Human Movement 16 (4) 2015

Uniwersytet Medyczny w Łodzi Medical University of Lodz https://publicum.umed.lodz.pl

The effect of swimming activity on lung function parameters among smoking and non- Publikacja / Publication smoking youth - research extended, Michalak Katarzyna, Pawlicka-Lisowska Agnieszka, Poziomska-Piątkowska Elżbieta DOI wersji wydawcy / Published http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humo-2015-0045 version DOI Adres publikacji w Repozytorium URL / Publication address in https://publicum.umed.lodz.pl/info/article/AMLd14e59146d45408f8cd59f4250e4212d/ Repository Rodzaj licencji / Type of licence Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND) Michalak Katarzyna, Pawlicka-Lisowska Agnieszka, Poziomska-Piątkowska Elżbieta: The effect of swimming activity on lung function parameters among smoking and non- Cytuj tę wersję / Cite this version smoking youth - research extended, Human Movement, vol. 16, no. 4, 2015, pp. 229- 233, DOI:10.1515/humo-2015-0045 University School of Physical Education in Wrocław University School of Physical Education in Kraków

vol. 16, number 4 (December), 2015

Pobrano z https://publicum.umed.lodz.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Medical University of Lodz 2021-10-07 University School of Physical Education in Wrocław (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu) University School of Physical Education in Kraków (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie)

Human Movement quarterly vol. 16, number 4 (December), 2015, pp. 177 – 238

Editor-in-Chief alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Associate Editor edward Mleczko University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland

Editorial Board Physical activity, fitness and health Wiesław Osiński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland Applied sport sciences Zbigniew Trzaskoma Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland Biomechanics and motor control Tadeusz Bober University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Kornelia Kulig University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA Physiological aspects of sports Andrzej Suchanowski Józef Rusiecki Olsztyn University College, Olsztyn, Poland Psychological diagnostics of sport and exercise Andrzej Szmajke Opole University, Opole, Poland

Advisory Board Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA Gudrun Doll-Tepper Free University, Berlin, Germany Józef Drabik University School of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, Poland Kenneth Hardman University of Worcester, Worcester, United Kingdom Andrew Hills Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, Australia Zofia Ignasiak University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Slobodan Jaric University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA Toivo Jurimae University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Han C.G. Kemper Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Wojciech Lipoński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland Gabriel Łasiński University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Robert M. Malina University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA Melinda M. Manore Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA Philip E. Martin Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA Joachim Mester German Sport University, Cologne, Germany Toshio Moritani Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Andrzej Pawłucki University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland John S. Raglin Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Roland Renson Catholic University, Leuven, Belgium Tadeusz Rychlewski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland James F. Sallis San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA James S. Skinner Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Jerry R. Thomas University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA Karl Weber German Sport University, Cologne, Germany Peter Weinberg Hamburg, Germany Marek Woźniewski University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Guang Yue Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA Wladimir M. Zatsiorsky Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA Jerzy Żołądź University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland

Translation: Michael Antkowiak, Junique Justin Nnorom, Agnieszka Piasecka Design: Agnieszka Nyklasz Copy editor: Beata Irzykowska Statistical editor: Małgorzata Kołodziej

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Editorial...... 180 physical activity, fitness and health Bettina Ried, Graciele Massoli Rodrigues, Cássio Miranda Meira Jr Analysis of previous perceptual and motor experience in breaststroke kick learning...... 181 Katarzyna Z. Antosiak-Cyrak, Grzegorz Wiczyński, Elżbieta M. Rostkowska Laterality of the legs in young female soccer players...... 189 Dariusz Lenart Sports activity as a factor differentiating the level of somatic constitution and physical fitness of officer cadets at the Military Academy of Land Forces...... 195 Ivanna Bodnar, Evhen Prystupa The efficiency of integrated and segregated physical education classes for secondary school students with physical and mental disabilities and poor fitness...... 200 biomechanics and motor control Marcelo P. Pereira, Paulo H. Silva Pelicioni, Lilian T.B. Gobbi The role of proprioception in the sagittal setting of anticipatory postural adjustments during gait initiation...... 206 Jan Gajewski, Joanna Mazur-Różycka, Patrycja Łach, Sebastian Różycki, Piotr Żmijewski, Krzysztof Buśko, Radosław Michalski Changes of physiological tremor following maximum intensity exercise in male and female young swimmers...... 214 physiological aspects of sports Anna Książek, Aleksandra Zagrodna, Jadwiga Pietraszewska, Małgorzata Słowińska-Lisowska 25(OH)D levels and skinfolds thickness in athletes...... 221 Lilianna Jaworska, Arletta Hawrylak, Bartosz Burzyński, Joanna Szczepańska-Gieracha Effect of progressive muscle relaxation on pain threshold and effectiveness of footballers’ training...... 225 Katarzyna Michalak, Agnieszka Pawlicka-Lisowska, Elżbieta Poziomska-Piątkowska The effect of swimming activity on lung function parameters among smoking and non-smoking youth – research extended...... 229

Publishing guidelines – Regulamin publikowania prac...... 234

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editorial

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all Reviewers for their most effective contribution to improvement of quality of Human Movement in 2015:

Tadeusz Bober, Wrocław (Poland) Dmytro Poliszczuk, Warszawa (Poland) Tomasz Boraczyński, Olsztyn (Poland) Stanisław Przybylski, Gdańsk (Poland) Guilherme Cesar, Lincoln (USA) Jonathan Sinclair, Preston (UK) Henryk Duda, Kraków (Poland) Anna Siniarska-Wolańska, Warszawa (Poland) Jerzy Eliasz, Warszawa (Poland) Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Wrocław (Poland) Abbigail Fietzer, Los Angeles (USA) Małgorzata Słowińska-Lisowska, Wrocław (Poland) Felicja Fink-Lwow, Wrocław (Poland) Małgorzata Sobera, Wrocław (Poland) Andrzej Frydrychowski, Gdańsk (Poland) Piotr Sorokowski, Wrocław (Poland) Jan Gajewski, Warszawa (Poland) Tadeusz Stefaniak, Wrocław (Poland) Tomasz Grzywacz, Gdańsk (Poland) Rafał Stemplewski, Poznań (Poland) Monika Guszkowska, Warszawa (Poland) Andrzej Suchanowski, Olsztyn (Poland) Grzegorz Juras, Katowice (Poland) Małgorzata Syczewska, Warszawa (Poland) Adam Kanatanista, Poznań (Poland) Jan Szczegielniak, Opole (Poland) Adam Kawczyński, Wrocław (Poland) Robert Szeklicki, Poznań (Poland) Kazimierz Kochanowicz, Gdańsk (Poland) Andrzej Szmajke, Opole (Ponad) Tadeusz Koszczyc, Wrocław (Poland) Agnieszka Szpala, Wrocław (Poland) Sławomir Kozieł, Wrocław (Poland) Zbigniew Szyguła, Kraków (Poland) Magdalena Król-Zielińska, Poznań (Poland) Maciej Tomczak, Poznań (Poland) Krzysztof Kusy, Poznań (Poland) Zbigniew Trzaskoma, Warszawa (Poland) Maria Laurentowska, Poznań (Poland) Aleksander Tyka, Kraków (Poland) Szu-Ping Lee, Las Vegas (USA) Dariusz Wieliński, Poznań (Poland) Krzysztof Maćkała, Wrocław (Poland) Magdalena Więcek, Kraków (Poland) Eugenia Mandal, Katowice (Poland) Michał Wilk, Katowice (Poland) Edward Mleczko, Kraków (Poland) Ida Wiszomirska, Warszawa (Poland) Bartosz Ochmann, Wrocław (Poland) Marek Zatoń, Wrocław (Poland) Barbara Ostrowska, Lublin (Poland) Jerzy Zawadzki, Wrocław (Poland) Maciej Pawlak, Poznań (Poland) Jacek Zieliński, Poznań (Poland) Marek Pieniążek, Kraków (Poland) Ewa Ziemann, Gdańsk (Poland) Beata Pluta, Poznań (Poland) Ewa Ziółkowska-Łajp, Poznań (Poland)

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Analysis of previous perceptual and motor experience in breaststroke kick learning

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0044

Bettina Ried 1 *, Graciele Massoli Rodrigues 2, Cássio Miranda Meira Jr3 1 Jundiaí Physical Education College, Jundiaí, Brazil 2 São Judas University, São Paulo, Brazil 3 School of Arts, Sciences, and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract One of the variables that influence motor learning is the learner’s previous experience, which may provide perceptual and motor elements to be transferred to a novel motor skill. For swimming skills, several motor experiences may prove effective. Purpose. The aim was to analyse the influence of previous experience in playing in water, swimming lessons, and music or dance lessons on learning the breaststroke kick. Methods. The study involved 39 Physical Education students possessing basic swimming skills, but not the breaststroke, who performed 400 acquisition trials followed by 50 retention and 50 transfer trials, during which stroke index as well as rhythmic and spatial configuration indices were mapped, and answered a yes/no questionnaire regarding previous experience. Data were analysed by ANOVA (p = 0.05) and the effect size (Cohen’s d 0.8 indicating large effect size). Results. The whole sample improved their stroke index and spatial configuration index, but not their rhythmic configuration index. Although differences between groups were not significant, two types of experience showed large practical effects on learning: childhood water playing experience only showed major practically relevant positive effects, and no experience in any of the three fields hampered the learning process. Conclusions. The results point towards diverse impact of previous experience regarding rhythmic activities, swimming lessons, and especially with playing in water during childhood, on learning the breaststroke kick. Key words: breaststroke kick, motor learning, previous experience

Introduction all propulsion techniques. In order to promote novel swimming skill learning, such perceptual similarities can One of the variables that may improve motor skill be provided by any experience with support and propul- learning is previous experience, since existing perceptual sion actions in water, independently whether these actions and motor experiences can be transferred to the skill to bear any pattern similarities with the technique to be be learnt [1–3]. This transfer is most likely to happen learnt or not. This rationale drives most methods used between similar skills, but can happen between skills that in teaching swimming skills: hence, the most productive do not bear any similarity. In this case, it is implicit knowl- setting for acquiring this experience should be formal edge of underlying principles that govern both skills that swimming lessons. can facilitate learning. On the other hand, such perceptual experience may So, several motor pattern similarities can be found be provided not only by formal swimming lessons, but between swimming skills and terrestrial locomotor abili- also by playing in water, which may even provide large ties, such as walking and crawling [4], which are exploited opportunity to perceive the interaction between the body by first teaching skills that show such similarities, like and the water. So, playing in water is supposed to impact alternate swimming skills as the front crawl, before the learning of novel swimming skills, such as the breast- teaching simultaneous strokes like the breaststroke that stroke kick, in a similar way as experience in formal do have less motor pattern similarities with other strokes swimming lessons [6]. [5]. Especially the breaststroke kick does not bear any However, there is little research on the relationships similarity to other leg kick propulsion techniques, which between previous experience, especially with water as an presumably is one of the reasons for the breaststroke environment, and swimming skill learning. Whitney, to be considered as one of the most difficult stroke tech- Vetter and Wolpert [7] as well as Patrick et al. [8] showed niques to be learnt. that previous perceptual experience impacts motor learn- Notwithstanding, perceptual similarities between ing of laboratory skills (manual and locomotor), but both swimming techniques possibly bear greater potential authors stress the need of research into real life settings. of transfer from previous experience to skill learning, Investigation regarding infant swimming points towards since the principles underlying propulsion in supporting an acceleration in motor development [9–11], but does not and propelling the body in water are mostly the same in allow conclusions about the possible transfer of knowledge that might help when it comes to swimming skill learning. Following the same line of thinking, formal swim- * Corresponding author. ming lessons supposedly also provide such perceptual and

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motor experiences and so individuals that underwent in water, formal swimming lessons, and rhythmic activi- formal swimming lessons should also benefit from trans- ties. The hypothesis was that participants that declare fer of perceptual experience to novel swimming skills. having experiences in any of these fields, alone or com- Besides experience directly related to motor skills in bined, would show differentiated learning behaviours water, there are other fields of experience that might along the breaststroke kick learning process. impact swimming skill learning, such as rhythm focused activities (dancing, playing music). One of the features Material and methods that distinguishes a motor skill from others is its rhythmic structure [1, 2], which includes not only relative The sample was intentionally chosen between PE stu- timing (the temporal length of each of its components dents due to the fact that this population usually brings in relation to the total duration of the pattern), but also along heterogeneous experiences from diversified envi- the typical distribution of emphases and pauses (con- ronments, which allows to suppose a widespread range traction and relaxation) along the pattern [2, 12]. This of previous motor experiences without any selectivity rhythmic configuration is one of the first features ac- regarding specific abilities1. Thirty-nine students from quired by a learner and decisive for success in the first initial semesters volunteered for the study (20 men and performance attempts [2]. Swimming techniques are 19 women aged 21.2 ± 3.9 years) and declared that they skills in which the rhythmic structure is especially criti- could create propulsion by motor action when floating cal for skilled performance, given that it is indispensable in chest deep water, even if not by formal stroke tech- for producing propulsion in the water environment, nique, and did not know the breaststroke2. All partici- because it ensures that force is applied in the exactly best pants signed informed consent forms, as approved by the possible moment of the pattern. This is especially rele- University’s Ethics Committee. vant in breaststroke kicking, as pointed out by Seifert and In the first part of the study, participants performed Chollet [13] and Barbosa and colleagues [14]. During 400 acquisition trials of the breaststroke kick in prone the learning process, information about the rhythmic position (4 blocks of 50 trials on one day and another structure of a skill can be acquired either from the in- 4 blocks two days later) followed by 50 retention and struction provided by a teacher or model, or from implicit 50 transfer trials, the latter in supine position, another learning about the interaction of the learner’s body two days later. All trials were conducted in a heated in- with the water. However, in this case, too, specific expe- door pool, 0.90 to 1.50 m deep, within a spatial reference rience presumably facilitates the learner’s perception of system 2 m wide and 15 m long, consisting of two parallel rhythmic structures in this interaction and its results on custom-made lane lines indicating distance from the performance. Thus, previous experience in rhythm based starting wall in 10 cm intervals (see Figure 1). For all trials, activities, like playing music or dancing, in which the per- participants used a floating device (“pool noodle”) under ception of rhythmical structures is constantly required, their arms and shoulders along all trials, and pull buoys will presumably also facilitate the acquisition of a skill between their thighs for starting every set of 10 trials whose rhythmic structure is unfamiliar [2], since per- (the device was released with the beginning of the first ceptual experience is subject to transfer, too [1]. trial) to start in the horizontal body position. Before each Therefore, better rhythmic perception should impli- set of 10 trials, participants were allowed to access infor- cate easier detection of rhythmic structures in a novel mation about the skill (video demonstration by a skilled skill. The relation between rhythm perception in general model or auditory verbal description displayed on a net- and learning the rhythm of a new motor skill was shown book, repeated as many times as required by the partici- in the tennis serve and slalom skiing by Rieder, Balsch- pant), but no feedback was given. All trials were vide- bach and Payer [15]. Their experiment showed better otaped for further analysis. The first and last block of learning of the target pattern in both skills if participants five trial sets on each of both days during acquisition first performed rhythmic exercises involving spatial and/ phase, as well as all retention and transfer trials, were or rhythmic patterns even if those patterns did not re- analysed with Kinovea software (www.kinovea.org), semble the target pattern. In a similar study, Wang and mapping three major performance parameters. Hart [16] found that learners that not only underwent Subsequently, data about previous experience were the usual teaching process of the butterfly stroke, but, in collected on a retrospective questionnaire, prepared spe- addition, listened to an audio file displaying the sound cifically for this study, in which participants were asked of the water splashing during an expert butterfly perfor- to tick whether (a) they had experience in music, dance mance, did learn more effectively than the control group or similar rhythmic motor activities lessons, (b) and/or that had not listened to the audio file. formal swimming lessons, both for at least 40 hours Based on these thoughts, and considering that research over six months or more, and (c) if they had played in regarding previous experience and its relation to swim- water during childhood, as long as this playing action ming skill learning is scarce, the present study aims to had taken place in water deeper than 90 cm (pool, lake, analyse the influence of three types of previous expe- river or seafront) for at least 30 days a year from four rience on learning the breaststroke kick: childhood play years of age on.

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Mapping of Stroke Index elapsed for these eight kicks. Based on these data, the stroke index was calculated for every trial, each trial Since stroke efficiency is the most significant aim when comprising in average ten kicks, by dividing the mean learning a swimming skill, as the main learning outcome swimming speed per stroke by the mean stroke length index, the stroke index was calculated by multiplying [17]. After repeating this procedure for each trial set, swimming speed by distance per stroke along a given the mean stroke index for each trial block during ac- number of strokes [17]. For measuring swimming dis- quisition phase (A1, A2, A3, A4) and for retention and tance and speed, the trial set video was displayed using transfer trials was calculated. Kinovea software, and the moment in which the knees or hips began to flex for the second kick was determined Mapping of spatial configuration as the onset moment of that kick. Then, the number of kicks was counted to mark the onset moment of the As a second parameter, the spatial configuration pat- tenth kick. For each of these two moments, the distance tern was mapped, which quantifies how well the parti from the starting wall was obtained by tracing a straight cipant’s execution of the kick matches the ideal kick line between two points on the lane lines equally distant pattern, as suggested by major swimming technique from the starting wall which would pass through a pre- textbooks [18–20]. For this comparison, the presence viously defined reference point on the participant’s body or absence of four spatial configuration indicators was (usually the intersection of spinal column and swimsuit checked for each of the kicks considered for stroke in- waistband or neckline; see Figure 1). The difference be- dex calculation: (a) simultaneous and symmetric flexion tween these two points gave the distance covered along of knees, (b) simultaneous and symmetric abduction eight kicks, and the difference between the two frame of feet, (c) simultaneous and symmetrical extension of times exhibited by the software (Figure 1) gave the time knees (even if not complete), and (d) simultaneous and symmetrical adduction of feet (even if not complete). For every indicator detected in a kick in this exact sequence, 0.25 points would be recorded, in which a certain overlap between the phases would be considered acceptable without reducing the score. Based on these scores, the overall score for each trial set was obtained by dividing the total amount of points scored by the number of kicks performed in that particular trial set, and then calculated the mean value for the five trial sets in each trial block. This would result in a final trial block score between 0.00 (for complete absence of any of the spatial configuration marks in all kicks performed in that trial) and 1.00 (presence of all spatial configuration marks in all kicks).

Mapping of rhythmic configuration

The same procedure was followed for mapping the rhythmic configuration index. As neither swimming manuals nor scientific papers provide any information about the typical rhythmic pattern of the breaststroke kick, Figure 1. Kinovea screen showing the method of obtaining as reference was taken the average rhythmic configu- the distance and time of a particular trial set. The smaller frames show the onset moments of the second and tenth ration as shown by three elite breaststroke swimmers kicks, with the respective time elapsed. The bigger frame in technique videos [21, 22]. The analysis of these videos shows the straight line drawn to obtain the distance from showed the following rhythmic structure, comprising the starting wall in the onset moment of the tenth kick. both relative timing (relation between duration of each In this moment, the reference point is located at 6 m movement phase and duration of the whole movement (mark on the lane line) + 8.54 cm (obtained by cycle) and acceleration as a sign of application of force: interpolating the real distance from the distance shown the movement cycle begins with moderate acceleration on the screen) = 6.09 m from the starting wall, and the of feet displacement during flexion of knees and/or hips time elapsed between both moments in this trial was and abduction of feet, followed by increasing speed 17.27–1.70 = 15.56 s. As the distance from the starting wall at second kick onset, obtained by the same procedure during leg extension and adduction, and finishes with as for the tenth kick onset, was 1.05 m, the swimming a gliding phase (pause) between leg adduction and the speed along eight kicks was (6.09 m – 1.05 m =) beginning of the next knee or hip flexion. Analysing 5.04 m / 15.56 s = 0.3239 m/s. the presence or absence of each of these indicators in every

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trial, following the same procedure as for the spatial con- In the first trial block, no difference was found be- figuration index, for each trial block, a mean rhyth- tween groups regarding the outcome indices: one factor mical configuration index between 0.00 and 1.00 was Anova for stroke index yielded F(5, 33) = 1.452; p = 0.232, obtained. for spatial configuration index F(5, 33) = 1.469; p = 0.226 and for rhythmical configuration index F(5, 33) = 0.631; Assignment to experience groups p = 0.677. Regarding the whole sample (N = 39), stroke indices Subsequently, based on the questionnaire answers, did show an evolution over all trials (F(5, 165) = 22.081; participants were arranged in the following experience p < 0.001): from a mean stroke index of 0.052 m2/s in the groups, according to their experience in one or more first acquisition trial block the index went up to 0.124 m2/s fields: in the last acquisition trial block, was maintained during – Without Experience in any of the three fields retention (0.123 m2/s) and decreased to 0.070 m2/s in (WE) – N = 3 the transfer test. Spatial configuration index increased – Water Playing experience Only (PO) – N = 7 significantly between trial blocks (F(5, 165) = 5.140; – Rhythmic activities experience Only (RO) – N = 6 p = 0.003) rising from 0.850 in the first to 0.981 in the – Water Playing and swimming Lessons experience last acquisition trial, and kept in retention (0.975) and (PL) – N = 6 transfer test (0.965). Rhythm configuration index did not – Water Playing and Rhythmic activities experience increase along all trials from beginning of acquisition (PR) – N = 7 until transfer block (F(5, 165) = 0.699; p = 0.572). Regard- – Water Playing, Rhythmic activities and swimming ing interaction between index evolution and experience Lessons experience (PRL) – N = 10 groups, no significant interactions were found along trial For each of these groups, the three indices obtained blocks: F(5, 165) = 1.463; p = 0.135 for stroke index, by video analyses were arranged for statistical analysis, F(5, 165) = 1.165; p = 0.314 for spatial configuration index comprising descriptive analysis and two way ANOVA and F(5, 165) = 0.606; p = 0.881 for rhythm configura- with the significance level set to p = 0.05. For effect size, tion index. Cohen’s d was calculated. Descriptive and variance statistics were run on SPSS© (IBM Corp.) version 21.0.00, Behaviour of learning curves and effect size calculated as proposed by Coe [23]. The by experience groups effect size values were rated as indicating small (between 0.2 and 0.5), medium (between 0.5 and 0.8) and high When analysed separately, the learning curves regard- practical relevance (above 0.8), following Ellis [24]. ing all three outcome measures ascended in almost all experience groups from beginning to retention test, as Results shown by Figures 2, 3, and 4. However, the differences between groups in every single Evolution of outcome indices in the whole sample trial block depicted by the learning curves (Figures 2, 3 and 4) failed to show significance (p = 0.05). In other words, there is no statistical difference between the experience groups regarding their learning of the breaststroke kick, thus rejecting the hypothesis.

