Francis of Assisi Francis of Assisi A New Biography | [ Augustine Thompson, O.P. ] Cornell University Press Ithaca and London FRONTISPIECE illuSTRATION Frater Franciscus, anonymous fresco, before 1228, Sacro Speco, Monastero di San Benedetto, Subiaco, Italy. Used with permission. Copyright © 2012 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2012 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thompson, Augustine. Francis of Assisi: a new biography / Augustine Thompson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8014-5070-9 (cloth: alk. paper) 1. Francis, of Assisi, Saint, 1182–1226. 2. Christian saints— Italy—Assisi—Biography. I. Title. BX4700.F6T46 2012 271'.302—dc23 [B] 2011037724 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [ Contents ] Introduction vii PART I T he Life 1. “When I Was in My Sins,” 1181–1205 3 2. The Penitent from Assisi, 1206–1209 19 3. The Primitive Fraternity, 1209–1215 34 4. Expansion and Consolidation, 1216–1220 54 5. Francis Returns Home, 1220–1221 72 6. Rules and Retirement, 1221–1223 91 7. The Way of the Cross, 1223–1225 110 8. From Penitent to Saint, 1225–1226 126 For Further Reading 143 Contents PART II S ources and Debates Preliminary Note 149 List of Abbreviations 151 On the “Franciscan Question” 153 On Chapter 1 171 On Chapter 2 189 On Chapter 3 207 On Chapter 4 223 On Chapter 5 236 On Chapter 6 249 On Chapter 7 261 On Chapter 8 271 Bibliography 279 Index 293 [ vi ] [ Introduction ] hi S BOOK IS subtitled A New Biography, by which I mean not just a recent biography, but one that also presents a new portrait of the man known as Saint Francis of Assisi. We are fortunate to have a great mass Tof stories, anecdotes, reports, and writings about Francis dating from his own cen- tury, most of which scholars now consider in some or all respects “legendary.” This life is the first sustained attempt inE nglish to treat these medieval sources for Francis in a consistently, sometimes ruthlessly, critical manner. The goal is to reveal, as much as we can, the man behind the legends. With one notable exception—the Italian Francis scholar Raoul Manselli— even academic writers on Francis seem to rely on the same set of stories mostly put together in the same way. Or, after Manselli, they do not go much beyond his reconstructions. Sometimes they even claim that it is impossible to find the man behind the legends. Popular writers, on the other hand, give different spins to Francis’s life as a whole but usually repeat events in it as if their his- torical truth were obvious. Or, at best, they label them “legendary,” without attempting to find the historical reality behind them. In writing this book, I have asked a series of questions about the evidence we have for Francis. First, who wrote the text? Was it Francis, someone who knew him, or someone who just heard about him? Oddly, many popular bi- ographies favor hearsay stories over Francis’s own writings. Next, when was the document written? I have great doubts about whether we can trust reports composed over two generations after Francis’s death, and for which we have no earlier evidence. This is especially the case with miracle stories, not because Introduction I do not think miracles happen, but because Francis was a canonized saint, and for medieval people, adding more miracles to his “biography” was not fraud, but an act of homage and piety. The famous Wolf of Gubbio failed that test. On the other hand, Francis’s life would be incomplete without the popular perception of miraculous power that surrounded his person after he became a “living saint” in his later years. Above all, I have been highly skeptical of any story in which Francis is made the mouthpiece for a party involved in some debate within his order years after his death, especially stories on the Francis- can practice of poverty. This reading of the sources for Francis has resulted in a number of diver- gences from the usual story. The Francis I have come to know has proved a more complex and personally conflicted man than the saint of the legends. It is, I think, misleading to assimilate him to some stereotyped image of “holi- ness,” especially one that suggests that a “saint” never has crises of faith, is never angry or depressed, never passes judgments, and never becomes frus- trated with himself or others. Francis’s very humanity makes him, I think, more impressive and challenging than a saint who embodied that (impossible) kind of holiness. I would also emphasize that my “Historical Francis” is no more the “real Francis” than the Francis of the legends and popular biog- raphies. He is “historical” in that the picture I have painted is the result of historical method, not theological reflection or pious edification. That said, I do think that my Francis is closer to the man known by his thirteenth-century contemporaries than the figure we find in the modern biographies I have read. I do hope that my portrait reveals a Francis that will provide stimulus for new theological reflection and for richer Christian piety. I came to Francis as something of an outsider. As a historian, I was new to the contentious and often bitter world of academic controversy over the Historical Francis. Especially for his modern followers, the Franciscan friars, nuns, sisters, and lay tertiaries, how one imagines Francis and his concerns has powerful, sometimes highly divisive, implications for living one’s life today. I have no personal stake in those internal Franciscan debates. As Americans col- loquially say, I don’t have a dog in that fight. But I must also be forthcoming. Although I write principally as a historian, I am also a Catholic Christian, a priest, and a member of the Order of Preach- ers, the Dominicans, who are often considered the twin of Francis’s own Friars Minor. I admit that I never had much devotion to Saint Francis, and I always found it mildly amusing that we Dominicans refer to him as “Our Holy Father Francis,” using the title “Father,” which he went out of his way to avoid. As I have worked on this biography, my respect for Francis and for his vision has increased, and I hope that this book will speak to modern people, believers and [ viii ] Introduction unbelievers alike, and that the Francis I have come to know will have some- thing to say to them today. Some readers of this book will be scholars, perhaps Franciscans, who have spent years studying the Middle Ages, the Order of Friars Minor, or its founder. They will have questions about methods and sources; for those readers I have provided commentaries on each chapter in part 2 of this book, “Sources and Debates.” These explain the decisions that lie behind my narrative. The sec- tion of “Sources and Debates” titled “On the ‘Franciscan Question’ ” answers some questions that all readers might have about the scholarly debates, which are usually characterized as the “Search for the Historical Francis” and have now lasted over one hundred years. Specialists will want to read all these com- mentary sections systematically, probably along with the life. Other readers will want to look into these comments only occasionally, when they wonder about why I describe incidents of Francis’s life the way I do. Readers who want to consult the commentary sections will find page references there that cor- respond to the text of the life. If readers are in their fifties, as I am, they may have been introduced to Francis by Franco Zefferelli’s filmBrother Sun, Sister Moon, the last and perhaps greatest monument in a line of romantic interpretations going back over a hundred years. In this story, Francis was a free spirit, a wild religious genius, a kind of medieval hippie, misunderstood and then exploited by the “medi- eval Church.” Or perhaps they know him as the man who spoke to animals, a nature mystic, an ecologist, a pacifist, a feminist, a “voice for our time.” For others, he is the little plaster man on the birdbath, the most charming and non- threatening of Catholic saints. Like Jesus, Francis belongs to everyone, and so everyone, or almost everyone, has his or her own Francis. And this is probably the way it has to be. In years of teaching, I have often been astounded at how unhappy students can be when they encounter a different Francis from the one they expect. Oddly enough, the most painful moment usually comes when they discover that Saint Francis did not write the “Peace Prayer of Saint Francis”—a popular hymn best known by its opening words “Make me a channel of your peace,” and sung to a tune written by the Anglican composer Sebastian Temple. Many are quite shocked to find that this song is not identical to Francis’s “Canticle of Brother Sun,” from which Zefferelli took the name of his movie.