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STAR WARS: THE FASCISM AWAKENS 7

Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens Representation and its Failure from the Weimar to the Galactic Chapman Rackaway University of West Georgia

Whether in or the establishment of an earthly , constitutional design matters especially in the realm of representation. , no matter how strong or fragile, can fail under the influence of a poorly constructed representation plan. Two strong examples of representational failure emerge from the post-WWI and the ’s Senate from the Star Wars saga. Both featured a combination of overbroad representation without minimum thresholds for minor parties to be elected to the and multiple non- citizen constituencies represented in the body. As a result both the Weimar Reichstag and the Galactic Senate fell prey to a power-hungry manipulating zealot who used the divisions within their legislature to accumulate power. As a result, both democracies failed and became tyrannical governments under despotic leaders who eventually would be removed but only after wars of massive casualties. Representation matters, and both the Weimer legislature and Galactic Senate show the problems in designing democratic governments to fairly represent diverse populations while simultaneously limiting the of groups to emerge.

“The only thing necessary for the triumph of representative democracies. A poor evil is for good men to do nothing.” constitutional design can even lead to tyranny. – Edmund Burke (1848) Among the flaws most potentially damaging to a republic is a faulty representational “So this is how dies … with structure. can actually build too thunderous applause.” - Padme Amidala (Star much representation into their structures, the Wars: Episode III Revenge of the , 2005) result of which is tyranny as a byproduct of democratic failure. Introduction In two notable instances, fascism was borne of democracy because of the failings Designing democracies is one of the most built into the representational structures of difficult processes any society may decide to each of the systems. From the post-World War undertake. The process is so fraught that I Weimar Republic of and the Benjamin Franklin, after being asked what Galactic Republic of the Star Wars saga, clear kind of government he and his colleagues had examples of representational design failure created during their four months in midwifing the birth of . By Philadelphia as he departed Independence allowing fringe groups access to the Hall, replied “A republic … if you can keep it.” policymaking arm of a republic, both systems Keeping republics is difficult, but made much created their own doom and provided lessons more so by improper or flawed constitutional in constitutional design for fictional and real design. worlds. Flawed constitutional design can lead to any number of ills, from correctible issues of Cold Warrior: ’ Influences election maintenance to fatal flaws dooming Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 8 RACKAWAY

Some of the parallels between Weimar an assembly in Weimar in 1919, giving the Germany and the rise of Empire in Star Wars government its common name until its failure may be tacitly by design. Star Wars’ creator, in 1933. (Eyck 1962) George Lucas, took inspiration from a panoply exacted a significant toll on of sources but the most influential may have the , led with iron fist by Kaiser been his youth in the aftermath of World War Wilhelm II. Wilhelm’s desire for control and II and the height of the Cold War. Born in 1944 expansion of the Empire led to his excessive as World War II was in its late phases, Lucas reliance on military advisors for vision, but and fellow baby boom generation members those military advisors helped stretch were profoundly influenced by the geopolitics Germany’s resources too thinly between of their youth. Lucas could not have learned multiple fronts, and by 1918 Wilhelm had recent history without understanding the abdicated this throne and fled into exile, circumstances that led to the rise of NAZI leaving a nation in crisis. (Peukert 1993) power in Germany, and scholars have The vacuum of executive leadership led to suggested that the influence of that era Germany participating minimally if at all in the impacted the Star Wars universe in significant war-ended . The treaty not ways. (Bastiansen, Klimke, and Werenskjold only ended the war but imposed two 2018) significant restrictions on the new republic While Bastiansen and colleagues focus on that would hinder its development and using Star Wars as the inspiration for public exacerbate the representational design issues policy, the inverse is also a valuable insight present in the new constitution. First, Germany into global politics. President Reagan’s was ordered to pay massive reparations which Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was would damage the post-war economy, and nicknamed Star Wars in a potent example of second the Empire was ordered to disband its life imitating art. Lucas had used other standing army. (Kaes et al. 1994) historical and current-day cues in his work, Post-WWI Germany was a chaotic place. further suggesting an analog between the Under dictatorial rule during the age of the design of the Old Republic and the real-life Kaiser, the wartime defeat Germany suffered Weimar government. For instance, others saw brought a wide variety of interests to the fore. cues from the rise of Napoleon, in the Vietnam Two primary groups, the Independent Social War, and of-the-time political leaders such as Democratic Party and the Social Democratic former U.S House Speaker Newt Gingrich in Party, emerged as arms of popular movements. Lucas’ stories from the films and canonical The old aristocracy asserted itself, with self- literature surrounding the Star Wars universe. styled regent successors to Kaiser Wilhelm, (Reagin and Liedl 2012) such as ’s Prince Max becoming public leaders of movements. Private niche Constitutional Design: Weimar organizations also emerged, such as the Spartacist League and Workers’ Council. The “The old and rotten, the has military, disbanded, broke into a number of collapsed. The new may live. Long live the paramilitary bands working often at cross German Republic!” Philip Scheidemann, 1918 purposes to each other. After decades of authoritarian rule, democracy opened the At the end of World War I, Germany was floodgates of interested parties into the attempting to rebuild itself as a peaceful politics of a country still struggling to find its democracy after a destructive campaign own identity. (Berman 1997) throughout Europe. The post-war constitution Building democracy from the ashes of a of the German Empire () was adopted by totalitarian empire was no easy task. Small