Figure 2. Mean stroke indices along trial blocks for different experience groups

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Figure 3. Mean rhythmic configuration index along trial blocks for different experience groups

Figure 4. Mean spatial configuration index along trial blocks for different experience groups

The strong theoretical background, however, insti- kick learning, compared to all other experience con- gated to look further into the data. Since statistical sig- stellations, alone or combined. nificance has been questioned for behavioural studies Comparisons between the all three experience group [25], effect sizes were investigated, as suggested by Coe and all other groups show low frequencies of large effect [23], regarding the differences between every two expe- sizes. This points out that all these experiences, alone or rience groups at a time, in each trial block, for all indices. combined, tend to impact the breaststroke kick learning. These calculations resulted in a very large number of The only experience group to stand out from the values, which are presented in summary, restricting the others, regarding the frequency of large effect size values analysis to the frequency of Cohen’s d values above 0.8, in comparisons with other groups, is the water playing which indicate a large practical effect, in every single only group, which shows, in the retention test, three comparison between one experience group and all others, times larger frequencies of effect size values than any regarding all three indices, in every single trial block. other comparison of one of the groups with any other, Table 1 shows these frequencies. except the no experience at all group. This indicates The group that shows the highest frequency of large a tendency towards the water playing only group showing effect sizes, in comparison to all other groups, is the with- a distinct behaviour of their learning curve compared out experience group. Once the no experience at all to all other groups. As this group’s learning curves in group shows the lowest indices in several trial blocks several trial blocks shows higher indices than those of and indices, this indicates that no experience at all in other groups (although not statistically significant), this any of the three fields tends to impair the breaststroke can be seen as a tendency towards facilitation of learning

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Table 1. Frequencies of Cohen’s d values indicating large effect sizes (> 0.8) in comparisons between experience groups, per trial block (A1 to A4: acquisition trials, RT – retention test, TR – transfer test). Frequencies add up large effect size values for stroke index, rhythmic configuration index and spatial configuration index, for every experience group, compared to all other groups

A1 A2 A3 A4 RT TR Total A1 to TR

Water playing only 2 4 9 5 6 1 27 Water playing plus swimming lessons 1 0 1 2 2 1 7 All three experiences 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 Water playing plus rhythmic activities 4 1 1 2 2 0 10 Rhythmic activities only 3 1 1 2 2 0 9 Without any experience 5 4 8 10 10 4 41 Total per trial block 19 10 20 21 22 6 the breaststroke kick when the learner played in the water nique as described in swimming manuals. Deviations during childhood. from this ideal stroke pattern are weeded out as errors, Very few large effect size values were found for the and emphasis is given to drills that lead directly to that comparison between the water playing plus swimming objective [26]. Over the last years, new tendencies in lessons group, and all other groups, including the water teaching have recommended such diversification, although playing only group. This indicates a minor relevance of primarily for advanced training [27–29]. These proposals differences regarding the learning outcome between the are in line with Rosalie and Mueller’s thoughts [3], and water playing only group and the water playing plus support the opinion that traditional teaching practice, swimming lessons group. Thus, swimming lessons plus which focuses mainly on swimming techniques, deserves water playing seems to impact on learning the breast- rethinking, as suggested, for example, by Freudenheim stroke kick less than the water playing experience alone. and Madureira [26]. The present results are in line with several empirical Discussion and theoretical findings [6, 29, 30], which suggest that diversified aquatic experiences allow learners to build Although the stroke indices of the water playing group a solid basis for later learning of swimming techniques. show no statistical difference to other groups, effect This will enable the learner to develop his own form size values suggest that the difference between the ex- of interaction with the water, both in floating and pro- perience in water playing only group and the other groups pulsion [26], which can develop into a swimming tech- might bear considerable practical relevance. Higher in- nique that is tailored to suit his or her individual features. dex values, together with large effect size values, point Experience with rhythmic activities did not lead to towards higher positive impact of experience with play- differentiated learning curves in this study, in a cer- ing in the water during childhood, on the breaststroke tain way contradicting the findings of Rieder, Balsch- kick learning, whereas formal swimming lessons showed bach and Payer [15] and Wang and Hart [16]. The per- outcome similar to all other fields of experience. Espe- ceptual and motor experience acquired in the perception cially regarding swimming lessons experience, which and reproduction of rhythmic structures in music and should, by common sense thinking, add positively to dance lessons did not impact on learning of a motor skill water playing experience, the present findings conversely with marked rhythmic structure; the practical relevance point towards a hampering effect of swimming lessons of such experience, separately or in addition to water on breaststroke kick learning. playing, was even less than that of water playing alone. These findings might be explicable by two reasons: However, the benefits of previous rhythmic activities on one hand, in the questionnaire, the number of lessons may be more or less pronounced, depending on individual stated as a criterion for ticking “yes” was 40 hours over engagement in these activities. Another difference be- the course of six months or less. Although, normally, this tween the present study and the former research may lie amount of practice, about two lessons per week for half in the delay: the rhythmic activities provided by both a year, is enough for a reasonable performance in basic Rieder, Balschbach and Payer [15] and Wang and Hart strokes, it may not offer sufficiently widespread experience [16] took place immediately before learning the novel for assembling enough implicit knowledge to develop per- skill, which was not the case in the present study. ceptual competence in a way to allow transfer to novel However, these results should be taken with a grain skills. of salt, considering that groups were not equally dis- Another possible explanation can be found in current tributed over the sample. Furthermore, participants had teaching practice: in Brazilian swimming schools, teachers to rely on their memory to answer the questionnaire, usually focus on the proper execution of a stroke tech- a remembrance that may not ever depict reality. Future

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research might be able to find more reliable indicators for children. PLOS One, 2014, 9 (3), 1–12, doi: 10.1371/ this feature, for example, within a longitudinal study. journal.pone.0093349. 9. Sigmundsson H., Hopkins B., Baby swimming: exploring Conclusions the effects of early intervention on subsequent motor abilities. Child Care Health Dev, 2009, 36 (3), 428–430, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.00990.x. The aim of the present study was to gain insight into 10. Jorgensen R., Adding Capital do Young Australians. Final the relations between previous experiences in swim- Report. Griffith University, Brisbane 2013. Retrieved Sep- ming and rhythmical activities lessons, as well as in tember 15, 2014. Available from: http://www.griffith.edu. playing in the water during childhood, and the breast- au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/470251/early-year-swim- stroke kick learning. For this, three outcome parameters interim-report-2012.pdf were mapped: stroke index, as well as spatial and rhyth- 11. Dias J.A.B.S., Manoel E.J., Dias R.B.M., Okazaki V.H.A., Pilot study on infant swimming classes and early motor mic configuration indices. development. Percept Mot Skills, 2013, 177 (3), 950–955, Differences between experience groups proved not doi: 10.2466/10.25.PMS.117x30z2. to be significant, but experience in playing in the water 12. Thaut M.H., Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientific showed effect size values indicating high practical rele- Foundations and Clinical Applications. Routledge, New vance of this previous experience on the course of the York 2005. breaststroke kick learning curves, even when compared 13. Seifert L., Chollet D., Inter-limb coordination and con- to experience in combined water playing plus swim- straints in swimming: a review. In: Beaulieu N.P. (ed.), ming lessons experience, whereas effect size values of Physical Activity and Children: New Research. Nova Science Publishers, New York 2008, 65–93. comparison between experience in other fields, alone or 14. Barbosa T.M., Bragada J.A., Reis V.M., Marinho D.A., combined, indicated small practical relevance of each Carvalho C., Silva A.J., Energetics and biomechanics as of these experiences for the breaststroke kick learning. determining factors of swimming performance: Updat- These findings emphasize the relevance of widespread ing the state of the art. J Sci Med Sport, 2010, 13 (2), motor and perceptual experience in water, accumu- 262–269, doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.01.003. lated over the course of body-water interaction, such as 15. Rieder H., Balschbach R., Payer B., Learning through it is naturally built up during children’s play in water, rhythm [in German]. Strauss, Koeln 1991. which has been appointed as relevant in literature [6, 20, 16. Wang L., Hart M.A., Influence of auditory modeling on learning a swimming skill. Percept Mot Skills, 2005, 26–30], but has rarely been addressed in research. 100 (3), 640–648. Therefore, current teaching practice should be revised 17. Sanchez J., Arellano R., Stroke Index values according regarding the relevance of widely spread motor and to level, gender, swimming style and event race distance. perceptual experience for efficient stroke learning. In: Gianikellis K. (ed.), Proceedings of the XXth Intena- tional Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. Univer- Acknowledgements sidad de Extremadura, Cáeres 2002, 56–59. The authors thank Escola Superior de Educação Física de Jun- 18. Colwin C., Swimming for the XXIth century [in Portu- diaí for supporting data collection. guese]. Manole, Barueri 2000. 19. Wilke K., Teaching swimming for children and adults References [in German]. Meyer & Meyer, Aachen 2007 20. Bissig M., Groebli C., Amos L., Cserepy S., World of swim- 1. Schmidt R.A., Wrisberg C.A., Motor learning and performing: learning and optimizing techniques [in German]. mance [in Portuguese]. Porto Alegre, Artmed 2001. Schulverlag, Bern 2004. 2. Meinel K., Schnabel K., Motor Behaviour [in German]. 21. Soni R., Add a Kick. Instructional video, 2012. Available Meyer & Meyer, Aachen 2007. from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsAJoVshj7A 3. Rosalie S.M., Mueller S., A model for the transfer of per- [March 16, 2013]. ceptual-motor skill learning in human behaviors. Res Q 22. Weber P.-A., Schumacher D., Battanta P., Swimworld Exerc Sport, 2012, 83 (3), 413–421, doi: 10.1080/ Basic 2 [in German]. Bundesamt fuer Sport, Magglingen. 02701367.2012.10599876. Instructional video, 1 DVD. 1999 4. Manoel E.J., Developmental aspects of swimming. In: 23. Coe R., Effect Size Calculator. Centre for Evaluation and Freudenheim A. (ed.), Swimming: a motor skill revisited Monitoring, Durham (UK) 2015. Available from: http:// [in Portuguese]. CEPEUSP, São Paulo 1995, 11–22. www.cem.org [April 2, 2015]. 5. Palmer M., The science of teaching swimming [in Portu- 24. Ellis P.D., The Essential Guide to Effect Sizes: Statistical guese]. Manole, São Paulo 1990. Power, Meta-Analysis, and the Interpretation of Research 6. Langendorfer S., Bruya L.D., Aquatic readiness: developing Results. University Press, Cambridge 2010. water competence in young children. Human Kinetics, 25. Nuzzo R., Scientific method: statistical errors. Nature, Champaign 1995. 2014, 506 (7487), 150–152, doi: 10.1038/506150a. 7. Whitney A.G., Vetter P., Wolpert D.M., The influence of 26. Freudenheim A., Madureira F., Swimming: features and previous experience on predictive motor control. Motor teaching of specific skills [in Portuguese]. In: Lobo da Systems, 2001, 12 (4), 649–653. Costa P.H. (ed.), Swimming and aquatic skills: teaching 8. Patrick S.K., Musselman K.E., Tajino J., Ou H.-C., Bas- aids. Manole, Barueri 2010, 89–110. tian A.J., Yang J.F., Prior Experience but not size of error 27. Frank G., Co-ordinative capacities in swimming [in Ger- improves motor learning on the split-belt treadmill in young man]. Hofmann, Schorndorf 2008.

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28. Laughlin T., Total immersion: the revolutionary way to swim better, faster, and easier. Fireside, New York 2004. 29. Stallman R.K., Which stroke first? No stroke first! Inter- national Journal of Aquatic Research and Education 2014, 8 (1), 5–8, doi: 10.1123/ijare.2014-0040. 30. Xavier Filho E., Manoel E.J., Swimming skills and motor behaviour. In: Tani G. (ed.), Motor behaviour, learning and development [in Portuguese]. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro 2005, 285–294.

Endnotes 1 Brazilian PE students normally are not submitted to motor tests for admission, so it is quite common that students in initial semesters do not show superior multidisciplinary motor experience, although some of them may exhibit outstanding motor abilities in specific sports. 2 In normal swimming courses, teachers commonly teach first the front crawl and the back stroke, putting the breaststroke off so that many pupils don’t even get as far as the breaststroke during several months of swimming lessons.

Paper received by the Editor: November 11, 2014 Paper accepted for publication: November 27, 2015

Correspondence address Bettina Ried Escola Superior de Educação Física de Jundiaí 13208-120 Jundiaí, SP, Brazil e-mail [email protected]

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Laterality of the legs in young female soccer players

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0047

Katarzyna Z. Antosiak-Cyrak1 *, Grzegorz Wiczyński2, Elżbieta M. Rostkowska3, 4 1 Department of Swimming and Water Rescue, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland 2 Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Poznan University of Technology, Poznań, Poland 3 Clinic of Rheumatology and Rehabilitation, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland 4 University of Computer Sciences and Skills, Łódź, Poland

Abstract Purpose. The aim of the present study was assessment of laterality of the legs of young female soccer players and their non-training counterparts. Methods. The study sample comprised 9 female soccer players and 19 non-training girls. They underwent three measurement sessions, one every six months. The applied tests included kinesthetic differentiation, rate of local movements, static balance, single-leg hop, rate of global movements, strength and speed, and functional asymmetry of the legs tests. Results. The soccer players were better than the controls in their performance of the rate of local movements, rate of global movements, kinesthetic differentiation, single-leg 15m timed hop and static balance tests. Smaller differences between the results of the left and the right legs in soccer players, than in non-training girls, were noted in the rate of local movements, rate of global movements and kinesthetic differentiation tests. In the static balance test, the differences were greater in the group of soccer players. Conclu- sions. Lateralization of the lower limbs is a highly complex characteristic with a different variability in athletes than in non- training individuals. The results of the present study also point to the specialization of soccer players’ left legs in body balance and single-leg hop tests.

Key words: laterality, female soccer, coordination, asymmetry

Introduction and joint recovery, which, as a consequence, could lead to premature osteoarthritis [11]. The assessment of dy- Functional asymmetry of the legs is a natural phenom- namic asymmetry of the lower limbs, while performing enon in human development. About the age of 12, the strength, speed, or coordination exercises as well as tech- asymmetry becomes stabilized and the lateralization nical elements, e.g. slalom run with a ball or the repeat- profile becomes well-established [1–3]. Ambidexterity ability of forces generated during the movement rhythm is the lack of dominance of any extremity. It can cause present in step aerobics, can be used as injury prevention coordination disorders and problems with learning measures [12–15]. Sannicandro with co-authors [16–18] new motor skills necessary in sport practice and ac- points to excessive differences in dynamic asymmetry tivities of daily living. According to Atkins et al. [4], the of the legs as the cause of frequent injuries of the ankle functional asymmetry of the legs becomes more visi- and knee joints. ble in puberty. Before and after puberty, the function The aim of the present study was an evaluation of of the left and right lower extremities may not reveal lateralization of the legs in young female soccer players statistically significant differences. and in their non-training controls. It is also a usability In sport, the direction of functional asymmetry is study of a number of tests comparing the movements of crucial. On the one hand, stimulation of lateralization the right and the left legs. in sport training may significantly improve children’s psychomotor abilities [5–8]. However, the confine- Material and methods ment of sport training to one side of the body can also decrease these capabilities [9, 10]. On the other hand, Participants a specific direction of lateralization (left-footedness or left-handedness) can be an important element of surprise The study was approved by a Bioethical Commission to the opponent in sport competition. Soccer players, who and by parents of the participating girls. The partici- can kick with either foot, can effectively implement pants were 9 female soccer players and 19 non-training all tactical assumptions. girls. The players (S) had begun soccer training at the age A training load that is too heavy can, not only contrib- of 7. They undertook three testing sessions every six months, ute to the risk of injury, but delay meniscus, tendon consisting of general training loads, from 495 to 540 minutes every day in school. The control group (N) only took part in regular PE classes, three times a week, 135 minutes * Corresponding author. per week.

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Data collection instruments footed, left-footed, or with no specific laterality – according to Gabbard [21]. The participants performed motor coordination Body build characteristics – the anthropometric tests of the right and the left legs. Six simple and com- measurements included participants’ body mass, body monly used tests assessing motor coordination com- height, length and width of the legs, thigh and lower ponents were selected for the study. The tests can be leg length, and thigh and lower leg girth. applied in all conditions during PE classes or training sessions. A comparison between the test results of the left Data analysis legs and the right legs allows for the assessment of the lateralization degree of the legs. The present study also The following tests were used in statistical analysis: made use of the authors’ own optoelectronic measuring descriptive statistics, and normal distribution test (Sha- apparatus for the administration and control of the tests, piro–Wilk test), Mann–Whitney U test, and Spearman’s registration of movements and precise recording of rank correlation coefficient. test results displayed simultaneously on the computer screen [19, 20]. Results

Procedures The tests revealed that female soccer players were better than the controls in the KD, RLM, RGM, SSS The following tests were carried out three times every tests – in majority of three testing sessions. In all other six months: variables, the superiority of one group over the other Kinesthetic differentiation (KD) – the participant changed depending on the date of the measurement. was sitting on a chair, held a light carbon fiber tube However, statistically significant differences were found (10 mm in outside diameter) between the big toe and the only when the soccer players’ results were better than second toe, and then tried to insert the tube into 8 holes those of the controls’ (Table 1 and 2). The objective of the (11 mm in inside diameter) on the apparatus, in sequence. study was the assessment of lateralization, i.e. the differ- The test result is the time in seconds measured from the ences between the results of the right and the left legs in moment of insertion of the tube into the first hole to participants (R/L). Lower R/L differences in soccer players the moment of insertion of the tube into the last hole. than in the controls were found in the results of the RLM, Rate of local movements (RLM) – the participant RGM and KD tests. In the SB test, the differences were was sitting on a chair and was moving one foot over greater in soccer players, and small differences were a 15-cm-long bar placed along the sagittal axis of the observed in SSN and SLH (Table 3). body. A single cycle consisted of moving the foot over The smallest differences between the right and the the bar, touching the ground and returning the foot left legs were in the SSS test results, which meant that to its original position. The result was the number of the time of covering the distance of 15 m in single leg completed cycles. hops was almost the same for both legs. However, the Static balance (SB) – the static balance test consisted left legs required more movement cycles (SSN) to perform of maintaining body balance while standing on one foot this task, i.e. the hops were shorter and more frequent. for the longest time possible. The numerical values between the right leg and the left Single-leg hop (SLH) – a one-leg long standing jump leg were different, depending on the examined variable. test measuring the explosive force of leg muscles (in cm). The R/L differences also changed in subsequent meas- Rate of global movements (RGM) – consisted of per- urements, in particular, in the KD test results, where forming the maximal number of one-foot leaps sideways the R/L difference was the lowest in the third measure- over a line within 20 s. One complete cycle was a leap over ment. In the case of SB, the R/L difference was actu- the line on one foot and a return to the original position. ally the highest in the second and third measurement. The test results were given in completed cycles. The statistically significant difference between meas- Strength and speed test (SSS) – a single-leg 15m timed urements mostly was between the KD results in both hop test – the participant was supposed to cover a distance groups between the first, second and the third measure- of 15 m by hopping on one foot as quickly as possible. The ments. More statistically significant differences between test results were given in seconds (SSS) and the number testing sessions were found in the N group. In SLH, SSS of hops (cycles) (SSN). and SSN were more statistically significant differences The participants performed all the tests using the (Table 2). right leg and then the left leg. Also, the following vari- In terms of the whole group, arithmetic mean results ables were measured: for the right legs were better in the RLM, RGM, SSN, KD Functional asymmetry of the legs (FAL) – footedness: and SLH tests. In the SB test, the better performance of putting out “fire”; kicking the ball; crossing one’s legs; one leg over the other depended on the date of the meas- long stride over an obstacle. The results of these measure- urement. However, in terms of results of individual players, ments allowed us to classify the participants as right- some interesting conclusions can be drawn.

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Table 1. Results of motor coordination tests (M ± SD)

Motor coordination tests 1st measurement 2nd measurement 3rd measurement

S 25.78 ± 10.42 21.48 ± 10.62 19.12 ± 7.52 R KD N 27.11 ± 9.79 23.53 ± 7.53 18.51 ± 4.60 (s) S 27.33 ± 12.75 23.92 ± 8.13 18.79 ± 4.99 L N 33.14 ± 17.93 27.65 ± 10.77 19.50 ± 5.44 S 17.20** ± 13.36 15.87* ± 17.21 19.99 ± 25.2 R SB N 5.65 ± 4.17 20.21 ± 16.21 17.11 ± 20.12 (s) S 15.37** ± 15.00 7.77 ± 4.25 24.96 ± 22.07 L N 6.04 ± 5.57 7.91 ± 7.12 14.32 ± 17.39 S 24.45**± 2.23 25.00* ±1.91 25.95** ± 1.36 R RLM N 22.29 ± 2.24 23.00 ± 2.42 23.55 ± 1.91 (cycles) S 23.70** ± 2.35 24.60* ± 1.97 25.20** ± 2.10 L N 21.50 ± 2.51 21.43 ± 2.81 22.11 ± 2.25 S 25.25*± 3.80 25.30** ± 2.77 25.35* ± 3.44 R RGM N 21.55 ± 4.26 21.67 ± 3.03 22.63 ± 3.52 (cycles) S 24.70* ± 3.14 24.10** ± 2.49 24.25* ± 3.80 L N 19.51 ± 4.65 20.34 ± 3.77 21.18 ± 3.16 S 111.80** ± 16.25 110.20 ± 14.29 108.30 ± 18.68 R SLH N 85.84 ± 23.15 100.50 ± 15.53 110.84 ± 19.37 (cm) S 104.90** ± 13.74 106.30 ± 16.38 105.50 ± 17.86 L N 82.20 ± 17.69 96.48 ± 15.21 107.20 ± 19.21 S 6.14 ± 0.98 5.58 ± 0.54 6.01 ± 0.74 R SSS N 7.11 ± 2.03 6.54 ± 1.03 5.99 ± 0.97 (s) S 6.38 ± 1.13 5.53* ± 0.87 6.10 ± 0.81 L N 7.30 ± 1.68 6.57 ± 0.99 6.30 ± 0.87 S 14.05 ± 2.21 12.95 ± 1.52 12.80 ± 1.72 R SSN N 15.48 ± 2.64 14.01 ± 2.01 13.86 ± 2.60 (cycles) S 14.90 ± 3.10 13.05 ± 2.45 13.50 ± 2.10 L N 15.88 ± 3.60 14.46 ± 2.38 14.48 ± 2.50 * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01; statistically significant differences between mean tests results of groups S and N, bold means that between these averages statistically significant difference revealed, asterisks placed by the better average test result R – right leg, L – left leg, S – training group, N – non-training group, KD – kinesthetic differentiation (s), SB – static balance (s), RLM – rate of local movements (cycles), RGM – rate of global movements (cycles), SLH – single-leg hop (cm), SSS – strength and speed test (s), SSN – strength and speed test (cycles)

The variables with a visible superiority of the right participant during two measurements and three partici- legs included the RGM and SLH in female soccer play- pants during one measurement. ers, and RLM, RGM and SLH in the controls. The left The differences in test results between the right legs legs performed the SSN test better, i.e. it was easier to and the left legs have been regarded as negative or posi- perform longer hops rather than more frequent hops tive values, depending on whether the right leg or the left on the left leg. The SSN test also revealed the highest leg scored better on a given test. However, the absolute number of equal results for both legs. SB turned out to value of the difference (without a plus or a minus sign) can also provide some interesting conclusions. The scatter- be a variable displaying the superiority of the left legs ing of data around the mean is illustrated by the vari- in soccer players in time, and of the right legs in the ability coefficient. Table 3 shows the means of these control group. differences and variability coefficients. In our results, right-footedness appears to be generally The absolute values of arithmetic means show that the more frequent than left-footedness. In the present study, differences in KD and SLH in both groups decreased there were three female soccer players with better left leg and in SB and RGM decreased in consecutive measure- results in at least 4 tests (out of 6), during a particular ments. The scattering of results around the mean was measurement. In the control group, there was one such wider in SB, RLM and SSN, among the controls, than it

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Table 2. Statistically significant difference between measurements (p values)

Measurements KD SB RLM RGM SLH SSS SSN

R I–II L 0.013 0.004

R 0.013 0.018 < 0.001 I–III L 0.028

R II–III L 0.047 0.001

R 0.016 I–II L 0.003

R 0.002 0.040 0.006 0.003 0.047 < 0.001 I–III L 0.004 0.035 0.001 0.010

R 0.022 0.002 II–III L 0.002 0.014 S – training group, N – non-training group, R – right leg, L – left leg, KD – kinesthetic differentiation (s), SB – static balance (s), RLM – rate of local movements (cycles), RGM – rate of global movements (cycles), SLH – single-leg hop (cm), SSS – strength and speed test (s), SSN – strength and speed test (cycles)

Table 3. Arithmetic means (M) variability coefficients (v) of absolute values (no plus/minus sign) of differences between the results of the right legs and the left legs

Group measurement KD SB RLM RGM SLH SSS SSN

M 9.2 6.7 1.3 1.5 12.0 0.3 1.4 S1 v 123 85 69 68 56 141 84

M 5.8 12.3 1.7 1.8 7.2 0.7 1.6 S2 v 113 79 58 86 89 63 43

M 3.0 21.9 1.4 2.4 3.9 0.4 0.9 S3 v 79 88 76 69 107 65 78

M 11.6 4.3 1.2 2.3 15.9 0.9 1.7 N1 v 71 92 101 80 100 85 106

M 8.0 3.6 2.1 2.4 8.5 0.5 0.9 N2 v 104 92 89 77 83 93 115

M 4.3 9.2 1.6 2.5 8.5 0.5 1.0 N3 v 99 107 76 75 98 77 76 S – training group, N – non-training group, KD – kinesthetic differentiation (s), SB – static balance (s), RLM – rate of local movements (cycles), RGM – rate of global movements (cycles), SLH – single-leg hop (cm), SSS – strength and speed test (s), SSN – strength and speed test (cycles) was in female soccer players. The KD results, however, all three measurements. The absolute numerical values proved otherwise. There was a characteristic closer clus- of R/L differences (with no plus or minus sign) did not tering of KD results in female soccer players, and of RLM display correlations with the FAL results. However, the and RGM results in non-training controls with each test results of the left leg and the right leg separately were measurement. A greater scattering of SLH results was correlated with FAL, although very rarely. In terms of the noted in soccer players with each measurement (Table 3). groups of participants taken collectively, these correla- The FAL tests revealed left-footedness in four soccer tions were only found in the RGM tests results of both players and two non-training participants, and ambi- legs during the 1st measurement (r = 0.50, p = 0.0072 dexterity in one player and two non-training controls, in for the left legs; r = 0.45, p = 0.0170 for the right legs).

