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Index

Abbott, F. 139 anticommons 198, 249–50, 310, Abrell, E. 296 312–13 access and benefit sharing (ABS) see also provisions Aoki, K. 25 contractual accommodation of Apreda, R. 18 to TKGR 170, 191, 198 Aristotle 219–20, 230 institutionalisation of TKGR trade arogyapaacha plant 52–3 67, 68, 69, 71–2, 81, 104–105, ASEAN Framework Agreement 106, 107 114–15, 121 TKGR protection, major Australia implementation lines, CBD Aboriginal Land Rights Act 33 implementation 119, 123, Aboriginals and land transfer 31–2, 126–7, 128 33 see also benefit sharing Mabo v. Queensland 33 Addor, F. 148 National Parks and Wildlife Adelstein, R. 11 Services v. Shoalthaven advance payments, Council 109 agreements 171, 183 Native Act 33 Africa, Organization of African Union Wik Peoples and Thayorre People v. (OAU) Model Law see TKGR The of Queensland 33 protection, major implementation Aylward, B. 200 lines, CBD implementation, Ayres, I. 17, 250, 264–5 Organization of African Union (OAU) Model Law Baker, A. 209 Alker, D. 169 Barbier, E. 200 Barton H. 88 Amiott, J. 32 Barzel, Y. 230, 236–7 Ancistrocladus korupensis (AK) and Bavikatte, K. 297 National Cancer Institute (NCI) Bebchuk, L. 216, 218 187–9, 200 Becker, D. 224 Andean Community Decision see Beitz, C. 21 TKGR protection, major Belgium, patents, and sanctions to implementation lines, CBD disclosure requirement 149–50 implementation, Andean Bell, A. 230–31, 291 Community Decision Benedict, C. 32 Anderson, T. 212, 228, 291–2 benefit sharing Annant Mashelkar, R. 4 bioprospecting agreements 173, Antarctic Treaty 35 178, 182, 184, 186, 188–9, Antarctica, Kirpatricka varialosa 275 190, 196–7, 199–200

347

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348 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

CBD mandatory benefit-sharing Biotics 171, 177 scheme 215 Bishop R. 239 global multilateral benefit-sharing Blakeney, M. 99, 171 mechanism possibility 76 Blaser A. 35 traditional knowledge and modern Bolivia, quinoa 52 IPRs 282–3, 295, 301, Bonaccorsi, A. 243 302–303, 305, 310–11 Bonn Guidelines 68–71, 170, 198, see also access and benefit sharing 270 (ABS) provisions see also Convention on Biological Benkler, Y. 246, 296 Diversity (CBD) Biber-Klemm, S. 283 Bordwin, H. 41 bilateral agreements Bosch-Domenech, A. 12 contractual accommodation of rights 179, 187 Bosselman, K. 34 contractual bilateral market botany in colonial history 26–7 structure 117 Bowman, M. 53 and institutionalisation of TKGR Boyle, A. 54, 60 trade 59, 75, 94–7, 103, Brazil 104–105, 107 Amazon protection 48–9 traditional knowledge and modern legislation see TKGR protection, IPRs 275 major implementation lines, bioassay methods 169 CBD implementation, Brazil biodiversity legislation CBD see Convention on Biological tamate 52 Diversity (CBD) UNIP bioprospecting contract ‘green developmentalism’ 2, 49–50 195 preservation incentives 309 Brewer, A. 32 bioinformatics 169 Brockway, L. 26 biopiracy 25–30, 51, 155 Brundtland Report 60, 65, 66, 67 bioprospecting Brush, S. 26, 194 agreements see contractual Buchanan, J. 240 accommodation of rights to Buckle, S. 229 TKGR, bioprospecting Budapest Treaty on the International agreements Recognition of the Deposit of agreements, and modern IPRs Microorganisms for the Purposes 291–2 of Patent Procedure 95, 144 biopiracy distinction 25–30 ‘’ approach 219, boom 168–90 225–6, 290 intellectual rights 5, 7 Burk, D. 218 regional frameworks 277, 279 Butlin, R. 209 rights management and modern Byerlee, D. 295 IPRs 293–4 transaction costs 70, 71, 72, 267–8, Calabresi, G. 16, 216, 217–18, 236, 279–80 237–8, 251–2, 259–60, 263, 264, biotechnology effects 1, 3, 86–9, 309, 310 269 Calandrillo, S. 256 Biotechnology Industry Organization Calibrera, M. 175 (BIO) 154–5 Cameron, X. 25

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Index 349

Cameroon TKGR as , protection Ancistrocladus korupensis (AK) and decisions and entitlements National Cancer Institute (NCI) 215–16 187–9, 200 ‘common heritage of mankind’ Prunus Africana (pygeum) 189–90 practice 34–7 Canada, Indian fur trade and property common property rights, protection rights 210–11 decisions and entitlements Carbone, J. 31 240–42 CARIFORUM agreement 96 common resources and Carlson, T. 173 intracommunity management Castree, N. 177 293 CBD see Convention on Biological commons Diversity (CBD) Creative Commons 244–7, 298 Chennells, R. 304 fairness and efficiency 294–9, Chiarolla, C. 302 300–301, 309–10, 311–12 China, patents, and sanctions to incentive schemes and evolution of disclosure requirement 150 commons platform 294 Chouchena-Rojas, M. 154 shift and property Christie, G. 17 rights 209–12, 222–3, 248 Ciriacy-Wantrup, S. 239 semicommons property 240–41 Coase, R. 10–17, 235–6, 250, 270, understanding of 207–209, 215 279 see also anticommons Cocca, A. 35 communitarian perspective, codification suggestion, traditional Organization of African Union knowledge and modern IPRs (OAU) Model Law 117 306 community rights, traditional Cole, D. 217 knowledge and modern IPRs collection fees, bioprospecting 278–9 agreements 171, 182, 197, 199, compensatory liability rights 252–3, 202, 203 300–301 Collet, P. 158 see also liability rules confidentiality clause, bioprospecting colonialism effects 25–8, 31–2 agreements 175, 176–7, 191 commodification conflict resolution see dispute and CBD institutional framework settlement see institutionalisation of conservation activities 121, 172, 176, TKGR trade, TKGR 178, 180, 184, 185, 189, 190 commodification and CBD Conte, L. 173 institutional framework contractual accommodation of rights pharmaceutical industry and to TKGR 168–204 identification of useful plant access and benefit sharing (ABS) resources 169 mechanisms 170, 191, 198 and positivism 225–6 and anticommons 198 in practice see institutionalisation of bilateral agreements 179, 187 TKGR trade, TKGR bioassay methods 169 commodification in practice bioprospecting boom 168–90 public domain resources 269, 310 Bonn Guidelines 170, 198, 270

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350 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

