“Little Girls Don’t Play Football”:

How and Title IX Changed Soccer and the World

By Elsa Fondrk

Junior Division, Historical Paper

Word Count: 2,082

1 Introduction

Michelle Akers, an early beneficiary of Title IX’s ban on gender discrimination, helped to break barriers of sexism and stereotypical views of women. She is best known for her performance as a soccer player that became an Olympic gold medalist and a two-time World

Cup champion. Importantly, however, she was also an advocate for better pay and conditions for women in soccer and worked to increase the opportunities for women in sports. Through her soccer, she inspired a new generation of girls to become soccer players; through her fighting spirit, she inspired people to advocate for equal treatment.

Background: The Enactment of Title IX

During the 1960s and 1970s, gender discrimination was an issue that was all too real for many women in the US. In 1964, Congress passed civil rights legislation banning sex discrimination (as well as discrimination based on race, religion, and national origin). (Pub.L

88-352.) Unfortunately, this law was not heavily enforced for sex discrimination and, for the majority of women, there was little to no change in their daily lives. Senator Birch Bayh, from

Indiana, said in 1972, "a strong and comprehensive measure is needed to provide women with solid legal protection from the persistent, pernicious discrimination which is serving to perpetuate second-class citizenship for American women." (118 CONG. REC. at 5804.) ​ ​ This issue was addressed in 1972 with the passage of Title IX. That law states that “No person in the shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” 20 United States Code, Section 1681. The phrase

“education program or activity” was understood to also include athletics. This was intended to

2 increase interest in female athletics and allow a younger generation of female athletes to participate in sports. Michelle Akers was among them.

Michelle Akers’ Beginnings

Like many gifted athletes, Michelle Akers was precocious. She was born on February 1,

1966, in Santa Clara, California. (Cardenas) As a child, she loved all sports in general, but specifically American football. Every day, she would wear a “Mean Joe Green” Pittsburgh

Steelers jersey to school. (NBC Interview 1:04).

Not everyone thought it was acceptable for a little girl to have such an interest. Her first-grade teacher told her, “little girls don’t play football,” causing her to cry. (Akers, pg. 47)

Later, her response to such discrimination changed. She recalls a day in third grade when, in gym class, the girls were required to swing on the playground while the boys played kickball. Akers sat on a bench and refused to swing, earning her a trip to the principal’s office. Her mother talked with the principal and--from that day forward--Akers was allowed to play kickball with the boys.

(Akers, pg. 47)

Because girls were not allowed to play American football, she took up the sport that would define her career--soccer. In third grade, she joined her first soccer team, the “Cougars,” ​ ​ ​ where she was placed in goal because of her willingness to dive into the mud. (Akers, pg. 48)

The Cougars wore stereotypical “girly” colors, pink and yellow, much to Akers’ disgust. (Akers, pg. 48) Her team lost the majority of their games, and she was a sore loser but she kept at it, vowing to get better and not lose so frequently.

Shortly before fourth grade, her family moved to , Washington, where she joined a more experienced soccer team and started to enjoy the game as a center . (Akers, pg.

3 49) She later played at Shorecrest High School, where she earned All American honors three times and was the most athletic and skilled player on the field. (Cardenas) Her build of 5\’10” gave her an upper hand over opponents and made her a physically imposing presence on the field. This--combined with athleticism, discipline, determination and talent--made her an excellent player and led to her overall success.

At the time, women’s intercollegiate soccer was in its infancy but Akers went to the

University of Central Florida (UCF). She was a standout there and earned All American honors in each of her four years. This was where she started thinking about her career path in soccer. At

UCF, Akers became the first woman to win the , awarded to the best amateur soccer player in the country (Cardena). Shannon Higgins, who was with her on the national team and was a rival in , said Akers was tough: “Michelle went up and headed a ball, and she basically came down with her teeth right on top of ’s head and lost her two front teeth right in Lori’s head. She just kept playing the game.” (Wahl) This was a symbol of her toughness and perseverance, which was just budding. She graduated from UCF in 1988.

From Hand-Me-Downs to Endorsement Deals:

Akers’ Rise with the Early USWNT

It might be imagined that the beginnings of the United States Women’s National Team

(USWNT), now recognized as the best team in the world, were glorious, with a rich history, but in reality, it was unremarkable. While many college soccer programs for females had started up across the nation, there was no national women’s team until 1985. (Akers, pg. 84) The USWNT started with a letter to 17 women across the country inviting them to a three-day training camp in

4 Long Island. (Wahl) One of those letters was addressed to Akers, and she considered this a turning point in her life.

Mike Ryan, an Irishman who was the first coach of the USWNT, was confident that they would perform well in their first tournament in Italy, called the Munditalio or “little world cup”

(though it was unofficial and had nothing to do with FIFA, soccer’s governing board). (Wahl) He could not have been more wrong. The first tournament was very odd. The players were each given $10 per day for expenses, $15 when they were traveling overseas. The women used the men’s hand-me-down jerseys, which the players and staff had to stay up late to alter so they would fit the women. (Wahl) The team played four games, losing three and tying one. (Wahl) As

Akers said, “It was like they were playing against little kids in a way, because we were like,

‘Wait a minute. That’s so unfair. You’re grabbing my shirt or grabbing my crotch,’ or, ‘You’re kicking me,’ or, ‘You just fouled the crap out of me,’ and the referees just kept saying, ‘Play on.’"