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Another possible relationship was examined between of soccer players than in the non-training group. It was the laterality of the lower legs and body build charac- reversed in the SB test results. It can be assumed that teristics. A small absolute numerical value of the R/L the players’ coordination training makes the capabilities difference was strongly correlated in KD, SB and SSN of of both legs similar. the players with longer legs, thighs or calves (r = 0.83, Observed right-footedness was more frequent in test p = 0.0053). In both groups, it was also correlated in results, but it did not occur in all tests in each participant. the RLM results with short calves (r = 0.47, p = 0.0393; In the SB test, the support function was often taken over r = 0.47, p = 0.0403). In the players’ group, the R/L dif- by the left leg. Also, a tendency towards left-footedness ference in SSS was strongly correlated with wide feet was noted in the SLH test in female soccer players, in (r = 0.71, p = 0.0007). There were no correlations be- particular, in the third measurement, and in SSN in non- tween the R/L differences and body build characteristics training controls. Both types of sidedness associated in SLH and RGM. with the length of single-leg hops and point to the var- In terms of better results of one leg over the other in iability of R/L differences in the single-leg hop test. relation to body build, it was noted that better results of SLH involved the greatest differences in test results the left legs in players were correlated in KD and RLM between the measurements. It also features a greater with short legs, calves, feet and longer thigh girth (from scattering of absolute R/L difference values from the r = 0.48, p = 0.0395; to r = 0.79, p = 0.0108), and in SLH arithmetic mean. Absolute values (with no plus or minus with short calves and wider feet (from r = 0.70, p = 0.0368 sign) of arithmetic means indicate that R/L differences to r = 0.74, p = 0.0235). In soccer players also better re- in SLH in both groups decrease in consecutive meas- sults of the left legs in players were correlated in RGM urements. In SLH, the size of the R/L differences is not r with long calves and narrower knees (from = 0.79, correlated with body build (like RGM). However, R/L dif- p r p = 0.0108 to = 0.83, = 0.0061). Better results of the ferences show that better results of the left legs than the left legs were not correlated in the SS tests, and FAL right legs are associated with wider feet. test results were not correlated with differences or better A comparison of the test results with body build prove results of one leg over the other. that better test results, attained by the left legs, are more often associated with shorter and wider lower limbs. Discussion Footedness, as identified by the FAL tests, turned out to be the same during all three measurements. The better Olex-Zarychta and Raczek assume that, contrary to performance of the right or the left leg was changing in earlier reports, the quality of limb movement, including time, i.e. from one measurement to another. The lack of lower limbs, is the effect of not only brain hemispheres. This effect is also from peripheral sensors as visual re- correlations between FAL test results and R/L differences ceptors, vestibular receptors, proprioceptors and biome- indicate a high complexity of coordination skills of the chanical factors [1]. Therefore, they also linked with lower limbs. A correlation like this can only be found in some body build characteristics. RGM during the first measurement. Since it does not Among our results, the two traits, which did not show occur in the subsequent measurements, nor among non- decidedly better results in female soccer players, were SLH training controls, it can be assumed that soccer train- and SSN, i.e. variables related to a jumping length. The ing does affect coordination tests whose results begin players’ SLH results deteriorate in time, and improve to move further away from the FAL results. in the non-training group. Observations of body build Lateralization of the lower limbs is a highly complex changes indicate that, during the first measurement, characteristic [22], with a different variability in athletes non-training participants had smaller body build dimen- than in non-training individuals. The results of the pre- sions; however, in the third measurement, they had sent study also point to the specialization of soccer players’ greater body height, body mass and leg length param- left legs in body balance and single-leg hop tests. eters than the players. On the other hand, coordination-orientated tests were performed better by lighter Conclusions soccer players, especially in the third measurement, and by better trained ones. The smallest R/L differences Lateralization of the lower limbs is a highly complex were noted in the 15m single-leg hop test. The perfor- characteristic with a different variability in athletes than mance of this test requires strength and high frequency in non-training individuals. The results of the present of movement. A good test result can be attained by taking study also point to the specialization of soccer players’ both long and frequent hops. The complexity of this mo- left legs in body balance and single-leg hop tests. tor task might have leveled the R/L differences. The left As for the usability of the applied tests, in terms of legs required more movement cycles to complete this test, attained results, the Test Functional Asymmetry of the i.e. hops on the left foot were shorter, but more frequent. Legs did not reflect the legs asymmetry. Thus, it appears As for more typical coordination skills, which re- necessary to use more accurate tests in sport to examine quire particular movement precision (KD, RLM and movement differences between the right and the left legs. RGM), the R/L differences were smaller in the group The strength and speed test (SS) yielded stable, reliable

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and repeatable results revealing small R/L differences. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2003, 13 (3), 179–184, doi: The advantage of the results of this test is their relative 10.1034/j.1600-0838.2003.00296.x. independence of body build characteristics. This test 11. Grabara M., Analysis of body posture between young is recommendable as it provides reliable data on motor football players and their untrained peers. Hum Mov, 2012, 13 (2), 120–126, doi: 10.2478/v10038-012-0012-7. coordination in the form of two results: performance 12. Antosiak-Cyrak K., Habiera M., Kaluga E., Rostkowska E., time and number of completed movement cycles. The Dynamic asymmetry of selected coordination abilities static balance (SB), single-leg hop (SLH) and strength and of the extremities in swimming children. In: Zatoń K., speed (SSN) tests bring out the capabilities of the left legs. Rejman M., Kwaśna A. (eds.), Science in Swimming III. The application of these tests in the present study, e.g. AWF, Wrocław 2011, 142–151. SB in female soccer players, shows that they can reveal 13. Antosiak-Cyrak K.Z., Podciechowska K., Jajor J., Rost- the specialization of the lower limbs due to training of kowska E.M, Functional asymmetry of the lower limbs non-symmetric movements. The kinesthetic differen- in young soccer players. Trends in Sport Sciences, 2015, tiation (KD) test is particularly usable for indicating 22 (4), 207–215. 14. Witkowski Z., Lyakh V., Gutnik B., Lipecki K., Rutowicz B., changes of R/L differences in time. The rate of local move- Penchev B. et al., Corrective effects of different training ments (RLM) and rate of global movements (RGM) tests options on development and maturation of profession- most often indicated right-footedness. Their usability is al motor skills from dominant and non-dominant legs rather limited for examining the abilities of the left legs. of young soccer players. J Phys Educ Sport, 2011, 11 (3), 291–299. Acknowledgement 15. Milewska J., Jaroszczuk S., Rutkowska-Kucharska A., Step The research was accomplished within the framework of grant aerobics and rhythm of movement of the upper and lower no. N N404 255740 (40 contest), financed by the National limbs. Hum Mov, 2013, 14 (1), 70–75, doi: 10.2478/ Science Centre in Krakow. humo-2013-0006. 16. Sannicandro I., Piccinno A., Rosa R.A., De Pascalis S., References Correlation between functional asymmetry of professional soccer players and sprint. Br J Sports Med, 2011, 45 (4), 1. Olex-Zarychta D., Raczek J., The relationship of movement 370–371, doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2011.084038.171. time to hand-foot laterality patterns. Laterality, 2008, 17. Sannicandro I., Piccinno A., Rosa R.A., De Pascalis S., Func- 13 (5), 439–455, doi: 10.1080/13576500802134623. tional asymmetry in the lower limb professional soccer 2. Gabbard C., Foot laterality during childhood: A review. players. Br J Sports Med, 2011, 45 (4), 370, doi: 10.1136/ Int J Neurosci, 1993, 72 (3–4), 175–182, doi: 10.3109/ bjsm.2011.084038.170. 00207459309024106. 18. Sannicandro I., Cofano G., Rosa R.A., Piccinno A., Balance 3. Wieczorek M., Hradzki A., Functional and dynamic asym- training exercises decrease lower-limb strength asymmetry in youth aged 14 and 16 years (comparative research). metry in young tennis players. J Sports Sci Med, 2014, Acta Gymnica, 2007, 37 (1), 51–61. 13 (2), 397–402. 4. Atkins S.J., Hesketh C., Sinclair J.K., The presence of bi- 19. Antosiak-Cyrak K.Z., Kowalski M., Michalski M., Wiczyń lateral imbalance of the lower limbs in elite youth soccer ski G., A test stand for testing lower limb coordination players of different ages. J Strength Cond Res, 2013, doi: capabilities of foot-ball practicing persons [in Polish]. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182987044. Pomiary Automatyka Kontrola, 2013, 59 (5), 489–492. 5. Sannicandro I., Quarto A., Piccinno A., Cofano G., 20. Antosiak-Cyrak K.Z., Wiczyński G., Podciechowska K., Rosa R.A., Lower limb functional asymmetries in young Rostkowska E.M., Reliability of a new lower-extremity soccer players: Do differences exist between different age motor coordination test. Pol J Sport Tourism, 2015, 22 (4), groups? Br J Sports Med, 2014, 48 (7), 657, doi:10.1136/ 219–223. bjsports-2014-093494.260. 21. Gabbard C., Associations between hand and foot prefer- 6. Stöckel T., Weigelt M., Brain lateralisation and motor learn- ence in 3- to 5-year-olds. Cortex, 1992, 28 (3), 497–502, ing: Selective effects of dominant and non-dominant hand doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(13)80158-X. practice on the early acquisition of throwing skills. Laterality, 22. Teixeira M.C.T., Teixeira L.A., Leg preference and inter- 2012, 17 (1), 18–37, doi: 10.1080/1357650X.2010.524222. lateral performance asymmetry in soccer player children. 7. Yao W.X., Cordova A., Huang Y., Wang Y., Lu X., Bilateral Dev Psychobiol, 2008, 50 (8), 799–806, doi: 10.1002/ transfer for learning to control timing but not for learning dev.20322. to control fine force. Percept Motor Skills, 2014, 118 (2), 400–410, doi: 10.2466/23.25.PMS.118k19w1. 8. Pan Z., van Gemmert A.W.A., The direction of bilateral Paper received by the Editor: September 7, 2015 transfer depends on the performance parameter. Hum Paper accepted for publication: December 18, 2015 Mov Sci, 20013, 32 (5), 1070–1081, doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2012.02.013. Correspondence address 9. Guilherme J., Garganta J., Graça A., Seabra A., Effects of Katarzyna Antosiak-Cyrak technical training in functional asymmetry of lower limbs Zakład Pływania i Ratownictwa Wodnego Rev Bras Cineantropom Desempenho in young soccer players. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego Hum, 2015, 17 (2), 125–135, doi: 10.5007/1980-0037.2015v1 7n2p125. ul. Droga Dębińska 10c 10. 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SPORTS ACTIVITY AS A FACTOR DIFFERENTIATING THE LEVEL OF SOMATIC CONSTITUTION AND PHYSICAL FITNESS OF OFFICER CADETS AT THE MILITARY ACADEMY OF LAND FORCES doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0048

Dariusz Lenart General Tadeusz Kościuszko Military Academy of Land Forces, Wrocław, Poland

Abstract Purpose. Sport activities comprise the main forms of physical activity, which include sport disciplines and sport events. The main aim of the work is to evaluate the differentiation of the somatic constitution, physical fitness and the respiratory abilities in officer cadets of the Military Academy of Land Forces, depending on the level of their sports activity. Methods. The research material was gathered as a result of testing officer cadets of the Military Academy of Land Forces in 2014. The testing covered a research sample of 90 men. The mean age of the examined cadets was 22.9 years. Examinations of the students included anthropometric measurements, physical fitness tests, spirometry and a survey. Results. The results indicate the lack of significant differences in the body build characteristics of officer cadets. Only the body mass index was different. Separated groups of students, in term of sports activity, were characterised by similar physical fitness and the different level of the efficiency of the respiratory system. The higher level of these respiratory abilities distinguished sports active officer cadets, in comparison with passive officer cadets. Conclusions. Sports activities in leisure time did not turn out to be a factor, which significantly differentiated the somatic characteristics of officer cadets. Sports activity was not also part of lifestyle, which significantly differentiated the level of the majority of the analysed functional and respiratory abilities. Only in the case of the cardio-respiratory efficiency, forced expiratory volume in 1 second, forced vital capacity, active cadets were characterised by a significantly higher level of these physiological abilities, in comparison with less active cadets.

Key words: sports activity, somatic constitution, physical fitness

Introduction According to many researchers, sports activity is one of the main forms of physical activity [10, 11]. Although Physical fitness of a man is conditioned by environ- this kind of activity does not cover various forms of physi- mental and genetic factors. The impact of environmental cal recreation, housework, gardening, walking, but it can factors is reflected both in the volatility of individual be considered as one of the basic factors of a human’s components of human motor skills and in the entire hu- physical activity, which favourably affects the state of man behaviour [1]. The most crucial determinants of his health. physical fitness, and thereby people’s health, include life- Research specifying the impact of sport training on style [2]. Lifestyle is understood as a set of behaviours, the level of development of somatic characteristics was attitudes and overall philosophy of individual life. One implemented by many researchers [12, 13]. Various au- can talk about lifestyle when there is a possibility for thors claim that the statistically significant changes in choosing behaviours, which are disclosed mainly in lei- the structure of somatic usually regard and its compo- sure time [3]. According to many authors, one of the most nents [14]. The cases of change in the somatic structure, important factors in lifestyle is physical activity under- such changes in various systems function depend on the taken by humans, since it determines the health condi- level of undertaken physical activity, are amply docu- tion, well-being and quality of their life [4, 5]. Most re- mented in scientific publications. In many studies, there searchers note a positive impact of physical activity on were relevant dependences observed between sports the biological development of man, and thereby, the level activity and physical fitness [15, 16]. A very important of his or her somatic characteristics and functional abili- research topic seems to be the time for sports activity, ties, too [6, 7]. However, the significant determinant of which, according to many researchers, determines changes the positive impact of physical activity is to carry it out of the morphological characteristics and physical fit- on a systematic basis [8]. Too low level of the mentioned ness [17]. activity is the fundamental cause of morbidity and mor- Sport and physical activity is an important and com- tality. It is correlated with vascular and cardiac diseases, pulsory part for the people who connect their lives with type II diabetes, osteoporosis, hyperglycaemia, and nu- the military system. The military speciality and the quality merous cancers [9]. of execution of the service duties and tasks depend on the fitness level and physical preparedness. The execution of service duties could not be possible without an * Corresponding author. appropriate level of physical preparedness [18]. It is very

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important to motivate individuals to be active, which – sports passive officer cadets – practising various allows them to keep physical preparedness on an appro- sports two, and less times per week (activity taken in each priate level and to develop physical abilities [19]. case for at least 1.5 hrs.) and representing passive forms Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess whether of spending leisure time. the sports activities undertaken by officer cadets at the Statistica version 9.0 for Windows (StatSoft Inc., USA) Military Academy of Land Forces differentiated somatic was used for statistical analysis. The arithmetic mean, constitution, physical fitness and respiratory functional standard deviation and coefficient of variation were cal- parameters. It was hypothesized that more the favour- culated, which were used to carry out the characteristics able somatic build, from a health point of view, and of the level of the selected somatic characteristics as well a higher level of physical fitness may be presented by as functional and respiratory abilities of the subjects. students, who regularly practiced sport in the military The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to check the distribution academy (three years of undergraduate studies). of the examined variables for normal distribution. The t Student’s test for independent samples was used, in order Material and methods to determine statistically significant differences in the level of the selected morphological characteristics and The research material was gathered as a result of tests physical abilities between sports active respondents and carried out among officer cadets studying at the Military those who are less active in sporting. The level of signifi- Academy of Land Forces in Wrocław, at the Department cance = 0.05 (statistically significant differences were of Management, in 2014. The testing covered a research determined when p < 0.05). sample of 90 men. Their average age was 22.9 years. The research included anthropometric measurements, phys- Results ical fitness and spirometry tests. The measurements of basic somatic characteristics, i.e. height and weight, were Students who pursue sports actively in their leisure carried out. The body height was measured with an time constitute the majority of all the surveyed (Figure 1). anthropometer with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. The weight The largest percentage of all the officer cadets in their measurement was performed on a medical scale with spare time practise middle-distance and long-distance an accuracy of 0.1 kg. On the basis of the above-men- running, whilst the smallest proportion of them – team tioned height and weight measurement results, the body sports games (Figure 2). mass index (BMI) was calculated. The body composition The level of the analysed somatic characteristics was assessed based on the electric bioimpedance with and functional and respiratory abilities of the examined the use of the Tanita body composition analyser SC-330. men is presented in Table 1. The weight of the body fat, the lean body mass, the muscle The teams of students, differentiated by virtue of mass and the bone mass were specified as well. The level sports activity, have a similar body build, as evidenced of physical fitness was determined using the following by the lack of statistically significant differences in the motor tests: running over a distance of 3000 meters (car- level of most of the analysed somatic characteristics dio-respiratory endurance), bent arm hang (functional strength), shuttle running 10 × 5 meters (running speed and agility), Flamingo balance test (body balance). sports passive officer cadets; The following respiratory abilities were also measured: 28% the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), the sport active officer cadets; forced vital capacity (FVC), and the peak expiratory flow 72% (PEF). These measurements were conducted by means of the Pneumo RS type spirometer with an accuracy of 0.01 litres. Measurements of the somatic characteristics as well Figure 1. The percentage distribution of officer cadets as functional and respiratory abilities were carried out in according to their sport activity in leisure time sports facilities of the Military Academy of Land Forces.

Students performed physical fitness tests in sports field team sports games; 9% uniforms, always in similar conditions. martial arts; 10% athletics A survey made it possible to obtain information about, swimming; (middle- 11% distance and among other things, a factor of lifestyle, which was under- long-distance running); 46% taking sports activity by officer cadets in their spare strength sports; 24% time. That was specified on the basis of the number of leisure time activities declared by them: – sports active officer cadets – practising various sports, at least three times a week (each time for at least Figure 2. The percentage distribution of sports disciplines 1.5 hrs.) practised by the tested officer cadets in their leisure time

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Table 1. General characteristics of the examined officer cadets

The total number of officer cadets Variable M SD v Body height (cm) 179.39 5.30 2.95 Body weight (kg) 78.48 8.52 10.86 Weight of body fat (kg) 13.10 3.79 28.93 Lean body mass (kg) 65.38 5.60 8.57 Muscle mass (kg) 62.13 5.35 8.61 Bone mass (kg) 3.25 0.25 7.69 Body mass index (kg/m2) 24.47 2.14 8.75 Running 3000 m (s) 742.37 42.73 5.76 Bent arm hang (s) 49.44 13.50 27.31 Shuttle running 10 × 5 m (s) 19.08 1.18 6.18 Flamingo balance test (a number) 5.81 3.17 54.56

FEV1 (l/s) 4.98 0.23 4.62 FVC (l) 6.08 0.26 4.28 PEF (l/s) 10.77 1.08 10.03

FEV1 – forced expiratory volume in 1 second, FVC – forced vital capacity, PEF – peak expiratory flow

Table 2. The descriptive statistics of the selected somatic characteristics and functional and respiratory abilities of the examined officer cadets

Officer cadets sports active in Officer cadets less sports active Variable leisure time (n = 65) in leisure time (n = 25) t p M SD v M SD v Body height (cm) 179.76 5.59 3.11 178.42 4.41 2.47 1.07 0.29 Body weight (kg) 77.76 8.75 11.25 80.35 7.62 9.48 1.30 0.20 Weight of body fat (kg) 12.68 3.41 26.89 14.18 4.52 31.88 1.71 0.09 Lean body mass (kg) 65.08 6.14 9.43 66.16 3.86 5.83 0.82 0.41 Muscle mass (kg) 61.85 5.86 9.47 62.88 3.69 5.87 0.82 0.41 Bone mass (kg) 3.23 0.28 8.67 3.28 0.18 5.49 0.77 0.44 Body mass index (kg/m2) 24.12 1.91 7.92 25.39 2.47 9.73 2.59 0.01 Running 3000 m (s) 720.77 25.71 3.57 798.52 21.49 2.69 13.41 0.00 Bent arm hang (s) 50.15 14.60 29.11 47.60 10.13 21.28 0.80 0.42 Shuttle running 10 × 5 m (s) 19.06 1.13 5.93 19.14 1.31 6.84 0.28 0.78 Flamingo balance test (a number) 5.58 3.14 56.27 6.40 3.21 50.16 1.10 0.28

FEV1 (l/s) 5.02 0.19 3.78 4.87 0.27 5.54 2.87 0.01 FVC (l) 6.12 0.21 3.43 5.97 0.34 5.70 2.54 0.01 PEF (l/s) 10.88 1.08 9.93 10.47 1.04 9.93 1.61 0.11

FEV1 – forced expiratory volume in 1 second, FVC – forced vital capacity, PEF – peak expiratory flow the bold-face indicates the t-Student test values (when there is a statistically significant difference between intergroup mean values of a given trait) and p value (when p < 0.05)

(Table 2). Only in terms of the body mass index do officer lowest for body height, and higher as well as similar cadets differ considerably. Students spending their free for lean body mass, muscle mass, bone mass, body mass time actively are more slender compared to less active index and body weight. The highest values of coeffi- ones, which is reflected in their higher average body cient of variation were defined for weight of body fat. height and the lower body weight, and relative body The results concerning sports activities obtained mass index. by the distinguished groups of officer cadets through- Despite the lack of statistically significant differ- out the study period clearly indicated the varying levels ences in the level of most of the morphological char- of the tested men’s physical fitness and respiratory ef- acteristics, active men are characterised by the slightly ficiency (Table 2). Those who practise sports actively preferred composition of the body as compared to less had significantly higher levels of the cardio-respiratory active men. Irrespectively of the studied group, aver- endurance, the forced expiratory volume in 1 second age values of coefficient of variation were found to be and the forced vital capacity in comparison with less

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active men. For the formed groups of cadets, average of physical activity [25]. The presented research shows values of coefficient of variation were lowest for cardi- that changes in the physical fitness intensity and the orespiratory endurance, forced expiratory volume in selected parameters of the respiratory system resulted 1 second, forced vital capacity and running speed and from sport activity are different from changes in the so- agility and higher or similar for peak expiratory flow and matic construction. The considerable variation in the functional strength. They were highest for body balance. level of most of the functional and respiratory abilities, i.e. cardio-respiratory efficiency, forced expiratory vol- Discussion ume per second and forced lungs vital capacity, that has been observed, is the result of taking additional physical Physical activity, including sport activity undertaken activity by men while studying at the Military Academy by a human, has a significant impact on the process of of Land Forces in Wrocław. Cadets who are active par- shaping the state of an individual’s health and physical ticipants of sports have much stronger cardio-respira- fitness. Various relations of physical activity with health tory endurance, forced expiratory volume per second, make the former a desirable individual and social value and forced vital lungs capacity than less physically ac- [20, 21]. Currently, the phenomenon of the physical tive cadets. The results of the study conducted by Saczuk fitness decline can be observed in virtually every age and others [26], among students of the Faculty of Physi- group. This is a result, among others reasons, of low physical Education in Biała Podlaska, confirm the existence cal activity of people [22]. Consequently, this unfavour- of the relation between the cardio-respiratory efficiency able trend leads to the increase in the society’s inci- and regular physical activity. dence of the so-called civilization diseases (diseases of affluence), particularly cardiovascular and those related Conclusions to metabolic disorders [23]. Analysis of the research results shows that sport activi- 1. Sports activities undertaken in leisure time were ties did not differentiate the strength of the majority of not a factor differentiating body build of officer cadets. selected morphological characteristics of various cadet Only the body mass index was significantly greater in groups. Only in the case of the body mass index, statis- less than more active individuals. More favourable, from tically significant difference was visible between the groups the health point of view, was the observation that most of respondents. Individuals who are active physically characteristics of body build, showing no significant are much more slender compared to individuals who are differences between these two groups, were slightly passive and less active in their leisure time. The phenome- smaller in more than less active cadets. non of the lack of significant differences in strength of 2. Sport-related activity also did not distinguish most most of somatic characteristics, between the groups di- of the functional abilities, except running for 3000 meters, vided according to their declared sports activity conducted where faster cadets turned out to be more physically in their spare time, might be a result of training dura- active. tion and exercise loads. Studies of the increased physical 3. Respiratory abilities (FEV1 and FVC) are significantly activity, including sport training, impact on the strength greater in more than less active cadets. of morphological characteristics show that the effect of reducing the subcutaneous fatty tissue, thus reducing References the overall fat mass, is distributed in time in young sports- 1. Pan S.Y., Cameron C., DesMeules M., Morrison H., men. Statistically significant differences in this area occur Craig C.L., Jiang X., Individual, social, environmental, and not earlier than after two years of intensive sport train- physical environmental correlates with physical activity ing [14]. However, the research shown here confirms reg- among Canadians: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health ularities observed by Kemmler et al. [17]. The researchers , 2009, 9, 21, doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-21. 2. 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THE EFFICIENCY OF INTEGRATED AND SEGREGATED PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL AND MENTAL DISABILITIES AND POOR FITNESS doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0046

Ivanna Bodnar*, Evhen Prystupa Lviv State University of Physical Culture, Lviv, Ukraine

Abstract Purpose. The aim of our investigation was to establish the efficiency of the integrated physical education classes for schoolchildren with minor deviations in health. Methods. Sociological (questionnaire), biomedical, pedagogical (testing), psycho-diagnostic, and mathematical statistics. Pupils (N = 1417) of secondary school (both sexes, 5th–9th forms, i.e. aged 10–15) were examined. Results. The characteristics of physical and mental development in the process of integrated physical education proved to be significantly better for different sex and age groups. Analysis of physical fitness characteristics shows that integrated physical education classes turned out to be more effective for schoolchildren with minor health deviations than for apparently healthy students. Integrated physical education classes are more effective for students’ dexterity than for their power endurance. Integrated physical education classes are more effective for female students than for male ones; for schoolchildren with minor health deviations in older age groups (7th–9th forms) than for younger schoolchildren. Those schoolchildren who attended integrated physical education classes expressed significantly better attitudes to physical education than their peers who studied in a segregated environment. Conclu- sions. Integrated physical education classes are a more progressive and effective form of physical education in terms of their beneficial effect upon the physical and mental development of secondary school children with minor health distortions.