CBD principles and procedures benefit-sharing 173, 178, 182, 184, 170 186, 188–9, 190, 196–7, databases and bioinformatics 169 199–200 Intergovernmental Committee on benefit-sharing, beneficiaries 197 and Biotics 177 Genetic Resources, contractual collection fees 171, 182, 197, 199, accommodation of rights to 202, 203 TKGR, databases and confidentiality clause 175, 176–7, bioinformatics 169 191 Traditional Knowledge and Folklore conflict resolution 176 (IGC) 170 conservation activities 172, 176, legal status of genetic resources 192 178, 180, 184, 185, 189, 190 letter of intent 191 dual-contract structure 179 licensing agreements 191, 196 enforcement and monitoring material transfer agreements 202–204 (MTAs) 191 exclusive evaluation period 175 parties involved in bioprospecting and exclusivity 200 193–5 government participation 194 pharmaceutical industry and ICBG agreements 177–82, 197, identification of useful plant 198, 200 resources for commodification INBio–MERCK research agreement 169 171, 174–7, 195–6 phytogenetic information collection intellectual property rights 171, 169 176, 182, 185–7, 191, 195–6 regulations and guidelines 169–70 Iwokrama 171, 183 robotics and screening of plant land rights 195–6 samples 169 national institution’s participation selection method of genetic 194 resources 193 national regulations, dealing with subject matter focus 191–2 203 subject matter focus, sectorial nonmonetary benefits 171–2 ‘one contract’ model 179 distinctions 192 overlapping claims and property World Intellectual Property rights 186–7 Organization (WIPO) clauses of genetic resources 170 175–6 see also institutionalisation of post-CBD era 177–90, 198, TKGR trade; traditional 202–203 knowledge headings, protection pre-CBD era 172–7 decisions and entitlements and prior informed consent 181, contractual accommodation of rights 184, 198 to TKGR, bioprospecting Prunus Africana (pygeum) 189–90 agreements 171–90 rights transferred 195–6 advance payments 171, 183 royalties payments 171, 175, 176, Ancistrocladus korupensis (AK) and 177, 182, 183, 184, 199, 200 National Cancer Institute (NCI) Shaman Pharmaceuticals 187–9, 200 (Botanicals) 171, 172–3

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Index 351

Shaman Pharmaceuticals mandatory benefit-sharing scheme (Botanicals), Sangre de Drago 215 medicinal 173 and property rights 216–17 stakeholders 193–5 technological development and tariff elimination effects 201 transfer of technology 215 technology transfer 180, 199 see also biodiversity unequal partnerships 200–201 Coombe, R. 25, 214, 289 value of TKGR 199–200 Cooter, R. 13, 237 ‘wheel of contracts’ structure Correa, C. 41, 48, 86, 138, 154 179 Costa Rica wild rice and Xa21 gene 185–7 ICBG programme and ‘one Yellowstone–Diversa contract’ model 179 bioprospecting agreement INBio–MERCK research agreement 183–4, 195 174–7 contractual agreements and patent applications and disclosure enforcement of property rights requirements 147 227–8, 236–8 Costanza, R. 172 contractual bilateral market structure Cottier, T. 53, 269 117 Crabb, J. 36 see also bilateral agreements Creative Commons 244–7, 298 Convention on Biological Diversity see also commons (CBD) 6, 7, 8–9, 29–30, 37, 40, Crosby, A. 26 92 Croskery, P. 257 bioprospecting agreements, Cullet, P. 132–3 post-CBD era 177–90, 198, cultural integrity protection 269 202–203 Cunningham, H. 297 bioprospecting agreements, Curci, J. 108 pre-CBD era 172–7 Bonn Guidelines 68–71, 170, 198, Dagne, T. 103, 292, 305 270 Dahlman, C. 14 and ‘green developmentalism’ Daly, G. 14–15 49–50 databases and bioinformatics 169 implementation see TKGR Dávalos, L. 172 protection, major implementation lines, CBD Dbar, B. 107 implementation De Carvalho, N. 137, 215 institutional framework see De Jonge, B. 303 institutionalisation of TKGR Dedeurwaerdere, T. 294–5 trade, TKGR commodification deep seabed mining resources and CBD institutional 34–5 framework see also marine genetic resources and International Code of Conduct Demsetz, H. 14, 16, 210, 211–13, for Plant Germplasm 218, 230 Collection and Transfer 43–5 Denmark, patents, and sanctions to legal framework and modern IPRs disclosure requirement 149 268, 270–76, 277, 280, 284, derived products, Brazil legislation 295 125

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352 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

disbursement of funds, Ellickson, B. 248 institutionalisation of TKGR Ellickson, R. 218 trade 66–7 Elsten, J. 13 disclosure requirement emergencies, national or international ‘disclosure of origin of genetic 76 resources’ proposal, TRIPS end-product protection, intellectual Agreement 91, 93–4, 96–7, property rights 4 307 enforcement patent system see TKGR protection, bioprospecting agreements 202–204 major implementation lines, contractual agreements and enforcement of property rights patent system 227–8, 236–8 TKGR protection, CBD enjoyment of innovation 252–3 implementation 119–20, 145–7, enola beans patent 50, 52, 152 147, 151, 155 entitlement discovery doctrine 32–3, 213–14 under property rights paradigm, dispute settlement legal content 290–92, 310 bioprospecting agreements 176 under property rights paradigm, CBD Conference of the Parties management rights perspective (COP) 66–7, 68, 69, 71–2, 73 292–4 distributive equity, traditional protection see protection decisions knowledge and modern IPRs 277 and entitlements Domeij B. 310 and Rawls and Coase Theorems Donavanik J. 107–108 IPRs 280–305 Donovan, E. 50 Environmental Protection Agency, Downes, D. 54 Neemix registration 51 dual-contract structure, bioprospecting Epstein, R. 223, 250 agreements 179 equity due diligence procedures, CBD distributive equity, traditional institutional framework 77–8, knowledge and modern IPRs 79–81 277 Durham, E. 48 fairness/equity in decision-making, Dutfield, G. 5, 86, 138–9, 152 traditional knowledge and duty of assistance 21, 22, 284 modern IPRs 276–7, 281–5 Dworkin, R. 12 equity and efficiency, evaluation, patent system 150–56, 167 Ecuador, Sangre de Drago 173 Eshbach, R. 41 efficiency, social (Rawls essentially biological processes, Theorem), and efficiency TRIPS Agreement 89 principle, and intellectual EU property rights 19 Biotech Directive 85, 88, 96, EFTA–Colombia agreement 97 100–101, 146 Eggertsson, T. 240 disclosure requirements proposal Eisenberg, R. 156 153 Eisermann G. 217 EU–Colombia/Peru FTAs 96 Ekpere, J. 115 Regulation on Access to Genetic Elkin-Koren, N. 244, 245 Resources 77–80, 82 Elkins, D. 20, 281 sui generis right 157–8

