Future Proofing Cities Ghana - Metropolitan Cities Foreword

It is a great pleasure to introduce these Future-Proofing Cities Studies, covering cities in Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique and Uganda. These studies, form an integral part of the Future Cities Africa (FCA) Programme that the Cities Alliance has undertaken over the past two years, with financial support of DFID. These studies covered nine cities that were carefully selected to represent metropolitan cities, secondary cities, regional capitals and cities within growth corridors. Together, they exemplify the challenges of contemporary rapid urban growth, and the opportunities and promise that African cities can and must hold for the future of the continent.

While demonstrating important differences between the cities, there is a common thread that is well understood by national governments and city managers alike: a combination of enabling national policies, strong institutions, well-resourced and accountable local governments, and informed and engaged citizens are essential for local and national prosperity. On the African continent it is precisely these type of cities, in every country, that will have to be empowered to contribute to the successful implementation of Agenda 2030, and grapple with the consequences of climate change. However, time is very short, as the majority of urban growth is determined more by facts on the ground than by effective policy-making.

I would like to thank Jamie Simpson, Erika Puspa and the entire FCA team for their outstanding work in completing a complex work programme against demanding deadlines, our colleagues at Arup International Development for the high quality of these studies, and Simon Ratcliffe and his colleagues at DFID (UK) for their constant support and encouragement.

William Cobbett Cities Alliance Director

Ghana – Metropolitan Cities is part of the Future Cities Africa (FCA) initiative in partnership with Cities Alliance and the UK Department for International Development (DFID).

FCA is a partnership initiative launched by Cities Alliance and DFID to support cities in Ghana, Ethiopia, Uganda and Mozambique as they transform themselves into resilient, inclusive centres of economic growth.

Unless specified, all images are copyright Cities Alliance or Arup Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan Cities in Ghana

Acknowledgements

This report has been developed by Arup in collaboration with Cities Alliance as part of Department for International Development’s Future Cities Africa programme. We would like to thank the Future Cities Africa team and the wide range of stakeholders we consulted in Ghana for making time to contribute to this study. Also, we wish to recognise the valuable guidance and feedback we have received from the Cities Alliance team on our findings and how best to communicate them.

Jo da Silva Director Arup International Development

On behalf of Arup International Development’s study team: Jose M. Ahumada, Kieran Birtill, Andrew Charles, Jo da Silva, Belinda Hewitt, Ripin Kalra, Braulio Eduardo Morera, Siddharth Nadkarny, Samantha Stratton-Short, James Waters

Graphic design: Mark Doyle

Contents

Introduction...... 2 Approach...... 5

Ghana...... 7 Metropolitan Cities...... 14 GAMA...... 17 Final Thoughts...... 37

Appendix...... 41 Information mapping...... 42 Low-carbon initiatives...... 43 References...... 46 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

African governments are counting on urbanisation to lift their nations out of poverty.

Figure 1. Street in Accra

1 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Introduction

The majority of Africa’s population will shift from rural to urban in the next thirty years. Future Cities Africa aims to help cities achieve inclusive economic growth, manage demographic change, and address environmental risks.

Africa is going through an Globally, future city growth will economic boom and cities are be almost exclusively in Africa at the centre of this pathway to and Asia, representing over 90% economic prosperity. Two key of the world’s urban population features are set to alter Africa’s growth (WEF, 2015). In its recent future: a youthful population and report, Future of African Cities: “The emerging future of urbanisation. Combined, these Poles of Prosperity or Slums of cities largely depends features are defining the boom Despair (2015), the Brenthurst on the way we plan and in trade and industry and will Foundation indicates that by mid- manage urbanisation, and push modernisation and increase 2030 half of all Africans will live in the way we leverage this connectivity across the continent cities. They suggest that three main (KPMG, 2012). drivers of African urbanisation are transformative process to fuelling these historic changes in ‘provide the setting, the Africa’s cities are emerging as the continent: natural population underlying base and also centres of entrepreneurship, growth, rural-urban migration, innovation, creativity and invention. the momentum for global and large-scale dynamics such change” Africa is now the fastest-growing as connectivity, technology and region in the world in terms of globalisation (The Brenthurst mobile telephone and internet Foundation, 2015). Linked to these Joan Clos access. It is anticipated that mobile drivers of growth, greenhouse gas Executive Director UN-Habitat data usage will increase twenty emissions in the region are expected times between 2013 and 2019 to grow rapidly, primarily through (Ericsson, 2014). Africa is also the increased fossil fuel use, and final inhabited continent on the agricultural expansion (Hogarth et planet to urbanise. al, 2015).

75 or over 50 to 75 25 to 50 Less than 25 1950 2014 2050 (projection)

Figure 2. Percentage of the population residing in urban areas Based on World Urbanization Prospects, The 2014 Revision. UN 2015

2 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

African city megatrends Development megatrends impacting African cities can be viewed as opportunities or risks depending on a city’s context.

Figure 3: African city megatrends - highlighting Ghanaian megatrends based on Z-punkt, n.d. & Arup Cities Alive, 2014

3 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

The challenge facing African Currently, the majority – over 53% – cities is to provide their citizens of Ghana’s population live in urban with equal economic opportunities areas (World Bank, 2016). This while transitioning to a low carbon report will also discuss the impact economy, using limited resources the urbanisation strategy is having efficiently, and managing rapid urban on the regional development of the and population growth. African cities country. As part of the Future Cities also need to manage the impacts of a Africa programme, two cities have youthful population. In Uganda, for been selected, Accra and Tema to example, the majority population is discuss these messages to indicate younger than 15. This leads African the current urbanisation trends “The current wave of leaders to question whether their and highlight key challenges these urban growth in Africa demographic profile is an economic cities may face in the future. This is occurring faster and godsend or ticking time-bomb report considers these two cities (World Bank, 2012). together as key parts of the Greater on a larger scale than Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA). anything the world For African cities to be successful GAMA has evolved from a series has yet witnessed, and they should adopt integrated and of small coastal fishing villages to holistic urban planning practices that therefore poses the greatest be the most populated urban area consider not only inclusive economic in Ghana. It is the gateway to the challenge yet for urban development and low-carbon country, generating a quarter of the and national policy- development pathways but also the country’s GDP and attracting over makers.” environmental and social impacts of 80% of all foreign direct investment growth to promote liveable cities. in Ghana. Cities need to plan for growth that Brenthurst Foundation, 2015 is future-proofed for our changing This report relates to metropolitan climate, the challenges of scarce cities in Ghana and represents one natural resources, and underlying of four reports prepared for Future geophysical risks. Cities Africa. Each report covers a specific country, its national This report relates to urbanisation as urbanisation strategy and its specific it is currently taking place in Ghana. regional planning typology. The It discusses how Ghana plans to take other three reports include: regional advantage of rapid economic growth cities in Ethiopia, secondary cities in that has been matched by its rapid Uganda, and urban growth corridors urbanisation in recent years. The in Mozambique. urban population in Ghana has grown Figure 4. Aerial view of Accra over 3.5 times in the last 30+ years. Credit: Jason Armstrong / Flickr

4 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Approach

Future Cities Africa seeks to support cities in Africa to become future- proofed for climate, environment and natural resource challenges, so that they are inclusive and resilient, and have growing economies. It will help make cities work for the urban poor. It will conduct an in depth feasibility and scoping study and develop innovative tools to enable rapidly growing African cities to realise their potential as centres of growth and job creation; and use research and evidence to develop targeted urban action plans. Future Cities Africa Business Case and Intervention Summary (DFID, 2014)

City Governments are trying to...

Future Cities Africa is working with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Manage cities to future-proof them for the range of social, economic, Achieve and environmental risks they are Demographic transition exposed to now and will be exposed Physical & social to in the future. As discussed above, Inclusive African cities are experiencing rapid economic population growth and urbanisation growth alongside a range of severe environmental shocks and stresses. Risk Climate change Natural resources City governments in Africa tend to Geophysical have limited institutional capacity, over-stretched financial and human resources, and limited data to guide Future Proof decision-making. Future Cities Figure 5: Future Cities Africa drivers Africa has identified three key drivers (see Fig. 5) that are shaping African cities: achieving inclusive economic growth, managing demographic change, and addressing These studies are part of an in-depth Two tools are used as part of our local risks associated with climate feasibility and scoping phase to data analysis to help us dig deeper change, natural resources, and develop diagnostic tools to enable intoundertanding the capacity to act geophysical risks. these cities to realise their growth and risks in the cities — the Cities potential and begin to guide this Alliance Normative Framework Arup was asked to prepare Future- growth toward a more resilient and and the Arup Environmental Risk Proofing City Studies for nine cities inclusive future. We hope that these Framework. in four countries: Mekele and Dire city studies will help practitioners Dawa (Ethiopia); Accra and Tema in local municipalities, national (Ghana); Tete, Nampula, and Nacala administrations, and international (Mozambique); and Jinja and Arua organisations better understand the (Uganda). specific challenges each city is facing.