Key words: inclusive physical culture, pupils, health groups

Introduction Material and methods

The concept of integrated education has lofty aims The experimental group (EG) included secondary and noble tasks though often counteracted by a whole school students following the integrated program. Physi- range of negative tendencies causing an inevitable de- cal education classes in such schools were conducted for crease in education level and developing in healthy children with different levels of psycho-physical abili- students the feeling of being “neglected”, the so called ties simultaneously (with individualization of tasks based “integration fatigue” (anxiety and aggression of some on the needs and abilities of each child). The control children against their disabled peers), and the like [1–4]. group (CG) was comprised of students of those secondary Major problems occur during physical training lessons schools in which physical education classes were con- (PT), when discrepancy in physical capabilities of school- ducted separately for healthy students and for those with children manifests itself to its utmost. Integrated educa- minor psycho-physical deviations and rather poor physi- tion has been gradually introduced in the Ukrainian edu- cal fitness (differences between groups are presented in cational institutions since 2001. Nevertheless physical the form of table [5]). Nine secondary educational estab- training teachers often fail to show interest in intro- lishments were involved in the investigation. Secondary ducing new educational modes [5–8]. Introduction of school students from 5th to 9th forms (aged 10–15 years), common integrated physical training lessons for students N = 1417, took part in the research. The number of EG whose physical and mental characteristics do not deviate students amounted to 694 (320 girls and 374 boys). CG considerably might create an effect of preconditioning numbered 720 students (332 girls and 388 boys). Each for innovations in those educational institutions that age-sex subgroup numbered at least 20 people. strive for integration. Socio-psychological characteristics of schoolchildren Since scientists express conflicting views on practical were established by means of a questionnaire developed verification of the inclusive physical education model, by Bodnar, Andres and Tymkovych [6]. The survey was it seems necessary to check the effect of integrated physi- conducted to find out the children’s favorite types of loco- cal education upon schoolchildren with minor psychomotor activities during PE classes and out of school, the physical abnormalities and rather poor physical fitness. most enjoyable organizational forms of physical educa- Thus the aim of our investigation was to determine the tion, their most common harmful habits, their attitudes efficiency of the integrated physical education classes towards physical education and standardized charac- for schoolchildren with minor deviations in health. teristics of physical fitness. In order to determine the amount of physical activity performed by students, the Framingham method was used. The timekeeping mea- * Corresponding author. surements were taken by schoolchildren themselves

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within one day in the course of one week (on Tuesday, Analysis of socio-psychological characteristics has Wednesday or Thursday) from December to February. shown that schoolchildren with different health status Individual characteristics of physical activity volume in terms of their attitude to physical education classes (measured in points) and students’ energy expenditures demonstrate significant differences. The number of EG have been computed. Physical developmental quotients schoolchildren who fully enjoy all the components of were measured according to accepted standards; inte- physical education classes was higher (among those with grated parameters, like age-and-weight Quételet index, minor deviations by 14.8%, in convalescent by 31.3%, were calculated. Physical fitness was determined by means p < 0.001, and in healthy students by 18.0%, p = 0.001). of exercise test pack. Mental development characteristics In the case of EG students with minor health problems were studied with the help of traditional psychodiag- these values compared to their CG counterparts were nostic methods (Spielberg-Khanin’s method of HAM: close to significant (p = 0.06). EG students exhibited rela- health, activity, mood; tapping test, Seashore’s Group tively stronger tendency towards a desirable quantity of Cohesiveness Index and V.A. Rozanova’s method of physical education classes per week (3.75 classes on aver- group motivation for success) [7]. Parametric and non- age) than CG students (3.28 classes). This tendency was parametric methods of mathematical statistics have been proved statistically significant (p < 0.05). Such attitude applied. To determine the extent of differences among might well be explained by the fact that the students who group characteristics, the proportion comparison method attended segregated physical education classes expressed was applied (“Statistics” routine). less interest, joy and enthusiasm than their peers who practiced physical education on an integrated basis. Healthy Results students who attended integrated physical education classes accepted the idea of taking physical fitness tests According to the research, the range of locomotor ac- with approval (p < 0.05), whereas the attitude of school- tivity of domestic nature, like helping parents with house- children with minor health deviations who attended work, was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in EG school- either integrated or segregated PE classes did not differ. children in comparison with those of CG. The higher Significant differences in socio-psychological characteris- range of EG locomotor activity in EG students confirms tics of schoolchildren from both groups allowed us to higher efficiency of integrated physical education (PE). claim that those students who attended integrated PE Analysis of the students’ social-and-psychological classes showed probably a better attitude to physical train- characteristics allowed us to claim that EG children were ing than those attending segregated classes. Moreover, more active computer users (p < 0.01). Whereas CG school- CG students missed PE classes by far more often (by 9.2%, children (healthy students by 7.8%, p = 0.05 and second- p < 0.05) compared to their EG peers, thus demonstrating ary school students with minor health problems by 31.8%, less enthusiastic attitude to physical education. p = 0.07) more often spent their free time reading edu- Comparison of schoolchildren health complaints in cational literature and fiction as well as visiting museums view of their level of health indicated that differences and exhibitions (p < 0.05). EG students often seem to use in emotional state were observed in healthy students the Internet resources while doing their homework. The from both EG and CG groups. CG students were com- use of modern means and sources of information by EG plaining of groundless mood changes, anxiety and irri- students is clear evidence of their higher mobility, quick tation more often than EG students (by 17.3%, p < 0.01). readjustment skills, ability to use time more efficiently, The very fact of breakup with friends studying in segre- progressive thinking qualities and rapid development in gated conditions might cause negative changes in neuro- terms of integration. EG students eventually show a com- psychiatric state of those students. Another reason for paratively stronger need for communication aroused due negative mood changes might be unfavorable ambience to mutual task solution during PE classes, whereas their of segregated lessons for healthy students, which might peers from CG behave in a more humble manner, exe- lead to frustration. cuting teacher’s commands and instructions. It is highly Our study found that according to physical develop- probable that as a result of prevailing need for coopera- ment characteristics the integrative model of conducting tion EG students express their preference to outdoor PE classes proved to be more effective (p < 0.05), since the games more often (p < 0.001) than CG children. EG number of significantly higher characteristics in each sex schoolchildren have chosen more fashionable recreational and age EG subgroup was larger than in respective CG games among youngsters compared to CG students. Sec- subgroups (Table 1). ondary school students with minor health deviations Our study has shown that in view of physical develop- (by 45.5%, p < 0.05) prefer playing billiards and bowling, ment the integrative physical education contributes to whereas healthy children enjoy rope skipping (by 5.6%, more positive changes in healthy schoolchildren (43.6%) p = 0.01), thus confirming the fact that young students and in convalescents (50.9%) than in schoolchildren who who have studied in segregated physical education class- have minor health problems (21.6%). Hence the appre- es possess more progressive views. hensions of experts concerning low efficiency of PE classes

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Table 1. The percentage of significantly higher physical fitness characteristics displayed by the experimental (EG) and control group students (CG)

Students with minor Apparently healthy students Convalescents Groups health problems Total girls boys girls boys girls boys

EG 23.6 20.0 23.6 27.3 18.0 3.6 19.4* CG 16.3 7.3 18.2 18.2 9.1 12.7 13.6 * differences between EG and CG are significant at p < 0.05

Table 2. The percentage of significantly higher results of physical fitness of the experimental (EG) and control group students (CG)

Students with minor Apparently healthy students Convalescents Groups health problems Total girls boys girls boys girls boys

EG 2.9 1.0 5.7 10.5 8.6 3.8 36.2* CG 4.8 8.6 4.8 7.6 4.8 5.7 32.4 * differences in EG and CG are significant at p < 0.05 for physical development of students with sound health vantages in the development of agility (“10 eights” exer- proved to be wrong. cise and Romberg’s test). Agility is gaining in importance Summarizing physical fitness characteristics of school- in the contemporary society, becoming especially signifi- children from different health groups it was found that cant for mastering modern occupations. It also deter- the total sum of significantly higher results of the students’ mines the speed of cognitive operations, helps people physical fitness in the integrative and segregative condi- to adjust to variable life circumstances. These factors tions was virtually identical (32.4% in EG and 36.2% enhance the social significance and advantages of the in CG). Nevertheless, the number of healthy students who experimental management of PE classes. displayed stronger results was larger in CG (13.4% vs. But often significantly lower results (p < 0.05–0.001) 3.9%, p < 0.05, see Table 2), besides significant advan- (in comparison with the students of sex and age CG sub- tages in the number of stronger results of physical de- groups) have been observed in EG students in terms of velopment displayed by convalescent schoolchildren power endurance performance (for legs, abdomen, arms (16.2% vs. 12.4%) and against the students with minor and upper back). Power endurance is an essential physi- health problems (12.4% vs. 10.5%) from EG. Thus the cal quality which affects students’ efficiency. Taking into results of the study enable us to claim that judging by account the exceptional health-improving importance physical fitness characteristics integrated physical edu- of power endurance and in view of low characteristics cation is more effective for schoolchildren with minor of this quality in CG students observed during the re- health deviations, whereas physical education classes with search while conducting integrated PE classes for stu- separate subgroups are more preferable for healthy students of both groups, it would be worthwhile to recom- dents. Hence integrated PE classes conducted jointly mend physical education teachers increasing the volume with children with minor differences in physical and of physical endurance exercises for schoolchildren. mental development confirmed the predictions of ex- It was found that in performance of certain exercises perts who accentuated upon low potential of integrated students of different sexes reacted to the changed form of physical education classes for physical fitness improve- physical education classes in a different way (see Table 2). ment of healthy schoolchildren. This issue does not con- This means that integrated physical education led to more flict with the information [2] about ineffectiveness of in- positive changes in female physical fitness, whereas in tegrated PE classes for healthy students in terms of their males slightly higher growth rate of physical fitness was physical fitness improvement since the changes intro- observed during segregated physical education classes. duced by the author applied not only to PE classes but Another factor that determines the efficiency level also to out-of-school activities. To ensure sufficient im- of a physical education class model is the student’s age. provement of physical fitness in the integrated PE classes, Thus among 5th–6th form CG students there were more healthy schoolchildren should attend extra fitness class- groups of schoolchildren who came in with better results es or sports groups practicing certain kinds of sport. (21 vs. 13) than among EG students, whereas among 9th It was found that EG students, both males and fe- form students there were more EG children with signifi- males demonstrated significant (p 0.01–0.001) ad- cantly higher results than in CG (8 vs. 3). It was found

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Table 3. The percentage of significantly higher mental state characteristics of experimental (EG) and control group students (CG)

Students with minor Apparently healthy students Convalescents Groups health problems Total girls boys girls boys girls boys

EG 6.7 13.3 10.0 26.7 16.7 16.7 15.0** CG 0 2.0 10.0 10.0 3.3 0 5.0 ** differences between EG and CG are significant at p < 0.01 that integrated physical education is more effective for possible to claim that students-convalescents who studied 12–15-year-old schoolchildren with minor health dis- in integrated conditions together with children with other turbances, whereas segregated physical education is health statuses showed stronger subjective feelings of more beneficial for 11–13-year-old apparently healthy physiological or psychological comfort compared with schoolchildren. those students who had physical education classes sepa- Summarizing the results of mental development analy- rately. Students-convalescents who attended integrated sis of schoolchildren it should be mentioned that the PE classes revealed more favourable emotional response ambience during integrated physical education classes to real situations, events, means and methods of physical conduces to more favourable psychological conditions education in terms of promising life programs, plans, for students. The number of higher mental development interests and expectations. Those schoolchildren with characteristics was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in all minor health problems who attended integrated PE classes sex, age and medical subgroups of EG (15.0% vs. 5.0%, were more vigorous, initiative and active compared with see Table 3). those who exercised separately from their peers with In those forms where physical educated classes for better health status and physical fitness. This means students with different health status were carried out that for schoolchildren with minor health distortions jointly, the number of students with a high level of per- integrative physical education is more psychologically sonal anxiety was lower (p < 0.05) compared with those comfortable than segregative education. Integrative en- forms where physical education classes were conducted vironment enhances the intensity and scope of human separately. EG students had an average and high level interaction with physical and social surroundings for of personal anxiety. The level of personal anxiety was schoolchildren with reduced mental and physical abilities. higher in CG students thus testifying to the fact that CG Those schoolchildren who studied in integrated en- students interpreted various situations as precarious for vironment of physical education classes possessed higher their self-esteem, honor, competence and authority. The level (p < 0.001) of cohesion. Contrary to CG students, widest discrepancies in personal anxiety characteristics none of EG students considered the level of group co- were observed between CG and EG students with minor hesion as middling. During joint physical education health problems. The schoolgirls of 5th and 9th forms classes the schoolchildren with minor health distur- (p < 0.05), the 9th-form schoolchildren (p 0.05) with bances felt part of a whole group of mates, which explains minor health disturbances as well as students-convales- why those children from EG more often assessed the de- cents of 5th and 6th forms (p < 0.05–0.01) from EG showed gree of cohesion as higher. It is necessary to mention that significantly lower characteristics of personal anxiety the group cohesion created within a form was rated lower compared with CG students. Obviously the functionally by children-convalescents than by schoolchildren with disabled schoolchildren during joint PE classes are not minor health disturbances. Not a single subgroup of CG afraid that their relatively more physically efficient peers students considered their class solidarity above average. might undermine their prestige. Thereby integrated physi- Thus we can conclude that in segregated settings of PE cal education, contrary to segregated one, can by no means classes the students-convalescents suffer from a lack of jeopardize mental health of the students with minor health the teacher’s attention and do not feel involved in edu- distortions and cannot cause any further psychoneurotic cational process. reactions. Analysis of wellbeing, activity and mood characte Discussion ristics confirmed the advantages of integrative physical education model because CG schoolchildren showed Scientific studies often analyze social, emotional and significantly lower characteristics than EG students. behavioral advantages of integrative education for school- Students-convalescents from EG significantly more often children with health distortions [9, 10], benefits in aca- showed higher characteristics of “wellbeing” and “mood” demic achievements [11]. Other studies examine changes subscales, whereas the students with minor health dis- in motor characteristics of schoolchildren in integrated tortions turned to be more “active”. Hence it became environment of education [12, 13]. Characteristics of

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physical development have been less investigated. There ferent sex and age groups. Analysis of physical fitness char- is a lack of empirical data on integrated education effects acteristics permits us to admit that integrated physical upon physical fitness characteristics. education classes turned out to be more effective for Another study showed that those schoolgirls who schoolchildren with minor health deviations than for attend single-sex classes exhibit higher level of bellig- apparently healthy students. Integrated physical edu- erency compared to those girls who study in a co-education classes are more effective for students dexterity cational environment [14]. than for their power endurance. Integrated physical edu- The majority of scientific studies proved the efficiency cation classes are more effective for female students than of integrated education for schoolchildren with high mor- for male ones; and for schoolchildren with minor health bidity level [14–18]. The influence of integrated educa- deviations in older age groups (7th–9th forms) than for tion upon the students with minor health problems still younger schoolchildren. needs further investigation. Those schoolchildren who attended integrated physi- Our study has demonstrated advantages of integrated cal education classes have significantly better attitude education for physical fitness of the apparently healthy to physical education than their peers who studied in students and students-convalescents (38% and 44% re- a segregated environment. Integrated physical education spectively against 19% for the students with minor health enhances the development of such essential personal quali distortions). Hence the apprehensions concerning little ties as: responsibility, ability to cooperate, sensitiveness, effectiveness of integrated physical education classes for communication, mobility of thinking processes etc. It has apparently healthy schoolchildren proved to be wrong. special psychological comfort for the students with mi- The results of our study make it possible to assert that nor health problems. integrated education exerts more positive effect upon Segregated physical education classes caused anxiety physical fitness characteristics of the students with mi- and increased excitability, irritability, nervousness and nor health disturbances, whereas segregated physical edu- bellicosity. Hence segregative physical education might cation classes for apparently healthy students are more bear latent threat to students’ mental health. preferable. 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The role of proprioception in the sagittal setting of anticipatory postural adjustments during gait initiation

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0049

Marcelo P. Pereira1, 2 *, Paulo H. Silva Pelicioni 1, Lilian T.B. Gobbi 1 1 Posture and Locomotion Studies Laboratory, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, Brazil 2 Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Abstract Purpose. Previous studies have studied the role of proprioception on the setting of anticipatory postural adjustments (APA) during gait initiation. However, these studies did not investigate the role of proprioception in the sagittal APA setting. We aimed to investigate the role of proprioception manipulation to induce APA sagittal adaptations on gait initiation. Methods. Fourteen healthy adults performed gait initiation without, and with, vibration applied before movement onset, and during movement. In addition, the effects of two different vibration frequencies (80 and 120Hz) were tested. Vibration was applied bilaterally on the tibialis anterior, rectus femoris and trapezius superior. The first step characteristics, ground reaction forces and CoP behaviour were assessed. Results. Vibration improved gait initiation performance regardless of the moment it was applied. CoP velocity during the initial phase of APA was increased by vibration only when it was applied before movement. When vibration was applied to disturb the movement, no effects on the CoP behaviour were observed. Manipulation of vibration frequency had no effects. Conclu- sions. Rather than proprioception manipulation, the results suggest that post-vibratory effects and attentional mechanisms were responsible for our results. Taken together, the results show that sagittal APA setting is robust to proprioception manipulation.

Key words: proprioception, vibration, gait initiation, anticipatory postural adjustment

Introduction [1, 4, 7, 8] directly manipulated the APA medio-lateral component. Therefore, there is a lack of information about Voluntary movements, such as gait initiation, are ac- the effects of proprioceptive system manipulation in gait companied by postural adjustments initiated prior to move- initiation, when it is applied to induce sagittal pertur- ment [1], named anticipatory postural adjustments bation/facilitation. (APAs) [2]. The study of APA during gait initiation is rele- An instrument that has been used to manipulate the vant, since APA is impaired in people with movement proprioceptive system and to induce postural adjust- disabilities, such as Parkinson’s disease [3]. Hence, the ments is muscle vibration [1, 4, 9]. Since muscle vibration investigation of motor processes involved in APA dur- bilaterally applied on the lower limbs during upright stance ing gait initiation execution can lead to development shifts the CoP in the antero-posterior direction [9–11], of novel techniques to improve movement in people it is suggested that some APA adaptations could be elicited with motor disabilities. by this technique. Two major CoP behaviours are observed During the first step execution, in order to unload when vibration is applied during upright standing: the leading limb and to allow movement progression, (i) a CoP displacement towards (lower limb), or opposite a centre of mass (CoM) displacement forwards and to- (trunk muscles) to the vibrated muscles (i.e.: a forward wards the stance limb is expected [4]. This CoM dis- CoP displacement is observed when tibialis anterior and placement is elicited by a centre of pressure (CoP) shift upper trapezius are stimulated) [9–12]); (ii) a CoP over backwards and towards the leading limb [5]. In this way, recovery in relation to its initial position after vibration the antero-posterior CoP displacement, during APAs, is cessation [10, 13, 14]: i.e. after the cessation of vibration as important to define gait initiation performance as on the soleous the CoP moves excessively backwards the medio-lateral displacement [6]. compared to its initial position [10]. APAs are based on sensory information [4, 7]. In stance, During gait initiation, a backward CoP shift is expected previous studies have shown that during normal condi- at the initial APA phase [2, 6, 15]. Thus, we suggest that tions, the initial phase of APAs is robust to propriocep- muscle vibration, applied bilaterally on the tibialis an- tive manipulation [1, 8], suggesting that other sensory terior during the movement execution, would act as information, as those information from the tactile and a disturbing effect, since, a forward CoP shift would be vestibular system, are used in a higher scale to set APAs elicited by vibration [9, 11]. As a result, if proprioceptive than proprioception [1, 4]. In common, all these studies system plays any role in the sagittal APA setting we would observe a worsening in gait initiation performance. Otherwise, if vibration could be turned-off immediately before APA onset, an increased backwards CoP shift would * Corresponding author. be elicited [10] – assisting APA execution.

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Previous studies have shown that muscle vibration devices (measuring 4.5 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm; containing effects are task-, amplitude-, timing- and frequency-de- constant-velocity DC motors (Faulhaber®, Croglio, Switzer- pendent [9–11, 16]. Polonyova et al. [11] found greater land) bearing eccentric masses) were positioned bilaterally postural effects during upright standing when the gas- on the muscles’ bellies of Trapezius superior, Tibialis an- trocnemius was stimulated by vibration frequencies around terior and Rectus femoris. For fixation, ordinary elastic 100 Hz compared to lower frequencies (40–60 Hz). This bands were used. Extra care was taken to maintain vibra- was an unexpected result, since physiological assessments tion pressure against the skin, similar across all partici- showed poorer vibratory effects with the use of vibration pants. These muscles were chosen because their stimu- frequencies higher than 80 Hz [17], due to subharmonic lation elicits a forward CoP displacement [20, 21]. All motor units synchronization mechanisms [17, 18]. In this devices’ vibration peak-to-peak amplitude was 0.8 mm. way, the manipulation of vibration frequency on the postural response seems to be an unsolved issue. Optimising Task and Procedures vibration frequency to improve gait initiation performance could enhance the effectiveness of vibration as Subjects were asked to walk a 4-meter pathway, a rehabilitative strategy. Since Polonyova et al. [11] also looking ahead, initiating the movement from an upright observed that a 20 Hz step increase is not sufficient to posture, with arms resting beside the body. The partici- induce different postural effects (80 Hz vs 100 Hz), we pants were asked to always start the task with their pre- suggest that this investigation should involve higher vi- ferred lower limb and to walk at their self-selected pace. bration frequencies (~120 Hz) when compared to the to There were three trials in three different experimental the ‘optimal’ one (~80 Hz) [17]. conditions: a baseline condition – without vibration Considering all issues discussed above, the aims of (NonVib); vibration applied during (Du) the movement; this study were: (i) investigate the role of proprioception and vibration applied only immediately before (Be) move- manipulation to induce APA sagittal adaptations on gait ment onset. In addition, two different frequencies were initiation performance; (ii) investigate whether the ap- tested: 80 Hz and 120 Hz. Therefore, each participant plication of different vibration frequencies could influ- executed a total of 15 trials, three in each of the five ex- ence APA and gait initiation performance. As hypoth- perimental conditions: NonVib, 80Du, 120Du, 80Be and eses, (i) a worse gait initiation performance is expected 120Be. For all participants, NonVib was the first condi- when vibration is applied during movement execution tion to be tested. The other conditions were randomly and an improvement when vibration is applied exclu- distributed in blocks. A rest period of 30 seconds between sively before movement onset. Otherwise, if proprio- trials, and 3 minutes between conditions, was given. ception does not play any role in the sagittal setting of For all conditions, the vibration stimulus was continu- APA, vibration will not lead to any effects, when it is ously applied for 30 seconds. For the Du conditions, applied during movement execution; (ii) based on the participants started the movement after a verbal com- results of Polonyova et al. [11], greater effects on gait ini- mand given at the 28th second of vibration. For the Be tiation performance are expected with the use of higher conditions, participants were asked to execute the move- vibration frequencies. ment immediately after the devices were switched-off: at the 30th second of vibration. This procedure ensured Material and methods that all participants were exposed to the same period of vibration: 30 seconds. During the NonVib conditions, Participants the vibratory units were also kept in contact with the skin and fixed with elastic bands, but no vibration was applied. Fourteen healthy young participants (7 males; mean age: 21.40 ± 4.26 years; height: 164.61 ± 10.08 cm; mass: Data acquisition 66.17 ± 10.04 kg) participated in the study. Participants gave written informed consent approved by the insti- Four camcorders (Panasonic®, Tokio, Japan, sampling tution’s Human Ethical Committee. All subjects were rate of 60Hz) were used to capture the position of four self-reported right-foot preference. In order to define the passive markers attached to the following anatomic foot preference, the participants were asked which foot landmarks: bilaterally on the 3rd metatarsal bones and they would kick a ball running towards them. Exclusion heels. Markers were digitised automatically on Digital criteria included any neurological, orthopedic, vestibular Video for Windows software (DVIDEOW) [22]. As kine- or uncorrected visual disturbances. Subjects were asked matic dependent variables, we assessed the duration (from to not perform any physical activity 24 hours before the heel off until heel strike), length, width and velocity of assessment. the first step, duration of the Postural Adjustment phase (PA, from beginning of the movement – first change on Vibratory devices the ground reaction force (GRF, manually detected), until leading limb heel-off) and duration of the entire task A custom-made vibration system was used, named (PA + step duration). In order to determine the heel-off, we RCVibro System [19]. Three pairs of cylindrical vibratory used the vertical impulse obtained from the force plate

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(the downward peak before the last and maximal down- tion. For that, we considered only the factor that reached ward peak – for further description, check Caderby et al. significance in the first round, averaging the other factor [23]). The heel-strike was determined using the vertical into one. For example, if for the step length we found acceleration of the heel marker, as described by others [24]. only a Timing effect during the first round, in the second To assess kinetic data, two force plates (AMTI®, Water- round, the conditions used for the one-way ANOVA were town, USA) were positioned side by side, allowing the NonVib, Du and Be (the conditions 80 Hz and 120 Hz subjects to step on each force plate with one foot. Initial were averaged into Timing). Wherever necessary, we used position of the feet was self-selected and kept constant the Tukey post-hoc test to investigate any univariate com- across all trials. Kinetic data was assessed with a sampling parisons. If in the first round a statistical significance rate of 100 Hz. As kinetic dependent variables, we assessed effect of both Timing and Frequency (or interaction be- the maximal vertical and horizontal ground reaction tween factors) was found, we included all experimental force (GRF, normalised to participants’ body weight) for conditions in the second one-way repeated-measures the leading and stance limb. We also assessed the GRF ANOVA round. of each limb during quiet standing (1 second before move- In all cases, where in the first round of analysis no ment onset). The CoP behaviour (duration, A-P and M-L main Timing and Frequency effects or interaction be- displacement and mean velocity) was also assessed in tween them were found, we used a Student t test for de- three different phases [6, 12]: Anticipatory Postural pendent variables considering the conditions NonVib Adjustment phase (APA, from the first change in the and Vib (where all conditions were averaged). This pro- vertical GRF until the most posterior and lateral posi- cedure was used to guarantee that the lack of significant tion of the CoP towards the leading limb); the Weight effects of a condition would not mask positive effects of Transfer phase (WT, from the end of the previous phase other conditions. The Statistica 7.0 software was used until the peak medial and posterior CoP position towards for all statistical procedures. the stance limb); the Locomotor phase (LP, from the end of the previous phase until stance limb toe-off). While PA Results and total duration were determined using kinematic variables, APA, WT and LP were determined using the Kinematic variables CoP behaviour. Therefore, these two set of variables should not be related to each other, but as complementary. No main effects of both Frequency and Timing were All data analyses were assessed using specific MatLab observed during the first round of analysis for all kine- (MathWork ®, Natick, USA) codes. matic variables (for all variables: Frequency: p > 0.18; Timing: p > 0.12). During the second round of analysis, Statistical analyses we found a decrease in step duration, an increase in step length and an increase in step velocity with the use of Two rounds of analysis were used. In the first round, muscle vibration, regardless the timing and frequency we analysed the effects of different vibration parameters used (comparison between NonVib and Vib on Figure 1). on each variable by means of two-way repeated-measures Analysis of Variance (2 × 2 ANOVAs): considering Kinetics Timing (Be × Du) and Frequency (80Hz and 120Hz) as within-subjects factors. In this way, during this round The leading limb vertical GRF during standing showed of analysis, we excluded the NonVib condition. During an influence of Timing (F = 5.39; p = 0.02) without any the second round, we ran a new series of one-way re- effect of Frequency (F = 2.46; p = 0.15). In this case, peated-measures ANOVAs, including the NonVib condi- after the one-way ANOVA (F = 3.68; p = 0.03) consid-