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Index 353

traditional herbal medicinal ‘paying when using’ 303 products directive 157 property rights 286–90, 294 European Culture Collections’ research commons and Organisation 295 compensatory liability IPRs European Genebank Integrated 300–301 System (AEGIS) 106–107 rewarding TKGR 303–5, 312–13 European Patent Convention 133, 153 traditional European Patent Office (EPO) 294–9, 309–10, 311–12 Ciba–Geigy case 88 fairness principle 11, 19, 20–22 Novartis case 88, 89 Farmers’ Rights 39, 40, 45, 92, 105, Plant Genetic Systems case 88, 89 116–17, 282–3 Ewens, L. 50 Farnsworth, N. 28 ex situ collections Farrell, J. 13, 15 and CBD implementation 116, 118, Fidler, D. 50 121, 122, 124, 125, 128 Fiji, Verata–USP Agreement 194 International Network of Ex Situ financial institution administration Collections 41–3 choice 67 exchange of biological resources, Fischbaum, M. 257 Andean Community Decision Food and Agriculture Organization 119 (FAO)6,8 exclusion rights, and modern IPRs Committee of Plant Genetic 290–92 Resources (CGIAR) 38, 46, exclusion theory and right to property 192, 295 228–30 Farmers’ Rights 39, 92 exclusive evaluation period, Global Plan for plant genetic bioprospecting agreements 175 resources 29, 30, 38 exclusivity, and contractual International Undertaking on Plant accommodation of rights, Genetic Resources 29, 30, bioprospecting agreements 200 37–41, 92, 104 extraterritoriality, and Nagoya International Undertaking on Plant Protocol 274–5 286, 291, 299, Genetic Resources for Food 302, 303, 304–305, 310 and Agriculture (PGRFA) 29, 30, 37–41, 42 fair and equitable sharing of benefits CBD implementation 115, 121, International Undertaking on Plant 127–8 Genetic Resources for Food CBD institutional framework 62, and Agriculture (PGRFA), 63, 73–7, 111–12 Code of Conduct on Plant patent system 149, 154, 155 Biotechnology 43 traditional knowledge and modern food sovereignty issues 92 IPRs 273–4, 276–7, 281–5, see also sovereignty 304 free and fair trade obligations 284 and TRIPS Agreement 92, 95–6, see also trade 110–12 Fudenberg, D. 206 fairness and efficiency and access to innovation 299–300 Gamez, R. 174, 176 in liability rules 299–303, 311–12 Gana, R. 232

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354 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

Genetic Resources Recognition (GRR) Heath, C. 94, 107 Fund 186, 187 Hedit, R. 191 geographical indications (GIs) 96, Hegel, G. 219–22, 231, 288 167, 292 Helfer, L. 108 Gepts, P. 30 Heller, M. 248–50, 310 Gervais, D. 86, 108 Hendricks, B. 55 Geuze, M. 86 Henninger, T. 150 Girsberger, M. 144 Hensson-Apollonio, V. 45–6 GlaxoSmithKline voluntary licensing heritage protection 121, 234–5 program, Kenya 293 see also indigenous communities Global Environment Facility (GEF) Herrera, H. 297 67 Heverley, R. 241 Goldenberg J. 48 Hietanen, H. 245 Goldie, L. 35 Hill, P. 212, 228, 291–2 goldminers and miner–farmer Ho, C. 215 conflicts 251 Hoare A. 146 Gorove, S. 35, 36 Hoffman, E. 13 Göschl, T. 178 Hohfeld, W. 226–7, 290 government participation, Holm-Mueller, K. 168, 177, 179 bioprospecting agreements Honing-Haftel, S. 258 194 Honoré, A. 225, 277, 290 governmental agencies, list proposal Hopf, M. 26 154 Hughes, F. 255 governmental regulation, protection Hughes, J. 223, 224, 288 decisions and entitlements Hülsmann, J. 235 207–208 human genetic resources Great Plains and property rights Andean Community Decision evolution 212–13 118–19 ‘green developmentalism’ 2, Brazil legislation 125 49–50 Human Genome Project 37 see also biodiversity doctrine 103, 231–4, Greiber, T. 74, 287 289–90 Grey, T. 226 Grotius 228–9 Humphries, F. 276 Guadamuz, A. 243 Hunter, C. 203 Guell, R. 257 Hurt, R. 256 Guntrip, E. 35 Hylton, K. 262–3 Guruswamy, L. 276 Guyana, Iwokrama Operational Plan ICBG (International 183 Biodiversity Groups) 171, 172, 177–82, 197, 198, 200 Haddad, B. 224 implementation Halewood, M. 74, 107, 311 major implementation lines see Hardin, G. 206–208, 215, 240, 249 TKGR protection, major Hassemer, M. 63 implementation lines Hawkes, J. 27 process, CBD institutional He, H. 274 framework 67–85

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Index 355

in personam rights, protection botany in colonial history 26–7 decisions and entitlements 225, ‘common heritage of mankind’ 226, 227, 291 status 29, 103–107 in rem rights 225, 226–8, 237, 280, human rights instruments 103 291 intellectual property rights and INBio–MERCK research agreement biopiracy 25 171, 174–7, 195–6 intellectual property rights and incentive schemes and evolution of patentability criteria 30 commons platform IPRs 294 pharmaceuticals of plant origin, incentives, biodiversity preservation global trade in 28–9 309 as local India food and healthcare sources arogyapaacha plant 52–3 basmati rice 51 28 institutionalisation of TKGR trade, sovereignty over genetic resources TKGR commodification in 29 practice 52 sui generis protection 64, 72, 86, karela (bitter gourd) juice 52 96, 107 neem tree 50–51, 152 traditional knowledge protection in Phyllanthus amarus plant 52 international law 101–103 Steptomyces Vioaceus patent 91 see also contractual accommodation turmeric 51–2 of rights to TKGR; protection indigenous communities decisions and entitlements; ‘approval and involvement’ traditional knowledge headings requirement 64 institutionalisation of TKGR trade, countries of origin and indigenous legal status of TKGR 29, communities, competition 30–49 between 268 colonialism and land transfer heritage protection 121, 234–5 31–2 rights of indigenous and local and deep seabed mining resources communities, CBD institutional 34–5 framework 63–4, 70, 85 discovery doctrine 32–3 see also traditional knowledge FAO International Undertaking on headings Plant Genetic Resources for Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention 102 Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) innovation 29, 30, 37–41, 42 access, and fairness and efficiency FAO International Undertaking on in liability rules 299–300 Plant Genetic Resources for enjoyment of 252–3 Food and Agriculture institutionalisation of TKGR trade (PGRFA), Code of Conduct on 25–112 Plant Biotechnology 43 and bilateral agreements 59, 75, intellectual property protection 41 94–7, 103, 104–105, 107 International Code of Conduct for bioprospecting and biopiracy Plant Germplasm Collection distinction 25–30 and Transfer 43–5 bioprospecting history and International Network of Ex Situ colonialism 25–8 Collections 41–3