In fact, the first year or so of the USWNT was unsuccessful, with very few wins. Mike

Ryan was fired in 1986, and , coach at the University of North Carolina (a perennial powerhouse), was hired as the head coach. (Wahl) He brought a totally new attitude and changed the whole USWNT. He kept only two of the players, Akers included, on the original front line. (Wahl) He added a new generation of young players including ,

Julie Foudy, and . (Wahl) Still, players struggled to make ends meet and had subpar accommodations and equipment. The US Soccer boys’ youth national teams received better ​ ​ treatment than the USWNT women.

5 Akers was outspoken as an advocate for the women. Before the 1991 World Cup, she attended a formal dinner for members of the soccer community and was invited to speak there.

She spoke bluntly about the perseverance of the women’s team and how little support they had received from the US Soccer Federation, noting their terrible accommodations and little pay; only later did she learn that the president of the federation was at the dinner. It paid off, though, as the federation awarded each player $1,000 a month during the tournament and the team gained more support (Akers pg. 118) A representative of Umbro was also at the dinner and was impressed by Akers’ passion; shortly thereafter, she signed an endorsement contract with Umbro, becoming the first female soccer player to receive such a contract. (Akers, pg. 122)

The 1991 USWNT: The World Champions No One Knew About

The first World Cup in China in 1991 was a strange one for the women. They packed all of their own food, as their coach believed that their stomachs could not handle the Chinese food.

The tournament was not broadcast outside of China (and it was long before the Internet), so not many people knew about it. (Clarke,pg. 42). Though the small stadiums were filled with fans, the crowds were remarkably quiet. As Akers said, “The crowds were almost silent(.) You could literally hear people in the stands, cracking sunflower seeds and eating them.” (Clarke, pg. 43)

The USWNT won the twelve-team tournament, defeating a veteran Norway team, 2-1 in the championship game. Akers had scored a staggering 10 goals, including 5 in the quarterfinal vs. Taiwan, and earned the Golden Boot and the Silver Ball, given to the highest scorer and best overall player in the competition. (Cardenas) More awards were given to the other victorious US players. Unfortunately, back in the United States, the team received little recognition for their

6 unprecedented accomplishment. They were greeted by just four people at JFK airport in New

York when they returned from China, including Akers’ husband. (Clarke, pg. 43)

1996 Olympics

As soon as Akers returned home from the World Cup in 1991, she started advocating for women’s soccer in the Olympics, just as she had advocated for a women’s World Cup in the late

80s (Clarke, pg. 42, pg. 44) Finally it paid off, and in 1996, the women headed to the centennial

Olympics on American soil (in .) There were still obstacles to face, though. The US

Soccer Federation said they would only pay the women if they won gold. Akers and the other players asked for pay for winning any medal, and the federation said no. The players were considered to be on strike until the federation eventually gave in. (Akers, pg. 181)

Shortly before the Olympics, Akers returned to her position of center midfielder, per the advice of her coach to benefit her health (Akers, pg. 182) Her role in the Olympics was critical.

Though she did not score many goals, she had several assists and helped to prevent many as well. In the semifinal, Akers scored to tie the game against Norway and eventually allow Team

USA to win gold at the Olympics.

1999 World Cup: The Turning Point of Women’s Soccer

The 1999 World Cup was a turning point for American women’s soccer. The Americans defeated their rivals from China in a packed Rose Bowl stadium in front of 90,000 fans and millions more on TV. As Akers said, “(the 1999 World Cup) was just an in your face to the culture that said it couldn’t be done.” (NBC 3:47) It broke several records for the number of fans viewing in the Rose Bowl Stadium, at 90,000 fans viewing live and another 40 million watching on television. (Lisi, back cover) The US beat China in penalty kicks and won the World Cup.