Table 1. Mean and ± standard deviation values of Ground Reaction Forces (GRF)

NonVib Vib t p

Maximal Vertical GRF (%BW) Leading Limb 64.05 ± 7.56 65.11 ± 8.34 –0.64 0.52 Stance Limb 113.55 ± 7.43 114.30 ± 5.89 –0.61 0.54

Maximal Horizontal GRF (%BW) Leading Limb 1.14 ± 0.89 0.88 ± 1.26 1.11 0.27 Stance Limb 0.84 ± 0.29 0.89 ± 0.41 –0.59 0.55

Vertical Standing GRF (%BW) Stance Limb 56.00 ± 4.24 53.26 ± 4.59 3.01 < 0.01 %BW – % of body weight, significant results are bolded; only those variables that did not show any Timing or Frequency effects in the first round of analyses are shown

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* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.001 PA – Postural Adjustment phase NonVib – without vibration Du – vibration applied during the movement Be – vibration applied immediately before the movement 80, 120 – vibration frequencies (Hz) comparisons were made only between NonVib and Vib, the other conditions are shown for overall comparisons

Figure 1. Mean and standard deviation of kinematic variables in all conditions

ering the conditions NonVib, Be and Du, the univariate For the APA duration, the one-way ANOVA, consider- analysis showed that Be (48.02 + 2.88%BW) was higher ing NonVib, Be and Du, showed a significant result (F = (p = 0.02) than NonVib (46.00 + 4.12%BW). Du (47.00 3.36, p = 0.04), where Be (0.33 ± 0.12s) was shorter than ± 3.58%BW) was not different from other conditions both Du (0.38 ± 0.11s; p = 0.033) and NonVib (0.36 ± (p > 0.16). No other variable showed significance in the 0.14s; p = 0.042). For CoP M-L velocity during Loco- first round of analyses (p > 0.12), and therefore, were motor phase the one-way ANOVA did not reach signifi- analysed through Student t tests considering NonVib cance (F = 0.84, p = 0.43). and Vib. Table 1 summarises these results. Considering The only variable that showed significance for both the GRF results, we can state that vibration decreased Timing and Frequency was the A-P velocity during APA the body weight on the stance limb (regardless of vibration phase (Table 2). In this case, we ran a one-way ANOVA conditions) and increased the GRF on leading limb (only considering all experimental conditions, and a statis- during the Be condition, independently of vibration fre- tical significance was found (F = 6.12, p = 0.001). The quency). It is important to highlight that these results univariate comparisons showed that A-P CoP velocity were found during standing (1s before movement onset). in the 120Be (20.72 ± 9.45 cm/s) was higher than almost all other conditions: NonVib: 10.99 ± 5.09 cm/s (p = 0.003); CoP behaviour 80Du: 10.03 ± 5.00 cm/s (p = 0.003); 120Du: 9.46 ± 4.79 cm/s (p = 0.004). However, 120Be was not differ- The Moment and Frequency effects in the CoP de- ent from 80Be (11.51 ± 5.91 cm/s; p > 0.18). All other pendent variables are summarized on Table 2. As it can comparisons were not significant (p > 0.20). be seen, we found a Timing effect for APA duration and The Student t test comparing NonVib and Vib condi- for CoP M-L velocity during LM phase. We also found tions, for other variables that did not show significance a Timing and Frequency effect for APA A-P velocity. in the first round of analyses, are shown on Figure 2.

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Table 2. ANOVAs F and p values for Moment and Frequency effects on CoP dependent variables

Frequency Timing df F p F p

APA phase Duration (s) 1, 32 0.05 0.82 14.86 < 0.01 Velocity (cm/s) 1, 32 Medio-Lateral 1.71 0.20 1.56 0.35 Antero-Posterior 5.05 0.03 16.66 < 0.01 WT phase Duration (s) 1, 32 0.46 0.50 0.03 0.86 Velocity (cm/s) 1, 32 Medio-Lateral 0.49 0.49 3.46 0.07 Antero-Posterior 0.02 0.88 0.02 0.88 LM phase Duration (s) 1, 32 0.86 0.36 3.56 0.07 Velocity (cm/s) 1, 32 Medio-Lateral 2.90 0.10 4.23 0.05 Antero-Posterior 0.04 0.84 0.10 0.76 APA – Anticipatory Postural Adjustment, WT – Weight Transfer phase, LM – Locomotor phase, df – degrees of freedom; significant effects are bolded

0.60 0.60 * * ** p < 0.001 (s) 0.50 0.50 APA – Anticipatory Postural Adjustment phase

(s) WT – Weight Transfer phase 0.40 0.40 LM – Locomotor phase duration NonVib – without vibration

duration 0.30 0.30 Du – vibration applied during the movement phase Be – vibration applied immediately before

phase 0.20 0.20 the movement 80, 120 – vibration frequencies (Hz) WT 0.10 0.10 comparisons were made only between NonVib Locomotor Locomotor and Vib, the other conditions are shown for 0.00 0.00 overall comparisons

s) 10.00 140.00 s) / / 9.00

(cm 120.00 (cm 8.00 WT APA 7.00 100.00 – – 6.00 80.00 5.00

Velocity 60.00 4.00

3.00 40.00

2.00 - P COP A

L COP Velocity Velocity COP M - L 20.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 s) 250.00 / 50.00 s) (cm / 45.00 200.00 40.00 (cm 35.00

WT 150.00

– 30.00 Locomotor

– 25.00 100.00 20.00

Velocity 15.00 50.00 Velocity 10.00 COP 5.00

0.00 COP

M - L 0.00 - P

A Figure 2. Mean and standard deviation of kinetic variables in all conditions

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We found a vibration effect only for LM duration. No would be expected since the first step parameters are other variables showed difference between NonVib a reflex of the CoP behaviour during APA [2, 15]. However, and Vib (Figure 2). our results (Figure 1), show that independently of the In summary, vibration reduced the duration of APA moment vibration was applied, it induced an improve- and increased its A-P velocity (especially in the 120Be ment in gait initiation performance. This finding indi- and 80Be conditions). Vibration also increased the LM cates that the benefits of vibration on the gait initiation duration, regardless the vibration parameters that had performance are not exclusively explained by post-vi- been used. bratory effects [10, 13, 14, 28]. Tard et al. [29] demon- No interactions between factors were found for any strated that stimulus-driven attention modifies the gait variables (p > 0.10). initiation. Therefore, we suggest that any time muscle vibration was applied, it shifted the participants’ atten- Discussion tion to the task execution. This might explain why we found an improvement of the first step parameters even The main aim of this study was to investigate the without changes in the APA phase (in the case of Du effects of proprioception manipulation, through muscle condition). The GRF results support this hypothesis – vibration, on the APA during gait initiation in healthy we found a reduction in the GRF in the stance limb re- young people. Another aim of this study was to inves- gardless the moment vibration was applied, suggesting tigate the effects of different vibration frequencies on that participants were already prepared to perform a faster the performance of gait initiation. As main results, we CoP backwards displacement with the use of vibration. found an improvement of gait initiation performance However, if attentional shifting was the only mecha- with muscle vibration, when it was applied immediately nism underlying our results, we should not find any Tim- before the task execution. No effects on APA were found ing effects, even during APA, since in both Be and Du, when vibration was applied during the task execution. vibration was being applied equally. Taken together, Finally, we found no vibration frequency effects. Taken our results suggest that both mechanisms (postural post- together, our results suggest that APAs setting in the A-P vibratory effects and attentional mechanisms) played direction is robust to proprioception perturbation. some role in the improvement of gait initiation perfor- To properly execute the gait initiation, a backward mance in face of muscle vibration. CoP displacement towards the leading limb is expected Another aim of this study was to investigate the ef- [25, 26]. As higher is the velocity and shorter is the du- fects of vibration frequency manipulation on the gait ration of this displacement, the longer and faster is the initiation performance. As main result, we found that first step [2, 15]. Since we observed a shorter APA phase manipulating vibration frequencies does not influence and a faster A-P CoP velocity when vibration was applied gait initiation. This was an unexpected result, since only immediately before gait initiation onset, we suggest other studies showed a linear increase in postural re- that this condition may benefit participants. A CoP posi- sponses with higher vibration frequencies [11]. There- tion excessive recovery after vibration was already demon- fore, since gait initiation performance is highly based on strated by other studies [10, 14]: e.g. when vibration on postural responses executed before the first step [8], we the gastrocnemius was interrupted, an excessive forward expected a frequency manipulation effect. We suggest CoP recovery in relation to its initial position was ob- that vibration frequency manipulation effects are re- served [10]. Since, during upright stance, we induced stricted to upright stance and were suppressed by su- a forward CoP displacement, it is suggested that switch- perior volitional commands during the step execution ing-off vibration immediately before movement execu- [9, 19]. Voss et al. [30] findings support this hypothesis tion facilitated the CoP backwards movement, which is – the authors found that pre-programmed movement expected during the initial phase of APA [27]. setting interrupts the somatosensory influx to the central The improvement of the initial phase of APA found neural system. Therefore, if sensory manipulation exerted here is contrary to the results reported by Mouchino during the step execution was neglected by the partici- et al. [8]: in their study, no significant results were found pants, the vibration frequency increase would not lead when APA was facilitated by a fast change in sensory to different motor adaptations. This model explains why information. However, Mouchino et al. [8] facilitated higher vibration frequencies induces postural effects on APA by a postural perturbation in the medio-lateral di- upright standing [11], but not during gait initiation. rection, while we induced a postural facilitation in the The mechanisms underlying the first step performance sagittal direction. This discrepancy between our results improvement, considered together with the theory that and those reported by Mouchino et al. [8] reinforce a spe- volitional commands suppress the vibratory sensory cific response to proprioceptive perturbations in different effects, are in line with the results of other studies [1, 4, 7]. directions. These studies suggested that proprioception plays a dis- Since we found a Timing effect on the APA phase, crete role in the setting of the initial APA phase and in we would also expect different responses to vibration the first step execution performance [1, 4, 7]. The lack application moments in the first step parameters. This of effects on the Du condition reinforces this theory:

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vibration, as applied here, was not relevant to the task References execution, as suggested previously. In this way, if pro- 1. Ruget H., Blouin J., Teasdale N., Mouchnino L., Can pre- prioception plays any role in the APA setting and on pared anticipatory postural adjustments be updated by the gait initiation performance, we would expect a dis- proprioception? Neuroscience, 2008, 155 (3), 640–648, turbing vibration effect in Du. However our results sug- doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.06.021. gest that participants simply ignored the vibration sensory 2. Breniere Y., Cuong Do M., Bouisset S., Are dynamic phe- effects. Hence, we suggest that rather than propriocep- nomena prior to stepping essential to walking? J Mot Behav, 1987, 19 (1), 62–76, doi: 10.1080/00222895.1987.10735400. tion manipulation, postural adaptations and atten- 3. Delval A., Tard C., Defebvre L., Why we should study gait tional mechanisms elicited by vibration induced the initiation in Parkinson’s disease. 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Acknowledgements J Neuroeng Rehabil, 2014, 11, 130, doi: 10.1186/1743- The authors thank Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Es- 0003-11-130. tado de São Paulo (FAPESP) for financial support (Grant 15. Halliday S.E., Winter D.A., Frank J.S., Patla A.E., Prince F., #2010/5032-0). The initiation of gait in young, elderly, and Parkinson’s disease subjects. Gait Posture, 1998, 8 (1), 8–14, doi: 10.1016/S0966-6362(98)00020-4. 16. Uimonen S., Sorri M., Laitakari K., Jamsa T., A compari-

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Changes of physiological tremor following maximum intensity exercise in male and female young swimmers

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0050

Jan Gajewski 1, 2, Joanna Mazur-Różycka1 *, Patrycja Łach3, Sebastian Różycki 2, Piotr Żmijewski 5, Krzysztof Buśko 4, Radosław Michalski2 1 Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Sport – National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland 2 Faculty of Physical Education, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, Warsaw, Poland 3 Department of Ergonomics Laboratory of Biomechanics, Central Institute for Labour Protection, National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland 4 Institute of Physical Culture, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland 5 Department of Physiology, Institute of Sport – National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland

Abstract Purpose. The aim of this study was to determine the changes in postural physiological tremor following maximum intensity effort performed on arm ergometer by young male and female swimmers. Methods. Ten female and nine male young swimmers served as subjects in the study. Forearm tremor was measured accelerometrically in the sitting position before the 30-second Wingate

Anaerobic Test on arm ergometer and then 5, 15 and 30 minutes post-test. Results. Low-frequency tremor log-amplitude (L1–5) increased (repeated factor: p < 0.05) from –7.92 ± 0.45 to –7.44 ± 0.45 and from –6.81 ± 0.52 to –6.35 ± 0.58 in women and men, respectively (gender: p < 0.05) 5 minute post-test. Tremor log-amplitude (L15–20) increased (repeated factor: p < 0.001) from –9.26 ± 0.70 to –8.59 ± 0.61 and from –8.79 ± 0.65 to –8.39 ± 0.79 in women and men, respectively 5 minute post-test. No effect of gender was found for high frequency range.The increased tremor amplitude was observed even 30 minute post-exercise. Mean frequency of tremor spectra gradually decreased post-exercises (p < 0.001). Conclusions. Exercise-induced changes in tremor were similar in males and females. A fatigue produced a decrement in the mean frequency of tremor what suggested decreased muscle stiffness post-exercise. Such changes intremorafter exercisemay be used as the indicatorof fatigue in the nervous system.

Key words: fatigue, frequency analysis, swimming, Wingate test

Introduction Muscular fatigue is defined as limited ability to generate force or power caused by physical effort [8]. Fatigue Exercise-induced muscular fatigue can be examined, might also have the origins of both central and periph- among other methods, with changes in EMG signal [1] eral character. One of the symptoms of increasing cen- or tremor amplitude [2]. Physiological tremor is an invol- tral fatigue is a decline in the frequency of motor unit untary and continuous oscillation of the whole body excitation [13]. Cresswell and Löscher [14] demonstrated, or its part observed in healthy subjects. Physiological that in the EMG signal spectrum, components of fatigue tremor is produced by interaction of mechanical and with frequencies of several Hertz are increases and are neural factors. The details of the tremor origin are still the cause of reduced mean spectrum frequency. Other a subject of discussions [3–5]. Factors contributing to researchers [15] explained changes in low-frequency range tremor generation are e.g. discrete structure of muscles of EMG signal spectrum (10 to 20 Hz) with synchroni- and their control system [6], stretch reflex activity [7] zation of excitation of motor units and attribute them [16] central drive [8], synchronization of motor units firing to the effect of stretch reflex. The stretch reflex plays an [9], mechanical resonance [4]. essential role in accumulation and using elastic energy Tremor amplitude increases with exercise-induced contained in muscles and tendons in a stretch-shortening fatigue. Values of changes in tremor amplitude and fre- cycle. The fatigue-induced changes in the characteristics quency depend on the type of effort and its duration [10]. of this reflex have a substantial effect on reduction of the State of elevated tremor is maintained from half hour ability to generate peak power in strength and speed to over four hours post-exercise [11]. In extreme cases, sports. As demonstrated by Avela et al. [17], properties the elevated tremor, as an effect of fatigue, might be of stretch reflex are quickly changed following the fa- observed even on the following day. Furness et al. [12] tigue. The sensitivity of muscle spindles to mechanical demonstrated that fatigue-induced changes in tremor stimuli reduces with repeated eccentric contraction. Con- amplitude result from temporary disturbance of the mech- sequently, the activity in afferent nerve pathways declines anism of control of the nervous system. and total excitation of motor neurons decreases. Apart from elevated metabolites levels in muscles, the mechanical effect of reduced stiffness of muscle fibres is likely to * Corresponding author. be another cause of decreased activity in afferent nerve

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pathways. The attempts to solve the problem of diagnosis Nd of fatigue using non-invasive methods are particularly 1 (fi) = Gk (fi) , (1) attractive for sports practice. It seems that changes in Nd k=1 the parameters of physiological tremor analysis in the 𝐺𝐺 � domain of frequency might be the basis for immediate where i = 1,…,N/2; k = 1,…,Nd. and non-invasive evaluation of body response to physical exercise. Detailed analysis of the changes observed in ampli- The aim of this study was to determine changes in tudes of power components of tremor is based on a loga- postural physiological tremor following maximum in- rithmic index of tremor amplitude Lf1-f2 defined as a mean tensity effort performed on arm ergometer by young male log value of power spectral density function within the and female swimmers. frequencies range

Material and methods (2)

Participants f1−f2 In order toL estimate= possible∫ 𝐺𝐺 frequency( ) , shifts of the Nine male and ten female young swimmers served as tremor maxima the average frequencies ( f1–f2) were com- participants in the study. Their mean (± SD) age, body puted for chosen frequency ranges: mass, body height and training experience are presented f2 in Table 1. ∫ fPSD(f)df The study was approved by the Ethics Committee f 1 . (3) ν f -f = at the Institute of Sport in Warsaw, Poland. All partici- 1 2 f2 pants were informed about the study aim and meth- ∫ PSD(f)df odology as well as about the possibility of immediate f1 resignation at any time of the experiment. Subjects gave Analysis of variance ANOVA for repeated measures their written consent to the above conditions. (fixed effect: gender) was employed to detect differences between subsequent measurements. When a significant Tremor measurements F-ratio occurred for the main effects, post-hoc (LSD) Fisher test was used to locate the source of difference. The re- Forearm tremor was measured accelerometrically lationship between mean power and level of physio- in the sitting position before the 30-second Wingate logical tremor were evaluated by means of Pearson’s Anaerobic Test on arm ergometer and then 5, 15 and correlation coefficients. Level of significance in all tests 30 minutes post-test. Participants were seated on a com- was set to = 0.05. fortable chair, back and elbow supported, forearm in horizontal position. A three axis accelerometer was placed Wingate anaerobic test on one-kilogram load held as motionless as possible with the subject’s dominant hand. The 32-second course The Wingate Anaerobic Test [18] for arm was per- of acceleration was recorded (200 Hz sampling frequency) formed on a cycle ergometer (Monark 874 E, Sweden) for each subject. In order to avoid a mirror effect each connected to a PC, using the MCE 4.0 software pack- signal was low-pass filtered at the frequency of 100 Hz age (“JBA” Zb. Staniak, Poland). Participants were using a second order analogue filter. Power spectrum den- asked to pedal as fast as possible for 30 s against a brak- sity function was estimated only for vertical component ing force that was determined as 0.055 body weight using the fast Fourier transform procedure (MatLab (BW). Peak power (Ppeak) was estimated as the average 2007). In order to average the values of power spectral power over a 5 s period with the highest performance. density, we used Welch procedure which determines Mean power (Pmean) was calculated as the average power the function proportional to spectral density G(f) (1) of the during the 30 s period. Both Ppeak and Pmean were expressed random signal and reduces random error of the spectral as Watts (W) and relative to body mass in Watts per density estimator. The computation procedure requires kilograms (W · kg–1). division of the sets of samples Ntotal = 6144 into Nd = 9 overlapping segments, each of them with the length of N = 1024.

Table 1. Characteristics of subjects tested in the study

Age (years) Body mass (kg) Body height (cm) Training experience (years)

Male (n = 9) 14.8 ± 0.5 67.3 ± 6.4 180.6 ± 7.2 6.4 ± 1.8 Female (n = 10) 15.0 ± 0.9 58.9 ± 6.3 171.6 ± 6.5 6.2 ± 1.6

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Results women after transformation. Further analysis of tremor power was carried out based on logarithmized profiles. The athletes generated the following mean upper Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the mean (averaged for 10 limb power in the Wingate test: male subjects: 5.91 ± female and 9 male, respectively) PSD function graph of 0.48 W · kg–1 and female subjects: 4.45 ± 0.48 W · kg–1. the tremor PSD obtained before Wingate test. Because Figure 1 presents an eight-second raw acceleration of the above discussed skewed distribution of PSD values signal for representative subject. among subjects along the frequency domain, the resul- Figure 2 shows the Power Density Function correspond- tant averaged curves were obtained by averaging log- ing to the 32-second acceleration course of which part is powers: presented in Figure 1. Two maxima at about 3 Hz and 1 n PSD (f) = exp( lnPSD (f)) , (4) 10 Hz are specific to forearm tremor. a ∑ i n i=1 Comparison of the tremor spectra obtained for in- PSD ± (f) = exp(lnPSD (f) ± SD(lnPSD(f))) , (5) dividual subjects revealed that power of tremor signal a showed a substantial inter-individual variability in the where: n = number of subjects; i = 1, 2,…n; SD(lnPSD(f)) whole frequency domain. The results of previous studies – standard deviation of lnPSD for frequency f. [8] suggested the skewness of tremor power distribution in the population. The skewness obtained for female and The profiles of the function are characterized by dis- male subjects are presented as frequency functions in tinct similarity of shape: they point to the consistency Figure 3. The reduction in rightward skewness of dis- of frequencies where maxima and similar proportions tribution was obtained using logarithmic transforma- can be observed for individual components. Due to the tion of power spectral density (PSD) for the function. profile of spectral function of physiological tremor power, Figure 4 presents skewness of PSD profiles for men and the results from the frequency ranges of 1–5 Hz and 8–14 Hz were separated for further analysis.

