Staging Race in Latina/O and Mexican Transborder Theater
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STAGING RACE IN LATINA/O AND MEXICAN TRANSBORDER THEATER Linda Saborío A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures (Spanish American). Chapel Hill 2006 Approved by Advisor: Professor Stuart A. Day Reader: Professor María A. Salgado Reader: Professor Adam N. Versényi Reader: Professor Juan Carlos González Espitia Reader: Professor Frank A. Domínguez © 2006 Linda Saborío ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Linda Saborío Staging Race in Latina/o and Mexican Transborder Theater (Under the direction of Professor Stuart A. Day) This dissertation addresses the issue of race in regard to the Mexican immigrant in both Latino and Mexican theater and performance. The introduction, Chapter 1, defines race as biological differentiations that are reiterated through historical understandings in both Mexico and the United States. In the United States, the history of race is based on colonial encounters and issues of slavery, among other factors. In Mexico, racial concepts were influenced by a process of cultural mestizaje that tended to incorporate indigenous elements into the modernizing project of Mexico, and resulted in a movement toward the whitening of the race. Chapter 2 discusses role playing in regard to the construction of racial identities in Milcha Sánchez-Scott’s Latina and Víctor Hugo Rascón Banda’s La mujer que cayó del cielo. I question racial categorization in terms of globalization and transnational markets in Coco Fusco and Nao Bustamante’s Stuff and Luis Valdez’s Los vendidos in Chapter 3. The concept of ‘nation’ and national identity for Mexican immigrants, and how their racialized bodies challenge conceptualizations of an essentialist nation-popular is explored in Hugo Salcedo’s El viaje de los cantores and Cherríe Moraga’s Watsonville: Some Place not Here in Chapter 4. The characters in each play of this study must confront their biological differences and learn to classify iii their Latino identity in order to confront the binary black and white racial standards of the United States as well as the process of mestizaje in Mexico. In order to negotiate a definition of the term race that is not based on bipolarities, the concept of a posthegemonic race is introduced. This term proposes an ideology of race based on performances that challenge an historical duality of hegemonic and counterhegemonic racial identities that are determined primarily by skin color. This study concludes that posthegemonic races are classified according to individual performances and, as such, skin color is no longer the primary determining factor in racial classifications. In the Conclusion, Chapter 5, the issue of choice is reiterated as a challenge to immigrants that remains to be questioned in regard to race in both Mexico and the United States. iv Many will cross the border North in search of the source of the rainbow, only to find racial hatred and inhumane working conditions. Guillermo Gómez-Peña “The New Global Culture” v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction: Racial Categorization and Globalization………………..………….1 2 Role Playing Race in an Undefined Space…………………………...………….31 3 Consumerism and Racialized Bodies .…………………………………………...75 4 Race, Nation, and the Mexican Border Immigrant Experience………………...109 5 Conclusion: Race and the Issue of Choice……………………………………..138 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………146 vi Chapter 1 Introduction: Racial Categorization and Globalization The border between Mexico and the United States is crossed each year by an unprecedented number of Mexican immigrants, both documented and undocumented, who eventually settle permanently in the United States.1 According to the Migration Policy Institute, in 2004 the foreign-born population living in the United States reached 35.7 million persons. They estimate that of this group, approximately 10.3 million were unauthorized migrants from around the world. When further categorized by country, nearly six million migrants of this unauthorized group were born in Mexico.2 This ever- increasing phenomenon of border crossing by migrants from all countries necessitates an expansion of definitions of border and a reconfiguration of current discourses regarding cultures, traditions, languages, and racial/ethical determinants. A border can no longer be configured solely as a geographical site of division between two countries in today’s ever-expanding global condition. In particular, since the terrorist bombings of September 11, 2001, borders have become linked to international networks and means of communication that are not confined to easily definable divisions. This does not imply that transnational development began with a 1 Although for many Mexican immigrants migration to the United States is not a one-time event, eventually a significant number of them settle in the US permanently. 2 Jennifer Van Hook, Frank D. Bean and Jeffrey Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants Living in the United States: A Mid-Decade Portrait,” Migration Information Source, 1 September 2004, Migration Policy Institute. <http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=329> single terrorist act in 2001 against the United States. Gareth Williams’s study on neoliberalism and subalternity links the transnational movement of peoples, cultures, and economies to an earlier period. He explains, “the order of accumulation that has emerged over the course of the last three decades circulates power relations through an endless multiplication of (no longer necessarily national) centers and border-crossing networks” (79).3 As such, borders have become complex sites of multiple understandings that complicate a center/periphery dichotomy. Included in these sites of understandings are factors that extend beyond borders as geopolitical systems. Gender, literary genres, cultures, races, and even philosophical beliefs have been absorbed and (re)inscribed into various academic disciplines regarding the border, such as, for example, borderland studies, anthropology, sociology, feminism, and political history. Border critics from these various disciplines seek to explain concepts like mestizaje, cultural assimilation, hybridity, and expressions of sexuality as positive sites for future reconciliation between two or more identities that are in conflict.4 As David E. Johnson and Scott Michaelsen specify in their introduction to Border Theory: The Limits of Cultural Politics, entry into and across the borderlands itself has not been thoroughly problematized: “In the majority of this work, interestingly, the entry point of ‘the border’ or ‘the borderlands’ goes unquestioned, and, in addition, often is assumed to be a place of politically exciting hybridity, intellectual creativity, and moral possibility. The borderlands, in other words, are the privileged locus of hope for a better world” (3; 3 Perspectives of a (trans)continental vision are not merely a recent phenomenon. During the late nineteenth century, José Martí produced several essays concerning racial conflicts in New York and Martí’s vision for an American continent where “no hay odio de razas, porque no hay razas.” See José Martí, Nuestra América, ed. Roberto Fernández Retamar. 4 Some influential works by border theorists are D. Emily Hicks, Border Writing: The Multidimensional Text and Juan Bruce-Novoa, Retrospace: Collected Essays on Chicano Literature. 2 original emphasis). Both Michaelsen and Johnson agree in their text that the borderlands as defined by critics of late represent a political site of marked difference that offers hope for a future site where these differences can somehow live harmoniously, and that this positive outlook ought to be challenged. The border can present a challenge to theorists as a site of contention for political and racial misunderstandings. When immigrants cross the Mexican-United States border they often must confront their racial identities in terms of biological differences. These racialized bodies are an indicator of indigenous heritage and poverty for Rubén Martínez in Crossing Over: A Mexican Family on the Migrant Trail. He writes, “lying on a fallow plain south of downtown Mexico City, the district of Iztapalapa, by the looks of things, was a rough-and-tumble barrio long before the Spaniards arrived. It has the color of old poverty: dark brown, almost chocolate-brown skin, the color of little or no cross- breeding” (12-13). Concepts of race as phenotype that have developed from an historical understanding in the United States will be explored in this dissertation in context with plays regarding Latino and Mexican immigrants crossing the Mexican-United States border. My study will explore the trafficking and performance of race in Latina/o and Mexican theater that results in the negotiation and often re-definition of racial identities. The term trafficking refers to a physical movement of bodies across borders and how these same bodies are re-defined by their crossing and/or (dis)identified with due to differences in, first, biological differences (race) and, second, language, clothing, customs, place (terms commonly related to ethnicity, although not exclusively). I explore further how the performance of one’s race is affected by crossing borders and who determines the script of that performance and for whom. The concept of race as a 3 performance is further convoluted when particular immigrants cross borders and discover that they do