A Comprehensive Inventory of Mare Basalt Ages and Quantifiable Lunar Morphologies Related to Dominant Surface Features on Earth

Students: Ricardo Delgado, Lauren Hernandez, Suzi Romero, Kraig Orcutt, Santiago Vallejo Lunar Characteristics Theories for Origin of Moon • Fission • Co‐creation • Capture • Impact Lunar Characteristics Composition: • Initial Lunar Crust – Anorthosite – Plagioclase Feldspar • Lunar Mantle – Norite – Olivine – Pyroxenes Lunar Characteristics Mare Basalts: • Mare basalts cover about 17% of the lunar surface and are visible from Earth as dark areas on the moon. • There are 23 mare on the Moon’s surface, 19 appear on the near side. • Most mare basalts were formed during the late Imbrium Period (3.2‐3.9 Ga). This sample of mare basalt, ~3.7 billion years old, was collected by Apollo 17 astronauts. Lunar Characteristics

Schematic cross-section of a simple crater. D is the diameter and da and dt are the depths of the apparent and true crater, respectively. (Stoffler et al.) Lunar Characteristics

Schematic cross-section of a complex impact structure. SU corresponding to structural uplift and Dcp to the diameter of the central uplift. Preservation of beds in outer annular trough of the structure with excavation limited to the central area. (Stoffler et al.) Lunar Characteristics Ray Craters • Copernicus (upper left) and Tycho (lower right) have extensive ray systems of light colored debris blasted out by the crater‐ forming impacts. • In general, ray craters are relatively young as their rays overlay the lunar terrain. Research Problem

In order to better understand the distribution of the oldest and youngest mare, propose a list of lunar landing sites that will allow for the retrieval of various age range samples. Research Problem

Reasons for Continued Lunar Exploration: • Human Civilization • Scientific Knowledge • Exploration Preparation • Global Partnerships • Economic Expansion • Public Engagement Research Problem The effects of planetary characteristics on crater formation and morphology: Impact Cratering

Simple Lunar Crater Barringer Meteor Crater in Arizona Research Problem The effects of planetary characteristics on crater formation and morphology: Volcanism

Lunar rille Mauna Loa braided lava channel Research Problem The effects of planetary characteristics on crater formation and morphology: Quakes

Buzz Aldrin deploys a seismometer This seismometer records seismic in the Sea of Tranquillity. waves generated by earthquakes. Research Problem The effects of planetary characteristics on crater formation and morphology: Breccia

Lunar breccia from Apollo 16 Breccia rock sample Research Problem The effects of planetary characteristics on crater formation and morphology: Erosion

The first footprints on the Air, water, and ice erosion Moon will be there for a as well as plate movement million years. There is no change the Earth’s land wind to blow them away. features Methodology

1. Identified all lunar mare 2. Began reading peer reviewed papers 3. Consulted experts for clarification about technical vocabulary 4. Began creating a chart to organize data Methodology

5. Determined and evaluated methods of determining ages

– Isotope radiometric dating – Crater counting – Spectrometry Methodology

Neukum Curve

(Heisinger et al., Ages of Mare Basalts on the Lunar Nearside) Methodology

6. Recorded available data for mara basalt ages 7. Determined the mean of the data for each of the mare 8. Included the age ranges

Isotope Methodology

6. Recorded available data for mara basalt ages 7. Determined the mean of the data for each of the mare 8. Included the age ranges 9. Created a graph and map Findings

• When we charted the mare age data, we noticed that the age groups were concentrated into 4 age categories. • We found that the youngest mare was very close to the farside, young maria were concentrated together, middle aged maria were located at the boundary between of the nearside and the farside, and very old mare are very sparse. Findings

• Landing sites should be selected that can fill in the gaps in diversity of lunar samples. • Mission plans for each human landing should include the collection and return of at least 100 kg of rocks from diverse locations within the landing region. (2007 Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon: Final Report ) Number of Data Name Age of Mare Low Range High Range Mean Used

Mare Anguis 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Australe 1 3.1 ‐ 3.9 b.y 3.1 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y

Mare Cognitum 1 3.3 ‐ 3.7 b.y. 3.3 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 1.7 b.y. , 2.5 b.y. , 3.1 b.y., 3.2 b.y. , 3.2 b.y., 3.2 b.y. ,3.3 b.y. , Mare Crisium 15 3.4 b.y., 3.4 b.y., 3.4 ‐ 3.6 b.y. , 3.5 b.y. , 3.7 b.y. , 3.7 b.y., 1.7 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.2 b.y 3.8 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 4.0 b.y. 3.3 b.y. , .4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y., 3.5 b.y. , 3.6 b.y. , Mare Fecunditatis 9 3.3 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 3.9 b.y. , 4.0 b.y Mare Frigorios 2 2.6 ‐ 3.8 b.y. , 3.2 ‐ 3.6 b.y 2.6 b.y 3.8 b.y. 3.3 b.y.

Mare Humboldtianum 1 3.4 ‐ 4.0 b.y. 3.4 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.6 b.y.

Mare Humorum 1 3.0 ‐ 3.8 b.y. 3.0 b.y. 3.8 b.y. 3.3 b.y.

Mare Imbrium 5 2.0 ‐ 3.6 b.y. , 3.3 b.y., 3.3 b.y. , 3.8 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.9 b.y. 2.0 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.4 b.y.

Mare Ingenii 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Insularum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Marginis 1 3.5 ‐ 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.7 b.y.

Mare Moscoviense 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Nectaris 4 3.9 b.y. 3.7 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.9 ‐ 4.6 b.y. , 4.1 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 4.1 b.y. 4.0 b.y.