0.4 0.010 ] 3

0.3 /s 2

0.2 0.008 ] (PSD) [m (PSD) 2 0.1 0.006

-0.1 0.004

Acceleration[m/s -0.2 0.002 -0.3 Power SpectrumDensity Power

-0.4 0.000 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time [s] Frequency[Hz] Figure 1. A raw acceleration signal of forearm tremor Figure 2. Power Spectrum Density Function of the tremor recorded for a representative subject acceleration for representative subject (the same whose raw before the Wingate test acceleration course was presented in Figure 1) 4 4

3 3

2 2 ] ] - - 1 1

0 0 Skewness [ Skewness Skewness [ Skewness 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -1 -1 Females Females Males Males -2 -2

-3 -3 Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz] Figure 4. Skewness of PSD distribution along frequency Figure 3. Skewness of PSD distribution along frequency domain after logarithmic transformation; measurement 0 domain; measurement 0 (before an effort) (before an effort)

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0.010 0.010 ] ] 3 3 /s /s 2 2 0.008 0.008 (PSD) [m (PSD) (PSD) [m (PSD) 0.006 PSD(f)PSD (f) 0.006 a PSD-(f)PSD-(f) PSD(f)PSDa(f) - PSD+(f)PSD+(f) PSD-(f)PSD (f) 0.004 0.004 PSD+(f)PSD+(f)

0.002 0.002 Power SpectrumDensityPower Power SpectrumDensityPower 0.000 0.000 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Frequency[Hz] Frequency [Hz]

Figure 5. Mean profile of the tremor spectrum (PSDa(f) Figure 6. Mean profile of the tremor spectrum (PSDa(f) – averaged for 10 female subjects) and PSD– (f) and PSD+(f) – averaged for 9 male subjects) and PSD-(f) and PSD+(f) computed according to formulas 4 and 5; before an effort computed according to formula 4 and 5, before an effort

D1-0 D2-0 D3-0 D1-0 D2-0 D3-0 18 18 16 16 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 ] ] - - 6

6 [ t t [ t 4 4 2 2 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -2 -4 -4 -6 -6 Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz] Figure 7. Function t(f) illustrating the significance Figure 8. Function t(f) illustrating the significance of increases in tremor power measured 5 min post-test (1), of increases in tremor power measured 5 min post-test (1), 15 min post-test (2) and 30 min post-test (3) in relation to 15 min post-test (2) and 30 min post-test (3) in relation to the initial measurement (0) for female subjects (D1-0, D2-0, the initial measurement (0) for male subjects (D1-0, D2-0, D3-0, respectively) D3-0, respectively)

Changes in tremor in relation to other results were Due to the profile of the t(f) function of post-exercise evaluated in the frequency domain by means of t(f) measurements with respect to measurements at rest, function calculated for the entire group as values of further analysis, apart from the results obtained for the Student’s t statistics in the frequency domain for the frequency range of 1–5 Hz and 8–14 Hz, was also the increases of the spectrum logarithms. The follow- based on these values in the frequency range of 15–20 Hz. ing formula was used: Table 2 presents means (± SD) of indices L1–5, L8–14 and L15–20 obtained for consecutive measurements by lnPSD (f) − lnPSD (f) male and female swimmers. Index L describes power t(f) = i 0 n , (6) 1-5 s of low-frequency components of tremor signal, index L8–14 Ä concerns power of components located near the second where: PSD (f) – power density component for frequency f i maximum of the spectrum, whereas index L concerns in measurement i = 1, 2, 3; s (f) – standard deviation of 15–20 the power of these components which changed after the the lnPSD differences for frequency f; n – number of exercise to the most significant degree (Figure 7, 8). subjects. Analysis of the index L1–5 (F3,51 = 22.25; p < 0.001) dem- The greater the value of function t(f), the more sig- onstrated, that it changes significantly during subsequent nificant PSD differences for the given frequency are. measurements both in female and male subjects. No sig-

The critical value t (8 degrees of freedom) is 2.31 for nificant changes in the index L8–14 (F3,51 = 2.48; p > 0.05) men and (9 degrees of freedom) 2.26 for women. Fig- were found during subsequent measurements of this ures 7 and 8 illustrate the graph of the t(f) function for index in both groups. Furthermore, it was demonstrated women and man, respectively. that the index L15–20 changes significantly during sub-

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Table 2. Means (± SD) for the index L1–5 , L8–14 and L15–20 obtained in consecutive measurements

Female Male

L1–5 L8–14 L15–20 L1–5 L8–14 L15–20 PRE-TEST –7.92 ± 0.45 –7.62 ± 1.00 –9.26 ± 0.70 –6.81 ± 0.52 –6.83 ± 1.04 –8.79 ± 0.65 5' POST-TEST –7.44 ± 0.45a –7.26 ± 0.70 –8.59 ± 0.61a –6.35 ± 0.58a –6.78 ± 1.23 –8.39 ± 0.79 15' POST-TEST –7.30 ± 0.57a –7.33 ± 0.75 –8.64 ± 0.69a –6.27 ± 0.59a –6.85 ± 1.05 –8.46 ± 0.72 30' POST-TEST –7.55 ± 0.39a,c –7.70 ± 0.75 –9.19 ± 0.61b,c –6.31 ± 0.53a –7.04 ± 0.99 –9.02 ± 0.83b,c a significant with respect to pre-exercise measurement, p < 0.05; b significant with respect to the measurement 5 min post-test, p < 0.05; c significant with respect to the measurement 15 min post-test, p < 0.05

Table 3. Means (± SD) frequencies 1–5 and 8–14 obtained in consecutive measurements

Female (n = 10) Male (n = 9) All (n = 19)

1–5 (Hz) 8–14 (Hz) 1–5 (Hz) 8–14 (Hz) 1–5 (Hz) 8–14 (Hz) PRE-TEST 2.79 ± 0.16 10.66 ± 0.49 2.80 ± 0.15 10.34 ± 0.43 2.80 ± 0.15 10.51 ± 0.48 5' POST-TEST 2.73 ± 0.12 10.73 ± 0.60 2.69 ± 0.13 10.29 ± 0.64 2.71 ± 0.12** 10.52 ± 0.64 15' POST-TEST 2.71 ± 0.11 10.71 ± 0.55 2.67 ± 0.15 10.21 ± 0.52 2.69 ± 0.13*** 10.47 ± 0.58 30' POST-TEST 2.70 ± 0.15 10.49 ± 0.54 2.72 ± 0.13 10.18 ± 0.62 2.71 ± 0.14*** 10.35 ± 0.58 ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 significant with respect to pre-exercise measurement

sequent measurements in both groups studied (F3,51 = each other significantly (F3,51 = 11.29, p < 0.001). The dif- 16.08; p < 0.001). ferences were also observed between the groups (F1,17 = A statistically significant difference was also observed 11.64, p < 0.01). for the index L1–5 between genders (F1,17 = 26.80; p < 0.001). No effect of gender was found for high frequencies. Discussion No correlation was found between the value of mean power developed between upper limbs in the Wingate The aim of this study was to determine changes in test and increments of indices. postural physiological tremor following maximum in- Table 3 presents mean frequency ( ) with standard de- tensity effort performed on arm ergometer by young viations for 1–5 Hz and 8–14 Hz. It was demonstrated, male and female swimmers. that mean frequencies for 1-5 Hz range gradually decreased In our study, the subjects performed exercise in the post-exercise (F3,51 = 7.72; p < 0.001) in both groups. form of a 30-second Wingate test with upper limbs and –1 No effect of gender was observed (F1,17 = 0.047; p > 0.05). generated mean power of 5.91 ± 0.48 W · kg (male sub- Figure 9 presents mean frequency with standard de- jects) and 4.45 ± 0.48 W · kg–1 (female subjects). In a study viations for individual measurements. It was demon- by Ogonowska et al. [19] male and female swimmers strated, that measurements in both groups differ from generated mean power in upper limbs of 5.97 ± 0.8 and 4.22 ± 0.3 W · kg–1 for the external load of 0.055 kg BW 12 Female Male and 0.045 kg BW, respectively. The mean power generated by male and female athletes in our study is consistent Ɨ 11 * with literature data. A study carried out in the group of 159 young ath- [Hz] 10 letes [20] showed that the components of tremor power mean ν * spectrum for individual frequencies have log-normal 9 * Ɨ distributions in the population. Therefore, the logarithmic measures were used in this study for description 8 of tremor amplitude and power. Skewness of distribution Mean frequency in the population as a property of the component of 7 tremor power in the frequency domain was also supported in this study (Figure 3 and 4). 6 PRE-TEST 5' POST-TEST 15' POST-TEST 30' POST-TEST Two maxima noticeable in the spectrum profiles aver- * significant with respect to pre-exercise measurement, p < 0.05 aged for men and women for the frequencies of ca. 3 and significant with respect to the measurement 5 min post-test, p < 0.05 10 Hz (Figure 5, 6) have been already described and Figure 9. Mean frequencies (± SDs) obtained in subsequent interpreted in the studies by numerous authors [2, 21] measurements and are consistent with the expectations.

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The study also demonstrated a significant effect of 2. A significant shift of the tremor spectrum maxi- physical exercise at peak intensity on the increase in the mum (1–5 Hz range) to lower frequencies can be attributed amplitude of physiological tremor in upper limbs [2, 22]. to decreased muscle stiffness evoked by prolonged stretch- Particularly substantial fatigue-induced increments in shortening cycles. the components of tremor signal were observed for rela- 3. Measurements of physiological tremor might be- tively low (1–5 Hz) and high (15–20 Hz) frequencies. come the basis for quantitative evaluation of body re- A maximum for the spectrum (for frequencies from 2 to sponse to physical exercise since changes in parameters 5 Hz) occurs presumably as a result of the simultaneous of physiological tremor in time and frequency domains effect of mechanical properties of limbs and stretch ef- are subjected to the laws of quantitative character. fect [3]. However, recent findings reported by Herbert [23] and Lakie et al. [24] questioned the role of the stretch Acknowledgements reflex. The authors suggested a dominant role of a me- This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher chanical resonance driven by muscle force irregularities. Education under Grant N RSA1 001051 and the Fund for the It can be expected that the same (or similar) level of fa- Development of Physical Culture. tigue causes similar increments in logarithmic index of tremor amplitude in different subjects. This means that References following the fatigue, amplitude (expressed in absolute 1. Bartuzi P., Roman-Liu D., Assessment of muscle load and terms) increases proportionally compared to the initial fatigue with the usage of frequency and time-frequency (rest) level. In this study, a significant increase in power analysis of the EMG signal. 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25(OH)D LEVELS AND SKINFOLDS THICKNESS IN ATHLETES

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0035

Anna Książek *, Aleksandra Zagrodna, Jadwiga Pietraszewska, Małgorzata Słowińska-Lisowska University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

Abstract Purpose. The aim of our study was to assess the relationship between 25(OH)D levels and skinfold thickness in Poland’s premier league (Ekstraklasa) football players. Methods. We enrolled 43 Poland’s premier league football players. The mean age was 22.7 ± 5.3 years. Serum levels of 25(OH)D were measured by electrochemiluminescence (ECLIA) using the Elecsys system (Roche, Switzerland). Skinfold measurements were taken with a Harpenden-type skinfold calliper body fat tester, characterised by a constant pressure of 10 g/mm2. Results. Our study showed decreased serum 25(OH)D levels in 74.4% of the professional football players. We did show a statistically significant negative correlation between the 25(OH)D levels and the biceps skinfold thickness (r = –0.33), iliac crest skinfold thickness (r = –0.43), the sum of all the studied parameters (r = –0.5) and percentage of body fat (r = –0.49). Conclusions. Our results suggest that athletes with higher content of the adipose tissue may be at a higher risk of vitamin D deficiency, and that 25(OH)D levels need to be monitored in professional athletes, particularly during the winter season.

Key words: fat mass, skinfold, vitamin D, athletes

Introduction insufficiency and deficiency. In our previous study, we

showed significant correlation between 25(OH)D3 levels Vitamin D is a lipophilic prohormone, which may de- and body mass, body cell mass, total body water, fat – rive from the diet, but its main source is endogenous free mass and muscle mass. Body composition was as- synthesis during exposure to sunlight. As a result of expo- sessed by bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA) [11]. sure of keratinocytes to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation, The aim of our study was to assess the relationship 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to cholecalciferol, or between 25(OH)D levels and skinfold thickness in pro- vitamin D3. The resulting compound is not biologi- fessional football players. cally active and is further converted in the liver and kidneys. The end product of this conversion is the bio- Material and methods logically active 1,25(OH)2D3 (calcitriol) [1]. Receptors for the active form of vitamin D are found in many tissues We enrolled 43 Polish premier league (Ekstraklasa) and organs [2]. football players. The mean age, height, body mass, per- The two principal roles of vitamin D in the body are: centage of body fat were respectively: 22.7 ± 5.3 years, regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism, and 182.0 ± 6.7 cm, 76.3 ± 7.4 kg, 8.1 ± 1.1%, and the mean bone mineralisation [3]. It has been suggested, in the career duration was 14.7 ± 4.5 years. The study was literature, that low levels of vitamin D in athletes may conducted in December 2013. All the footballers were lead to reduced muscle strength, and may significantly in the competitive period and had similar exercise loads. increase the risk of bone injuries [3–5]. There is strong None of the subjects used any food supplements con- evidence that vitamin D is capable of regulating both taining vitamin D and calcium. innate and adaptive immune processes via binding of Training sessions took place in Wroclaw, in Poland, active vitamin D to its complementary receptor [6]. which is situated at latitude of 51°10’ N. They were per- While the available literature abounds in data on the formed twice a day and they lasted for 2–3 hours each. relationship between vitamin D levels and the amount In winter, the uniform covered 80% of the body of the of body fat in overweight or obese individuals [7–9], studied athletes. reports on similar studies investigating individuals To assess subcutaneous adiposity, skinfold thickness with normal weight, high levels of physical activity was measured on the biceps under the inferior angle and low levels of adipose tissue are scarce. Heller et al. of the subscapular, and over the iliac crest. Skinfold meas- [10] suggest that athletes with a large body size and/or urements were taken with a Harpenden-type skinfold excess adiposity may be at a higher risk for vitamin D calliper body fat tester characterised by a constant pressure of 10 g/mm2. We used the following formulas to estimate the per- * Corresponding author. centage of body fat.

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An equation here in below was used to compute body percentage of body fat. Similar results were obtained by density (D), which included the skinfolds thickness [12]: Koundourakis et al. [19], while Peeling et al. [20] showed a significant positive correlation between 25(OH)D levels D = 1.0982 – 0.000815(3SF) – 0.000000(3SF)2, and the sum of skinfold thicknesses in athletes. It should, however, be noted that these authors evaluated represen- where 3SF stands for a sum of triceps, subscapular and tatives of various sport disciplines. Athletes with lower abdomen skinfolds. Brozek et al. [13], equation was applied skinfold thicknesses represented disciplines whose train- to compute the percentage of fat: ing units occurred in an indoor venue for prolonged periods of time, where the skin is not exposed to sunlight. 4,57 %F = 100*( – 4,142). These factors may have indirectly affected the resulting D serum levels of 25(OH)D. Blood sampling was carried out at 8.00am, after Using radioactive labelling, Mawer et al. [21] proved a 12-hour fast, and a 24-hour period without training, that vitamin D is stored in the adipose tissue. Due to its in December 2013. Serum was separated and stored at lipophilic character and the mechanisms of sequestration, –70°C. Serum levels of 25(OH)D were measured by vitamin D is cumulated in the subcutaneous tissue. electrochemiluminescence (ECLIA) using the Elecsys This process has not been yet fully elucidated [22]. Pra- system (Roche, Switzerland). The intra- and interassay myothin et al. [23] assessed the concentration of vita- coefficients of variation (CV) for 25(OH)D were 5.6% and min D in the adipose tissue excised during bariatric opera- 8.0%, respectively, and the limit detection was 4 ng/ml tions (HPLC). The concentration of vitamin D in the (10 nmol/l). specimens was high (297 ± 727.7 ng/g fat tissue) [23]. The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee Cheng et al. [24] suggested that increased amount of the of the University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, adipose tissue that facilitates storage may lead to a di- Poland, No. 18/2013. minished transport of vitamin D into the bloodstream. The relationship between serum 25(OH)D levels and It has been well-documented that blood concentration skinfold thickness and percentage of body fat was assessed of 25(OH)D is negatively correlated with the amount using the Pearson correlation coefficient and the statis- of adipose tissue [24]. tical analysis was performed using Statistica 10. Notably, skinfold thickness measurements are a rec- ognised method of measuring adipose tissue content Results in the body with skinfold thickness being accepted as a body fatness predictor for two reasons: about 60% The results of our study are presented in Figure 1–2. of total body fat is in the subcutaneous region of the The mean serum 25(OH)D level was 16.9 ± 8.4 ng/ml. body, and skinfold thickness can be directly measured Assuming the levels of serum 25(OH)D of 30–50 ng/ml using a well-calibrated calliper [25]. The method is also as the physiological norm [14], we found that 74.4% of non-invasive and easily accessible. It should also be pointed the subjects had levels consistent with vitamin D defi- out that anthropometric measurements do not require ciency. any particular conditions to be met by the examinee, in We found significant negative correlation between contrast to the BIA method (appropriate level of hydra- 25(OH)D levels and the biceps skinfold thickness, iliac tion, lack of strenuous exercise for 12 hours before the crest skinfold thickness, the sum of all the studied param- examination). The measurement is therefore indepen- eters and percentage of body fat. dent of the so-called external factors. Adipose tissue Figure 1 and 2 present the Pearson correlation coeffi- content estimation, based on skinfold thickness mea- cients (r and p – values). surements, seems to be a good method to assess the level of adiposity, particularly in athletes with similar Discussion levels of exercise load [26]. Reilly et al. [27] have suggested that skinfold thickness measurement of various Many studies suggest that vitamin D deficiency is parts of the body may be a good indicator of obesity highly prevalent among athletes, particularly during in athletes, especially in football players. the winter season [11, 15–18], and this has also been Our results have revealed a considerable vitamin D demonstrated in our study: we found decreased serum deficiency in athletes, particularly during the winter 25(OH)D levels as the physiological norm [14] in 74.4% season, as players with higher levels of 25(OH)D were of the professional football players during the winter characterised by lower values of skinfold thickness in season. all the sites, which we analysed. Based on our results, In our study, we assessed the relationship between it may therefore be suggested that athletes with higher 25(OH)D levels and skinfold thickness in professional adipose tissue content may be at a higher risk of vita- football players and found significant negative corre- min D deficiency, particularly during the autumn and lation between the biceps skinfold thickness, iliac crest winter seasons. skinfold thickness, the sum of studied parameters and

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r = –0.43 r = 0.33 p = 0.008 p = 0.048

r = –0.50 p = 0.002

Figure 1. Correlations between 25(OH)D levels and the iliac crest skinfold thickness (A), the biceps skinfold thickness (B), and the sum of all the studied skinfolds thickness (C)

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Effect of progressive muscle relaxation on pain threshold and effectiveness of footballers’ training

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0043

Lilianna Jaworska*, Arletta Hawrylak, Bartosz Burzyński, Joanna Szczepańska-Gieracha Department of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

Abstract Purpose. Relaxing in the athlete’s training process is underutilized. Relaxation techniques, however, should be taught from the very beginning of the footballer’s training career. The main aim of this study was to present the effect of progressive muscle relaxation on pressure pain threshold levels and the effectiveness of the footballer’s training. Methods. A sample of 32 football players participated in the therapeutic program consisting of 8 PMR sessions. Before and after applying a pressure therapy, the pain threshold in the lumbar region was measured by a dolorimeter and the Cooper test was carried out to determine the footballers’ level of endurance. Results. PMR training did not increase significantly the pain threshold level in the experimental group (p > 0.05), but it increased significantly the distance covered in the Cooper test (p = 0.04). Analysis of the Spearman rank correlation was also carried out (p = 0.81). Conclusions. PMR does not lower pain perception threshold. PMR therapy increases the distance measured by the Cooper test. In order to determine the role of PMR in injury prevention, further research is necessary.

Key words: progressive muscle relaxation, pain threshold, effectiveness of training, football players

Introduction be taught from the very beginning of the footballer’s career. The pressure to be a top player creates stress. In Nowadays football is the most popular team game, many different sport disciplines already pre-schoolers played worldwide by almost 200 thousand professional begin training. This means that the player who has footballers and 240 million amateurs. About 80% of them reached a championship level is often not fully emotion- are men [1, 2]. Young adepts start their first training at ally mature. It is not sufficient to have achieved the high the age of 5–6 years enrolling in special football acade- level of physical fitness, technical or tactical perfection mies established by football clubs from top leagues. The to reach the championship level in sports competition. main aim of such schools is to identify new talents, whose Mental preparation plays a fundamental role. The ability demand is growing rapidly due to overseas expansion of to focus attention, emotional control, confidence and the game. As more and more recruited adolescents un- quick decision-making may turn out to be key elements dergo intense training, the number of injuries among of the athlete’s training. young athletes increases dramatically. Some statistics Psychological skills training should include: stress report that about 44% of football injuries occur at the management, courage and decisive actions, interpersonal age of 15 years [3]. communication, self-confidence, imagination, visuali- Coaches have started to put greater pressure on their zation, mental preparation and concentration of atten- team’s results. Consequently, each player in the team is tion [7]. Many studies have confirmed the positive effects psychically overloaded. It can lead to injuries of the joints, of relaxation techniques in sport [8, 9]. Our test was de- muscles, tendons and fascia. The most common injuries signed to assess the effect of progressive muscle relax- in football are those caused by direct contact with an ation (PMR) on pressure pain threshold levels measured opponent [4, 5]. Most of the accidents occur in the last by dolorimeter and the effectiveness of training measured 15 minutes of each half when the body is considerably by the Cooper test – a distance covered by football players overloaded. This can suggest that exercise can have sub- aged 15–16 years. stantial impact on changes in nervous and muscular systems and stabilization of the joints of the lower limbs [6]. Material and methods Sporting events (including atmospherics, active participation of the spectators, as well as the sports competition A group of 32 boys playing in the top league of ‘Sen- itself) exert, to a great extent, a psychological pressure on ior Youth’ age category participated in the study. Their the player. Relaxation training in the athlete’s training average age was 15.68 years (± 0.47), mean body weight process is a underutilized element. Relaxation should 58.41 kg (± 4.76). The main inclusion criteria were as follows: parent/ guardian’s written consent, age of 15–16 years, member * Corresponding author. of an association football club, no previous participation

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in relaxation sessions. The exclusion criteria included: in- Analysis of the data collected in the Cooper test showed juries being treated, lack of a parent/guardian’s consent. that the distances covered by athletes increased signifi- The athletes eligible for the experiment underwent cantly after eight PMR sessions (p = 0.04). Also Spear- PMR training, measurement of pressure pain threshold man’s rank correlation coefficient was calculated (p = 0.81). in the lumbar spine executed by dolorimeter and the The only strongly correlated parameters were the results Cooper test. of the two Cooper tests: before and after PMR training Measurement of pressure pain threshold level and (Table 2). the Cooper test were carried out before the first relaxation session and repeated after eight relaxation cycles Discussion approximately at the same time of day. All measurements were made by the same physiotherapist. Relaxation This study showed the efficacy of PMR training in sessions were carried out in a separate room, where par- increasing effectiveness of football training. Also the ticipants were lying in the supine position on a com- results of other authors point to the benefits of this type fortable relaxation mat. Each time relaxation was per- of intervention. First at all, it leads to anxiety reduc- formed following the same procedure in accordance tion and general relaxation, but on the other hand it with the requirements of PMR training. raises the pain threshold (and thus reduces tissue sen- Statistical analysis was made using Statistica 10 pro- sitivity to painful stimuli). That should lead to an increase gram. Test results were presented using descriptive sta- in efficiency of training. This study demonstrated a statistics – the mean and standard deviation. As the ana- tistically significant prolongation of the distance in the lysed data was not normally distributed, in order to Cooper test but did not prove that relaxation training determine the significance of differences in the tests raises the pain threshold. performed before and after the applied relaxation, the Williams and Andersen have shown that various nonparametric Wilcoxon matched pairs test was used. emotional states can affect the risk of injury in athletes. To analyze the correlation between the random variables According to their study, the injured athlete has a higher Spearman’s rank correlation test was used. The level of level of anxiety that may reduce their ability to produce statistical significance was set at < 0.05. a variety of motor tasks and overload the musculoskeletal system [10]. Their tests were also performed on a group Results of young football players. Players with a higher level of stress overload, in comparison with their competitors The level of pressure pain threshold was measured with a lower level, had a higher injury risk, directly pro- in six points of the lumbar spine (L1, L3, L5) on both portional to the stress level. It can be caused by a reduced sides of the spine: right (R) and left (L). Analysis per- ability to respond to the peripheral nervous system [11]. formed using the Wilcoxon test did not show statisti- Johnson and Ivarsson showed there was a relationship cally significant differences for any of the segments of between physical trauma and somatic trait anxiety. The the lumbar spine after eight PMR sessions (Table 1). PMR study was carried out on a group of young football players. training did not significantly increase the pain threshold It showed that the personality of the footballer can de- in the sample (p > 0.05). termine, to a great extent, the incidence of injuries [12].

Table 1. Measurements of pain threshold before and after PRM training

Before After Wilcoxon Feature M (± SD) M (± SD) Z p

L1(R) 78.1 (± 15.9) 78.4 (± 16.8) 0.54 0.59 L1(L) 80.8 (± 15.1) 80.8 (± 14.9) 0.05 0.95 L3(R) 78.6 (± 14.2) 78.3 (± 15.0) 0.03 0.97 L3(L) 81.7 (± 13.3) 82.0 (± 13.4) 0.41 0.68 L5(R) 77.4 (± 13.9) 77.8 (± 14.1) 0.43 0.66 L5(L) 79.2 (± 12.8) 79.4 (± 12.8) 0.24 0.80 L – the lumbar spine; 1, 3, 5 – number of lumbar vertebrae; (R) – right side of the spine; (L) – left side of the spine

Table 2. The Cooper test results (metres) before and after PMR training

Before After Wilcoxon Spearman’s rank Feature M (± SD) M (± SD) Z p correlation 2518.12 2552.50 Cooper test 2.01 0.04 0.815941 (± 200.72) (± 221.53)

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Junge [13] said that the athlete’s emotional stress and fit- objectively was already very good. Probably this can be ness level can affect injury risk. A highly annoyed athlete accounted for by the young age of the athletes. The ef- perceives subsequent events as being increasingly stressful. fectiveness of football training depends highly on the As a result there is an increase in negative feelings such athlete’s oxygen uptake and physical fitness. Vempati as anger and aggression, and it can lead to injury [13]. and Telles showed the effect of PMR training on the The athlete’s effectiveness is diminishing. Additionally, lungs [21]. Another important element is the cardio- younger players during a match are more prone to stress vascular fitness. Lehrer et al. [22] said that biofeedback than older ones, which can be the reason why the injury can have a huge impact on heart rate changes. This inter- incidence is more frequent among young players [14]. relationship can improve lung function and the whole Therefore the study included a group of junior footballers. respiratory tract. The parasympathetic nervous system A high aerobic endurance is essential as it can often de- is better controlled by the human. Breathing becomes termine who will eventually win the match. Having much smoother, quieter and more prominent, and as a conse- endurance one can do a lot of thing, e.g. bypass, dribble quence the body gets more oxygen [22]. or evade the opposing team player. The Cooper test meas- It is thought that such factors as anxiety or other ures and verifies the maximal aerobic power of foot- emotional states can result in making bad decisions by ballers. The parameter that determines the distance is the player. Such situations can lead to a decrease in the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) [15, 16]. efficiency of athletes [23–25]. Other studies confirmed Higher levels of tissue sensitivity to pain may be asso- the usefulness of full PMR used in training football ciated with the accumulation of tension at one point players. Due to the fact that nowadays more and more of the muscle. Benson’s [17] study showed a beneficial people are involved in competitive sport, the competition analgesic effect of PMR. It is believed that when the increases. Fierce competition imposes longer training skeletal muscle afferent endings diminish, the activity sessions thereby increasing injury risk [26]. PMR effec- of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced [17]. Re- tiveness test could be carried out on a larger sample of duction in pain affliction, according to McGuigan, is footballers playing in the top leagues. In addition, it would associated with a decrease in the neuromuscular activity be important to increase the duration of PMR and in- related to pain perception [18]. In their research, Emery clude it as a permanent element of the football training et al. [19] also confirmed that PMR is an effective form program. Since the number of scientific publications on of pain reduction. The tests were performed on an objec- the possibility of using PMR in this sport is small, there tive scale. They consisted in changing the threshold of is an extreme need to further research. It seems that pain in spinal reflex when a stimulus was applied to the the PMR method can reduce the number of injuries in foot [19]. The measurement points (3 cm to the right or sport and enable individual players to perform at their left of the spinous processes of the lumbar spine indi- maximum potential. This technique contributes to re- vidual segments L1, L3, L5) used in this experiment are duce perceived stress, which reinforces the feeling of a selected in many tests. Also Fisher [20] studied pain thresh- greater internal control. This may result from better coping old. He exerted axial pressure on the muscles and liga- with stress and calming the body. It allows players to ments using a dolorimeter. This research was designed make a better decision and execute accurately the in- to test a subjective sensation of pain. Fisher [20] said that tended movement. It would be advisable to carry out the minimum pressure which causes discomfort or pain a similar study on a larger sample and compare to a con- in the test expresses the degree of sensitivity of nerve fi- trol group. This would allow for an assessment of the ef- bres stimulated by some irritating factors. The critical fectiveness of PMR in injury risk. Also the assessment value of oppression was assessed at the level of 4 kg/cm2. of new variables, the level of anxiety and perceived Feelings associated with a smaller value may be associ- stress, should be included. In the future, the proposed ated with pathologies within the muscle or ligament. therapy could also be combined with massage as, accord- According to Fisher [20], trigger points were responsible ing to recent reports, massage therapy quickened recovery for the areas where the most intense muscle pain was per- and improved post-exercise muscle efficiency and may ceived. He described them as hypersensitive areas within serve as an effective treatment of muscle soreness. The anal- the belly muscle or muscle fascia. Trigger points may re- gesic effect of massage suggests it should be widely applied sult from: microtraumas, stress, trauma, or even fatigue. in sport, physical therapy and rehabilitation [27]. Also post-operative system disorders and muscle ineffi- ciency are the cause of the formation of these points [20]. Conclusions In the present study, the average value of pressure pain threshold was about 7.5 kg/cm2 and that implies the 1. PMR does not reduce perceived pain threshold in participants did not have hypersensitive pain areas. Per- young footballers. haps this fact explains the lack of a rise in pain threshold 2. PMR therapy increases the distance measured by in young footballers under the influence of PMR. The the Cooper test. pain threshold in this sample was already at a very good 3. To assess the role of PMR in the prevention of in- level, and it was impossible to improve something that jury risk, further research is necessary.