5 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Normative Framework Urban ER

Drivers of risk NABLING ENVIR CAL E ONM YSI EN Regional PH T Local Global

SER

VICES k NMENT RO ENVI

P E I I C

ONO SH N FCA M ZE program I Y T Biological & Natural entry-point I C resource risk

GOVERNANCE Dimensions of environmental ris

IN T ST EN ITU M Geophysical Risk TIO IRON NAL ENABLING ENV

Figure 6: Normative Framework Figure 7: Urban ER Framework

The Normative Framework describes the physical Arup has developed an Urban Environmental Risk and institutional environment which can support Framework (Urban ER) in order to help cities to cities to achieve inclusive economic growth, manage understand and address the critical environmental demographic change and future-proof against challenges which shape urban wellbeing. The environmental risks. The Framework helps to: Framework identifies three dimensions of identify relevant data sources, facilitate discussions environmental risk for African cities: climatic, and build understanding of the factors that African biological, and natural resource and geophysical cities need to ‘get right’ to achieve inclusive growth, hazards. A current risk rating is provided through an manage demographic change, and address future risk. understanding of existing threats. A future risk rating The Framework is a tool to assess the physical and is provided based on the drivers of risk at three scales: institutional enabling environment within African local (such as loss of local biodiversity), regional cities, and provides an evidence base for future (such as poor regional planning policy), and global planning, investment and decision-making. As part (such as climate change). Through understanding of this work, the Framework was used to map the the drivers of environmental risk, we can help city available information for each city and to provide an governments, advisors and stakeholders understand holistic understanding of each city’s assets according how local urban development pathways can create to the five dimensions of the Framework. or compound risk. Urban ER can also help cities evaluate their capacity to act at different levels in order to mitigate current risk, and collaborate with others on a local, regional and global level to achieve a more resilient future.

6 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Ghana %

In the last 30 years political stability in Ghana has enabled 5.6 significant economic growth and rapid urbanisation. Much average annual GDP growth rate over almost of the economy still relies on the extraction of natural 30 years resources including newly discovered oil reserves.

Ghana has been inhabited for over to achieving its goal to become a the Republic of Ghana underwent a thousand years and in that time middle-income country by 2020 several political changes including has been contested by multiple (Government of Ghana, 1996). military and civilian governments, nations for its resources and trading and several military coups that have rights. It declared independence in Ghana is known as the ‘Gold Coast’, impacted the economic and social 1957, the first SSA nation to do so. a name it received by Europeans development of the nation. At a Located just north of the equator when significant natural resources regional level the country changed in West Africa the country had a such as gold, cocoa, hard woods, from a local authority system to a population of 14.6 million in 2010 and other valuable cash crops were district assembly system in 1988, and is rapidly growing (Cities traded, first by the Portuguese in changing from 140 local authorities Alliance, 2015a). The country the 1600s and then under British to 110 districts. Since then a further is geographically diverse with colonial rule. The lucrative trans- 60 districts have been created, ecozones ranging from grasslands, Atlantic slave trade also featured sitting within 10 regions. The coastal shrub lands and forest. prominently in West Africa Government of Ghana implemented It has a wide range of ethnic, including Ghana until the early a multi-party constitution in 1992 linguistic and religious groups 1800s. Traditional chiefs were given which brought political stability to and one of the strongest and most significant local authority under the country, leading to improved diverse economies in Africa. It is British colonial administration in economic management and rapid now moving along the pathway the mid-19th Century. In the thirty- growth. five years following independence,

Figure 8: Accra street Credit: Francisco Anzola / Flickr 7 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Ghana at a glance

Population % 2.5 26.79M Annual population growth

GDP per capita Poverty US$ 1,441.6

% % 5.6 24.6 Average GDP growth rate 1986-2014 Population living below the national poverty line

Child labour Adult literacy

% % 33.9 71.5

Figure 9: Ghana infographic 8 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Economically the country is Ghana’s vision to achieve middle- barrels, the reserves are the sixth performing very well, with a 7.8% income status by 2020 is based largest in Africa, with great potential GDP growth rate between 2005 and on diversified economic growth for continued sector growth. The 2013. Annual real GDP growth has including natural resources such country has recently recorded a not fallen below 3.3% since 1984, as industrial minerals, petroleum, 5.8% increase in manufacturing, which is an impressive achievement and natural gas; agricultural leading the World Bank to observe in a volatile global economy. commodities – Ghana is the that the location of more people and National health and education second largest producer of cocoa, more firms in dense urban areas is rates improved between 1980 and which makes up a sixth of the contributing to economies of scale 2014. Life expectancy at birth has country’s GDP, and information and network effects on increased increased 9.1 years, mean years of and communication technology. productivity (World Bank, 2015). schooling has increased 3.9 years Ghana’s emerging digital economy and the GNI per capita increased by is modelled after Taiwan, with a Despite the recent discovery of 82.6% (World Bank, 2015). Ghana’s focus on primary manufacturing oil, the majority of the Ghanaian absolute Human Development Index and export of digital technology. economy is in economic sectors (HDI) increased by nearly 40%, In 2011 Ghana began producing sensitive to climate change, such putting the country now 140th out commercial quantities of crude oil as agriculture, forestry and energy. of 188 - in the ‘medium’ human and natural gas from the Jubilee Oil Recent observations show an development category (UNDP, Field. Both Iranian and Singaporean increase in rainfall variability and 2014). Ghana’s employment to companies have declared interests frequency of extreme weather population ratio is 66.2%, just under in investing in offshore platforms events nationally. Given that 99% the average for SSA (65.7%) (World as Ghana aims to increase output of of all agriculture in Ghana is Bank, 2016). both oil and gas to revenues of $65 reliant on rainfall, the predicted billion in 2014 (Sedzro, 2013). At impact of climate change on Overall, national GDP has grown an estimated five to seven billion Ghana’s population and economy and absolute poverty has decreased. is significant. To effectively deal

9 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

with the projected impacts, the by 20% between 1991 to 2012 but government’s strategy is to build the World Bank (2015) recorded a climate resilience and sustainably 22.5% decline in access to piped manage the country’s natural water between 2000 and 2010. resources . Ghana Vision 2020 In all likelihood the high rate of views the integration of Science and urbanisation, which is above 4%, Technology as central to achieving will continue in the future, leading rapid economic growth and the Government to estimate that sustainable management of natural 72% of the population will be living resources and the environment. in cities by 2035 (Government of Finally, with the rise of cities, Ghana, 2015). urban migration is leading to a structural transformation away from subsistence agriculture, spurring a 21% decrease in agricultural employment between 1992 and 2010 (Government of Ghana, 1996). Ghana’s rapid economic growth in recent years has been matched by its rapid urbanisation. Ghana’s ‘urban transformation’ has been huge, with a 3.5 times increase in urban population between 1984 and 2014 (World Bank, 2016). In Accra, the poverty incidence decreased

Figure 10. Accra panoramic view Credit: Felix Krohn / Flickr

10 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana Burkina Faso

Bawku Bolgatanga

The national government has GAMA also dominates in terms of Benin responded to the trend of urbanisation urban employment in both formal Tamale linked with economic growth through and informal sectors, at 32% and the First and Second Ghana Shared 28% respectively (Cities Alliance, Yendi Growth and Development Agenda 2015b). The National Spatial (2010-2013) and the National Development Framework (NSDF), Urban Policy (NUP) released in 2015-2035, suggests that the Accra 2012. Currently, the country’s urban capital region should be developed hierarchy is dominated by the “golden as a “world-class city” alongside triangle” consisting of the centre the promotion of regional and lower Togo of governance, Accra; the centre of order urban centres to serve more commerce, Kumasi; and the coastal of their regional communities. The port twin-city of Sekondi-Takoradi, NSDF also recommends avoiding Ghana all located in the south of the country relocating industry and services to Ivory Coast (Cities Alliance, 2015). GAMA is the secondary GAMA cities and rather Techiman most dominant and influential urban letting these cities grow “naturally, Lake region in Ghana and is responsible for in a mutually-beneficial way” 83% of all foreign direct investment (Republic of Ghana, 2015). Sunyani Volta Hohoe in the country. Kumasi Ho

Accra Ashiaman Nkawkaw 4M Madina Obuasi Koforidua Amanfrom Tema Aflao GAMA 3M Tema Kumasi Tarkwa Accra 2M Cape Coast

1M Sekondi - Cities

Tamale Takoradi Takoradi Sekondi Grade 1 Railway Cape Coast Obuasi Koforidua Ho Sunyani Grade 2 Highway 0 Atlantic Ocean Grade 3 Network Grade 4 Figure 11: Most populated cities in Ghana

11 Figure 12: Map of Ghana The National Spatial Development Framework (2015) Futureurban Proofing settlement Cities hierarchy | Metropolitan divides Ghanaian cities in Ghanacities into 4 Grades based on their urban population, area-of- Burkina Faso influence and spatial distribution.