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groups identified themselves as representing proportion of the legislature, was the National large swaths of the population but with little Socialist Party which sent three Bavarian popular support to justify their claims. members to the Reichstag beginning in 1924. Workers, attracted by the successes of similar (Feuchtwanger 1993) entities in Russia, expressed desire for more Executive leadership was a sensitive topic control over the conditions of their because a strong executive could have employment and reaction against the privilege balanced out a very freewheeling legislature, they saw in the minor nobles left as the last but popular pressure against Germany’s Kaiser fragments of the Kaiser’s rule. Understanding Government instead led to a split-power that the multiplicity of interests would be arrangement between the legislature and a difficult to manage and unrest could follow if Chancellor. The two branches would share certain groups were excluded from power in another similarity to American-style participation, further pressed by a desire to checks and balances, but the chancellor also show the rest of the world that Germany could had a grant of emergency powers to subvert be a peaceful and pluralistic society, the the legislature when the leader deemed it Weimar-adopted constitution created a appropriate. legislature with a bicameral system and With a disbanded military, small militias proportional representation. (Scheele 1946) were charged with keeping the peace, but the The two chambers of the Weimar size of the militias along with their legislature were loosely modeled on the inconsistency and geographic isolation led to American legislature, with a popularly elected an inability to keep the peace. Insurrections chamber (Reichstag) and second chamber regularly emerged, especially as the Republic selected by the individual states (Reichsrat). fell into economic distress at the close of the Reichsrat members were often elected officials 1920s. (Diehl 1977) or staffers in their state governments. Thus bureaucrats were regularly members of the Constitutional Design: The Galactic Reichsrat, often to the consternation of Republic members of the voting public. (Bookbinder 1996) “Mom, you said that the biggest problem in To allow for the multitude of different the universe is no one helps each other.” Anakin groups, interests, and participants that Skywalker, Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Weimar Germany wished to show the rest of Menace (1999) the world cooperating peacefully in its new government, the constitution not only allowed Roughly one millennium before the onset for proportional representation, it included no of the , the Dark Age of the minimum threshold of votes to gain election to ended. The Sith, an ancient order of malevolent the Reichstag. The primary intent was to Force-practitioners, were defeated after the increase the granularity of representation in Hundred-Year Darkness and driven into the legislature. As functional democracies hiding, but the standing galactic government, were still quite young, no historical precedent known as the Old Republic also fell. Following to warn the Weimar’s designers of the dangers the collapse of that government and a full-scale of overrepresentation existed. Therefore, the war, a number of solar systems united, Weimar’s construction did not provide buffers founding a successor state: the Galactic for the many parties that would emerge in the Republic. As its governing body, the newly new legislature. (Diehl 1977) One of those reorganized government established the parties, which entered as a very small Galactic Senate, the members of which were Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 10 RACKAWAY elected to represent their systems. The it came at the cost of the body's overall power. Republic's capital was installed on the (Masket 2014) of . As time went by the Republic stood firm, The Republic's head of state, the Supreme becoming increasingly powerful. As a result, Chancellor, was elected by and from the the galaxy remained free from full-scale war senators, in which the first in a long line of for centuries. However, many of the Chancellors was a scion of the House Valorum. bureaucrats and Senators that ran the Protecting the new democracy was an elite government continued to work for private Senate Guard, who would regularly patrol the profit at the expense of public common good. Senate District and came to be a proxy for the Greed, corruption and internal strife slowly Republic’s lack of a standing army over the began eroding the government from within. Republic’s first centuries. (Wars 1999) Outlying worlds, lacking protection from a In time, a small militia known as the centralized military and harassed by pirates, Order, an organization of protectors who could came to resent the privileged position of the tap into the power of , came to serve Core Worlds, believing themselves the victims the Republic as guardians of peace and justice. of social and economic injustices. As a result of With the lack of a standing army, the Republic the perceived inability of the Judicial Forces in came to rely on its peacekeeping Judicial protecting outlying territories, who were often Forces, led by the Judicial Department as the withheld in intervening after many far-flung de-facto law enforcement branch of the worlds refused to provide the Core Worlds government. The Judicial Forces, members of with profitable deals, the Outer Rim world of which who were simply known as Judicials, Eriadu and the Greater Seswenna formed the trained at the Judicial Academy and came to Outland Regions Security Force for the serve in both ground and space forces, often protection of the Seswenna sector in the years led by Jedi Commanders to maintain peace before the Clone Wars. Being comprised of an throughout the galaxy. amalgam of ships, it was funded primarily by For centuries, the Republic expanded to off-world loans and supplied with laser and neighboring systems by strength of numbers. ion cannons acquired from arms merchants The promise of trade with Core World markets who had for centuries been ignoring a held many systems in sway, attracting Republic ban on the sale of weaponry to nonmember worlds into tighter cooperation member worlds. While the OSRF was at first with the state body. The Republic was reticent lacking success, it soon came to be renowned to invite too many new systems into the fold, for its efficiency at dealing with raiders, as the addition of new territories would lessen especially after Wilhuff Tarkin was accepted the political power of existing worlds and into Outland's anti-piracy task force, in which systems. New senators invariably aligned he was known for outsmarting and themselves with local galactic power blocs, outmaneuvering his opponents. while most senators who gave the invitations The political balance of the Galactic represented systems in the Core. As a result, Republic altered greatly when the Outer Rim the represented the core of the began asserting itself and demanding change Republic that would draw wealth and power to the representational structure of the Senate. from outside the core, with most senators Every world, no matter how remote or small, vetoing services provision and protection to would have equal representation in the Senate, outlying worlds. Consequently, many useful greatly expanding the body and bringing more star systems were left waiting—some for fringe groups to the fore. centuries—for the body politic to admit their Despite Outland's best efforts, the Outer world as a member of the Senate, even though Rim Territories continued to fall victim to

