UC San Diego UC San Diego Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Community in Conflict : : Race, Class, and the Struggle for Educational Equity in San Diego City Schools, 1954-1985 Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0zr4m1g7 Author Kim, Gloria Publication Date 2013 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO A Community in Conflict: Race, Class, and the Struggle for Educational Equity in San Diego City Schools, 1954-1985 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Gloria Kim Committee in charge: Professor Nayan Shah, Chair Professor Luis Alvarez Professor David Gutierrez Professor Natalia Molina Professor Rebecca Plant Professor Meg Wesling 2013 Copyright Gloria Kim, 2013 All rights reserved The Dissertation of Gloria Kim is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Chair University of California, San Diego 2013 iii DEDICATION For my mother and father in gratitude for their countless sacrifices and for Adam who supported me every step of this journey iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page ................................................................................................................... iii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................................v List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi List of Maps ...................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ ix Vita .................................................................................................................................... xii Abstract of the Dissertation ............................................................................................. xiii Maps .....................................................................................................................................1 Introduction Rethinking Educational Equity in the Age of Neoliberalism ..........................5 Chapter 1 Trouble in Paradise: San Diego’s Racial Landscape and the Call for School Integration 1954-1969................28 Chapter 2 “We Will Take Our Children Off the Bus:” Politics of San Diego’s “Anti-Integration” Stance 1970-1979 ..........................................78 Chapter 3 Demographic Shifts and the Politics of Bilingual Education 1960-1980 .......125 Chapter 4 Southeast Asian Refugee Students and Contesting Visions of Bilingual Education 1975-1981 ..................................................162 Chapter 5 “A Crisis Similar to the Separatist French Canadians:” Americanization, S.I. Hayakawa and the Anti-Bilingual Education Movement 1978-1982 ............................................................202 Conclusion Ongoing Struggles Against Educational Disparity After 1985 ....................241 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................251 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4-1: "Concept For A Three-Year Indochinese Education Program" ....................189 Figure 4-2: "Suggested Three-Year Schedule of Instruction" .........................................190 vi LIST OF MAPS Map 1: San Diego Neighborhoods .......................................................................................1 Map 2: San Diego Unified School District, High School Zones 1967-1968 .......................2 Map 3: San Diego Unified School District, Junior High School Zones 1967-1968 ............3 Map 4: San Diego Unified School District, Elementary School Zones 1967-1968 ............4 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1-1: Population of Select Groups, San Diego City, 1940-1970 ...............................34 Table 1-2: Student Enrollment of Select Schools According to Race & Ethnicity ...........45 Table 3-1: San Diego Total Population, 1960-1990 .......................................................127 Table 3-2: Shifts in San Diego’s Asian and Pacific Islander Population, 1960-1990 .....129 Table 3-3: Shifts in San Diego’s Latino Population, 1970-1990 .....................................130 Table 3-4: Number of Enrolled LES/NES Students San Diego Unified School District, 1978 ........................................................................133 Table 3-5: Number of Enrolled LES/NES Students San Diego Unified School District, 1980 ........................................................................134 Table 4-1: Enrollment Percentages of Asian Students in Linda Vista Area Schools ......180 Table 6-1: Population by Race and Ethnicity, San Diego Unified School District, 1977-1985 ..............................................................244 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of the greatest pleasures this dissertation has afforded me is the opportunity to thank everyone who has nurtured, challenged, inspired, and encouraged me throughout this extraordinary journey. First and foremost, I offer my heartfelt thanks to my advisor, Nayan Shah. Over the years, I was a fortunate beneficiary of his guidance, as he pushed me to my intellectual limits, and truly helped me develop my voice as a scholar. To my committee members Luis Alvarez, Dave Gutierrez, Natalia Molina, Rebecca Plant, and Meg Wesling, I am full of appreciation and admiration. Beginning with my first year at UCSD, they have each demonstrated through their guidance and example, that academic success encompasses not just the highest standard of scholarship, but also collaboration, compassion, and a healthy sense of humor. Additionally I extend my warmest thank to Mark Hanna, Rachel Klein, and Nancy Kwak for their mentorship throughout my time at UC San Diego. I have spent countless hours in San Diego State University’s Special Collections and University Archives Reading Room, pouring over documents, and getting to know the wonderful archivists and librarians who went above and beyond to ensure I had the materials I needed for my research. I have nothing but gratitude for Anne Bahde, Jesica Brubaker, Ellen Jarosz, Amanda Lanthorne, and Robert Ray for making my experience at SDSU productive and pleasant. I also want to thank the archivists at the California State Archives in Sacramento for their assistance during my research trip in July 2010, as well as the librarians at the San Diego History Center in Balboa Park, and the downtown San Diego Public Library. I am also extremely grateful to Lila Gitesatani for her assistance during the research process. ix Throughout my time at the University of California, San Diego, I have been blessed with the collegiality and friendship of many wonderful scholars across field groups and disciplines. I hold a special place in my heart for my original cohort members Jimmy Patiño and Alicia Ratterree Rodriguez as we navigated our first few years of graduate school together and helped each other carve a space for our work in the academic world. My graduate experience was further enriched by Maile Arvin, Edward Avila, Zachary Brittsan, Cutler Edwards, Ricardo Fagoaga, Aaron Gurlly, Kelli McCoy, Kate McDonald, Elisabeth Mikos, Ryan Moran, Jed Mularski, Genevieve Okada, Jesús Pérez, Andy Rice, Alvin Wong, and Bárbara Zepeda. I am especially grateful to Anita Casavantes Bradford as she graciously served as my intellectual sounding board, steadfast supporter, and friend. I also extend my appreciation to the hard working staff members of the UC San Diego History Department, and Dimensions of Culture Writing Program, especially Susan Bernal, Sue Hawkinson, Carol Larkin, Maureen McCormack, Christine Miller, Nadyne Nawar, Amber Rieder, and Danielle Swenson. Thank you for responding to my numerous requests over the years with kindness and professionalism. I am extremely blessed to have a wonderful personal support network. I thank my father, Woochan Kim, and mother, Theresa Kim. They have made many personal sacrifices to ensure that my brother and I had an opportunity to fulfill our ambitions. I thank all members of the UC San Diego Catholic Community Choir, as they have buoyed me with spiritual nourishment during life’s difficult moments, celebrated with me during moments of triumph, and demonstrated that there is tremendous grace in humility. I especially want to thank Jennifer Ehren, Liezel Labios, Lovella Cacho, Johnny Nguyen, x Lana Talampas, Peg Evans, Julie Marner, Patty Mittendorf, Shannon Linzer, Chip Hatch, and Loreen Wilhelmy. Finally, I thank my husband Adam Sayre. All of your hard work and sacrifice “behind the scenes” was instrumental in ensuring this dissertation became a reality. You were with me from the start of this journey, and I gladly walk by your side as we take the next steps in our new adventure together. xi VITA 2004 Bachelor of Arts, History with Distinction, University of Washington 2006-2010 Teaching Assistant, Department of History, University of California, San Diego 2009 Master of Arts, History,