Bawku Bolgatanga

Benin Tamale

Yendi

Togo

Ghana Ivory Coast Techiman Lake Sunyani Volta Hohoe

Kumasi Ho

Nkawkaw Obuasi Koforidua Aflao

Tema Tarkwa Accra Cape Coast

Sekondi - Cities Takoradi Grade 1 Railway Grade 2 Highway Atlantic Ocean Grade 3 Network Grade 4 0 50 150 300 km

12 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

The government recognises the and working environment for all need promote Accra as a world- people to support the rapid socio- class capital city, but also to economic development of Ghana” devolve power from the golden (Government of Ghana, 2012). triangle to smaller centres in the country. Seemingly contradictory, Finally, cities in Ghana are typically the intention is to gradually release characterised by a high degree of the pressure on Accra and Kumasi informality. The NUP recognises by supporting growth in a broader the role of the informal sector, system of cities, which promotes including businesses, markets and the role of secondary cities (Cities settlements and identifies the need to Alliance, 2014). To achieve this “change the official attitude towards goal the NUP is focused on urban informal enterprises from neglect growth strategies, urban planning to recognition and policy support.” and urban management to “promote Several initiatives address informal sustainable, spatially-integrated settlements, including a commitment and orderly development of urban to end evictions, supporting in-situ settlements with adequate housing, upgrading, and introducing new infrastructure and services, efficient forms of housing finance (Cities institutions, and a sound living Alliance, 2014).

Figure 13: Busy vehicular street in Accra Credit: Jason Armstrong / Flickr

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Metropolitan cities

GAMA is a metropolitan area or region with Accra and Tema interdependently linked to both each other and other surrounding settlements.

Figure 14: Independence arch in Accra Credit: Shiran De Silva / youtube

While the latest census data suggests Given the size distribution of urban that the majority of Ghana’s centres mentioned above, Kumasi population, over 53%, lives in and Accra are the only two cities urban areas (World Bank, 2016), the in Ghana that have significant Ghana Statistical Service views any metropolitan areas. A metropolitan settlement with a population above area develops when a city gradually 5,000 people as ‘urban’. Ghana has becomes more economically Dominant primary cities hundreds of small urban settlements interdependent with its surrounding Both economic and population of 5,000 to 100,000 people. Just ten settlements, becoming a single growth have focused largely around settlements are larger than 100,000 economy and labour market, Accra and Kumasi, which make up (City Population, 2016). and a community with common approximately 40% of the total interests. They can either develop The two major urban settlements in urban population. outwardly from a single centre Ghana are Kumasi and Accra. Both through concentric circles, such as cities had estimated populations Kumasi, or through several nearby of around two million in the 2010 settlements coming together which census. By contrast Tamale, Ghana’s gradually become connected to third largest individual city, is allow business interaction, such as a quarter the size of both Accra Accra (Andersson, 2012). and Kumasi, with a population of just over 370,000 in 2010 (City Population, 2016).

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Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area Greater Accra Metropolitan Area No natural boundaries constraining urban Two Ramsar sites are constraining urban growth growth. east and west and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, leading cities to expand northward.

2000 2000

Tema Accra 1985 1985

1972

2012

Figure 15: Growth pattern in GKMA and GAMA Based on Aduro et al, 2014.

GAMA is home to some of however they feature strongly in the smallest but most densely the urban process and are a key inhabited districts in the country. owner and stakeholder in land Administratively, GAMA consists of resources. Entrusted with the role fifteen connected local government of establishing customary law in districts such as Tema Metropolitan their areas, chiefs are useful for the Area. The metropolitan area administration of the territory. But Decentralised governance is managed as a collection of this often comes at the expense The national constitution outlines Metropolitan, Municipal and District of wider local participation in a strategy of decentralised Assemblies (MMDAs) but does governance of the area, its land governance at local level. not have a central administrative and resources (Jerry, 2016). authority responsible for setting joint economic, environmental and social The rest of this report introduces policies (Cities Alliance, 2015). Each GAMA as the primary MMDA is managed as a separate ‘metropolitan city’ within Ghana. administrative planning entity. Considering the inter-connectivity of Accra and Tema within GAMA, Under the new governing this document discusses the two arrangements they do not have a cities jointly from the metropolitan formal role within policy making perspective. and governance for traditional communities and their chiefs,

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GAMA, 1985 GAMA, 2000

Figure 16: Urban growth in GAMA region Credit: World Bank, 2008

Traditional communities in GAMA

The rapid urbanisation witnessed Similarly, Tema originated as a in GAMA during this century small fishing settlement and began covers an area that has been to grow into a major conurbation inhabited for over 500 years by after national government the Ga and Dangme communities, identified it as a strategic sea-port whose economy and subsistence in the 1950s. It has continued to was characterised by farming, grow over the last 30 years. fishing and foraging. Accra itself originated as a small settlement that experienced significant growth over the past century to become the city it is today.

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Greater Accra 82% Metropolitan Area $

of the economy is informal GAMA has evolved from a series of small coastal fishing villages to be the most populated urban area in Ghana. It is the gateway to the country, generating 25% of national GDP and attracting over 80% of all foreign direct investment in the country.

GAMA stretches out along the GAMA’s growth in recent years Regular commuting in shared Atlantic coast and has a population is demonstrated by the significant transport is now a feature of life for of approximately four million increase in built-up areas, high many GAMA residents, with only people. Originally built around migration and rural-urban 3% using private cars nationally a port, GAMA has evolved from commuting. GAMA covers a huge (World Bank, 2015). Despite active a series of small coastal fishing area of over 3,000 sq. km and measures to promote growth outside settlements to be the most populated has an overall average population Accra, the centre still suffers from urban area in Ghana. Today the area density of just 103 people per traffic congestion and accounts for comprises the cities of Accra and sq. km in 2010 (Cities Alliance, almost half of the total metropolitan Tema as well as 13 other MMDAs. 2015). Population distribution is population. It is five times more The region is characterised by high uneven within the metropolitan area populated than Tema, and has a rural to urban migration as well due to the availability of natural population density of about 40,000 as internal movement of people resource and connectivity, as well people per sq. km (Chicago Sister within the GAMA districts. GAMA as policies affecting population Cities, 2016; GSS, 2014). Urban serves as the economic gateway re-distribution in the country. migrants represent 55% of Accra’s to Ghana, receiving over 80% of Between 1985 and 2000, GAMA’s population, who have moved for foreign direct investment (World population increased by 50% and work or to study. However there Bank, 2016). At its heart, the city of the urban extent increased by 160% is no specific policy to attend to Accra is a modern metropolis, with (World Bank, 2015). From 2000 to their needs or to benefit from their architecture reflecting its history 2010, people moved out of Accra productive capacity (Pescina, 2013). ranging from 19th Century buildings to surrounding municipalities and Ghana’s Department of Social to modern skyscrapers and housing districts where land was cheaper, Welfare estimates that 1% of Accra’s developments. with population growth highest in population are street children districts 10km from the city centre. (IRIN, 2007).