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increasing corporate interests from the Core, from 1920 to 1931 (when payments were with the monolithic Trade suspended indefinitely) was 20 billion German expanding its reach a year before the Invasion marks, worth about $5 billion US dollars. of in both the Outer Rim and the Cash amounted to 12.5 billion that came Galactic Senate by utilizing loopholes in mostly from loans from private banks. The rest existing free-trade legislation. Shortly before was goods like coal and chemicals, or from the Invasion of Naboo, a trade summit was assets like railway equipment. The reparations held on the Outer Rim planet of Eriadu in bill was fixed in 1921 on the basis of a German which then Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum capacity to pay. The highly publicized rhetoric was turned away by Wilhuff Tarkin, who was of 1919 about paying for all the damages and hoping to reduce the influence of the all the veterans' benefits was irrelevant for the Chancellor who was already rumored to lose total, but it did determine how the recipients the next election in order to support then spent their share. Germany owed reparations Senator , who had earlier helped chiefly to , Britain, Italy and Belgium. Tarkin gain entrance into the Judicial Academy (Kershaw 2000) and supported his ascension as leader of his In the early post-war years, inflation was homeworld. (Anonymous 2014) growing at an alarming rate, but the government simply printed more and more The Path to Failure: Weimar banknotes to pay the bills. By 1923, the Republic claimed it could no longer afford the “Our representatives are little men who are reparations payments required by the no match for British diplomacy and its kind Versailles Treaty, and the government condescension. Like the chancellor and defaulted on some payments. In response, ambitious busy-bodies who must have their French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr fingers in every pie. Like Stresemann, the man of region, Germany's most productive industrial general distrust, but it seems impossible to get region at the time, taking control of most rid of him… My opposition to our foreign policy mining and manufacturing companies in is generally known.” General Hans von Seeckt, January 1923. Strikes were called, and passive April 1926 was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the To understand the circumstances that economy and the social life. touched off the end of both the Weimar and The strike prevented some goods from Galactic Republics, one must address the issue being produced, but one industrialist, Hugo of trade. For Weimar Germany, their booming Stinnes, was able to create a vast empire out of economy was a point of pride and its collapse bankrupt companies. Because the production was a problem it was ill-equipped to deal with. costs in Germany were falling almost hourly, Weimar’s economic troubles centered on the prices for German products were reparations for the war. The actual amount of unbeatable. Stinnes made sure that he was reparations that Germany was obliged to pay paid in dollars, which meant that by mid-1923, out was not the 132 billion marks decided in his industrial empire was worth more than the the London Schedule of 1921 but rather the 50 entire German economy. By the end of the billion marks stipulated in the A and B Bonds. year, over two hundred factories were Historian Sally Marks says the 112 billion working full-time to produce paper for the marks in "C bonds" were a smokescreen—a spiraling bank note production. Stinnes' device to fool the public into thinking Germany empire collapsed when the government- would pay much more. The actual total payout sponsored inflation was stopped in November Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 12 RACKAWAY