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356 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

international transfer of TKGR and EU Regulation on Access to ‘common heritage of mankind’ Genetic Resources 77–80, 82 practice 34–7 ‘fair and equitable sharing of the International Treaty on Plant benefits arising from the Genetic Resources for Food utilisation of genetic resources’ and Agriculture see 62, 63, 73–7, 111–12 International Treaty on Plant financial institution administration Genetic Resources for Food choice 67 and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) global multilateral benefit-sharing legal regime ruled by 36 mechanism possibility 76 material transfer agreements implementation and dispute (MTAs) 42, 46–7 settlement supervision by monopoly preservation, historical Conference of the Parties 33–4 (COP) 66–7, 68, 69, 71–2, 73 sovereignty over plant genetic implementation process 67–85 resources 33–4 indigenous communities’ ‘approval and state sovereignty 48–9 and involvement’ requirement terra nullius sphere 29, 30–34, 215 64 transposition to plant genetic intellectual property rights (IPRs) resources 37–49 64–5, 80–82, 84–5 versus ‘common concern of International Union for the humanity’ 36–7, 48–9 Conservation of Nature (IUCN) institutionalisation of TKGR trade, Draft Commission 58–62 TKGR commodification and misappropriation protection and CBD institutional framework compensation 84–5 53–85 ‘mutually agreed terms’ requirement Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) 63, 69, 70, 75, 78, 102, 104, provisions 67, 68, 69, 71–2, 170, 283 81, 104–105, 106, 107 Nagoya Protocol 73–7, 78, 105, 270 background and negotiations Nagoya Protocol, post-Nagoya preceding CBD 54–62 implementation 80–84 Bonn Guidelines adoption, first national authorities’ responsibilities (1992–1998) and second 76–7, 82–3 (1999–2002) implementation and national or international periods 68–9 emergencies 76 Bonn Guidelines adoption, fourth precautionary principle 109–10 implementation period prior informed consent (PIC) (2002–2012) 71–3 system 71, 73, 76, 84 Bonn Guidelines adoption (third rights of indigenous and local implementation period) 68, communities 63–4 69–71 state sovereignty and rights of Brundtland Report adoption 60, 65, indigenous communities 63, 66, 67 70, 85 CBD objectives 62 Stockholm Declaration 55–6, 60, Code of Ethical Conduct 73 66, 67 disbursement of funds 66–7 technology transfer 65–6, 111–12 due diligence procedures 77–8, traditional knowledge protection 72, 79–81 110

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Index 357

transaction costs in bioprospecting institutionalisation of TKGR trade, agreements, reduction of 70, TKGR commodification in 71, 72 practice 49–53 transparency issues 83 EC Biotech Directive 100–101 and TRIPS Agreement examples 50–53 implementation 53, 76, 81, and ‘green developmentalism’ 108–109 49–50 United Nations Conference on India, karela (bitter gourd) juice Environment and Development example 52 (UNCED) 57–8 as means to an end in WIPO Draft Treaties for the environmental policy 49–50 Protection of Traditional TKGR protection and legal status Knowledge and Traditional 50–53 Cultural Expressions 84–5 intellectual property World Charter for Nature 56 and biopiracy 25–30, 51, 155 institutionalisation of TKGR trade, institutionalisation of TKGR trade TKGR commodification and 30, 41, 64–5, 80–82, 84–5 inventions and plant varieties and protection and alienation 222 TRIPS Agreement 85–101, and public domain 239–40 103–104, 107–12, 307 and technology transfer 119–21, Article 27.3(b) review 90–94 123–4, 129 biodiversity and traditional WIPO see World Intellectual knowledge 95–6 Property Organization (WIPO) CARIFORUM agreement 96 intellectual property rights 1–24 ‘disclosure of origin of genetic biodiversity and green products 2 resources’ proposal 91, 93–4, conservation measures 8 96–7, 307 contractual accommodation of Doha Declaration 92 rights to TKGR, bioprospecting EFTA–Colombia agreement 97 agreements 171, 176, 182, essentially biological processes 89 185–7, 191, 195–6 EU–Colombia/Peru FTAs 96 end-product protection 4 food sovereignty issues 92 genetic resources and biotechnology geographical indications (GIs) 1, 3 protection 96 legal status 5–8 novelty requirement 93 licensing agreements 8–9 patent protection for living and market efficiency (Coase organisms 87, 95 Theorem) 10–17, 22–3 patentability of biotechnological and market efficiency (Coase inventions 86–9 Theorem), fairness principle plant and animal varieties 87–9 11, 19 precautionary principle 109–10 and market efficiency (Coase traditional knowledge protection Theorem), and zero transaction 110 costs 13–16, 23 transfer of technology on fair and and market failures 3–4, 5 equitable terms 92, 95–6, and North/South inequality 2–4 110–12 protection and bioprospecting 5, 7 TRIPS-plus and bilateral Free Trade regional and national Agreements 94–7 implementation initiatives 8–9

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358 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

and social justice (Rawls Theorem) international transfer of TKGR and 11–12, 17–22, 23–4 ‘common heritage of mankind’ and social justice (Rawls Theorem), practice 34–7 and efficiency principle 19 patent system 136–7, 140–45, 152, and social justice (Rawls Theorem), 307 and fairness principle 19, social justice 21–2 20–22 traditional knowledge and modern and social justice (Rawls Theorem), IPRs 270–76, 285, 289–90, international community 297, 309 requirements 21–2 traditional knowledge protection in international law 101–103 and social justice (Rawls Theorem), see also national framework; and veil of ignorance 23–4 regional framework state sovereignty over national International Labour Organization genetic resources 9 (ILO) 102, 234 sui generis rights 2, 7, 9 International Network of Ex Situ and technology transfer 4 Collections 41–3 traditional knowledge on resources see also ex situ collections (TKGR) 1–5 International Treaty on Plant Genetic see also property rights Resources for Food and Intergovernmental Committee on Agriculture (ITPGRFA) 45–8, Intellectual Property and Genetic 103, 295, 307 Resources 135–6, 170 Farmers’ Rights 45, 105, 282–3 intermediaries’ role, traditional Multilateral System of exchange 46, knowledge and modern IPRs 268 47–8, 72, 76, 103–104, International Code of Conduct for 105–107, 152–3, 282–3, Plant Germplasm Collection and 302–303, 311 Transfer 43–5 International Tribunal for Law of the International Convention for the Sea (ITLOS) 274 Protection of New Varieties of International Undertaking on Plant Plants (UPOV) 5, 40–41, 50, 85, Genetic Resources 6 87, 97–100, 107 International Union for Conservation breeders’ rights 98–100 of Nature (IUCN) 54, 58–62 patent system, disclosure inventive step, patent system 132–3, requirement 142–3 137 plant variety and patent protection Iwokrama bioprospecting agreement 99 171, 183 seed saving and exchanges 98–100 International Cooperative Biodiversity Jaffrey, P. 226 Groups (ICBG) 171, 172, Japan, Patent Law and prior art 133 177–82, 197, 198, 200 Jonas, H. 297 International Covenant on Economic Jugcurt, S. 302 Social and Jurgensen, T. 37 (ICESCR) 233–4 International Federation of Kahnemann D. 261 Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Kamperman Sanders, A. 94 and Associations (IFPMA) 154–5 Kaplow, L. 16, 230, 253, 259, 277 international framework Karasov, C. 51