Figure 17: Jamestown fishing harbour. Figure 18: National Theatre in Accra Credit: David Stanley / Flickr Credit: newsghana.com.gh

17 FutureFuture Proofing Proofing Cities Cities | Metropolitan| Regional Cities cities in in Ethiopia Ghana

GAMA in numbers

ACCRA TEMA GAMA

1,665,086 29 2 ,772 4,010,054 Population 2010 Population 2010 Population 2010

Population % Population % Population % Citizenship growth rate 3.1 growth rate 2.6 growth rate 3.1

$ 74% $ 65% $ 82%

Economy Informal Economy Informal Economy Informal Economy 2014 2014 20+ Year of the latest Year of the latest Years from the latest Governance strategic plan strategic plan strategic plan

60% 75% 54%

Piped water in/outside Piped water in/outside Piped water in/outside Services home home home

59% 49% 49%

Waste collected Environment Waste collected Waste collected

Figure 19: GAMA infographic

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Accra also dominates Ghana flood plains and hazard zones in economically, providing 25% of and around Accra. While there has national GDP. Given the uneven been no formal assessment of slums, population distribution within 78 slum settlements have been GAMA, there is a desire to alleviate identified across GAMA. Most are the pressure on the centre of Accra found along and within corridors and to integrate with other parts of of railways and high-tension the metropolitan area. The National transmission lines and on the banks Spatial Development Framework of water courses (Cities Alliance, (NSDF) encourages the dispersion 2015b). of economic activity to the edges of GAMA and the increase of In terms of services in Accra, the rural-urban linkages within the proportion of households with metro area. The NSDF also stresses access to piped water dropped from the importance of planning for 91% in 2000 to 69% in 2010 (World migration flows: 35% of the GAMA Bank, 2015). Toilet facilities in both Kumasi and Accra have deteriorated population has moved during Figure 20: Accra commercial street their lifetime, many to Accra. It in this period, most prominently Credit: Jbdodane/Flickr is anticipated that the economic in the peri-urban areas of the city. lure of opportunities within the Overall basic services such as piped metropolitan area, combined with water, waste disposal and toilet environmental stresses such as facilities decrease with distance climate change and economic from the city centre. However, the stresses in the north of the country region has experienced the highest will continue to push and pull national improvement in secondary people to GAMA looking for jobs education attainment. and a better life (Republic of Ghana, Key industries in Accra include 2015). manufacturing, marketing, finance, Despite considerable economic insurance and transportation. It has growth, GAMA represents a mixed a significant financial sector, hosting picture when it comes to alleviating numerous banks, building societies, poverty and providing infrastructure the Ghana Stock Exchange and services for its people. House prices other finance houses. The service in GAMA have also increased, sector provides the largest source of which reserves ownership for the employment in Accra, and primary wealthy. An estimated 55% of the resource extraction the smallest. population live in informal housing Despite the growth in new economic (UN-HABITAT, 2009). The limited sectors, between 70-80% of all access to land has meant that workers in GAMA are employed in Figure 21: Advertising on commercial building Credit: Fairphone / flickr urban poor households have been the informal sector. This is partly displaced to rapidly expanding due to a lack of formal employment, slums in environmentally fragile training and education (Pescina, 2013).

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Circa 1500: Subsistence

Environmental change

As shown in the illustrations E-waste dumping is another below, over time, environmental alarming development that has change in GAMA has coincided grown in the GAMA area in the with economic practices. For last two decades. Some of this most of the last 500 years the waste is dumped on sites that are GAMA area was dominated with both ecologically sensitive as subsistence-led practices of fishing well as important for subsistence or farming. Empirical evidence for local communities, affecting also shows that a large number access to water, or plant- or Circa 1800-1970: Extraction of households within GAMA fisheries-based food sources. continue to rely on resources The urbanisation of recent years ‘given by nature’. Cocoa, gold has led to both environmental and timber extraction and export pollution and depletion in GAMA. practices followed, which led to The financial cost of this is significant environmental changes enormous and much of the damage at a wider scale. These have been is irreparable. more complex to replenish. Efforts to control the decimation of The loss of environmental hardwoods were implemented in livelihoods has also eroded local the late 20th century. culture and reinforced existing vulnerabilities. Not only have Circa 1970-2016: Rapid In the post-colonial period farming and fishing traditionally urbanisation particularly in this century, provided a livelihood to the Ga investment – or expectation and Dangme communities, but of investment – in real estate they have also made a significant has led to rapid expansion contribution to the creation and and development of the built cohesion of local communities environment. As a result vast (UCL, 2012). The loss of areas of green cover have livelihoods in rural areas has also been permanently lost. Inward been cited as a reason for the investment in real-estate and high prevalence of children living services has also given rise the and working on the streets of need to establish building material Accra. Since they can no longer supply chains. It is believed that be supported at home, many have GAMA now imports a staggering to seek work in Accra, losing the Circa 2016 onwards: Future 70% of its building materials into opportunity for a formal education environmental risk points the country. in the process (IRIN, 2007).

Figure 22: Environmental change in GAMA

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What is shaping GAMA?

An emerging practice of cross-boundary collaboration should be broadened to promote future investment and support integrated planning in areas such as environmental management, inclusive economic development, infrastructure service provision and transport planning.

Influence of the global carried out a series of reforms and seeking to invest in property back economy strategic activities to diversify its home. This is particularly the economy and reduce dependence case in Accra and Tema and the One of Accra’s main strengths is its on an economy based on exporting areas between these two centres. links to the international economy, primary goods and environmental Approximately three million at the corporate, individual and resources. Ghanaians, and 30% of all highly family levels. These links present educated Ghanaians, live abroad. themselves in high transnational GAMA’s links to the international Their investments in Accra’s real entrepreneurship, remittances from economy has impacted its spatial estate market are sizeable, ranging abroad and an overall increase in development. Market forces from more affordable units in gated productivity due to the regular rather than urban planning are communities to incrementally built contact with other business shaping GAMA’s spatial growth. houses. It is estimated that 3% of practices (Pescina, 2013). Ghana’s In recent decades the potential for dwellings in Accra are now within economy has historically relied inward investment into real estate gated communities such as East on global prices of commodities is driving substantial spread of Legon Hills compared with 60% such as cocoa and more recently the built environment in GAMA. in informal settlements. The rise of oil. GAMA, as the most dominant Much of this investment is driven gated communities is a trend that economic region within Ghana, is through speculative development will likely reduce equality within the the most influenced by the changes by local developers and aimed city. in commodity markets. Since at Ghanaian expatriates living gaining independence, Ghana has in the US and Europe who are

Figure 23: Street signage in Accra Credit: Jbdodane / Flickr

21 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Integration of the informal the informal economy to GAMA evictions, supporting in-situ economy is clearly articulated in the Ghana upgrading and introducing new Shared Growth and Development forms of housing finance (Cities It is believed that between 70-80% Agenda II and the National Urban Alliance, 2014). The general of the workforce within GAMA Policy. This policy recognises the institutional framework is fairly lies within the informal sector role of the informal sector, including broad and does not distinguish and it is the predominant source businesses, markets and settlements, between traditional occupations, of household income in GAMA. and identifies the need for a change street traders and other informal There is also a strong link between in the official attitude towards professions. How the informal formal and informal economies informal enterprises from “neglect economy is integrated within the as the former provides a market to recognition and policy support”. planning system will significantly for the latter. Getting the balance shape the emerging metropolitan right is complicated as the power Several initiatives are required city. relationship between the formal address informal settlements, and informal sellers is not generally including a commitment to end equal. The overall importance of

Figure 24: Informal economy in Accra Credit: Genderandenvironment.com

22 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Environmental threats play a significant role in exposure These hazards have a number to hazards in the future. The Gulf of potential risks, which will be GAMA is threatened by many of Guinea coastline is already potentially significant in shaping natural and man-made hazards. battered by the Atlantic and is the future of GAMA by placing Natural hazards include surface and facing coastal erosion. An expected additional burden on the already coastal flooding as described earlier, sea-level rise of at least 34.5cm by fragile economy of the GAMA drought, extreme temperatures, 2080 will impact low-lying coastal region. These include loss of vector-borne disease, as well as communities, particularly those that property and life; health impacts seismic hazards from local fault- have inhabited these locations for on people of all ages and gender; lines. The city also faces man- over hundreds of years (NCCAS, disruption to economic activity and made threats including air or water 2010). Mean temperature increases loss of livelihoods; and the loss pollution, depletion of natural of 3.9°C are also forecast by 2080, of the economic base, particularly resources and related health impacts presenting increased drought risk environmental resources. such as respiratory illness and water- across the country, and possibly borne pathogens such as Cholera, triggering secondary impacts such which has dominated as a priority as migration into urban areas and issue to address (100 Resilient further shortages in hydropower- Cities, 2016). based energy supply (Cities Climate change is expected to Alliance, 2015a).