7 Akers was injured for the last part of the World Cup, but she was still acknowledged when she managed to drag herself out to the field for the awards ceremony and the crowds chanted her name. (Akers, pg. 236)

After Soccer

Michelle retired in 2000, just a couple months before the Sydney Olympics due to health issues. (Cardenas) At the end of her career, she had scored 105 goals, 37 assists and 247 points in

153 international matches (Akers) In 2004, she was one of only two women on the “FIFA 100,” a list of the greatest 125 players in soccer’s first century. Akers also earned the FIFA Order of

Merit, the highest honor in soccer. and was named Player of the Century. (Akers) She now rescues abused horses in Georgia but remains active in the soccer community.

Conclusion

Using soccer as her platform and fueled by the changes codified in Title IX, Michelle

Akers was an American trailblazer and advocate for women’s athletics. In addition to accumulating many awards and honors, Akers pushed for more opportunities and equal treatment in women’s soccer, a fight that continues today. Her perseverance and determination has inspired a new generation of little girls who can play football. ​ ​ ​

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Bibliography

Works Cited

Primary Sources

"Michelle Akers Soccer Career." The Official Website of Michelle Akers, Michelle Akers, ​ ​ www.michelleakers.org/soccer-career. I learned more about what Akers did after her

soccer career, as well as some of the awards and honors she earned.

Akers, Michelle, and Gregg Lewis. The Game and the Glory: An Autobiography. Grand Rapids, ​ ​ Zondervan Pub. House, 2000. Aker's autobiography was one of the main sources I used. I

learned about her more personal struggles and saw the world of soccer at her time from

her view.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub.L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ I learned about the Civil Rights Act from this.

Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, 20 U.S.C.A. § 1681, et seq., (enacted June ​ ​ 23, 1972). I got my info about Title IX from here.

118 Cong. Rec. 5803 (1972)

I got my quote from Senator Bayhe here.

Secondary Sources

Cardenas, Natalia. "Michelle Akers; American Soccer Player." Encyclopedia Brittanica, 28 Jan. ​ ​ 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/Michelle-Akers. Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. I learned

9 some of the more basic facts about Akers from this website. It helped in the early stages

of the project to just learn the most basic facts about her.

Clarke, Gemma. Soccerwomen: The Icons, Rebels, Stars, and Trailblazers Who Transformed the ​ Beautiful Game. New York, Bold Type Books, 2019. The base of the section on Akers in ​ this book was from an interview with Akers, so I got some quotes from here, as well as

learning more about how she advocated for a World Cup for women/women's soccer in

the Olympics.

"FIFA Women's World Cup China PR 1991: Akers, the American Pioneer." FIFA, .com. ​ ​ Accessed 3 Nov. 2019. FIFA is the organization that regulates soccer, so I learned some

of the basic facts about the World Cup in general and more in-depth facts about the 1991

World Cup specifically.

Lisi, Clemente A. The U.S. Women's Soccer Team: An American Success Story. Lanham, ​ ​ Scarecrow Press, 2010. I learned about the origins of the USWNT and the history of the

team. There was a section on Akers in this book, and I learned some assorted details

about her career from this.

"Michelle Akers; Olympic Football; United States of America." Olympics, ​ ​ www.olympic.org/michelle-akers. Accessed 13 Nov. 2019. I learned specifically about

the 1996 Olympics and the awards/records Akers held in it.

NBCSports. ​ www.nbcsports.com/video/uswnt-olympic-gold-medalist-michelle-akers-sharing-soccer-r

escuing-horses. Accessed 5 Dec. 2019. I learned about the horse rescue that Akers does

and some details about her childhood and the 1999 World Cup.

10 "She was America's first women's soccer star. Now, Michelle Akers has gone from goals to

foals." Seattle Times [Seattle], 23 Aug. 2018. Seattle Times, ​ ​ ​ ​ www.seattletimes.com/sports/soccer/once-best-known-as-americas-first-womens-soccer-

star-michelle-akers-is-now-devoted-to-a-different-passion-saving-horses/. Accessed 16

Dec. 2019. I learned about her personal life and her horse rescue from this.

Wahl, Grant. "How the Women's World Cup and the USWNT Were Built from Scratch." Sports ​ Illustrated. Sports Illustrated, ​ ​ ​ www.si.com/soccer/2019/06/06/first-womens-world-cup-1991-uswnt-usa-sepp-blatter?ut

m_source=emailshare&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=email-share-article&utm_c

ontent=20191023. Accessed 30 Oct. 2019. I learned about the early and humble

beginnings of Team USA up to 1990, as well as what some of Michelle's teammates

thought of her.

"Women's World Cup: The Match That Changed Women's Football." CNN, ​ ​ www.cnn.com/2019/05/31/football/usa-1999-womens-world-cup-victory-brandi-chastain

-mia-hamm-wwc-spt-intl/index.html. Accessed 13 Nov. 2019. I learned about the 1999

World Cup from this, and how the women had responded to the 1995 World Cup.

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