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Index 359

karela (bitter gourd) juice 52 Lettington, R. 40 Kenya Levin, M. 4, 50 Forest Act 33 Lewinsohn-Zamir, D. 260–62 GlaxoSmithKline voluntary Lewis, T. 166, 252, 253, 299–301 licensing program 293 liability rules Kessler, F. 23 compensatory liability rights 252–3, King, S. 173, 194 300–301 Kloppenburg, J. 26, 33, 53 fairness and efficiency in 299–303, Knowles, D. 220, 288 311–12 Korobkin, R. 22, 281 paying when using 250–54, 303 Krattiger A. 199 versus property rules see under Krier, J. 264 protection decisions and Krishnamurthy, S. 247 entitlements Kur, A. 254 Libecap, G. 211, 247 licensing agreements Laird, S. 29, 191, 193, 203 contractual accommodation of land rights rights to TKGR 191, 196 bioprospecting agreements 195–6 intellectual property rights 8–9 and discovery doctrine 213–14 socially responsible 293–4 and traditional knowledge Liebig, K. 169 comparison 213–15 Llewelyn, M. 87 land transfer, and colonialism 31–2 Locke, J. 19, 222–4 Lands, W. 12, 235 López Noriega, I 46 Lange, D. 239 Lu, F. 297 Lawson, C. 45 Lueck, D. 211, 240 Leacock, E. 210 legal status Madagascar, rosy periwinkle TKGR bioprospecting agreements 291–2 51, 152 CBD legal framework 268, 270–76, Madaglia, C. 155 277, 280, 284, 295 Mahmoudi, S. 32, 34, 36 entitlement under property rights Makuch, Z. 25 paradigm 290–92, 310 Mali, wild rice and Xa21 gene 185–7 genetic resources 192 management rights, traditional intellectual property rights 5–8 international framework, combined knowledge and modern IPRs legal framework 270–71, 292–4 272–4, 275–6 Mandel, G. 257 of TKGR see institutionalisation of Marden, E. 4, 51 TKGR trade, legal status of marine genetic resources 272–4, TKGR 275–6 TKGR protection and legal status, see also deep seabed mining institutionalisation of TKGR resources trade, TKGR commodification market efficiency in practice 50–53 Coase Theorem 10–17, 19, 22–3 Lesser, W. 199 protection decisions and Lessig, L. 244, 246 entitlements 205–206, 215, letter of intent 191 217–18, 251–2, 259–60

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360 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

traditional knowledge and modern Mossof, A. 221, 228 IPRs 283 Mulholland, D. 195 market failures, and intellectual Muller, M. 144 property rights 3–4, 5, 51, 166, Mulligan, S. 168 167, 216–17, 285–6 Murphy, G. 19 Markovits, R. 206 ‘mutually agreed terms’ requirement Martin, L. 258 63, 69, 70, 75, 78, 102, 104, Maskus, K. 9, 51, 86 170, 283 material transfer agreements (MTAs) 42, 46–7, 191 Nagoya Protocol 73–7, 78, 80–84, Mattei, U. 23 105, 270 Mayhew, R. 206, 219, 230 and extraterritoriality 274–5, 286, McAfee, K. 49 McClearly, R. 48 291, 299, 302, 303, 304–305, McGown, J. 3 310 McHarg, I. 49Medaglia, C. 147 national framework Mekouar, M. 47 bioprospecting agreements 194, 203 Melamed, D. 216, 217–18, 236, CBD implementation 122–31 237–8, 251–2, 259–60, 263, 264, national authorities’ responsibilities, 309, 310 TKGR commodification 76–7, Menell, P. 219 82–3 Merges, R. 251 national or international Merill, T. 209, 219, 227, 237, 265 emergencies 76 Merritt, G. 12 patent system 146–50, 151–2 Mexico traditional knowledge and modern ICBG investment 198 IPRs 271, 274, 276–80, 286–8, pozol drink 52 289–90, 297, 307–308 Mgbeoji, I. 30 see also international framework; Mikhail, J. 18, 281 regional framework Mill, J. 256, 257–8 national treatment principle 119 Miller, J. 200 natural rights justification 219–24 Mimura, C. 293 neem tree 50–51, 152 misappropriation protection and Nigeria, Ancistrocladus-7korupensis compensation, CBD institutional (AK) 187–9 framework 84–5 noncommercial use definition 297–8 Mishan, E. 14 Nordell, P. 214 modern IPRs see traditional North, D. 209, 238 knowledge and modern IPRs Norway, patent applications and monitoring and enforcement see disclosure requirements 148–9, enforcement 151 monopoly preservation, historical novelty requirement 93, 132–3, 137 33–4 numerus clausus principle, protection Monson, J. 3 decisions and entitlements 227, Mooney, P. 26 290 moral rights perspective, traditional knowledge and modern IPRs 282 Oguamanam, C. 9 Moran, K. 197, 203 Oldham, E. 297 Moretto, M. 240 Oldham, P. 34, 75

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Index 361

‘one contract’ model 179 pharmaceuticals of plant origin, global Opderdeck, D. 241, 293 trade in 28–9 property regimes 239, Philippines 240 bioprospecting agreement 195 open source model 242–4, 245–6, legislation, and CBD 247, 295 implementation 129–31, 278–9 Organization of African Union (OAU) sui generis right 164 Model Law see TKGR Phyllanthus amarus plant 52 protection, major implementation phytogenetic information collection lines, CBD implementation, 169 Organization of African Union plant genetic resources (OAU) Model Law and ‘common heritage of mankind’ Osterloh, M. 243 practice 37–49 Ostrom, E. 208, 225–6, 241, 297 as local food and healthcare sources 28 Pager, S. 84 sovereignty over 33–4 Parchomovsky, G. 230–31, 291 Polanvyi, M. 256, 257, 258 Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 136, Polinsky, A. 16 143–4, 146 Polinsky, M. 263 patents Polski, M. 168 ASEAN Framework Agreement, Portugal, sui generis right 161–2, patent system rejection 121 163–4, 165, 279, 310 biotechnological inventions 86–9 Posey, D. 5 enola beans 50, 52, 152 positivism intellectual property rights and and bundle of rights doctrine 290 patentability criteria 30 and resource commodification living organisms protection 87, 95 225–6 Organization of African Union Posner, R. 12, 235 (OAU), patents over life forms Powers, M. 54 and biological processes not pozol drink 52 recognised 117 Prakash, G. 2 system see TKGR protection, major precautionary principle 109–10 implementation lines, patent prior art, definition and role 132–7 system prior informed consent Patwarhan B. 4 bioprospecting agreements 181, paying when using 250–54, 303 184, 198 see also liability rules and CBD implementation 116, 121, Pena-Neira, S. 276 126, 152 Penner, J. 226–7 and CBD institutional framework Peru legislation see TKGR protection, 71, 73, 76, 84 major implementation lines, patent system 139–40 CBD implementation, Peru traditional knowledge and modern legislation IPRs 285 Pettit, P. 20 private 250–51 pharmaceutical industry and private property and anticommons identification of useful plant property, difference between resources 169 249–50