Figure 25: Informal settlement in Accra

23 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Tema metropolitan district

A metropolitan area without a GAMA before 1988 metropolitan authority Accra GAMA is made up of fifteen metropolitan contiguous local government district districts. Each of these districts is managed as a separate administrative and planning entity, which means GAMA is not managed as an established metropolitan area with strong economic, environmental GAMA 1988 - 2001 and social connections. The Greater Accra Region does exist but its clear mandate is unknown. A strong regional planning authority with a clear metropolitan scale mandate will be key to helping GAMA become a world-class city and a prominent national capital zone as identified in the Ghana Shared GAMA 2001- 2008 Growth and Development Agenda (2010-2013). This is significant as issues such as environmental risks and economic development are often shared across a region of this scale and require a metropolitan- wide response. The NSDF (2015- 2035) also stresses the importance of planning for migration flows, given that the majority of the GAMA 2008- 2012 population are migrants to GAMA. As people will continue to be drawn to GAMA in search of a better life, a metropolitan authority would be an effective body to enable regional planning such as spatial development frameworks, regional accessibility strategies including public transport; coordination of infrastructure utilities and integrated planning that promotes GAMA 2012 - present co-ordinated development. Figure 26: Fragmenting administrative boundaries

24 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Unplanned urban growth Population growth was highest framework although much of in districts over 10km outside the it remains unimplemented. Ghana’s rapid urbanisation has been city centre. Currently the largest Unplanned urbanisation and limited accompanied by the unplanned increase of manufacturing in Ghana infrastructure connectivity both spatial expansion of metropolitan is occurring on the edge of GAMA, within the metropolitan area and areas. GAMA now covers a large recording a growth of 7.8% 10- between Ghanaian cities has reduced area of over 3,000 sq. km – an area 20km from the city centre (World local economic efficiency. In 2010, that increased by 160% between Bank 2015). This sprawling growth only 51% of GAMA’s population had 1985 and 2000. The population of is encouraged in the NSDF, which direct access to utility water supply GAMA also increased by 50% over promotes economic activity at the services (Allen, 2011). Transport the same period. It is now estimated edge of GAMA. costs for goods are relatively high: that 55% of Accra’s population in 2014, Ghana ranked 100 out of is from urban immigration. From A Strategic Plan for GAMA 160 survey countries in the Logistics 2000 to 2010 people continued to prepared almost 20 years ago Performance Index, only slightly move out of Accra to surrounding remains a reference point above the average for SSA. municipalities and districts within for establishing a functional GAMA where land was cheaper. metropolitan-wide governmental

Figure 27: Unplanned growth in Accra Credit: Shack Dwellers International 25 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

A lack of infrastructure connectivity prevents Ghanaian cities from reaping the gains of agglomeration, specialisation, and economies of scale. These emerging problems call for new solutions for effective management and coordination in large urban agglomerations. The NSDF (2015-2035) describes the need to focus development along transport corridors between secondary cities; and also plans to increase GAMA’s international connectivity to the neighbouring megacities of Abidjan and Lagos, creating major international transport corridors (Government of Ghana, 2015).

Figure 28: GAMA sprawl Credit: Philip Mensah 26 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Flooding and drainage Department of the Ministry of Water combined with changing rainfall Resources, Works and Housing. patterns and extreme rainfall events Within Accra, drainage The responsibility for constructing will have a profound implication infrastructure is particularly at secondary and tertiary drains lies for people’s livelihoods, especially risk, with inadequate existing with the Department of Urban in informal settlements like Old infrastructure and poor waste Roads of the Ministry of Roads Fadama, located in a low-lying management practices leading and Transport, as drains are usually riverine area in GAMA. to years of accumulated waste installed as part of road construction. in the drainage system. Korle This activity falls under the Urban Lagoon and Odaw River in Roads Department (Metro Roads particular have accumulated much Department) under the MMAs. waste over the years – including The MMAs within GAMA are plastics, scrap-metals, fridges and responsible for maintaining tertiary mattresses (McTernan, 2015). The drains, in this case mainly cleaning responsibility for primary drains and de-silting them (Verhagen et al, lies with the Hydrological Services 2010). Poor drainage infrastructure

Figure 29: Flooding due to heavy rainfall, May 2016 Credit: Kasapafmonline.com

27 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Key Themes

Low voter turn-out High levels of literacy High urban migration Less than half of Ghanaians voted Overall levels of English literacy Over half the Accra’s population in the most recent elections. are high (89%) although illiteracy has recently moved to the city among females is more than twice looking for work opportunities or to that of males. study in one of the cities numerous Citizenship educational institutions.

Clear economic dominance Significance of the informal Foreign Direct Investment GAMA dominates the Ghanaian economy GAMA attracts the vast majority economy generating a quarter of the Three-quarters of the GAMA (80%) of all foreign direct national GDP and internationally population, almost 75% relies on the investment in Ghana. forming part of a larger mega-city informal economy for its livelihood. region connecting metropolitan The proportion of women reliant on

Economy cities of Lago-Accra-Abidjan. the sector is considerably higher than men.

Outdated strategic plan Weak metropolitan governance Science and technology The latest strategic plan for the GAMA is not managed as an Ghana Vision 2020 views the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area established metropolitan area with integration of Science and was prepared over twenty years strong economic, environmental Technology as central to achieving ago. Discussions are currently and social connections. The Greater rapid economic growth and underway to update the GAMA Accra Region does exist but its clear sustainable management of natural Governance plan which is needed urgently. mandate is unknown. resources and the environment.

Recent transport Sanitation and drainage Declining access to water improvements infrastructure upgrades The proportion of households with Recent investments in road The city’s current system is about access to piped water dropped 20% infrastructure within GAMA have forty years old and has developed in the last decade. Toilet facilities improved regional connectivity. without adequate maintenance and have also deteriorated in this same The George W. Bush Highway expansion. The current system covers period, most prominently in the peri- which serves as a regional route, only 15% of Accra, and what does urban areas of the city. as part of the International Trans exist is in a state of disrepair giving Services West Africa Highway as well as a rise to environmental pollution and principal distributor for the city of degradation. The situation calls for Accra connecting the port of Tema complete and urgent overhaul. and Kotoka International Airport.

Climate change Natural hazards Environmental pollution Changing rainfall patterns and GAMA is threatened by many Man-made threats including air, extreme rainfall events combined natural hazards made worse by water and soil pollution, depletion with poor drainage infrastructure expected climate change impacts of natural resources and related will have a profound implication including surface and coastal health impacts such as respiratory for people’s livelihoods, especially flooding, coastal erosion, drought, illness and water-borne pathogens in informal settlements like Old extreme temperatures, vector-borne such as Cholera. The neighbourhood Fadama, located in a low-lying disease, as well as seismic hazards of Agbogbloshie in Accra has been Environment riverine area in GAMA. Increasing from local fault-lines. nominated as one of the world’s 10 drought risk across the country most polluted places due to e-waste could also trigger environmental activities. refugees to GAMA.

28 Lagos 460 km Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Figure 30: Map of GAMA

University of Ghana Founded in 1948 the University of Ghana is Chemu Lagoon & Tema Oil the oldest university in Ghana. Originally an Refinery affiliate college of the University of Tema Oil Refinery, located London, today it is the largest university in Tema along the bank of the lagoon Ghana with nearly 40,000 students. has been sited for illegal discharge direct into the lagoon. A massive oil spill in 2007 led to contamination spreading into the Gulf of Guinea affecting Achimota National Forest Sakumo Ramsar Site saltwater mangroves, fisheries, Originally a buffer between the famous Achimota The Sakumo Ramsar Site is a and bird habitat. School and Accra, the Achimota National Forest was wetland of international Tema Port formed in 1930. The Forest has come under severe importance covering an area of The harbour, managed by pressure from the rapid expansion of Accra. An 1,340 ha situated between Ghana Ports and Harbours Eco-Park concept is now being considered to provide Accra and Tema. The area is Authority handles 80% of environmentally-friendly eco-tourism activities while George W. Bush Highway under threat of encroaching Ghana's national exports also generating an income for the city. The George W. Bush Highway which serves as a urban development. regional route, as part of the International Trans and imports. West Africa Highway as well as a principal distributor for the city of Accra connecting the port of Tema and Kotoka International Airport. Kotola International Airportd In 2014, the airport saw over 2.5 million passengers to over 50 destinations.. Agbogbloshie neighbourhood Accra Agbogbloshie has been nominated as one of the world’s 10 most polluted places. Some call the neighbourhood the largest electronic waste dump in Africa. Despite Weija Dam this, Agbogbloshie has also become a hive Weija Dam on the Densu River Abidjan 520 km of innovation and reinvention an supports the main water treatment ‘urban-scale open-air manufactory’. plant for GAMA operated by the Ghana Water Company. The reservoir supplies about 80% of the potable water for GAMA. Old Fadama Old Fadama is an informal settlement Korle lagoon and Odaw river originally inhabited by refugees from Densu Delta Poor waste management northern Ghana. The neighbourhood is A Ramsar protected site, Densu Delta practices, neglect and highly vulnerable to flooding due to wetland is home to over 57 species of inadequate drainage low-lying land, poor drainage infrastructure birds. The mangrove vegetation infrastructure have resulted in combined with changing rainfall patterns stabilises the shoreline and provides the accumulation of waste over and extreme rainfall events. livelihood to local communities that the years – including plastics, rely on the lagoon for commercial scrap-metals, fridges and fishing, fuel-wood, and salt mining. mattresses.