1923. In 1919, one loaf of bread cost 1 ; conspiracy of Socialists and for by 1923, the same loaf of bread cost 100 Germany's defeat in World War I. billion marks. (Webb 1988) In the next five years, the central Since striking workers were paid benefits government, assured of the support of the by the state, much additional currency was , dealt severely with the occasional printed, fueling a period of hyperinflation. The outbreaks of violence in Germany's large cities. 1920s German inflation started when Germany The left claimed that the Social Democrats had had no goods to trade. The government betrayed the ideals of the revolution, while the printed money to deal with the crisis; this army and the government-financed meant payments within Germany were made committed hundreds of acts of gratuitous with worthless paper money, and helped violence against striking workers. (Fritsche formerly great industrialists to pay back their 1990) own loans. This also led to pay raises for The onset of the Great Depression further workers and for businessmen who wanted to hindered Germany’s ability to crawl out of its profit from it. Circulation of money rocketed, post-war problems, but its inability to respond and soon banknotes were being overprinted to was cemented by its wide-open legislature. On a thousand times their nominal value and 29 March 1930, after months of lobbying by every town produced its own promissory General Kurt von Schleicher on behalf of the notes; many banks & industrial firms did the military, the finance expert Heinrich Brüning same.(Laidler & Standler 1988) was appointed as Müller's successor by The value of the Papiermark had declined Reichspräsident . The from 4.2 Marks per U.S. dollar in 1914 to one new government was expected to lead a million per dollar by 1923. This led to political shift towards conservatism. further criticism of the Republic. On 15 As Brüning had no majority support in the , a new currency, the Reichstag, he became, through the use of the Rentenmark, was introduced at the rate of one emergency powers granted to the trillion (1,000,000,000,000) Papiermark for Reichspräsident (Article 48) by the one Rentenmark, an action known as constitution, the first Weimar chancellor to redenomination. At that time, one U.S. dollar operate independently of parliament. This was equal to 4.2 Rentenmark. Reparation made him dependent on the Reichspräsident, payments were resumed, and the Ruhr was Hindenburg. After a bill to reform the Reich's returned to Germany under the Locarno finances was opposed by the Reichstag, it was Treaties, which defined the borders between made an emergency decree by Hindenburg. On Germany, France, and Belgium. (Eyck 1962) 18 July, as a result of opposition from the SPD, The Republic was soon under attack from KPD, DNVP and the small contingent of NSDAP both left- and right-wing sources. The radical members, the Reichstag again rejected the bill left accused the ruling Social Democrats of by a slim margin. Immediately afterward, having betrayed the ideals of the workers' Brüning submitted the president's decree that movement by preventing a communist the Reichstag be dissolved. The consequent revolution and sought to overthrow the general election on 14 September resulted in Republic and do so themselves. Various right- an enormous political shift within the wing sources opposed any democratic system, Reichstag: 18.3% of the vote went to the preferring an authoritarian, autocratic state NSDAP, five times the percentage won in 1928. like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine As a result, it was no longer possible to form a the Republic's credibility, some right-wingers pro-republican majority, not even with a grand (especially certain members of the former coalition that excluded the KPD, DNVP and officer corps) also blamed an alleged NSDAP. This encouraged an escalation in the

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number of public demonstrations and help the economy. His primary goal was to instances of paramilitary violence organized remove Germany's reparation payments by by the NSDAP. (Hertzman 1963) convincing the Allies that they could no longer Between 1930 and 1932, Brüning tried to be paid. (Frye 1965) reform the Weimar Republic without a parliamentary majority, governing, when The Path to Failure: The Galactic Republic necessary, through the President's emergency decrees. In line with the contemporary “Hundreds of senators are now under the economic theory (subsequently termed "leave- influence of a Sith lord called Darth Sidious” it-alone liquidationism"), he enacted a , Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the draconian policy of deflation and drastically Clones (2002) cutting state expenditure. Among other measures, he completely halted all public The Galactic Republic’s path to fascism was grants to the obligatory unemployment decidedly different from that of post- WWI insurance introduced in 1927, resulting in Germany because the Republic was presiding workers making higher contributions and over a prolonged time of peace and relative fewer benefits for the unemployed. Benefits prosperity. The main problem the Republic for the sick, invalid and pensioners were also had to deal with was a re-emergence of the reduced sharply. Additional difficulties were imbalance of trade concern that had marked caused by the different deflationary policies the Outland movement and the reactionary pursued by Brüning and the Reichsbank, Outer Rim insurgence. Germany's . In mid-1931, the The Republic had imposed new taxes on United Kingdom and several other countries trade routes, ports, and freight carriage abandoned the and devalued throughout the galaxy, leading to a group of their currencies, making their goods around merchants to form a Trade Federation. Despite 20% cheaper than those produced by representation on the Galactic Senate as a non- Germany. As the Young Plan did not allow a governmental entity, the Trade Federation devaluation of the , Brüning could not muster the level of support it needed triggered a deflationary internal devaluation and Chancellor Valorum used his emergency by forcing the economy to reduce prices, rents, powers to impose the taxes on Free Trade salaries and wages by 20%. Debate continues Zones established by the Trade Federation. as to whether this policy was without An ambitious Senator from Naboo, Sheev alternative: some argue that the Allies would Palpatine, manipulated the young queen of his not in any circumstances have allowed a planet, Padme Amidala, to lead calls for change devaluation of the Reichsmark, while others from within the Galactic Senate. Palpatine point to the Hoover Moratorium as a sign that knew that he could not successfully the Allies understood that the situation had consolidate power for himself without a crisis, changed fundamentally and further German and so in his true identity as the Sith Lord reparation payments were impossible. Darth Sidious Palpatine engineered the Trade Brüning expected that the policy of deflation Federation to blockade and invade Naboo. would temporarily worsen the economic (Wars 1999) situation before it began to improve, quickly The invasion was deeply disturbing to increasing the German economy's Amidala, particularly showing her the inability competitiveness and then restoring its of the Republic to respond to military threats creditworthiness. His long-term view was that with the small bands of Jedi Knights it deflation would, in any case, be the best way to Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 14 RACKAWAY employed as peacekeepers over the previous Valorum that would sweep Palpatine into the centuries. Chancellor’s office, placing him on the final stepping stone to ultimate power. I will not defer…I have come before you to Palpatine moved quickly to consolidate resolve this attack on our sovereignty now. I power, giving more representation to was not elected to watch my people suffer bureuacrats and other NGO’s. The bureaucratic and die while you discuss this invasion in a expanse merely served to slow the committee. If this body is not capable of government down further, providing Palpatine action, I suggest new leadership is needed. I the key issue to sow the seeds of doubt about move for a vote of no confidence in the ability to the Galactic Senate to manage Chancellor Valorum’s leadership.” — Queen conflict. Amidala would then be the subject of Padmé Amidala Zam Wessel’s assassination attempt, less than one year later. Immediately after the attempt, With this speech, Queen Amidala Amidala went to the Senate to argue against unintentionally set in motion the final stage of the Military Creation Act, her opposition to Palpatine’s long-term plan to create his which had nearly cost her her life. Empire. The fact that this shrewd young Amidala is vital as a pawn in Palpatine’s senator was able to control his queen so ascension to power. Amidala was a swing vote completely speaks to his mastery of politics. on the Military Creation Act, and so her Palpatine knew that he had the opportunity to assassination would have not only provided set a plan in motion that would lead to his Palpatine the example he needed to installation into power using the fractured and consolidate power but would have eliminated disorganized Galactic Senate as the method. one of the powerful anti-war voices within the With a legislative body prone to indecision, the Senate. The chaos and unexpected violence is manufactured crisis was a perfect mechanism so sudden that no other Senators consider to spur over-reaction and begin his power neither what other vested interests are acting, grab. nor how much damage will the Republic suffer Amidala was willing to keep her planet if their interests are pushed forward. even at the risk of violating the deliberative The Galactic Senate is as responsible for nature of government. Government is a slow the ensuing war as Palpatine, but as a passive operator, occasionally at the expense of justice. manipulated actor instead of an intentional Amidala’s burden of the safety of her people controller. When it came to evaluating and pushed her to drastic methods of resolving the acting on the many warning signs that invasion. When Amidala’s early efforts hit the appeared before them, the esteemed body roadblock of a disinterested , the which had protected the galaxy for centuries tendency toward impatience is often too great. failed. The Senate failed not only their (Wars 2002) constituents but the entire government that In masterminding the invasion of Naboo, they served. That failure would eventually Darth Sidious knew that it would weigh doom democracy. heavily on the planet’s naïve young queen. He The vote on the Military Creation Act was knew that she, like all of Naboo, would be postponed due to the assassination attempt on unprepared for the kind of brutality that the Amidala, but did not end it. Palpatine, like any Trade Federation would bring with them. He determined politician, kept trying to win the knew that the horrors her people experienced war even when losing particular battles. would serve to enervate her to severe action. Palpatine manipulated more Outer Rim votes Palpatine calculated that her impatience would to grant him the emergency powers necessary prompt the no-confidence vote in Chancellor to marshal the clone troops for war. So devious

