he is here from our choosing and it becomes our responsibility to learn to understand his language, provide for his individual needs and offer him a refuge of peace in which he can truly be himself. This partnership is unique between every dog and their carer, the rewards throughout the journey of trust are infinite and special. Indeed the smallest indications of trust may prove to be the most precious as with Walter’s gift to me, possibly because I was the first person ever to trust him.

Figure 12 Living the dream.

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