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362 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

private property versus common human rights and relational property 238–40 approach to property 231–4 property rights in personam rights 225, 226, 227, and CBD implementation 117 291 justification 210–12, 214–15 in rem rights 225, 226–8, 237, 280, liability rules versus property rules 291 see under protection decisions Indian fur trade and property rights and entitlements 210–11 regime components 225–6 intellectual property protection and and self-actualisation of the person alienation 222 221 intellectual property rights and theory development 218–38 public domain 239–40 see also intellectual property rights land rights and discovery doctrine protection decisions and entitlements 213–14 205–66 land rights and traditional anticommons property and private knowledge comparison 213–15 property, difference between liability rules and paying when 249–50 using 250–54 Aristotle on property 219–20, 230 liability rules versus property rules ‘bundle of rights’ approach 219, 259–66 225–6 liability rules versus property rules, CBD mandatory benefit-sharing bargaining settings 259–65 scheme 215 liability rules versus property rules, CBD and property rights 216–17 damage calculations 263–4 CBD and technological liability rules versus property rules, development and transfer of resource allocation and technology 215 exclusion strategy 265 common property rights 240–42 Locke’s labour theory 223–4 commons to private property shift market efficiency factors 205–206, and property rights 209–12, 215, 217–18, 251–2, 259–60 222–3, 248 natural rights justification 219–24 commons, understanding of numerus clausus principle 227, 290 207–209, 215 open access property regimes 239, compensatory liability rights 252–3 240 contractual agreements and open source model 242–4, 245–6, enforcement of property rights 247 227–8, 236–8 positivism and resource Creative Commons 244–7, 298 commodification 225–6 exclusion theory and right to private eminent domain 250–51 property 228–30 private property versus common goldminers and miner–farmer property 238–40 conflicts 251 property rights justification 210–12, governmental regulation 207–208 214–15 Great Plains and property rights property rights regime components evolution 212–13 225–6 Grotius on property 228–9 property rights theory development Hegel’s personality theory 219–22 218–38

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Index 363

property and self-actualisation of Prunus Africana (pygeum), the person 221 bioprospecting agreement protection of heritage of indigenous 189–90 communities 121, 234–5 public domain public domain status 213, 214 and intellectual property rights racial discrimination prevention 234 239–40 regulated of period of enjoyment of resources, traditional knowledge innovation 252–3 and modern IPRs 269, 310 relational conceptions of property status 213, 214 231–5 reward systems as alternative to racial discrimination prevention 234 IPR 254–9 Rackleff, K. 41 reward systems as alternative to Radin, M. 3, 221, 231, 289 IPR, financial concerns 256, Rahmatian, A. 12 257–8 Rai, K. 156 reward systems as alternative to Raju K. 243 IPR, and government lack of Randall, A. 15 knowledge 258 Rausser, G. 199 reward systems as alternative to Rawls, J. 10, 11–12, 270 IPR, and social welfare reasonable test, TRIPS Agreement maximisation 255–6 140–41 rights, sources of 205–13 regional framework self-determination principle 234 and CBD implementation 114–20 semicommons property 240–41 patent system 145–6 social cost problems 237 traditional knowledge and modern social recognition of property rights IPRs 276–80, 277, 279, 229 307–308 state property rights and mixed see also international framework; rights 247–50 national framework stock depletion concerns 206–207 Reichman, J. 7, 166, 252, 253, sui generis right 214–15, 216, 225, 299–301 228 Reisenfeld, S. 255 terra nullius status 29, 30–34, 215 relational theories 231–5, 288–9 TKGR as commodity 215–16 religious traditions, traditional tort and 237–8 knowledge and modern IPRs and transaction costs 235, 236, 250, 282, 289 259–60, 263, 264–6 reward, fairness and efficiency in TRIPS Agreement 213, 215, 217 rewarding TKGR 303–305, utilitarianism 235–8 312–13 value in property 230–31 reward systems as alternative to IPR water rights and liability rules 254–9 250–51 Reyes, V. 173 see also contractual accommodation rice of rights to TKGR; basmati rice 51 institutionalisation of TKGR wild rice and Xa21 gene, trade; traditional knowledge bioprospecting agreement headings 185–7

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364 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

Richerzhagen, C. 168, 177, 179 Shaman Pharmaceuticals (Botanicals) rights transferred, bioprospecting 171, 172–3 agreements 195–6 Shavell, S. 16, 230, 253, 255, 257, Ripstein A. 18 259, 277 robotics and screening of plant Shelton, D. 20 samples 169 Siebenhuner, B. 8, 69 Roht-Arriaza, N. 3 Silvestre, J. 12 Roos J. 32 Simpson, B. 13 Rosato, P. 240 Sittenfeld, A. 176 Rose, C. 230 Skarp, B. 293, 294 Rosendal, K. 6 Sloane, H. 27 Rosenthal, J. 178 Small, A. 199 Rossi, C. 243 Smith, A. 225 rosy periwinkle 51, 152 Smith, H. 208, 209, 219, 227, 237, Rota, S. 243 240–41, 248, 250–51, 265, 291, royalties payments, bioprospecting 293 agreements 171, 175, 176, 177, Smith, J. 211 182, 183, 184, 199, 200 social cost problems, protection Ruiz Muller M. 145, 146 decisions and entitlements 237 social justice (Rawls Theorem), and Safrin, S. 140 intellectual property rights Saifer, R 134 11–12, 17–22, 23–4 Samuelson, P. 239 social recognition of property rights sanctions to disclosure requirement, 229 patent system 149, 165 socially responsible licensing IPRs Sangre de Drago 173 293–4 Santa Cruz, M. 96 Soejarto, D. 192 Scharper, S. 297 source of genetic resources unknown Schebinger, L. 28 to patent applicant 153–4 Scherer, F. 254, 256, 258 South Africa Schermers, H. 289 GlaxoSmithKline voluntary Schillhorn, K. 33 licensing program 293 Schlager, E. 225–6 traditional healers 296–7 Schmitt E. 4 Southern Africa, hoodia cactus 52, Schovsbo, J. 201, 254 152, 298–9 Schrijver, N. 48 sovereignty Schuchman, R. 256 and CBD implementation 119, 121, Schwab, S. 264 123, 126, 130–31 screening of plant samples 169 and ‘common heritage of mankind’ selection method of genetic resources practice 48–9 193 food sovereignty issues 92 self-actualisation of the person, and genetic resources 9, 29, 33–4 property 221 and rights of indigenous self-determination principle 234, communities 63, 70, 85 288–9 traditional knowledge and modern semicommons property 240–41 IPRs 271, 285 see also commons Spence, M. 243