GAMA

29 Lagos 460 km Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

GAMA

0 1 2,5 5 km

30 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Summary of environmental risks Three dimensions of environmental risk

GAMA’s main threat is flash flooding as a consequence of Climatic risk high intensity rainfall, poor water The impact of climatic events on infiltration and urban run-off. urban populations, infrastructure This is linked to other local risks and economies including pollution and water-borne disease, notably cholera.

Ghana’s key economic sectors such as agriculture, forestry and energy are sensitive to climate change. Recent observations show an increase in rainfall variability Geophysical risk and frequency of extreme weather events The impact of geophysical events nationally. Given that 99% of all agriculture on urban populations, infrastructure and economies in Ghana relies on rainfall, the predicted impact of climate change on Ghana’s population and economy is significant. To effectively deal with the projected impacts, the government’s strategy is to build climate resilience and sustainably manage natural resources of the country (NCCAS, 2010- 2020). Evidence abounds in Ghana that temperatures in all the ecological zones are rising whereas rainfall levels and patterns have been Biological and natural generally reducing and increasingly becoming erratic. The national economy stands to suffer resource risk from the impacts of climate change because The impact of scarce or degraded it depends on climate sensitive sectors such natural resources on urban as agriculture, energy, forestry, among populations and economies others. Based on a 20-year baseline climate observation, it is forecast that maize and other cereal crop yields will reduce by 7% by 2050. As a coastal city, Accra is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea level rise as mentioned previously, with population growth putting increasing pressure on coastal areas (Steynor et al. 2015).

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Types of threat or hazard, with current and estimated future risk rating

Extreme Storm Wildfire Drought Flood temperature Accra’s major environmental Local officials and urban Rainfall in Accra occurs in The National Disaster There was a significant risk is floods. There is experts in Accra believe that the form of intensive storm Management Plan describes drought in 1998 (New York significant coastal flood risk climate change is contributing events (Rain et al., 2011). GAMA as low wildfire risk Times, 1998) due to low-lying coastal to increasingly intense During the two-day period of In 2012-13 the national landscapes, lagoons & weather events. A significant October 24-25, 2011, Accra crop harvest was impacted poor infrastructure (Cities increase in the temperature of Airport registered a massive by drought conditions. Alliance). There are an hottest days has been observed 156 mm of rain (UNDP, (Bloomberg, 2012) This is estimated 172,000 residents at in some parts of West Africa 2011). In old Fadama nine predicted to get worse. risk of a 10-year flood. (Rain (IPCC, 2013). people died in the storm. et al., 2011) (USAID, 2013)

Mass Earthquake movement

Accra is located in an Perceived low landslide risk earthquake-prone zone considering low elevation and (Amponsah, 2008). The latest topography. tremors occurred on the 14 February and 6 March 1997 and most of the recent seismic activities registered more than 4.0 on the Richter scale.

Contamination Crop disease, Degradation Air quality Fuel scarcity degradation or depletion of infestation or or depletion of fresh water failure fisheries According to a 2011 study, Major oil and gas fields The Korle Lagoon has had Urban Sprawl has already Aquaculture has only recently roadside locations and have been discovered in extremely low levels of destroyed most significant been adopted as an assured commercial sites have 2007. Temporary fuel dissolved oxygen, as a result agriculture areas in Accra and way of meeting the deficit in high levels of air borne shortage in 2014 due to of the uncontrolled quantities Tema. Continued destruction Ghana’s fish requirements. In particulates. This can be government debts to Bulk Oil of domestic and industrial nationally presents a food 2003, Ghana produced 51.7% attributed to road dust, wind Distribution Companies. Much waste being emitted into security issue. of its fish requirements from blown dust and vehicular deforestation for fuel has the water. Loss of fishing in its domestic sources and in exhaust emissions in reduced timber reserves. Chemu lagoon is also linked 2004 achieved 68.1% (FAO, particular. to nearby factories. 2016) (EPA/UNEP, 2012) Soil Loss of Vector-borne Water-borne Air-borne contamination biodiversity disease disease disease and erosion In 13 districts of GAMA a The city’s worst fear is the TB and other diseases are still The southern shores of total of 653,112; 968,540; Most Green Space in Accra threat of a cholera outbreak, an issue in Accra and Tema GAMA are vulnerable to 834,269 and 436,437 cases of and Tema has been replaced by driven by polluted floodwaters although consistently declining floods caused by tidal waves malaria infection respectively buildings in the past 30 years. (100RC). 6.3% of GAMA with investment in detection. and coastal erosion. 80% of Widespread environmental for the years 2011; 2012; households are exposed to the shoreline is threatened destruction is common but still 2013; and 2014. (Cities arsenic pollutants. 40,000 with erosion (Appeaning, a few protected environmental Alliance, 2015). In Tema people are consequently 2013). Agbogbloshie is one of areas exist. there has been a consistent exposed to serious health the most polluted sites in the reduction, recording in 2014 hazards in Agbogbloshie, world with lead levels in soil half of the incidence in 2011. (Cities Alliance, 2015). 45 times the US limit. (Cities Alliance, 2015b).

Legend

Current Estimated risk future risk Low

Medium

High

32 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Future challenges

GAMA is the economic engine of Ghana but limited metropolitan governance means that forming integrated strategies to promote inclusive growth and tackle environmental threats is an increasing concern.

Regional governance and air or water pollution. However, transport planning. Finally there Sections 12 and 13 of the National is a need for further devolution of As the GAMA area continues to Development Planning Law Act political, administrative, and fiscal grow and becomes more closely 480 outline mechanisms through authority to all Municipal and connected, increased co-ordination which two or more adjoining local District Assemblies to encourage would enable joint decision-making governments can co-operate upon local accountability and increase by local governments (Andersson, recommendation by the Minister of autonomy. 2012). Presently there are no Local Government to the President. formal administrative structures This is provided the partnering local within the decentralisation and government shares “special physical local governance framework to or socioeconomic characteristics manage the GAMA metropolitan that necessitate it being considered area, or any other metropolitan area as a single unit for the purpose in the country, such as Kumasi. of development planning”. This By their nature, environmental emerging practice of cross-boundary issues do not fall neatly into collaboration should be broadened administrative areas, and require to promote future investment and co-ordinated regional responses support integrated planning in areas to tackle cross-border matters such as environmental management, such as integrated water resource inclusive economic development, management, waste management infrastructure service provision and

Figure 31: Accra commercial street Credit: Vevesworld.com 33 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Drivers of environmental risk A substantial proportion of to increase by 3.9°C by 2080. green cover has been lost in the This presents increased drought Environmental risk is being driven urbanisation process. Environmental risk across the country, potentially by uncontrolled urban development, refugees from the drought-prone triggering secondary impacts such combined with a lack of basic regions of northern Ghana into as migration into urban areas as well infrastructure such as drainage GAMA will continue to stretch the as further shortages in hydropower- systems, a weak environmental available environmental resources based energy supply. protection regulatory system and even further. climate change. In particular, rapid regional urbanisation over the last Finally, at a global level, GAMA 30 years has significantly reduced will be exposed to the impacts of and polluted the natural environment increased climate change in the in the GAMA region. Unregulated future. The coast along the Gulf of urbanisation has also impacted the Guinea is already battered by strong natural drainage systems within the Atlantic currents. The sea-level is region, playing a significant role expected to rise a further 80 cm by in the unprecedented June 2015 2100, affecting low-lying coastal flooding witnessed within Accra. communities, particularly those Fig. 32 shows the loss of green that make a living off fishing. The space for Accra from 1990 to 2010. mean temperature is also forecast

1990 2000 2010

Settlement Green space Wetland

Figure 32: AMA Spatial growth and green cover 1990 - 2010 Based on Rapid City Resilience Assessment Accra (RCA) Metropolitan Assembly. Cities Alliance, 2015.