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was Palpatine that he engineered Senator enter the Reichstag against Catholic and Amidala’s retreat into seclusion, allowing him Marxist members. It outvoting them takes the ability to replace her with an even more longer than outshooting them, at least the result malleable pawn, . will be guaranteed by their own constitution. History regards Representative Binks as Sooner or later we shall have a majority…” Adolf starting the war, but even Binks was Hitler, 1923 constrained by the limitations of the Senate. The Separatists had no reason to spool down By late 1931, the conservative movement their war machine for a large-scale attack was dead and Hindenburg and the Reichswehr regardless of what actions the Republic took. had begun to contemplate dropping Brüning in The foundries discovered on Geonosis favor of accommodating Hugenberg and Hitler. provided ample evidence of the Separatists’ Although Hindenburg disliked Hugenberg and resolve. Therefore, war was not a question of despised Hitler, he was no less a supporter of if, but when. Palpatine had forced the Senate’s the sort of anti-democratic counter-revolution hand so that the only response possible was that the DNVP and NSDAP represented. In one of degree. (Wars 2005) April 1932, Brüning had actively supported Binks’ rise to public office was also partly Hindenburg's successful campaign against the responsibility of the Senate itself. Jar Jar Hitler for re-election as Reichspräsident; five Binks’ presence in the Senate was exclusively weeks later, on 20 May 1932, he had lost due to the loyalty and faith placed in him by Hindenburg's support and duly resigned as Amidala. The fractured and ineffective Senate Reichskanzler. (Feuchtwanger 1993) was unattractive to traditional politically Hindenburg then appointed Franz von engaged leaders, making it easy for Amidala to Papen as new Reichskanzler. Papen lifted the install him. Binks’ inexperience and lack of ban on the NSDAP's SA paramilitary, imposed political acumen made him particularly after the street riots, in an unsuccessful vulnerable to the atmosphere in the Senate attempt to secure the backing of Hitler. Papen Chamber, and this atmosphere was toxic to was closely associated with the industrialist deliberation and reason. In the midst of this and land-owning classes and pursued an crisis, with more worlds seceding regularly, extreme Conservative policy along the Senate’s first line of defense was an appeal Hindenburg's lines. He appointed as to jingoism. In the same way that the newly- Reichswehr Minister Kurt von Schleicher, and christened told his former Jedi all the members of the new cabinet were of the Master, “If you’re not with me, you’re my same political opinion as Hindenburg. This enemy,” during their duel on , the government was expected to assure itself of Senate suffered from a dangerous us-versus- the co-operation of Hitler. Since the them mentality. Binks, a novice political actor, Republicans were not yet ready to take action, had to contend with this strong pro-war, pro- the Communists did not want to support the Chancellor sentiment when deciding how to republic, and the Conservatives had shot their act. His decision would help usher in the first political bolt, Hitler and Hugenberg were widespread, sustained conflict in over a certain to achieve power. (Dorpalen 2015) thousand years. Because most parties opposed the new government, Papen had the Reichstag The Fall: Weimar dissolved and called for new elections. The general elections on 31 July 1932 yielded “Instead of working to achieve power by an major gains for the Communists, and for the armed coup, we will have to hold our noses and Nazis, who won 37.3% of the vote – their high- Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 16 RACKAWAY water mark in a free election. The Nazi party of labour government under his Generalship. then supplanted the Social Democrats as the But the Reichswehr officers were not prepared largest party in the Reichstag, although it did for this, the working class had a natural not gain a majority. The immediate question distrust of their allies, and the great was what part the now large Nazi Party would capitalists and landowners also did not like the play in the Government of the country. The plans. The SPD and the Communists could party owed its huge increase to growing have achieved success building on a support from middle-class people, whose transport strike. (Broszat 1987) traditional parties were swallowed up by the Hitler learned from Papen that the general Nazi Party. The millions of radical adherents at had not received from Hindenburg the first forced the Party towards the Left. They authority to abolish the Reichstag parliament, wanted a renewed Germany and a new whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet organization of German society. The left of the (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) Nazi party strove desperately against any drift ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could into the train of such capitalist and feudal vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also reactionaries. Therefore, Hitler refused learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were ministry under Papen, and demanded the to be relieved by German big business. chancellorship for himself, but was rejected by On 22 January, Hitler's efforts to persuade Hindenburg on 13 August 1932. There was still Oskar von Hindenburg, the President's son and no majority in the Reichstag for any confidant, included threats to bring criminal government; as a result, the Reichstag was charges over estate taxation irregularities at dissolved and elections took place once more the President's Neudeck estate; although 5,000 in the hope that a stable majority would result. acres (20 km2) extra were soon allotted to (Berman 1997) Hindenburg's property. Outmaneuvered by The 6 November 1932 elections yielded Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, 33.1% for the Nazis, two million voters fewer and having lost Hindenburg's confidence, than in the previous election. Schleicher asked for new elections. On 28 stepped down and was succeeded as January, Papen described Hitler to Paul von Chancellor (Reichskanzler) by General Kurt Hindenburg as only a minority part of an von Schleicher on 3 December. Schleicher, a alternative, Papen-arranged government. The retired army officer, had developed in an four great political movements, the SPD, atmosphere of semi-obscurity and intrigue Communists, Centre, and the Nazis were in that encompassed the Republican military opposition. (Wheaton 1968) policy. He had for years been in the camp of On 29 January, Hitler and Papen thwarted a those supporting the Conservative counter- last-minute threat of an officially sanctioned revolution. Schleicher's bold and unsuccessful Reichswehr takeover, and on 30 plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag Hindenburg accepted the new Papen- by uniting the trade unionist left wings of the Nationalist-Hitler coalition, with the Nazis various parties, including that of the Nazis led holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats: by Gregor Strasser. This policy did not prove Hitler as Chancellor, Wilhelm Frick as Minister successful either. (Nicholls 1991) of the Interior and Herman Göring as Minister In this brief Presidential Dictatorship Without Portfolio. Later that day, the first intermission, Schleicher assumed the role of cabinet meeting was attended by only two "Socialist General" and entered into relations political parties, representing a minority in the with the Christian Trade Unions, the left-wing Reichstag: The Nazis and the German National members of the Nazi party, and even with the People's Party (DNVP), led by Alfred Social Democrats. Schleicher planned for a sort Hugenberg, with 196 and 52 seats