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The effect of swimming activity on lung function parameters among smoking and non-smoking youth – research extended

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0045

Katarzyna Michalak *, Agnieszka Pawlicka-Lisowska, Elżbieta Poziomska-Piątkowska Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland

Abstract Purpose. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of regular swimming activity on the respiratory system of smokers and non-smokers. Methods. The study included 196 students, aged 19 to 24 years, attending weekly swimming classes. All students underwent pulmonary function testing before and after participating in a swimming program for 10 months. Measurements included forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow (PEF). Maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressure at the mouth (PImax, PEmax) and the percentage carboxyhemoglobin level in blood (%CoHb) were also measured. Results. After 10 months of regular swimming activity the values of FVC, PEF, MIP and MEP increased in the non-smoking as well as in the smoking group, while the FEV1 increased only among smokers. The percentage of CoHB level in the blood decreased in both groups. Conclusions. The study confirmed the positive effect of swimming on respiratory system function and the importance of promoting physical activity such as swimming among cigarette smokers as well as non-smokers.

Key words: swimming, respiratory function, smoking

Introduction relation to lung ventilation, and can increase the dif- fusion capacity of the lungs [3]. Furthermore, staying in Many physical therapists appreciate the benefits of moderately cool water (21–28oC) may result in deeper exercises in the aquatic environment because of the spe- breathing, reduced respiratory and heart rate and in- cific thermal and mechanical factors operating on the creased minute ventilation [4]. body immersed in the water. The influence of many Despite the large number of scientific reports confirm- environmental factors (e.g. the temperature of water, ing the positive impact of swimming and water exercises hydrodynamic and hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy and on the respiratory system [5–7], there are reports which resistance) on the human body makes physical activity call this issue into question [8–11]. Some authors have in water substantially different from the dry land exer- even questioned the overall impact of physical activity cises. For example, the upward buoyant force opposing on respiratory parameters. For example, Lakhera et al. gravitational force produces an apparent loss of body [10] did not show any significant difference in the value weight which allows greater freedom of movement and of forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume a variety of unloaded exercises. Such a movement state in one second (FEV1), inspiratory capacity (IC) and maxi- is difficult to achieve on land [1]. mal voluntary ventilation (MVV) between subjects taking The aquatic environment also strongly influences regular physical activity and subjects who led a seden- the respiratory system. The hydrostatic pressure of the tary lifestyle. Thus, those authors concluded that the water causes pressure on the chest which impedes depth development of the lungs during puberty is influenced and volume of inspiration and simultaneously facilitates mainly by health conditions and nature of the diet, while greater expiratory volume. Exhaling also can be impeded the impact of physical activity was considered to be less when breathing out while the face is immersed in the important [10]. Research conducted by Biersteker et al. water because of water resistance. This paradox explains [8] also did not confirm the relationship between physi- how a gradation of the levels of body immersion can cal activity and the improvement of respiratory parame- enable selective activation of the auxiliary respiratory ters. Furthermore, a systematic review conducted by Mar- muscles [2]. The more superior location of the diaphragm tin-Valero, Cuesta-Vargas, and Labajos-Manzanares [12] while in a supine horizontal body position in the water showed no beneficial effect of selected water exercises may predispose thoracic breathing which can increase on lung function in patients with chronic obstructive flexibility and mobility of the chest [2]. In addition, hori- pulmonary disease. zontal body position in the water can reduce “physi- On the other hand, Holmen et al. [13] confirmed the ological deadspace”, can increase the flow of blood in influence of physical activity on the respiratory system suggested that it is not the type of the activity, but the frequency and intensity that have an impact on the respi- * Corresponding author. ratory parameters. The results of the study showed no

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statistically significant difference in the increase of forced – peak expiratory flow (PEF) vital capacity (FVC) in swimmers compared with those – maximum inspiratory pressure measured in the who practice other endurance sports. mouth (MIP) Physical training in water might be included in a com- – maximum expiratory pressure measured in the prehensive pulmonary rehabilitation program, but first mouth (MEP) it is necessary to unambiguously confirm or deny the posi- Additionally, we performed a breath carbon monoxide tive impact of water exercises on measures of pulmonary test to measure the level of CO in students’ exhalation system function. Therefore, we assessed the effectiveness and the percentage level of carboxyhemoglobin in the of swim training on respiratory function of young healthy blood (%COHb). adults. Since cigarette smoking is a variable that has The measurements were performed with the partici- a deleterious impact on the respiratory system, we ana- pant in a sitting position. The procedure for spirome- lyzed the influence of swimming on the respiratory pa- try included maximal inhalation and forced maximal rameters of smokers and non-smokers as independent exhalation. The best of three trials was recorded. Testing variable. was completed using a calibrated computerized spirometer (MicroLab, CareFusion, UK). Maximal expiratory and Material and methods inspiratory pressures were measured using a handheld respiratory pressure meter (MicroRPM; CareFusion, UK) The study included 224 college-aged students attend- and the breath carbon monoxide test was performed with ing weekly swimming classes. A total of 196 subjects met a breath CO monitor (MicroCO, Micro Medical, Roches- the inclusion criteria and completed the research: 50 men ter, Kent, UK). All measurements were conducted by the and 144 women (Mage = 20.4 years, age range: 19 to 24 same person using the same equipment. years). Exclusion criteria included lack of consent, cold Swimming classes lasted 90 minutes and were held symptoms, and a history of asthma. Subjects were divided once a week. Students learned elementary and com- into two groups: current smokers and non-smokers. Cur- petitive swimming strokes including front crawl, back rent smokers included daily smokers (students who smoked crawl and breaststroke. The load, intensity, and frequency cigarettes at least once a day) and occasional smokers of exercises were characteristic for recreational swim- (those who do not smoke every day). Non-smokers in- ming [14]. Average distance covered during each class cluded former daily smokers, former occasional smokers was about 1200 meters. After ten months of training and never smokers. Students in the smoking group smoked the measurement of the initial physiological variables on average 7 cigarettes per day. was repeated. All students underwent pulmonary function testing In addition to the physiological and physical measures, before and after participating in a ten-month swimming prior to swim training a questionnaire was administered program. To evaluate pulmonary function and respi- to estimate physical fitness and a self-reported history ratory muscle function we measured five variables: of smoking among students. The variables were compared – forced vital capacity (FVC) between smokers and non-smokers. Statistical analyses – forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) were performed using paired (within group) and indepen-

Table 1. Respiratory muscle function, pulmonary function and breath carbon monoxide test before and after swim training in the whole population

Before training After training Difference p value Respiratory muscle function

MIP (cmH2O) 71.5 ± 33.9 81.8 ± 33.7 10.3* 0.001

MEP (cmH2O) 94 ± 37.1 113.9 ± 40.2 19.9* 0.001 Pulmonary function FVC (L) 4 ± 0.9 4.4 ± 2.8 0.4* 0.02 FVC (%) 93 ± 16.4 103.6 ± 10.8 10.6* 0.02

FEV1 (L) 3.4 ± 0.9 3.3 ± 1.1 –0.1* 0.03

FEV1 (%) 104 ± 20.8 102.9 ± 11.34 –1.1* 0.03 PEF (L) 330.9 ± 136.3 339 ± 0.2 8.1 0.3 Breath carbon monoxide test CO (ppm) 2.1 ± 3.5 1.8 ± 3.3 –0.3 0.1 %COHb 0.34 ± 0.6 0.29 ± 0.5 –0.05 0.1 MIP – maximal inspiratory pressure, MEP – maximal expiratory pressure, FVC – forced vital capacity,

FVC% – predicted FVC, FEV1 – forces expiratory volume in one second, FEV1% – predicted FEV1, PEF – peak expiratory flow, CO – breath carbon monoxide, %COHb – percentage carboxyhemoglobin level in the blood, values are Mean ± SD, * significant difference (p < 0.05)

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dent (between groups) Student’s t-tests and tests for dif- ences were observed for values of PEF (p = 0.3). FEV1 sig- ferences, with a Type I significance level of 5%. nificantly decreased (p = 0.03). The results are shown in Table 1. Results In the sample 17% of students (n = 41.21%) smoked regularly. The average length of time reported to have Statistical analyses showed no significant differences smoked was 5.5 years. Among smokers the average con- in age, height, body mass, or history of prior swim train- centration of carbon monoxide in the exhaled air was ing when comparing between smoking and non-smoking 5.73 ppm (0.92% COHb), while in non-smoking group groups before and after the swimming intervention – 1.1 ppm (0.18% COHb). After ten months of training program. Significant improvements in maximum expi- we did not observe statistically significant differences in ratory pressure MEP (p = 0.001), maximal inspiratory levels of carbon monoxide in the exhaled air (Table 2). pressure MIP (p = 0.001) and forced vital capacity FVC In the group of smokers inspiratory and expiratory (p = 0.02) were observed in the whole sample after the muscle strength was greater than among non-smokers, swimming intervention program. No significant differ- both before and after swim training. After ten months of

Table 2. Respiratory muscle function, pulmonary function and breath carbon monoxide test before and after swim training among smokers

Before training After training Difference p value Respiratory muscle function

MIP (cmH2O) 78.8 ± 33.6 89.5± 30.7 10.7* < 0.001

MEP (cmH2O) 98.0 ± 17.7 116.3 ± 38.1 18.3* < 0.001 Pulmonary function FVC (L) 4.1 ± 1.1 4.4 ± 1.0 0.3* 0.001 FVC (%) 96.1 ± 17.4 104.9 ± 9.5 8.8* 0.001

FEV1 (L) 3.5 ± 0.9 3.9 ± 1.2 0.46 0.36

FEV1(%) 101.2 ± 14.3 108.2 ± 9.8 7 0.36 PEF (L) 342.6 ± 142.4 351.8 ± 174.3 9.2* < 0.001 Breath carbon monoxide test CO (ppm) 5.7 ± 5.5 5.2 ± 5.7 –0.51 0.28 %COHb 0.9 ± 0.9 0.8 ± 0.9 –0.08 0.28 MIP – maximal inspiratory pressure, MEP – maximal expiratory pressure, FVC – forced vital capacity,

Table 3. Respiratory muscle function, pulmonary function and breath carbon monoxide test before and after swim training among non-smokers

Before training After training Difference p value Respiratory muscle function

MIP (cmH2O) 69.2 ± 33.9 79.4 ± 34.2 10.2* 0.004

MEP (cmH2O) 92.8 ± 37.4 113 ± 40.8 20.2* 0.003 Pulmonary function FVC (L) 3.9 ± 0.9 4.4 ± 3.2 0.5* 0.02 FVC (%) 92.2 ± 16.1 103.2 ± 11.2 11* 0.02

FEV1 (L) 3.3 ± 0.9 3.2 ± 1.1 –0.1* 0.02

FEV1(%) 103.4 ± 22.3 102.9 ± 11.5 –0.5* 0.02 PEF (L) 328.1 ± 134.9 336.5 ± 165.2 8.4 0.23 Breath carbon monoxide test CO (ppm) 1.1 ± 1.9 0.9 ± 1.3 –0.2 0.15 %COHb 0.18 ± 0.32 0.15 ± 0.21 –0.03 0.11 MIP – maximal inspiratory pressure, MEP – maximal expiratory pressure, FVC – forced vital capacity,

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regular physical activity in the aquatic environment ex- expiratory flow. The percentage carboxyhemoglobin level piratory muscle strength in the group of smokers increased in the blood was obviously significantly higher among by 19% (p <0.001) and in the group of non-smokers in- members of the smoking group. creased by 15% (p =0.004). Simultaneously, inspiratory After 10 months of regular swimming, inspiratory muscle strength increased in both groups (by 14% among and expiratory muscle strength as well as forced vital smokers and 22% among non-smokers) (Tables 2, 3). capacity and peak expiratory flow values increased in Before the swimming program the predicted values both groups. What is interesting is that the improvement of forced vital capacity and peak expiratory flow be- was higher in the smoking group. Furthermore, FEV1 tween smokers and non-smokers (96.14% vs. 92.23%, value, initially lower among smokers, after ten months

342.59 l/min vs. 328.14 l/min), whereas smokers had FEV1 of training significantly increased in this group. On the values of 101.22% vs. 103.37%. None of these differences contrary, FEV1 among non-smokers showed no signifi- between groups were statistically significant (Tables 2, 3). cant changes.

In both groups there was a statistically significant in- Other studies have reported that the value of FEV1 crease in forced vital capacity. Among smokers predicted increases to the age of 25 [17] or even longer, such as until values of FVC increased by 8.8% (Table 2), while among the fourth decade of life [18]. After this time the FEV1 non-smokers they increased by 11% (Table 3). Forced ex- value plateaus as there is only a slight change in the piratory volume in one second increased in the smokers ratio [17]. After the plateau phase FEV1 begins to decline. group by 6.95% of predicted values, but decreased in This decrease was linear in non-smokers. However, in non-smokers’ group by 0.43%. The changes in values of smokers FEV1 reduction starts progressing sooner and peak expiratory flow were not statistically significant at greater speed than in nonsmokers. Kerstjens et al. for either group (Tables 2, 3). reported that the annual decline in FEV1 among male smokers is higher by the average of 15 ml than in non- Discussion smoking men [19]. Smoking adversely affected all three determinants of forced expiratory volume in the first

As outlined previously, the impact of physical activity second. These determinants are peak value of FEV1 reached in the aquatic environment on the respiratory system in early adulthood, the length of the plateau phase and function has been controversial. The results of this study the rate of decline in FEV1. This study indeed showed lent support to the hypothesis that swimming and water that the rate of decline in FEV1 among smokers, even after exercises had a very positive effect on lungs. a relatively short period of smoking (5 years), is higher The young adults we studied were physiologically than among non-smokers. Nevertheless, what is note- mature, which eliminated the impact of lung development worthy, our findings also indicated that swimming and changes on respiratory parameters. Before the start of water exercises can delay and slow down the decline in the study none of the participants had participated in any the FEV1 among smokers. regular physical activity. We considered the possibility The positive effect of physical activity in the aquatic of studying respiratory parameters by comparing elite environment may be a result of swim training itself: in- professional athletes with novice amateurs, but the litera- creased respiratory muscle strength, changes in chest wall ture showed that the results obtained in the sport may be compliance, alveolar hyperplasia or expansion, or the dependent on the initial capacity of the lungs. According stimulation of isotropic lung growth [6]. A detailed ex- to Wang [15], it is possible that people with more efficient planation of the impact of physical activity on the to- respiratory systems will achieve better results, thus a nat- bacco smoke impaired respiratory system was presented ural sport selection takes place. For this reason, for this by Menegali et al. [20]. Their study, conducted on mice, study we chose a group of students of the same age, similar showed that smoking causes swelling and destruction lifestyle (aside from smoking habits), and similar levels of the alveolar epithelium, increase in the number of of physical fitness. macrophages and neutrophils, increased production Statistical analysis showed a statistically significant of collagen, reduction in the amount of elastic fibers, and increase in the parameters of the entire population – forced increased free spaces in lungs. Nevertheless, in animals vital capacity (FVC), maximum expiratory pressure (MEP) subjected to swim training, partial improvement of mea- and maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP). These results sured parameters, reduction of the oxidant production, are consistent with prior studies that indicated that water and increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes all exercises have beneficial effects on the functioning of were observed [20]. the respiratory system [5–7]. Results obtained in this study indicated the importance Comparing smokers and non-smokers, we assumed of promoting swimming activity among smokers in order that smokers would record lower values for forced vital to delay the effects of smoking on lungs and to improve capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in the 1st pulmonary system function. Our results were consistent second of exhalation (FEV1) than non-smokers [16]. In with another study conducted by [21] which reported this study smokers indeed recorded lower values for FEV1; that smokers with moderate to high level of regular physi- however, they had higher values of forced vital capacity cal activity were associated with lower pulmonary func- (FVC), respiratory muscle strength (MIP, MEP), and peak tion decline compared to smokers leading a sedentary

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lifestyle. Encouraging participation in swimming also 12. Martin-Valero R., Cuesta-Vargas A.I., Labajos-Manzana could be useful in smoking cessation programs [22]. res M.T., Evidence-Based Review of Hydrotherapy Studies What is more, the improvement in measured respira- on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients. Int tory parameters, observed as a result of regular swim J Aquat Res Educ, 2012, 6 (3), 235–248. training, confirmed the validity of the use of water exer- 13. Holmen T., Barrett-Connor E., Clausen J., Holmen J., Bjer- mer L., Physical exercise, sports, and lung function in smok- cises and swimming as part of any rehabilitation pro- ing versus non-smoking adolescents. Eur Respir J, 2002, cess for people with chronic respiratory diseases. 19 (1), 8–15, doi: 10.1183/09031936.02.00203502. 14. Pasek J., Wołyńska-Ślężyńska A., Ślężyński J., Pasek T., Conclusions Witiuk-Misztalska A., Sieroń A., Significance of corrective swimming and water exercises in physiotherapy [in Polish]. After 10 months of swim training there was a signifi- Fizjoterapia, 2009, 17 (1), 53–59, doi: 10.2478/v10109- cant increase in forced vital capacity and maximum 009-0042-7. inspiratory and expiratory muscle strength among both 15. Wang J.S., Effects of exercise training and detraining on smokers and non-smokers. Regular physical activity in cutaneous microvascular function in man: the regulatory role of endothelium-dependent dilation in skin vascula- the aquatic environment can slow down the adverse effects ture. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2005, 93 (4), 429–434, doi: of smoking on the pulmonary system of youth and en- 10.1007/s00421-004-1176-4. courage them to fight the addiction. Regular physical 16. Kaur H., Thaman R.G., Dhillon S.K., Saahiba K., Relation- activity in the aquatic environment should be used as ship between smoking and pulmonary functions. Na- a complementary form of rehabilitation in conditions tional Journal of Integrated Research in Medicine, 2011, involving reduced forced vital capacity and respiratory 2 (4), 1–6. Available from: http://imsear.hellis.org/han- muscle strength decrease. dle/123456789/151768. 17. Quanjer P.H., Stanojevic S., Cole T.J., Baur X., Hall G.L., Culver B.H. et al., Multi-ethnic reference values for spirome- References try for the 3–95-yr age range: the global lung function 2012 1. Nowotny-Czupryna O., Rudzińska A., Czupryna K., Lam equations. Eur Respir J, 2012, 40 (6), 1324–1343, doi: beck J., Possibilities of applying aquatic therapy to patients 10.1183/09031936.00080312. with some motor dysfunctions [in Polish]. Fizjoterapia 18. Xu X., Li B., Exposure-response relationship between pas- Polska, 2001, 1 (1), 67–73. sive smoking and adult pulmonary function. American 2. Becker B.E., Aquatic Therapy: Scientific Foundations and Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 1995, Clinical Rehabilitation Applications. PM&R, 2009, 1 (9), 151 (1), 41–46, doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.151.1.7812570. 859–872, doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2009.05.017. 19. Kerstjens H.A.M., Rijcken B., Schouten J.P., Postma D.S.,

3. Kaciuba-Uściłko H., Nazar K., Górski J., Physiological basis Decline of FEV1 by age and smoking status: facts, figures, of physical effort [in Polish]. WL PZWL, Warszawa 2008, and fallacies. Thorax, 1997, 52 (9), 820–827. 235–265. 20. Menegali B.T., Nesi R.T., Souza P.S., Silva L.A., Silveira P.C., 4. Owczarek S., Correction of postural defects. Swimming Valença S.S. et al., The effects of physical exercise on the and aquatic exercises [in Polish]. WSiP, Warszawa 1999. cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary oxidative response. 5. Gabrilo G., Peric M., Stipic M., Pulmonary function in Pulm Pharmacol Ther, 2009, 29 (6), 567–573, doi: 10.1016/j. pubertal synchronized swimmers: 1-year follow-up re- pupt.2009.08.003. sults and its relation to competitive achievement. Medi- 21. Garcia-Aymerich J., Lange P., Benet M., Schnohr P., cal Problems of Performing Artists, 2011, 26 (1), 39–43. Antó J.M., Regular physical activity modifies smoking- 6. Mickleborough T.D., Stager J.M., Chatham K., Lindley M.R., related lung function decline and reduces risk of chronic Ionescu A.A., Pulmonary adaptations to swim and inspi- obstructive pulmonary disease: A population-based cohort ratory muscle training. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2008, 103 (6), st udy. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medi- 635–646, doi: 10.1007/s00421-008-0759-x. cine, 2007, 175 (5), 458–463, doi: 10.1164/rccm.200607- 7. Zinman R., Gaultier C., Maximal static pressures and lung 896OC. volumes in young female swimmers: One year follow-up. 22. Nerín I., Crucelaegui A., Novella P., Ramón y Cajal P., So- Pediatric Pulmonology, 2005, 3 (3), 145–148, doi: 10.1002/ bradiel N., Gericó R., A survey on the relationship between ppul.1950030306. tobacco use and physical exercise among university stu- 8. Biersteker M.W.A., Biersteker P.A., Vital capacity in trained dents. Archivos de Bronconeumologia, 2004, 40 (1), 5–9, and untrained health young adults in Netherlands. Eur J doi: 10.1016/S1579-2129(06)60184-5. Appl Physiol, 1985, 54 (1), 46–53, doi: 10.1007/BF00426297. 9. Kubiak-Janczaruk E., Spirometric evaluation of the respira- Paper received by the Editor: September 3, 2015 tory system in adolescent swimmers [in Polish]. Annales Paper accepted for publication: December 22, 2015 Academiae Medicae Stetinensis, 2005, 51 (2), 105–113. 10. Lakhera S.C., Kain T.C., Bandopadhyay P., Changes in lung Correspondence address function during adolescence in athletes and non-athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 1994, 34 (3), 258–262. Katarzyna Michalak 11. Rocha Crispino Santos M.A., Pinto M.L., Couto Sant’Anna C., Zakład Metodyki Nauczania Ruchu Bernhoeft M., Maximal respiratory pressures among ado- Uniwersytet Medyczny w Łodzi lescent swimmers. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia, pl. Hallera 1, 90-647 Łódź, Poland 2011, 17 (2), 66–70, doi:10.1016/S0873-2159(11)70016-2. e-mail: [email protected]

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PUBLISHING GUIDELINES – Regulamin publikowania prac