Mare Nubium 1 2.8 ‐ 3.7 b.y. 2.8 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.2 b.y.

Mare Orientale 2 3.2 ‐ 3.9 b.y. , 3.7 ‐ 3.9 b.y. 3.2 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 2.4 ‐ 3.8 b.y. , 3.7 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.9 b.y. , 3.9 b.y. , Mare Serenitatis 10 2.4 b.y. 4.3 b.y. 3.8 b.y. 3.9 ‐ 3.7 b.y., 4.0 b.y. , 4.1 b.y. , 4.3 b.y. Mare Smythii 1 1.0 ‐ 3.2 b.y. 1.0 b.y. 3.2 b.y. 2.0 b.y. Mare Spumans 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 3.4 ‐ 4.2 b.y. , 3.5 b.y., 3.6 b.y., 3.6 ‐ 3.8 b.y., 3.6 ‐ 3.9 b.y. , Mare Tranquillitatis 9 3.4 b.y. 4.2 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.6 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.7 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.9 b.y. Mare Undarum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Vaporum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Oceanus Procellarum 5 3.1 ‐ 3.3 b.y. , 3.1 ‐ 3.3 b.y., 3.2 b.y. , 3.2 b.y., 3.2 b.y. 3.1 b.y. 3.3 b.y. 3.2 b.y. Number of Data Name Age of Mare Low Range High Range Mean Used

Mare Anguis 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Australe 1 3.1 ‐ 3.9 b.y 3.1 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y

Mare Cognitum 1 3.3 ‐ 3.7 b.y. 3.3 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 1.7 b.y. , 2.5 b.y. , 3.1 b.y., 3.2 b.y. , 3.2 b.y., 3.2 b.y. ,3.3 b.y. , Mare Crisium 15 3.4 b.y., 3.4 b.y., 3.4 ‐ 3.6 b.y. , 3.5 b.y. , 3.7 b.y. , 3.7 b.y., 1.7 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.2 b.y 3.8 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 4.0 b.y. 3.3 b.y. , .4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y. , 3.4 b.y., 3.5 b.y. , 3.6 b.y. , Mare Fecunditatis 9 3.3 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 3.9 b.y. , 4.0 b.y Mare Frigorios 2 2.6 ‐ 3.8 b.y. , 3.2 ‐ 3.6 b.y 2.6 b.y 3.8 b.y. 3.3 b.y.

Mare Humboldtianum 1 3.4 ‐ 4.0 b.y. 3.4 b.y. 4.0 b.y. 3.6 b.y.

Mare Humorum 1 3.0 ‐ 3.8 b.y. 3.0 b.y. 3.8 b.y. 3.3 b.y.

Mare Imbrium 5 2.0 ‐ 3.6 b.y. , 3.3 b.y., 3.3 b.y. , 3.8 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.9 b.y. 2.0 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.4 b.y.

Mare Ingenii 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Insularum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Marginis 1 3.5 ‐ 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.7 b.y.

Mare Moscoviense 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Nectaris 4 3.9 b.y. 3.7 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.9 ‐ 4.6 b.y. , 4.1 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 4.1 b.y. 4.0 b.y.

Mare Nubium 1 2.8 ‐ 3.7 b.y. 2.8 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.2 b.y.

Mare Orientale 2 3.2 ‐ 3.9 b.y. , 3.7 ‐ 3.9 b.y. 3.2 b.y. 3.9 b.y. 3.5 b.y. 2.4 ‐ 3.8 b.y. , 3.7 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.9 b.y. , 3.9 b.y. , Mare Serenitatis 10 2.4 b.y. 4.3 b.y. 3.8 b.y. 3.9 ‐ 3.7 b.y., 4.0 b.y. , 4.1 b.y. , 4.3 b.y. Mare Smythii 1 1.0 ‐ 3.2 b.y. 1.0 b.y. 3.2 b.y. 2.0 b.y. Mare Spumans 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 3.4 ‐ 4.2 b.y. , 3.5 b.y., 3.6 b.y., 3.6 ‐ 3.8 b.y., 3.6 ‐ 3.9 b.y. , Mare Tranquillitatis 9 3.4 b.y. 4.2 b.y. 3.7 b.y. 3.6 ‐ 3.9 b.y., 3.7 b.y., 3.8 b.y., 3.9 b.y. Mare Undarum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Mare Vaporum 0 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Oceanus Procellarum 5 3.1 ‐ 3.3 b.y. , 3.1 ‐ 3.3 b.y., 3.2 b.y. , 3.2 b.y., 3.2 b.y. 3.1 b.y. 3.3 b.y. 3.2 b.y.

Conclusions Our suggestions for the next lunar exploration site based on our research.

1. Fecunditatis (middle aged) is close to: • Smythii (youngest and has interesting anomalies in the data), • Nectaris (oldest), • Crisium (has the biggest range in data)

2. Serenitatis (2nd oldest) is close to: • Imbrium (young), • Tranquilitatis (late middle aged) because this site is worthwhile even though we have been there before • Anguis (no data is available for this area)

3. Vaporum and Insularum‐(probably middle aged) is close to: • Imbrium (young) • Cognitum (middle aged) • Serentatis (old)

Comparison to the Constellation LRO NAC Targets • Of our first choice they have listed Mare Smythii as a tier 1 target and Mare Crisium as a tier 2 target • Of our second choice they have listed the Apollo 15 landing site (the Imbrium basin) and Mare Tranquillitatis as tier 1 targets • Of our third choice they have listed the Apollo 15 landing site (the Imbrium basin) as a tier 1 target Bibliography

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