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respectively. Eyeing the Catholic 's Hitler addressed disparate interest groups, 70 (plus 20 BVP) seats, Hitler refused their stressing the necessity for a definitive solution leader's demands for constitutional to the perpetual instability of the Weimar "concessions" (amounting to protection) and Republic. He now blamed Germany's problems planned for dissolution of the Reichstag. on the Communists, even threatening their (Snyder 1966) lives on 3 March. Former Chancellor Heinrich Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on the Brüning proclaimed that his Centre Party morning of 30 January 1933 in what some would resist any constitutional change and observers later described as a brief and appealed to the President for an investigation indifferent ceremony. By early February, a of the Reichstag fire. Hitler's successful plan mere week after Hitler's assumption of the was to induce what remained of the now chancellorship, the government had begun to Communist-depleted Reichstag to grant him, clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the and the Government, the authority to issue left-wing parties were banned and even some decrees with the force of law. The hitherto of the moderate parties found their members Presidential Dictatorship hereby was to give threatened and assaulted. Measures with an itself a new legal form. (Manvell and Frankel appearance of legality suppressed the 1974) Communist Party in mid-February and On 15 March, the first cabinet meeting was included the plainly illegal arrests of Reichstag attended by the two coalition parties, deputies. representing a minority in the Reichstag: The The Reichstag fire on 27 February was Nazis and the DNVP led by Alfred Hugenberg blamed by Hitler's government on the (288 + 52 seats). According to the Nuremberg Communists. Hitler used the ensuing state of Trials, this cabinet meeting's of emergency to obtain the presidential assent of business was how at last to achieve the Hindenburg to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree complete counter-revolution by means of the the following day. The decree invoked Article constitutionally allowed Enabling Act, 48 of the and requiring a 66% parliamentary majority. This "indefinitely suspended" a number of Act would, and did, lead Hitler and the NSDAP constitutional protections of civil liberties, toward his goal of unfettered dictatorial allowing the Nazi government to take swift powers. action against political meetings, arresting and Under Hitler’s dictatorship, Germany killing the Communists. (Tobias 1964, Momsen revived its war machine and returned to its 1985) World War I role as a military power. Hitler’s Hitler and the Nazis exploited the German goal was expansion of his power and the state's broadcasting and aviation facilities in a growth of the German empire. Hitler continued massive attempt to sway the electorate, but to consolidate power in his own hands, and by this election yielded a scant majority of 16 the death of President Hindenburg he had seats for the coalition. At the Reichstag complete control of the Reichstag. Hitler would elections, which took place on 5 March 1933, subsequently lead Germany into the Second the NSDAP obtained 17 million votes. The World War, ending in his defeat and death in Communist, Social Democrat and Catholic 1945. (see Robertson 1963, Carroll 1968, Centre votes stood firm. This was the last Overy 1982, e.g.) multi-party election of the Weimar Republic and the last multi-party all-German election for 57 years. (Heiden 1969)

Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 18 RACKAWAY

The Fall: The Galactic Republic especially those in the Outer Rim. The crushed the Separatists and the “In order to ensure our security and Emperor began a twenty-year rule. As with continuing stability, the Republic will be Hitler’s end, it would take war to bring reorganized into the first Galactic Empire.” — Palpatine’s rule to its conclusion. Emperor Sheev Palpatine Roughly eighteen years after Palpatine’s ascension to Emperor and using the Galactic Once and determine that Senate as a control mechanism, he dissolved Darth Sidious is actually Palpatine, Windu the Senate in favor of a system of regional leads a team of Jedi to Palpatine’s office to governors. An alliance of anti-Empire rebels arrest him. During the arrest attempt, coalesced around the leadership of however, the Knights find in Palpatine/Sidious Skywalker’s children, destroying the under- a much more formidable opponent. Palpatine construction super-weapon and kills three of the Knights before being subdued with it Palpatine himself. by Windu. A young Jedi who Palpatine has secretly been mentoring to the Dark Side, Common Causes of Democracy’s Failure Anakin Skywalker, intervenes allowing Palpatine to kill Windu. With all evidence of The examples of Weimar and the Galactic Palpatine’s manipulation destroyed, he Republic are actually quite similar. Both distorts the story to an insurgent power grab republics were designed to accommodate by the Jedi. Palpatine thus completes his diverse populations. Both struggled with takeover, using the Jedi ‘assassination’ attempt highly militarized and despotic pasts, Germany to consolidate power and create his empire. with the aftermath of the Kaiser’s rule while Like so many politicians, Palpatine seizes on the Galactic Republic still bore the scars of Sith the opportunity to reassure the people that rule a thousand years of peace later. drastic changes are necessary to preserve the The core issues involved in the precedent common good. (Wars 2005) failures of democracy in both republics was Palpatine here espouses the philosophy the result in a twofold failure of that stability and order are more important representation. First, the diverse represented than messy things like deliberative legislative populations led to choices opening the bodies or freedom of speech. The darkest legislatures up to too much representation. In implications of this philosophy have yet to be the Weimar, the deep socio-cultural divisions realized — we are still years away from among different groups led to a large brutally crushed protests and the first Death representative body with proportional Star — but it’s clear from Palpatine’s words representation and no minimum threshold for that the government on Coruscant is about to election to the legislature. Small, fringe groups change dramatically. Palpatine suggests in his such as the National Socialists were able to speech to the Senate that the Empire will learn establish a foothold in the legislature without a from the Republic’s mistakes. Chief among 5% rule or similar lower boundary. those mistakes, in his twisted mind, is For the Galactic Republic, expansion into democracy. the Outer Rim territories from the Core Region Under Palpatine’s dictatorial rule, the introduced a diversity of needs and viewpoints Galactic Senate validated his edicts just as the that, despite early efforts to limit their power, Reichstag did for Hitler. Having manipulated led to them being embraced and accepted with his way to power through the body, the each member planet being granted equal Galactic Senate was a method for the Emperor representation. The expansion of the republic to maintain control of the member systems, led to bloat within the Senate as every new