34 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Infrastructure deficit Waste streams than U.S. standards. As many as 250,000 Accra residents might be Like other fast growing metropolises Waste management and the handling at risk (Time, 2013). However, an in Africa, GAMA is facing of waste streams is a challenge that estimated 6,000 to 10,000 people a multitude of infrastructure the city needs to plan for. Within work directly in the scrap trade, challenges such as sub-standard GAMA, Accra accounts for 48% providing a source of livelihood housing, inadequate solid waste of the total waste generated. Of for the urban poor. Agbogbloshie management, sanitation and this waste only 59.4% is collected has also become an ‘urban-scale drainage, and the provision of (GSS, 2014b). The neighbourhood open-air manufactory’ – a hive of water over a 3,000 sq. km. area of Agbogbloshie in Accra has been innovation and reinvention (AMP, that is expanding and attracting nominated as one of the world’s 10 2015). new people every year. Migration most polluted places. Some call the from rural areas has also created neighbourhood the largest electronic severe problems of congestion in waste dump in Africa (Al-Jazeera, the city. Sea level rise, combined 2015). Inappropriate handling of with non-climatic stressors such as e-waste is leading to both water poor drainage infrastructure, will and air pollution. The e-waste also likely worsen the future incidents enters the food-chain indirectly of flooding in the city. The lack through fish. Samples taken from of basic infrastructure is likely around Agbogbloshie indicate lead to be holding back economic levels as high as 18,125 parts per development. million – as much as 45 times higher Figure 33: AMP Spacecraft project Credit: Dezeen.com

35 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Inclusive economic growth • Competitiveness – the informal done away with, giving rise to sector is finding it hard to compete heightened insecurity and constant How the informal economy is with formal sector traders in similar threats of evictions and regulations integrated within the planning goods, such as food, as they can that do not make provision for the system will significantly shape the negotiate lower wholesale prices; needs of street vendors or hawkers emerging metropolitan city. The in urban space allocation; and informal economy in GAMA is not • Decentralisation – lack of strong clearly understood or described in oversight or accountable institutions • Urban governance – posturing much detail. Some key challenges which has often reinforced the of cities’ and official responses remain, despite clear signals from power of local elites and worsened to informal traders, coupled with the government that it is trying to spatial inequalities; a lack of understanding among include the informal economy in its city officials of the informal • Urban planning and regulations – planning. Challenges to the informal economy dynamics often promotes planning systems view the informal economy include: unnecessary confrontation. sector as a nuisance that must be

Figure 34: Informal economy in GAMA Credit: Jason Armstrong / Flickr

36 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Final Thoughts

A key challenge now is to ensure that urbanisation continues to complement growth through improvements in productivity and inclusion.

Improve integrated planning could include enhancing existing of informal housing would give and service delivery legal provisions to facilitate easier some concrete dimensions to the co-ordination. numbers living in informal housing, As discussed earlier, the ‘golden their geographical distribution, and triangle’ metropolitan cities of One of GAMA’s main challenges economic profile. GAMA should try Accra, Kumasi, and Sekondi- remains the provision of safe and to understand the total demand for Takoradi should pursue strong affordable housing. The increases affordable housing and develop a inter-jurisdictional co-ordination, in housing prices in the centre, co-ordinated strategy to address this applying integrated urban planning along with existing constraints in basic need. approaches, and facilitating supply for more affordable units, improved regional planning across has significantly deteriorated basic jurisdictions. Stronger co-operation housing fundamentals in Accra, will enable crosscutting issues making ownership a reality only for to be resolved, such as waste a wealthy minority and condemning management, transportation and an estimated 58% of the population environmental management (World to live in informal housing. Bank, 2015). Some specific actions Consistent data and revised concepts

Figure 35: George W. Bush highway Credit: Ghanapedias Channel / Youtube

37 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

A strategy that promotes views the integration of Science and productivity and inclusion Technology as central to achieving rapid economic growth and Ghana’s key challenge now is to sustainable management of natural ensure that urbanisation continues resources and the environment. to complement growth through Specific policies should be improvements in productivity developed to allow GAMA’s and inclusion, rather than economy to benefit from the city’s detracting from these goals. Rising regional position as a centre of problems include: slums, lack of knowledge and learning. basic services, underdeveloped manufacturing, and insufficient Developing strategies that can transport infrastructure. harness the huge potential of the informal sector may improve Individuals come to GAMA inclusive economic growth. If the and Accra specifically to work region can plan for the informal or to study. This suggests that sector (70-80% of the workforce) it GAMA is an important regional may improve the liveability of the centre for economic activity and city and contribute to quality of life. knowledge. Ghana Vision 2020 Figure 36: University of Ghana, founded 1948 Credit: Michael Pollak / Flickr

38 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Environmental management and 4) Existing vulnerabilities within the informal sector should be Maintaining the quality and reversed through targeted, inclusive quantity of green cover, arable “Every economic activity programming that is focused on land, water, soil, air and fisheries addressing gender and poverty- has an environmental impact are very important environmental based vulnerabilities, and tackling and so environmental considerations for the future of issues such as unequal access to protection is not just for GAMA. Policy and practice should education for street children. address environmental impacts mining but for all industry, in relation to four key items: 1) it’s for everything we do. If Environmental pollution, including we recognise this we will from significant e-waste imports take impact assessments from Europe and North America; 2) seriously.” Resource depletion, including the loss of green cover and the depletion of fisheries; 3) Climate change, Joyce Aryee including direct impacts of coastal CEO, Ghana Chamber of Mines erosion and extreme weather events;

Figure 37: Urban sprawl in Accra Credit: Jason Armstrong / Flickr 39 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Low carbon development Sub-Saharan Africa (Hogarth et growth of sprawl. Removal of fossil al, 2015). Based on our research fuel subsidies will help staunch the GAMA dominates Ghana’s we have found that some of these growth and use of private cars. economic landscape and has been initiatives are more applicable a key contributor to its economic to GAMA than others. We have In many cases, the national success over the last thirty years. summarised the most relevant government has already formulated With nearly 20% of the country’s initiative in Fig. 38. A full list policies that support low-carbon population, and generating of these initiatives is included in development. A national levy over 80% of its foreign direct Appendix B. on petroleum products has been investment and 25% of its GDP, proposed to establish a renewable initiatives to promote low-carbon GAMA has seen substantial energy fund that can spur the emission development in GAMA growth in population and sprawl transition to solar energy. A Bus can help mainstream this form of over the last twenty years, but Rapid Transit System has been development across the country. lacks an area-wide comprehensive introduced in GAMA which, if An Overseas Development Institute planning process. A number of fully implemented, can constitute a (ODI) supported study analysed key low-carbon initiatives for this viable public transportation system. economic and environmental metropolitan area emerge from the A GAMA-wide, comprehensive factors in sub-Saharan Africa, and need for better urban planning – an planning process can help identified twenty long-term cross- effective mass transit system will translate these national policies sector transitions (or initiatives) provide a low-carbon transportation into sustainable low-carbon that can promote a move to a low alternative, while integrated rural development. carbon development pathway in land-use planning can help slow the

Reduce demand Diffuse climate- Integrate Implement higher Strengthen the use for agricultural smart agriculture rural land-use density multi-use of energy efficient land by intensifying practices planning urban plans processes and production and technologies in the reducing post-harvest extractives sector waste

Figure 38: Key initiatives for low-carbon development in GAMA

40 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Appendix

41 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

A. Information mapping

Accra Tema Overall

We followed a subjective process Citizenship to assess the information that was Participation immediately available for each city. Social capital Information was supplied by Cities Alliance and Future Cities Africa Community awareness and preparedness teams. Arup carried out a global Civil rights and justice information scan to identify whether Economy any gaps could be readily filled with open-source information. We Human capital applied a rating to this information Institutional environment according to quality and availability External macro environment of data or information on each sub-dimension within the revised Industry normative framework. Outputs The GAMA region has a wealth of Governance information on the local economic Enabling environment and governance issues, although Municipal finance a greater understanding of what constitutes the region’s informal Representation and accountability economy is required. Municipal capacity There also appears to be a lack Risk management of information on local disaster Planning risk reduction activities within the GAMA region at both government Services and community level. Information Social services on local emergency service capacity Basic services is also lacking. Economic services Emergency services Environment Protective ecosystem services Regulating ecosystem services Natural resources Cultural ecosystem services Legend

High A substantial amount of information that is sufficiently detailed enough to use in further analysis work. Moderate An average amount of information of adequate detail. Information may require interpretation for further analysis work. Additional research is suggested.