1. Human Movement (abb.: HM) is a peer-reviewed quar- 1. Kwartalnik Human Movement (dalej: HM) jest recenzo- terly journal published by the University School of Physical wanym czasopismem naukowym Akademii Wychowania Education (abb.: AWF). Fizycznego we Wrocławiu (dalej: AWF). 2. The Editorial Office accepts for publication original em- 2. Redakcja przyjmuje do publikacji oryginalne prace pirical papers and review ones on various aspects of human empiryczne oraz przeglądowe dotyczące ruchu człowieka movement, e.g. sports medicine, exercise physiology, biome- z zakresu medycyny sportu, fizjologii wysiłku fizycznego, chanics, motor control, psychology. Letters to the Editor, re- biomechaniki, antropomotoryki, psychologii. Przyjmowa- ports from scientific meetings and book reviews are also wel- ne są również listy do Redakcji, sprawozdania z konferencji naukowych i recenzje książek. Publikowanie prac w Human come. Publication of articles in Human Movement is free Movement jest bezpłatne. of charge. 3. Do druku zatwierdzane są tylko prace, które uzyskają 3. Papers are accepted for publication after being reviewed pozytywną opinię co najmniej dwóch, powołanych przez Re- favorably by at least two independent reviewers nominated by dakcję, niezależnych recenzentów spoza jednostki naukowej the Editor and who are not affiliated in the same research unit afiliowanej przez autora publikacji. Autor może zaproponować as the author of the reviewed manuscript. Authors can suggest recenzentów, lecz Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo ich doboru. reviewers, but the Editor reserves the right to final selection. 4. Procedury recenzowania są zgodne z wytycznymi Mi- 4. Review procedures are set forth in accordance with the nisterstwa Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego, umieszczonymi na guidelines of the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Educa- stronie: https://pbn.nauka.gov.pl/static/doc/wytyczne_do- tion which are consultable on website: https://pbn.nauka.gov.pl/ tyczace_procedury_recenzowania.pdf static/doc/wytyczne_dotyczace_procedury_recenzowania.pdf 5. Recenzje mają formę pisemną i są sporządzane na arkuszu 5. Reviews are written by completing a paper review form recenzenckim (dostępny na stronie internetowej czasopisma), (available on the HM website) where reviewers have to expli zobowiązującym recenzenta do sformułowania jednoznacznego citly express whether the manuscript is accepted for publi- wniosku o dopuszczeniu pracy do publikacji lub jej odrzuceniu. cation or rejected. 6. Autor i recenzent pozostają względem siebie anonimowi 6. The review process is double-blind. Otherwise reviewers (double-blind review process). W pozostałych przypadkach are obliged to sign a conflict of interest declaration (conflict recenzent jest zobowiązany do podpisania deklaracji o niewy- stępowaniu konfliktu interesów (za konflikt interesów uznaje of interest occurs when there are close personal relationships się zachodzące między recenzentem a autorem: bezpośrednie between the author and the reviewer, professional superior- relacje osobiste – pokrewieństwo, związki prawne, relacje pod- subordinate relationships, direct research cooperation for the ległości zawodowej, bezpośrednia współpraca naukowa w ciągu two years prior to the manuscript reviewing. ostatnich dwóch lat poprzedzających przygotowanie recenzji. 7. Names of the reviewers are not revealed. Once a year the 7. Nazwiska recenzentów nie są ujawniane. Raz w roku Editor provides a general list of the cooperating reviewers. Redakcja podaje do publicznej wiadomości listę recenzentów 8. After the article is accepted for publication, the author współpracujących. transfers copyright to AWF by signing the Creative Commons 8. Po akceptacji artykułu do druku autor przekazuje prawa license, and consequently giving his or her consent to publish autorskie na rzecz AWF, podpisując licencję Creative Commons, the article in printed, magnetic and digital form, and to make tym samym zgadzając się na druk artykułu w postaci drukowa- it accessible on the Internet (the appropriate form is available nej, na nośnikach magnetycznych, cyfrowych i upowszechnie online). If the article is an output of cooperation of more nia w internecie (formularz do pobrania ze strony internetowej). authors, the principal author is entitled by the other co-au- Jeśli artykuł powstał we współpracy z innymi autorami, główny thors to sign the license on their behalf and is also obliged to autor jest upoważniony przez wszystkich współautorów do inform the co-authors of the license terms and the journal podpisania licencji w ich imieniu i zobowiązuje się do poinfor- submission requirements. Papers accepted for publication mowania współautorów o warunkach zawartych w licencji oraz become the property of AWF and cannot be published else- Regulaminie czasopisma. Przyjęty artykuł staje się własnością AWF i nie może się ukazać w innym wydawnictwie bez jej where without AWF’s written permission. Publication is sub- pisemnej zgody. Publikacja podlega prawu autorskiemu wy- ject to copyright due to the Berne Convention and the Uni- nikającemu z Konwencji Berneńskiej i z Międzynarodowej Kon- versal Copyright Convention, with few exceptions admitted wencji Praw Autorskich, poza wyjątkami dopuszczanymi przez by the local law. No part of the paper (except for the abstract) prawo krajowe. Żadna część publikacji (z wyjątkiem abstraktu) may be reproduced by readers, stored and transmitted in any nie może być reprodukowana przez czytelników, archiwizo- form and by any means without the copyright holder’s per- wana ani przekazywana w jakiejkolwiek formie ani żadnymi mission. środkami bez pozwolenia właściciela praw autorskich. 9. Authors retain copyright of their papers, are allowed 9. Autor zachowuje prawa autorskie dotyczące artykułu, to store, propagate it according to the legally permitted pri- ma prawo go archiwizować, rozpowszechniać zgodnie z pra- vate use and can use the paper’s content in their future works wem dozwolonego użytku prywatnego oraz może wykorzy- only if the complete bibliography source information is stywać treści tego artykułu w przyszłych swoich pracach provided. pod warunkiem podania pełnego adresu bibliograficznego.

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10. The Editor reserves the right to introduce correc- 10. Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo do wprowadzenia po- tions in the paper and prevent its publication in case of con- prawek w artykule oraz niedopuszczenia do jego publikacji firmed plagiarism. The submitted articles which are not con- w razie stwierdzenia plagiatu. Artykuł przygotowany niezgod- form to the requirements will be returned to authors for nie z regulaminem będzie odsyłany autorowi do poprawy. corrections. 11. Za artykuł opublikowany w HM autor (autorzy) nie 11. The author (authors) receives no royalty for publica- otrzymuje honorarium. Autor do korespondencji otrzymuje tion. The author for correspondence receives through e-mail za pośrednictwem poczty e-mail plik PDF z opublikowanym a PDF file with the article and full volume in which it was artykułem i tomem, w którym został opublikowany artykuł. published. 12. Autor pracy naukowej ma obowiązek ochraniać dane 12. Authors of research papers are obliged to protect per- osobowe badanych osób. Jeżeli zawarte w artykule informacje sonal data of the research participants. If the information umożliwiają w jakikolwiek sposób ustalenie tożsamości bada- included in the paper makes it possible to identify the sub- nych osób, autor musi uzyskać ich pisemną zgodę na opubli- jects, authors have to obtain their written consent for publikowanie wyników, w tym zdjęć fotograficznych (formularz do cation of the research outcomes, photographs included (the pobrania ze strony internetowej), przed wysłaniem artykułu appropriate form can be downloaded from the Internet) be- do Redakcji. fore submitting papers to the Editor. 13. Redakcja nie przyjmie artykułu, w którym występują 13. The editor does not accept papers that make use of zjawiska „ghostwriting” i „guest authorship”, a wszelkie nie- ghostwriting and guest authorship. If detected, such practices prawidłowości będzie ujawniać. Od głównego autora pracy will be disclosed. The Editor requires the principal author of zbiorowej Redakcja wymaga wypełnienia stosownego oświad- joint publications to complete a declaration which specifies czenia, pozwalającego określić wkład współautorów w po- the contribution of each co-author in the research paper. wstanie artykułu. 14. In order to initiate the publishing procedures of the 14. Warunkiem rozpoczęcia prac redakcyjnych nad ar- paper, the author has to submit its electronic version to the tykułem jest dostarczenie na adres [email protected] email address [email protected]. The paper has to be wersji elektronicznej, przygotowanej zgodnie z wytycznymi prepared according to the submission requirements enclosed zawartymi w załączniku niniejszego Regulaminu, podpisanej to the Guide for Authors, accompanied by the signed license, licencji, oświadczenia głównego autora (w wypadku pracy the principal author’s declaration (if it is a joint paper) as well zbiorowej) oraz zgody autora fotografii i osoby fotografowa- as the consents of the photographer and the photographed nej (w wypadku załączonego materiału ilustracyjnego). persons (if there are any). 15. Autor, składając artykuł do czasopisma, tym samym 15. The moment authors submit papers to the Editor, they zgadza się na obowiązujące w Redakcji HM procedury kwa- agree to accept the procedures of article qualification for publication employed in HM Editorial Office. lifikowania pracy do publikacji. 16. After the corrections are introduced by the reviewers, 16. Po naniesieniu poprawek po recenzji autor zobowią- authors are obliged to send the paper back within 3 weeks. zuje się odesłać poprawiony artykuł w ciągu 3 tygodni. 17. Authors are obliged to cooperate with the editorial staff: 17. Autor jest zobowiązany współpracować z native spea native speaker, HM editor and proofreaders (language and ker, redaktorem wydawniczym i korektorami (językowym statistical data) in order to eliminate ambiguities and errors. i statystycznym) w celu wyjaśnienia wszelkich niejasności lub In case of no response to the editorial observations within uzupełnienia braków w tekście. Brak odpowiedzi na uwagi a week, the author’s consent for introduction of the suggested redakcyjne w ciągu tygodnia będzie oznaczać zgodę na wpro- changes is taken for granted. wadzenie proponowanych poprawek. 18. Authors should list all the people or institutions that 18. Autor powinien wymienić osoby lub instytucje, które contributed to the article preparation factually, financially pomogły mu w przygotowaniu pracy, udzieliły konsultacji or technically. bądź wsparły go finansowo lub technicznie. 19. The Editor accepts advertisements that can be placed 19. Redakcja przyjmuje zamówienia na reklamy, które in an advertising inserts next to the cover pages. Prices of ad- mogą być umieszczane na dodatkowych kartach sąsiadujących vertising are negotiated individually. z okładką. Ceny reklam będą negocjowane indywidualnie. 20. The original version of the journal is its paper issue. 20. Wersją pierwotną czasopisma jest wersja papierowa.

Detailed guidelines for submitting articles Szczegółowe zasady przygotowania artykułu to Human Movement do Human Movement

1. The article should be written in English. 1. Redakcja przyjmuje prace w języku angielskim, z wyjątkiem 2. Empirical research articles, together with their summa- prac autorów z afiliacją AWF Wrocław lub AWF Kraków, ry and any tables, figures or graphs, should not exceed które mogą być napisane w języku polskim. Artykuły te po 20 pages in length; comparative articles are limited to uzyskaniu pozytywnej recenzji są tłumaczone przez Re- 30 pages. Page format is A4 (about 1800 characters with dakcję na język angielski. spaces per page). Pages should be numbered. 2. Tekst prac empirycznych wraz ze streszczeniem, rycinami 3. Articles should be written using Microsoft Word with the i tabelami nie powinien przekraczać 20, a prac przeglądo- following formats: wych – 30 stron znormalizowanych formatu A4 (ok. 1800 – Font: Times New Roman, 12 point znaków ze spacjami na stronie). Strony powinny być po- – Line spacing: 1.5 numerowane. – Text alignment: Justified 3. Artykuł należy przygotować w edytorze tekstu Microsoft – Title: Bold typeface, centered Word według następujących zasad:

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4. The main title page should contain the following: – krój pisma: Times New Roman, 12 pkt; – The article’s title – interlinia: 1,5; – A shortened title of the article (up to 40 characters in – tekst wyjustowany; length including spaces), which will be placed in the – tytuł zapisany pogrubionym krojem pisma, wyśrod- running head kowany. 4. Strona tytułowa powinna zawierać: – The name and surname of the author(s) with their affi- – tytuł pracy w języku angielskim; liations written in the following way: the name of the – skrócony tytuł artykułu w języku angielskim (do 40 zna- university, city name, country name. For example: The ków ze spacjami), który zostanie umieszczony w żywej University of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland paginie; – Address for correspondence (author’s name, address, – imię i nazwisko autora (autorów) z afiliacją zapisaną e-mail address and phone number) według następującego schematu: 5. The second page should contain: • nazwa uczelni, nazwa miejscowości, nazwa kraju, – The title of the article np. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, Wrocław, – An abstract of approximately 200 words divided into Polska; the following sections: Purpose, Methods, Results, Con – adres do korespondencji (imię i nazwisko autora, jego clusions adres, e-mail oraz numer telefonu). – Three to six keywords to be used as MeSH descriptors 5. Następna strona powinna zawierać: (terms) – tytuł artykułu; – streszczenie w języku angielskim (około 200 wyra- 6. The third page should contain: zów) składające się z następujących części: Purpose, – The title of the article Methods, Results, Conclusions; – The main text – słowa kluczowe w języku angielskim (3–6) – ze słow- 7. The main body of text in empirical research articles should nika i w stylu MeSH. be divided into the following sections: 6. Trzecia strona powinna zawierać: – tytuł artykułu; Introduction – tekst główny. The introduction prefaces the reader on the article’s sub- 7. Tekst główny pracy empirycznej należy podzielić na na- ject, describes its purpose, states a hypothesis, and mentions stępujące części: any existing research (literature review) Wstęp Material and methods We wstępie należy wprowadzić czytelnika w tematykę This section is to clearly describe the research material artykułu, opisać cel pracy oraz podać hipotezy, stan badań (if human subjects took part in the experiment, include their (przegląd literatury). number, age, gender and other necessary information), dis- Materiał i metody cuss the conditions, time and methods of the research as well W tej części należy dokładnie przedstawić materiał badaw- identifying any equipment used (providing the manufacturer’s czy (jeśli w eksperymencie biorą udział ludzie, należy podać name and address). Measurements and procedures need to be ich liczbę, wiek, płeć oraz inne charakterystyczne cechy), omó- provided in sufficient detail in order to allow for their re- wić warunki, czas i metody prowadzenia badań oraz opisać producibility. If a method is being used for the first time, it wykorzystaną aparaturę (z podaniem nazwy wytwórni i jej needs to be described in detail to show its validity and relia- adresu). Sposób wykonywania pomiarów musi być przed- bility (reproducibility). If modifying existing methods, de- stawiony na tyle dokładnie, aby inne osoby mogły je powtó- scribe what was changed as well as justify the need for the rzyć. Jeżeli metoda jest zastosowana pierwszy raz, należy ją modifications. All experiments using human subjects must opisać szczególnie precyzyjnie, przedstawiając jej trafność obtain the approval of an appropriate ethnical committee by i rzetelność (powtarzalność). Modyfikując uznane już metody, the author in any undertaken research (the manuscript must trzeba omówić, na czym polegają zmiany, oraz uzasadnić ko- include a copy of the approval document). Statistical meth- nieczność ich wprowadzenia. Gdy w eksperymencie biorą udział ludzie, konieczne jest uzyskanie zgody komisji etycznej ods should be described in such a way that they can be easily na wykorzystanie w nim zaproponowanych przez autora me- determined if they are correct. Authors of comparative re- tod (do maszynopisu należy dołączyć kopię odpowiedniego search articles should also include their methods for finding dokumentu). Metody statystyczne powinny być tak opisane, materials, selection methods, etc. aby można było bez problemu stwierdzić, czy są one poprawne. Autor pracy przeglądowej powinien również podać metody Results poszukiwania materiałów, metody selekcji itp. The results should be presented both logically and con- sistently, as well as be closely tied with the data found in Wyniki tables and figures. Przedstawienie wyników powinno być logiczne i spójne oraz ściśle powiązane z danymi zamieszczonymi w tabelach Discussion i na rycinach. Here the author should create a discussion of the obtained results, referring to the results found in other literature (besides Dyskusja those mentioned in the introduction), as well as emphasizing W tym punkcie, stanowiącym omówienie wyników, autor new and important aspects of their work. powinien odnieść uzyskane wyniki do danych z literatury

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Conclusions (innych niż omówione we wstępie), podkreślając nowe i zna- In presenting any conclusions, it is important to remember czące aspekty swojej pracy. the original purpose of the research and the stated hypotheses, and avoid any vague statements or those not based on the Wnioski results of their research. If new hypotheses are put forward, Przedstawiając wnioski, należy pamiętać o celu pracy oraz they must be clearly stated. postawionych hipotezach, a także unikać stwierdzeń ogólni- kowych i niepopartych wynikami własnych badań. Stawiając Acknowledgements nowe hipotezy, trzeba to wyraźnie zaznaczyć. The author may mention any people or institutions that helped the author in preparing the manuscript, or that pro- Podziękowania vided support through financial or technical means. Należy wymienić osoby lub instytucje, które pomogły autorowi w przygotowaniu pracy, udzieliły konsultacji bądź Bibliography wsparły go finansowo lub technicznie. The bibliography should be composed of the article’s citations and be arranged and numbered in the order in which Bibliografia they appear in the text, not alphabetically. Referenced sources Bibliografię należy uporządkować i ponumerować według from literature should indicate the page number and en- kolejności cytowania publikacji w tekście, a nie alfabetycznie. close it in square brackets, e.g., Bouchard et al. [23]. Odwołania do piśmiennictwa należy oznaczać w tekście nu- The total number of bibliographic references (those found merem i ująć go w nawias kwadratowy, np. Bouchard et al. [23]. only in research databases such as SPORTDiscus, Medline) Bibliografia (powołania zawarte tylko w bazach danych, should not exceed 30 for empirical research papers (citing np. SPORTDiscus, Medline) powinna się składać najwyżej a maximum of two books); there is no limit for compara- z 30 pozycji (dopuszcza się powołanie na 2 publikacje książ- tive research papers. There are no restrictions in referencing kowe), z wyjątkiem prac przeglądowych. Niewskazane jest unpublished work. cytowanie prac nieopublikowanych.

Citing journal articles Opis bibliograficzny artykułu z czasopisma Bibliographic citations of journal articles should include: Opis bibliograficzny artykułu powinien zawierać: na- the author’s (or authors’) surname, first name initial, arti- zwisko autora (autorów), inicjał imienia, tytuł artykułu, tytuł cle title, abbreviated journal title, year, volume or number, czasopisma w przyjętym skrócie, rok wydania, tom lub nu- page number, doi, for example: mer, strony, numer doi, np. Tchórzewski D., Jaworski J., Bujas P., Influence of long-lasting Tchórzewski D., Jaworski J., Bujas P., Influence of long-lasting Hum balancing on unstable surface on changes in balance. balancing on unstable surface on changes in balance. Hum Mov, 2010, 11 (2), 144–152, doi: 10.2478/v10038-010- 0022-2. Mov, 2010, 11 (2), 144–152, doi: 10.2478/v10038-010-0022-2. If there are six or less authors, all the names should be Gdy autorami artykułu jest sześć lub mniej osób, należy wy- mentioned; if there are seven or more, give the first six and mienić wszystkie nazwiska, jeżeli jest ich siedem i więcej, należy then use the abbreviation “et al.” podać sześć pierwszych, a następnie zastosować skrót „et al.”; If the title of the article is in a language other than Eng- Tytuł artykułu w języku innym niż angielski autor polish, the author should translate the title into English, and winien przetłumaczyć na język angielski, a w nawiasie kwa- then in square brackets indicate the original language; the dratowym podać język oryginału, tytuł czasopisma należy journal title should be left in its native name, for example: zostawić w oryginalnym brzmieniu, np. Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R., Jaskólski A., Mecha- nisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed muscle sore- Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R., Jaskólski A., Mecha- ness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sport, 2002, 4, 189–201. nisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed muscle soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sportiva, 2002, 4, 189–201. The author’s research should only take into considera- tion articles published in English. W pracy powinny być uwzględnianie tylko artykuły pu- blikowane ze streszczeniem angielskim. Citing books Bibliographic citations of books should include: the au- Opis bibliograficzny książki thor (or authors’) or editor’s (or editors’) surname, first name Opis bibliograficzny książki powinien zawierać: nazwisko initial, book title translated into English, publisher, place and autora (autorów) lub redaktora (redaktorów), inicjał imienia, year of publication, for example: tytuł pracy przetłumaczony na język angielski, wydawcę, Osiński W., Anthropomotoric [in Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001. miejsce i rok wydania, np. Heinemann K. (ed.), Sport clubs in various European coun- Osiński W., Anthropomotoric [in Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001. tries. Karl Hofmann, Schorndorf 1999. Heinemann K. (ed.), Sport clubs in various European coun- Bibliographic citations of an article within a book should tries. Karl Hofmann, Schorndorf 1999. include: the author’s (or authors’) surname, first name initial, Opis bibliograficzny rozdziału w książce powinien zawie- article title, book author (or authors’) or editor’s (or editors’) rać: nazwisko autora (autorów), inicjał imienia, tytuł rozdziału, surname, first name initial, book title, publisher, place and nazwisko autora (autorów) lub redaktora (redaktorów), tytuł year of publication, paga number, for example: pracy, wydawcę, miejsce i rok wydania, strony, np. McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F., General principles of exer- McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F., General principles of exercise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.), Exercise testing and exercise cise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.), Exercise testing and exercise prescription for special cases. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia prescription for special cases. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1993, 3–28. 1993, 3–28.

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Citing conference materials Opis bibliograficzny materiałów zjazdowych Citing conference materials (found only in international Opis bibliograficzny materiałów zjazdowych (umiesz- research databases such as SPORTDiscus) should include: czanych tylko w międzynarodowych bazach danych, np. the author’s (or authors’) surname, first name initial, arti- SPORTDiscus) powinien zawierać: nazwisko autora (auto- cle title, conference author’s (or authors’) or editor’s (or edi- rów), inicjał imienia, tytuł, nazwisko autora (autorów) lub tor’s) surname, first name initial, conference title, publisher, redaktora (redaktorów), tytuł pracy, wydawcę, miejsce i rok place and year of publication, page number, for example: wydania, strony, np. Rodriguez F.A., Moreno D., Keskinen K.L., Validity of a two- Rodriguez F.A., Moreno D., Keskinen K.L., Validity of a two- distance simplified testing method for determining criti- distance simplified testing method for determining critical swimming velocity. In: Chatard J.C. (ed.), Biomechan- cal swimming velocity. In: Chatard J.C. (ed.), Biomechan- ics and Medicine in Swimming IX, Proceedings of the IXth ics and Medicine in Swimming IX, Proceedings of the IXth World Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swim- World Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swim- ming. Université de St. Etienne, St. Etienne 2003, 385–390. ming. Université de St. Etienne, St. Etienne 2003, 385–390. Citing articles in electronic format Opis bibliograficzny artykułu w formie elektronicznej Citing articles in electronic format should include: au- Opis bibliograficzny artykułu w formie elektronicznej po- thor’s (or authors’) surname, first name initial, article title, winien zawierać: nazwisko autora (autorów), inicjał imienia, abbreviated journal title, year of publication, journal volume tytuł artykułu, tytuł czasopisma w przyjętym skrócie, tom lub and number, website address where it is available, doi num- numer, rok wydania, adres strony, na której jest dostępny, ber, for example: numer doi, np. Donsmark M., Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevold- Donsmark M., Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevold- sen L.H., Stallknech B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase sen L.H., Stallknech B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) expression and regulation by epinephrine and exer- (HSL) expression and regulation by epinephrine and exercise in skeletal muscle. Eur J Sport Sci, 2002, 2 (6). Available cise in skeletal muscle. Eur J Sport Sci, 2 (6), 2002. Available from: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues. from: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues. cfm/, doi: 10.1080/17461391.2002.10142575. cfm/, doi: 10.1080/17461391.2002.10142575.

8. The main text of any other articles submitted for consid- 8. Tekst główny w pracach innego typu powinien zachować eration should maintain a logical continuity and that the logiczną ciągłość, a tytuły poszczególnych części muszą titles assigned to any sections must reflect the issues dis- odzwierciedlać omawiane w nich zagadnienia. cussed within. 9. Przypisy (objaśniające lub uzupełniające tekst) 9. Footnotes/Endnotes (explanatory or supplementary to the – powinny być numerowane z zachowaniem ciągłości text). Footnotes should be numbered consecutively through- w całej pracy i umieszczone na końcu tekstu głównego. out the work and placed at the end of the main text. 10. Tabele, ryciny i fotografie 10. Tables, figures and photographs – należy opatrzyć numerami i podpisami; – Must be numbered consecutively in the order in which – należy umieścić w tekście artykułu; they appear in the text and provide captions – dodatkowo ryciny i fotografie trzeba dołączyć w po- – should be placed within the text staci osobnych plików zapisanych w formacie *.jpg lub – Additionally, figures or photographs must be attached *.pdf (gęstość co najmniej 300 dpi); as separate files in .jpg or .pdf format (minimum reso- – nie można powtarzać tych samych wyników w tabe- lution of 300 dpi) lach i na rycinach; – May not include the same information/data in tables – materiał ilustracyjny powinien zostać przygotowany and also figures w wersji czarno-białej lub w odcieniach szarości (w taki – Illustrative materials should be prepared in black and sposób jest drukowane czasopismo Human Movement); white or in shades of gray (Human Movement is pub- – symbole, np. strzałki, gwiazdki, lub skróty użyte w tabe- lished in such a fashion and cannot accept color) lach czy na rycinach należy dokładnie objaśnić, tak by – symbols such as arrows, stars, or abbreviations used in były czytelne i zrozumiałe niezależnie od tekstu pracy. tables or figures should be clearly defined using a legend.

Prior to printing, the author will receive their article in Przed drukiem autor otrzyma swój artykuł do akceptacji .pdf format. It is the author’s responsibility to immediately w formie pliku pdf. Obowiązkiem autora jest niezwłoczne inform the Editorial Office if they accept the article for publi- przesłanie do Redakcji Human Movement informacji o akcep- cation. At such a point in time, only minor corrections can be tacji artykułu do druku. Na tym etapie będą przyjmowane accepted from the author. tylko drobne poprawki autorskie.

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