STAR WARS: THE FASCISM AWAKENS 19

member world added to the body pushing it to basic divisions hastened the divisions within over two thousand members. the Galactic Senate: core worlds versus outer Second, the desire to acknowledge Rim; trade interests versus subsistence pluralism led to non-governmental and non- farmers; and bureaucrats versus represented constituent bodies being provided constituents. representation. The Weimar-era Reichsrat Both the Weimar and Galactic Republic provided bureaucrats and paramilitary groups descended into tyranny through an ambitious representation, and the Galactic Senate also despot’s manipulation of issues and the added seats for Trade Federation membership representative bodies from which they and bureaucrats. emerged. Sheev Palpatine was a Senator from Cultural divisions, largely the product of minor Outer Rim world Naboo but leveraged diverse and stressed populations, also the chaos of Separatist violence and its threat underpinned the descent into tyranny to his homeworld to navigate a path to power. experienced by both the Galactic Republic and ’s National Socialists exploited the Weimar. Weimar Germany suffered from a Reichstag fire to consolidate power behind fourfold division: communist versus capitalist; their leader. In an eerie coincidence, both labor versus industry; nobility versus popular; Hitler and Palpatine created the crises they and paramilitary versus pacifist divisions all used to rise to power. divided the post-WWI German nation. Three

Weimar Galactic Timeframe 1919-1933 A long time ago Location Germany, Central Europe A galaxy far far away Government Chancellor/Parliament divided Chancellor/Senate divided government government Popular 661 (Reichstag) 2,000+ (Galactic Senate) representation 66 (Reichsrat) Social conflict Communist vs. Capitalist Core worlds vs. Outer Rim Labor vs. Industry Trade interests vs. Subsistence Nobility vs. Popular farmers Paramilitary vs. Pacifist Bureaucrats vs. Constituents Limitations on None Planetary member status of Galactic representation Republic Peacekeeping Small local paramilitary forces Jedi Knights forces Method of Reichstag fire Assassination attempts tyrant's ascension Pivotal culture Remilitarization Remilitarization shift Pivotal event Enabling Act to revive war Palpatine vs. Windu battle machine

Table 1: Comparison of Weimar and Galactic Republic Characteristics

Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 STAR WARS: THE FASCISM AWAKENS20

One of the core failures of both Weimar and Representation on and In Space the Galactic Senate was representation. multiply. However, a larger district mitigates Representative democracies must uniquely both the appearance and expansion of parties. face the problem. Direct democracy eliminates Party multiplicity is an important concern the need to have representatives, and tyrants for our purposes here because in both the are mostly disinterest in them. In a republic, Weimar and Galactic Senate examples fringe though, constitutional designers must balance parties emerged using the absence of minima between the need to give citizens a voice and to participate in the policymaking body. Party inserting too many voices to discordance. (Rae multiplicity can be culturally driven as well as 1967) constitutionally driven. (Sartori 1999) Parties In the , research suggests a can serve as balancing agents for each other. linkage between the electoral structure of As Masket (2015) points out, had the Galactic legislative districts and characteristics of those Senate had a party system with a stable elected. More specifically, studies find that minority, Palpatine’s efforts would have had African-Americans and other geographically the potential of being thwarted. concentrated minorities are more successful in single-member districts (SMDs) while women Conclusion are elected more frequently from multimember districts (MMDs). Using data In politics as well as science fiction, the from 10 states, which use some combination of rules matter. Weimar failed, at least partially single-member and nonseat designated because of a problem with constitutional multimember districts, Moncrief and design. In the Star Wars saga, a shrewd Thompson compare characteristics of megalomaniac uses the inherent legislators elected from the different district representational weakness of a legislature to types, finding that nonnative legislators are advance to total power. Democracies are more likely to represent urban SMDs; subject to the stresses of representational educational attainment is a function of the pressure, and when representation expands to urban/rural nature of the district and is not unreasonable lengths the result can be related to electoral type; and that legislators tyranny. from SMDs have longer legislative service than those from MMDs. More importantly though, References with respect to race and gender, they find compelling evidence that African-Americans Anonymous. 2014. “Galactic Republic.” The are advantaged by SMDs, especially urban Databank at StarWars.com. SMDs, and that women are elected more http://www.starwars.com/databank/galac frequently from MMDs, especially urban tic-republic Accessed March 12 2016. MMDs. (Moncrief and Thompson 1992) Bastiansen, H. G., Klimke, M., & Werenskjold, R. More to the point, Rae (1968) notes that (Eds.). (2018). Media and the Cold War in European systems without 5% rules were the 1980s: Between Star Wars and Glasnost. much more likely to than those with Springer. minimum thresholds. Ordeshook and Berman, S. (1997). Civil society and the Shvetsova (1994) show that district collapse of the Weimar Republic. World magnitude, either in size or constituent- politics, 49(03), 401-429. representative ratio, has a significant impact Bookbinder, P. (1996). Weimar Germany: The on representativeness. The smaller a district, republic of the reasonable. Manchester the more likely parties are to emerge and University Press. Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22 STAR WARS: THE FASCISM AWAKENS 21

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Rackaway, C. (2020). Star Wars: The Fascism Awakens: Representation and its Failure from the Weimar Republic to the Galactic Senate. Studies in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 7-22