Low A limited amount of information, or information of low quality or partially available information. More research is recommended. No data No data was initially supplied by Cities Alliance or Future Cities Africa team. A reasonable amount of time was spent looking for additional open-source information and none was readily available for the city.

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B. Low-carbon development initiatives mapping

Building on the in-depth sector analysis, ODI identified 20 long-term cross-sector transitions (or initiatives) that can be undertaken to promote low-carbon development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). To rank and score these initiatives, they developed a preliminary methodology using a set of four criteria: (1) the level of GHG emissions that they could avoid; (2) the risk of lock-in that they could avert; (3) their contribution to increased productivity; and (4) their contribution to poverty reduction. These initiatives were scored as having high, medium or low potential in promoting low-carbon development. Based on research carried out for this report we have provided a qualitative comparative score based on country specific knowledge.

Legend Potential for supporting low-carbon economic development

High

Medium

Low

Cross-sector transitions / initiatives SSA

Ghana Why is it relevant in Ghana? What is the opportunity in Ghana? Agriculture

Reduce demand for Large part of rural GAMA depends on agriculture Isolated studies on tomato farming in GAMA revealed agricultural land by for livelihoods and local food production. This is in significant post-harvest loss for local farmers due to poor intensifying production and competition with rapid urban sprawl outwards from practices. It suggested a lack of support with only 12% of reducing post-harvest waste Accra. farmers part of an association / farmers group.

Reduce emissions from No evidence of relevance No evidence of opportunities livestock Rural areas within Greater Accra show high reliance At the national level, agricultural policies recognise the need on agriculture. The occurrence of drought, exacerbated for environmental sustainability and integrated programmes Diffuse climate-smart by climate change patterns, is expected to reduce for drought-prone areas in Greater Accra. These policies agricultural productivity over the next 50 years. agriculture practices emphasise environmental sustainability and the application of Low farm productivity is a key driver of rural-urban science and technology to improve practices. migration. Forestry

"There is a lack of regional level planning within the Better land management practices can help reduce GAMA region. Urban sprawl is rapidly reducing the environmental degradation, rural-urban migration, and Integrate rural land-use rural area of GAMA at the expense of the environment pressure on already stretched urban services. Whilst planning and environmental livelihoods. much planning powers have been decentralised to district A key source of population growth in cities is rural-urban governments, more effective coordination between districts is migration." required for regional level planning.

In Dangme West and Dangme East, more than half of District Assemblies should initiate and implement a vigorous households use wood as cooking fuel. In the face of Capture the value of forests’ tree planting exercise in their areas of jurisdiction, alongside depleting forest and little reforestation, cutting down incentives that encourage the shift from wood- to non-wood- ecosystems services trees to produce charcoal exacerbates the deforestation based fuel. and land degradation problems.

43 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

Energy Formalise the charcoal industry, and promote Accra (with Kumasi), accounts for 57% of all charcoal consumed in the country. The demand for wood puts Switching to more efficient and reliable sources of energy will efficient charcoal kilns and Ghana’s forests under tremendous pressure and has reduce environmental damage in urban and rural areas. biomass cook-stoves, and severe consequences for the ecosystem as a whole. fuel switching Generate on-grid electricity The country's hydropower production is at risk due to low rainfall caused by climate change. National policy recognises from renewable sources Ghana already depends significantly on Hydro-electric that hydropower will need to be augmented by other sources power, alongside thermal energy. and prevent lock-in of coal (particularly thermal) and is exploring consumption and power production subsidies for this purpose. Promote electricity access Within GAMA, rural areas have significantly low connectivity Mini grids being supplied to Lake Volta island to the electricity grid than urban areas. Off-grid and mini-grid from off-grid and mini-grid communities just north of Greater Accra. systems can make up gaps in grid coverage, and help improve Legend systems in rural areas electricity access for these areas. Transport Reforms over the past decade have been largely successfully Since 2005, there has been significant progress in but the country appears to be at a crucial point where removing fossil fuel subsidies for consumption subsidisation needs to be effectively managed and reduced Remove fossil fuel subsidies accompanied by measures to support poorer citizens against socio-ecobnomic needs and volatile oil prices. The (e.g. cash transfers). However, removal of subsidies has for consumption government also proposed a levy on petroleum products to also caused the poorest to use wood and charcoal as fuel, establish a renewable energy fund that would enable residents leading to deforestation and air pollution. and “micro enterprises” to install solar panels. Improving and augmenting public transport would be a critical measure to enable a shift to a low-carbon automobile fleet. Shift to a low-carbon GAMA has almost 20% of Ghana's population but 42% Age limits have been planned for automobiles, which should of its private vehicles. Automobile repair is a key source increase fuel efficiency and reduce emissions in the automobile automobile fleet and fuels of employment in Accra and Tema. fleets. A number of national policies have been planned to reduce emission from automobiles including incentivising and increasing production of low-carbon gasoline. A majority of urban households live in dense and poorly serviced informal settlements. National policy sees urban Effective planning and implementation will help Ghana widely centres as drivers of economic growth and major centres Implement higher density deliver the benefits of economic growth to communities in of Accra and Kumasi continue to grow. The current informal settlements, as well as provide improved living multi-use urban plans standard Medium Term Development Plans (undertaken conditions for future urban migrants by all districts) are not differentiated for urban districts, and do not support effective spatial planning. Urbanisation and urban sprawl are continuing in the The introduction of a Bus Rapid Transit system is underway in Greater Accra municipality. At present privately owned GAMA but this has not been fully implemented and mobility Promote mass minibuses are a main source of public transportation. is still poor. Whilst routes are highly organised through local unions Reports suggest Gov’t plans US$30 billion Accra-Kumasi high transportation systems there are limitations in vehicle and service quality. speed rail which would improve mobility between Ghana's two Greater Accra has by far the biggest share own privately major cities. Quality affordable public transport options would owned vehicles within Ghana. help to slow the trend of private car ownership. Extractives Strengthen the use of energy efficient processes Mining is not focused in Greater Accra, most is situated in Ashanti and Central regions. Mining regulations could and technologies in the have indirect benefits for GAMA. extractives sector Switch to lower carbon fuel sources and renewable Mining is not focused in Greater Accra, most is situated in Ashanti and Central regions. Mining regulations could energy in the extractives have indirect benefits for GAMA. sector Oil one of Ghana's biggest growing industries with significant resrves recently confirmed viable. The government recently suggested it would use the windfall Remove and avoid subsidies Ghana's new found oil wealth can help drive development but from the low price of crude oil to settle debts of needs to be responsibly managed. for fossil fuel production country’s Bulk Oil Distribution Companies, (from earlier subsidies), and respond to consumers’ demand for a 10% drop in prices.

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Construction

Voluntary building code schemes, such as the Green Reduce emissions from Star Building Rating System in Ghana, can help stakeholders High economic growth has been accompanied by a adapt their behaviours over time and incorporate processes that construction materials and construction boom in Accra methods lead to more efficient building practices over time, often transforming into mandatory codes after a few years.

Voluntary building code schemes, such as the Green Star Building Rating System in Ghana, can help stakeholders Reduce emissions from High economic growth has been accompanied by a adapt their behaviours over time and incorporate processes that construction boom in Accra buildings operations lead to more efficient building practices over time, often transforming into mandatory codes after a few years. Manufacturing Increase use of energy Tema oil refinery is government operated. UNEP presentation suggests activities for cleaner energy production including efficient processes Heavy manufacturing is not situated in Accra, Tema has Hydrotreaters to be installed to handle distillates and some heavy industry including a shipyard and an oil and technologies and Hydrocracker to be incorporated. refinery. clean energy in heavy As Ghana’s only Refinery, the Tema plant has a core role manufacturing cleaner fuel production, security and sustainability. Industrialisation is picking up in Accra and other cities. Light manufacturing, while being a low-emission option, Drive growth in light Light manufacturing is already a key indistry in Accra. can be a significant contributor to inclusive growth for the Need to ensure not at the expense of environmental manufacturing primarily agriculture-reliant economy livelihoods. One of the main sources of livelihoods in Accra is automobile servicing and repairs. With additional training there is the Industrialisation is picking up in Accra and other cities. potential workforce for the production of low carbon products Develop low-carbon Light manufacturing is already a key indistry in Accra. such as hybrid and electric cars. There are a number of car Need to ensure not at the expense of environmental products manufacturers with operations in Ghana, and the Indian livelihoods. car manufacturer Mahindrahas recently begun electric car production in Ghana.

45 Future Proofing Cities | Metropolitan cities in Ghana

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