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Index 365

spiritual and religious traditions, Switzerland, patent applications and traditional knowledge and disclosure requirements 148 modern IPRs 282, 289 Swygert, M. 22 Spitzer, M. 13 systematisation of principles and stakeholders, bioprospecting objectives in new entitlement agreements 193–5 308–11 state property rights and mixed rights Szymura Berglas, D. 283 247–50 Stepanov, S. 255 Talley, E. 17, 250, 265 Steptomyces Vioaceus patent 91 tamate 52 Stewart, T. 87 Tansey G. 201 Stigler, J. 13 Tarasofsky, R. 146 stock depletion concerns 206–207 tariff elimination effects, Stoett, P. 168 bioprospecting agreements 201 Stoll, P. 289 technology transfer 215 Sturges, M. 37 bioprospecting agreements 180, 199 sui generis rights and CBD institutional framework CBD implementation 115 65–6, 111–12 CBD implementation, Brazil fair and equitable terms, TRIPS legislation 162–3, 164, 165 Agreement 92, 95–6, 110–12 CBD implementation, Organization and intellectual property rights 4, of African Union (OAU) 119–21, 123–4, 129 Model Law 157, 163, 164, 165 Tejera, V. 111 CBD implementation, Peru ten Kate, K. 29, 191, 193 legislation 164, 165 Tenenbaum, E. 35, 36 institutionalisation of TKGR trade terra nullius status 29, 30–34, 215 64, 72, 86, 96, 107 Thailand, sui generis right 158–61, intellectual property rights 2, 7, 9 164–5, 279, 310 patent system see TKGR protection, Thomas, R. 209, 238 major implementation lines, Thompson, C. 107 patent system, sui generis Thornström, C. 295 protection systems timing issues, CBD implementation protection decisions and 113–14 entitlements 214–15, 216, 225, 228 Tinker, C. 62 traditional knowledge and modern Tirole, J. 206, 258 IPRs 277, 279, 280, 298, 304, TKGR see contractual accommodation 312 of rights to TKGR; Sunder, M. 3 institutionalisation of TKGR Suplie, J. 69 trade; protection decisions and Suriname entitlements; traditional Forest People’s Fund 182 knowledge headings ICBG programme and dual-contract Tolan, S. 3 structure 179–82 tort and property law 237–8 Swanson, T. 178 Toumanoff, P. 14 Sweden, patents, and sanctions to trade disclosure requirement 149 free and fair trade obligations 284

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366 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

institutionalisation see and TRIPS Agreement 115, 121 institutionalisation of TKGR traditional knowledge on genetic trade resources (TKGR) protection, traditional healers 296–7 major implementation lines, traditional knowledge on genetic CBD implementation, Andean resources (TKGR) protection, Community Decision 114–15, major implementation lines 118–21 113–67 disclosure requirement 145–6 traditional knowledge on genetic and exchange of biological resources (TKGR) protection, resources 119 major implementation lines, grant of access to TKGR 119 CBD implementation 113–31 and human genetic resources access and benefit sharing (ABS) 118–19 agreements 119, 123, 126–7, traditional knowledge on genetic 128 resources (TKGR) protection, ASEAN Framework Agreement major implementation lines, 114–15, 121 CBD implementation, Brazil ASEAN Framework Agreement, legislation 125–9, 278 biological and genetic derived products 125 resources as sacred heritage of disclosure requirement 147, 151 mankind 121 and human genetic material 125 ASEAN Framework Agreement, sui generis right 162–3, 164, 165 patent system rejection 121 traditional knowledge on genetic conservation and sustainable resources (TKGR) protection, utilisation of TKGR 121 major implementation lines, contractual bilateral market CBD implementation, structure 117 Organization of African Union disclosure requirement 119–20 (OAU) Model Law 114–18, 145, ex situ collections 116, 118, 121, 278 122, 124, 125, 128 communitarian perspective 117 fair and equitable sharing of disclosure requirement 145 benefits 115, 121, 127–8 ‘patents over life forms and farmers’ rights 116–17 biological processes not intellectual property and technology recognised 117 transfer 4, 119–21, 123–4, 129 sui generis right 157, 163, 164, 165 national implementation 122–31 traditional knowledge on genetic national treatment principle 119 resources (TKGR) protection, Philippines legislation 129–31, major implementation lines, 278–9 CBD implementation, Peru prior informed consent 116, 121, legislation 122–5, 278 126, 152 access procedure 123 property rights 117 disclosure requirement 146–7, 151, regional implementation initiatives 155 114–20 sui generis rights 164, 165 sovereign rights 119, 121, 123, 126, traditional knowledge on genetic 130–31 resources (TKGR) protection, sui generis rights 115 major implementation lines, timing issues 113–14 patent system 131–67

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Index 367

biopiracy concerns 155 alternative sui generis systems on compatibility with relevant national and regional basis international agreements 157–65 136–7, 140–45, 152, 307 equity and efficiency 167 equity and efficiency evaluation and GIs 167 150–56, 167 history of 166 European Patent Convention 133, market failures 166, 167 153 traditional knowledge and modern fair and equitable sharing of IPRs 267–313 benefits 149, 154, 155 and anticommons tragedy 310, 312–13 governmental agencies, list proposal bargaining power 279, 281 154 benefit sharing 282–3, 295, 301, at national level 146–50, 151–2 302–303, 305, 310–11 and origin 137–41 bilateral negotiations 275 origin and non-disclosure actions biodiversity preservation incentives 138–9 309 and Patent Cooperation Treaty bioprospecting activities and (PCT) 143–4 regional frameworks 277, 279 and Patent Cooperation Treaty bioprospecting agreements, legal (PCT), and EU Biotechnology basis 291–2 Directive 146 bioprospecting costs 267–8, 279–80 and Patent Law Treaty (PLT) 144–5 bioprospecting and rights prior art definition and role 132–5 management 293–4 prior art, novelty and inventive step biotechnology effects 269 132–3, 137 CBD legal framework 268, 270–76, and prior informed consent (PIC) 277, 280, 284, 295 139–40 codification suggestion 306 at regional level 145–6 common resources and sanctions to disclosure requirement intracommunity management 149, 165 293 source of genetic resources community rights 278–9 unknown to patent applicant countries of origin and indigenous 153–4 communities, competition TKGR accessibility for prior-art between 268 search purposes 136–7 cultural integrity protection 269 TKGR international database distributive equity 277 consideration 136–7 duty of assistance 284 TKGR as prior art 131–56 economic value of resources and and TRIPS Agreement 138, 140–42 allocation of entitlements 269 and TRIPS Agreement, ‘reasonable’ entitlement and Rawls and Coase test 140–41 Theorems 280–305 and UPOV 142–3 entitlement under property rights traditional knowledge on genetic paradigm, legal content resources (TKGR) protection, 290–92, 310 major implementation lines, entitlement under property rights patent system, sui generis paradigm, management rights protection systems 137, 156–66 perspective 292–4

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368 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

exclusion rights 290–92 market efficiency 283 extraterritoriality impact 274–6, market failures, remedies for 285–6 286, 291 moral rights perspective 282 fair and equitable sharing provision Nagoya Protocol and 273–4, 282, 304 extraterritoriality 274–5, 286, fairness and efficiency in 291, 299, 302, 303, 304–305, establishing traditional 310 knowledge commons 294–9, national legislation 271, 274, 309–10, 311–12 286–8, 289–90, 297 fairness and efficiency in national and regional initiatives, establishing traditional experiences of 307–308 knowledge commons, noncommercial use definition traditional healers 296–7 297–8 fairness and efficiency in liability open-source licensing 295 rules 299–303, 311–12 positivism and bundle of rights fairness and efficiency in liability doctrine 290 rules, and access to innovation present principles and objectives, 299–300 application effects 311–13 fairness and efficiency in liability prior and informed consent 285 rules, ‘paying when using’ 303 protection needs and expectations fairness and efficiency in liability 267–70 rules, research commons and public domain resources, compensatory liability 300–301 commodification of 269, 310 fairness and efficiency in property regional and national entitlements rights 286–90, 294 276–80 fairness and efficiency in property relational theories 288–9 rights, justifications 288–90 self-determination process 288–9 fairness and efficiency in rewarding socially responsible licensing 293–4 TKGR 303–305, 312–13 spiritual and religious traditions fairness/equity in decision-making 282, 289 276–7, 281–5 state sovereignty 271, 285 farmers’ rights 282–3 sui generis legal entitlements 277, free and fair trade obligations 284 279, 280, 298, 304, 312 geographical indications (GIs) 292 systematisation of principles and and Hegel’s personality theory 288 objectives in new entitlement and human rights doctrine 289–90 308–11 in rem and in personam rights, transaction costs 279–80, 285–6, distinction between 290–91 295, 310–11 incentive schemes and evolution of TRIPS Agreement 271, 284–5, 309 commons platform 294 value of a property right 291 intermediaries’ role 268 traditional knowledge protection in international framework 270–76, international law 101–103 285, 289–90, 297, 309 transaction costs international framework, combined bioprospecting 70, 71, 72, 267–8, legal framework 270–71 279–80 marine genetic resources and and protection decisions and combined legal framework entitlements 235, 236, 250, 272–4, 275–6 259–60, 263, 264–6

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Index 369

traditional knowledge and modern UN Conference on Human IPRs 279–80, 285–6, 295, Environment, Stockholm 310–11 Declaration 55–6, 60, 66, 67 zero, and market efficiency (Coase UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Theorem) 13–16, 23 (UNCLOS) 36, 272, 283 transfers UN Convention to Combat rights transferred in bioprospecting Desertification (UNCCD) 102 agreements 195–6 UN Declaration on the Rights of technology see technology transfer Indigenous Peoples 103 transparency issues, TKGR UN Development Programme (UNDP) 103 commodification 83 UN Educational, Social and Cultural transposition to plant genetic Organization (UNESCO) 101 resources, and ‘common heritage UN Environment Programme (UNEP) of mankind’ practice 37–49 55, 62 TRIPS Agreement 6, 30 UN Food and Agriculture and CBD implementation 115, 121 Organization see Food and and CBD institutional framework Agriculture Organization (FAO) 53, 76, 81, 108–109 UN High Commissioner for Refugees and disclosure requirement in patent (UNCHR) 138 system 138 unequal partnerships, bioprospecting Doha Declaration 92 agreements 200–201 patent system 138, 140–42 Universal Declaration of Human protection decisions and Rights 232, 233 entitlements 213, 215, 217 UPOV see International Convention traditional knowledge and modern for the Protection of New IPRs 271, 284–5, 309 Varieties of Plants (UPOV) Trotti, J. 35 US Tully, S. 70 Atomic Energy Act 255 Tuori, K. 22 Bayh–Dole Act 155–6, 298 turmeric 51–2 Cherokee Strip Livestock Tvedt, M. 131, 132 Association 228 derivative patents 51–3 Tversky, A. 261 disclosure requirements 155–6 Twinning, W. 20 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 173 Ubertazzi, B. 280 Gillian v. Hutchinson 251 Uganda, Forest Act 33 goldminers and miner–farmer Ulen, T. 22, 281 conflicts 251 Umbeck, J. 211 Great Plains and property rights UN evolution 212–13 Agenda 21 38, 57 ICBG agreements 177–82 Brundtland Report 60, 65, 66, 67 Indemnification Act 251 UN Committee on Trade and Johnson v. M’Intosh 32, 213 Development (UNCTAD) 103 Mill Act 250, 301–302 UN Conference on Environment and Patent Compensation Board 255, Development (UNCED) 57–8, 258 109 patents and prior art 134–5

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370 The protection of traditional knowledge on genetic resources

Singer Mfg Co v. June Mfg Co 239 Wolfgang, L. 3 University of Rochester v. Searle Wolfrun R. 35 156 Wood, T. 31 US–Peru Free Trade Agreement 275 World Charter for Nature 55, 56, Yellowstone–Diversa bioprospecting 63 agreement 183–4, 195 World Commission on Environment utilitarianism, protection decisions and and Development 60 entitlements 235–8 World Health Organization (WHO), Global Traditional Medicine value assessment 199–200, 230–31, Strategy 103 269, 291 World Intellectual Property Van Ypersele, T. 257 Organization (WIPO) Variolin B 275 contractual accommodation of veil of ignorance, social justice (Rawls Theorem) 23–4 rights to TKGR 170 Vélez, E. 163 Draft Treaties for the Protection of Von Hahn, A. 289 Traditional Knowledge and Von Krogh, G. 244 Traditional Cultural Expressions 84–5 Wager, H. 86 Standing Committee on the Law of Walden, J. 64 Patents (SCP) 137 Waldron, J. 220, 306 World Summit on Sustainable Warner, J. 170 Development 73 water rights and liability rules 250–51 World Trade Organization (WTO). Wei, M. 254–5 TRIPS Agreement see TRIPS Weinreb, L. 17 Agreement Westerman, W. 216 World Wildlife Fund 55 ‘wheel of contracts’ structure 179 Wright, B. 256 White, M. 35 Whitt, L. 33 Yanes, K. 22 Williamson, O. 14 Yusuf, A. 199 Wilman, E. 195 WIPO see World Intellectual Property Zerbe, N. 108 Organization Zohary, D. 26

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