J. Range Manage. 55:309-311 May 2002 grazing management: historical perspective

JAMES A. YOUNG

The author is Range Scientist, USDA, Agricultural Research Service, 920 Valley Road, Reno, Nev. 89512.

Abstract Resumen

Halogeton [Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C. A. Mey], is a El "Halogeton" [Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C. A. Mey], es que fue introducida acciden- fleshy, annual, herbaceous species that was accidentally intro- una especie herbacea anual carnosa Unidos durante el siglo 20. duced into the western U. S. during the 20th century. Because it is talmente al oeste de los Estados ovinos (Ovis aries), en highly poisonous to (Ovis aries), this rather diminutive Debido a que es altamente toxica para los hierba vino a ser el cen- herb became the center of attention for biological research on la decada de los anos 50 esta diminutiva los pastizales Intermountain rangelands during the 1950s. Grazing manage- tro de atencion de la investigacion biologica de para "Halogeton" ment for halogeton involves procedures to prevent accidental Intermontanos. El manejo del apacentamiento prevenir el envenenamiento acci- poisoning of the grazing animals, and management to encourage involucra procedimientos para el manejo para pro- the density and vigor of competing perennial vegetation to bio- dental de los animales en apacentamiento y de la vegetation perenne competitiva logically suppress halogeton. Halogeton became most abundant mover la densidad y vigor el "Halogeton". El "Halogeton" in salt desert rangelands and the lower elevation portions of the para suprimir biologicamente los pastizales deserticos salados sagebrush (Artemisia)/bunchgrass zone. In the sagebrush zone vino a ser mas abundante en y de la zona de "Sagebrush" the introduced perennial crested wheatgrass [Agropyron deserto- en las porciones de baja elevacion En la zona del "Sagebrush"el rum (Fisher) Schultes] was widely planted to both suppress (Artemisia)/pastizal amacollado. "Crested wheatgrass" [Agropyron halogeton and to provide alternative forage for livestock. In the zacate perenne introducido fue ampliamente plantado para deserts, the management of native chenopod shrubs was the desertorum (Fisher) Schultes] salt proveer una alternative forrajera key to suppressing halogeton. The key species in salt deserts was the suprimir el "Halogeton" y salados, el manejo de los arbus- highly preferred semi-woody species winterfat [Krascheninnikova para el ganado. En los desiertos fue la calve para suprimir el lanata (Pursh) A. D. J. Meeuse & Smit]. In many parts of the tos nativos Chenopodiaceos in importance "Halogeton". La especie calve en los desiertos salados fue la Intermountain region, halogeton has declined preferida "Winterfat" because of the reduced importance of the range sheep industry and especie semi-lenosa altamente (Pursh) A. D. Meeuse & Smit]. En improved range condition. In the south central Great Basin, haloge- [Krascheninnikova lanata J. partes de la region intermontana el "Halogeton" ha dis- ton is still considered a serious problem. muchas minuido en importancia debido a la reducida importancia de la industria ovina en pastizales y el mejoramiento de la condicion de los pastizales. En la Gran Cuenca sur central el "Halogeton" Key Words: Salt deserts, poisonous , plant ecology 'todavia es considerado un serio problema.

Searching in 1934 for for the USDA, Forest Service herbarium, Ben Stahmann and S. S. Hutchings first collected First Reported Toxicity halogeton [Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C. A. Mey] southeast of Wells, Nev. (Young et al. 1999). It took a considerable period of time for the new collection to be identified. When it was finally By chance, the first reported poisoning of sheep by halogeton lost identified as Halogeton there was virtually nothing in the scientif- occurred near Wells, Nev. (Young et al. 1999). Nick Goicoa 1942. C. H. ic literature concerning the characteristics of the species. It took 160 head from a band of sheep in November much longer to arrive at a species name for the plant. The first Kennedy of the Nevada Department of Agriculture made a post- were choice was H. sativa (L.) C. A. Mey, which would place the ori- mortem and found the stomach filled with leaves he thought gin of the introduction in North Africa or Spain. Eventually, it mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt.). Kennedy was decided by international experts in of the sent the stomach material to C. E. Fleming, Chair of the Chenopodiaceae that H. glomeratus was the correct taxon. The Department of Range Management at the University of Nevada. distribution of the species was roughly indicated as Middle Asia Fleming compared the recovered material with herbarium speci- east of the Caspian Sea. mens and correctly identified the plant as halogeton. Fleming sent his assistant Fred Harris, to Wells to investigate the apparent halogeton poisoning (Young et al. 1999). With the help of local sheep herders, Harris was able to identify several other fairly large scale losses that previously occurred in haloge- ton patches, but were not connected with the invasive weed. L. M. Burge of the Nevada Department of Agriculture launched a Manuscript accepted 30 May 01. survey of the area infested around Wells and was amazed to dis-

JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT 55(3) May 309 cover the exotic species occurred over as the seeds were moistened. The brown perennial grass suppressed halogeton. much of northern Nevada. seeds had very low or no germinations The Bureau of Land Management M. R. Miller (1943), an agricultural (Cronin 1973). Many people made the (BLM), USDI, launched a massive pro- chemist at the University of Nevada, pub- assumption that the brown seeds were gram of halogeton suppression through lished in Science that dried sample of obviously immature and therefore not seeding crested wheatgrass. Seedings halogeton herbage contained total oxalates viable. This led to the assumption that all ranged in area from small patches to a sin- equivalent to 19% (later determined as halogeton seeds would germinate in a gle seeding of 15,000 acres (6,000 ha) high as 20%) anhydrous oxalic acid. The given year with no persistent seedbank. (Mathews 1986). This program was poisonous agent of halogeton had been Therefore, if a given crop of halogeton was encouraged by Marion Clawson when he identified. Professor Miller initially used a entirely prevented from setting seed the was the Director of the BLM. He correctly gold pan to recover the oxalate crystals. plant could be eradicated. M. C. Williams saw halogeton as the symptom of the true (1960) determined that brown seeds were problem which was a vastly overgrazed produced first by halogeton plants and range resource. Crested wheatgrass seed- Eco-physiology of Halogeton shorter day lengths induced black seed for- ing enlarged the forage base. The technol- mation. A long term, regional study of the ogy necessary to make perennial grass The range sheep industry became very longevity of buried black and brown Seedings successful came from a dynamic halogeton seeds alarmed about the potential danger from confirmed the brown group of talented researchers that included the newly recognized poisonous plant. seeds (brown because of retained ) A. C. Hull, Jr., Jerry Klump, A. P. remained viable and germinable in the soil Plummer, and J. H. Robertson (Young and After World War II, research was initiated for almost 10 years (Robocker et al. 1969). MacKenzie 1985). on many aspects of the ecology and toxicity Halogeton seeds had both simulations and Unfortunately, crested wheatgrass is not of halogeton. When it was discovered that continuous strategies. adapted to salt affected soils. Attempts to halogeton infestations existed in California, seed halogeton infested sites mar- Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming, the research on the gins of the salt deserts resulted in failure became regional in nature. National publici- (Young et al. 1999). The lack adapted ty about what was termed the "killer" weed Halogeton Control Measures of brought USDA, Agricultural Research plant material for revegetation in the salt deserts was a major stumbling point in the Service (ARS) into the fight against haloge- The initial approach to halogeton infes- entire halogeton program. ton (Young 1988). Initially, many of the tations was to attempt to eradicate the poi- ARS scientists working on halogeton were sonous pest (Young et al. 1999). It was transferred from Forest Service Experiment soon determined that infestations were Stations. much too extensive to make eradication Winterfat The autecology of halogeton was enu- feasible. The Nevada Department of merated as an annual species that was Agriculture, under the direction of L. M. The native plant species that was closely highly adapted, but not restricted to salt Burge, launched an extensive halogeton tied to negative aspects of halogeton inva- affected soils. Individual plants were capa- control program using weed oil and the sion was winterfat [Krascheninnikovia ble of tremendous seed production. It relatively new herbicide 2,4-D [(2,4- lanata (Pursh) A.D.J. Meeuse & Smit]. In became apparent that halogeton was not a dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid]. Both herbi- an environment where most shrubs are not highly competitive species, but essentially cides were very effective in killing haloge- highly preferred by domestic livestock, populations exploded in the ecological ton, but unless the weed was replaced with winterfat was a significant exception. It void left by repeated disturbance such as a desirable perennial plant, halogeton has been suggested that winterfat is the livestock trails, un-surfaced roads that reappeared the next year. Re-infestation plant that made domestic livestock possi- were periodically graded, trampled areas came from the large seedbanks of brown ble in the Great Basin (Young and Sparks near watering points or corrals and most seeds. 1985). significantly in rangeland areas denuded Winterfat is a key forage species in salt by excessive grazing (Young et al. 1999). desert communities. The browse of this Halogeton had a competitive advantage in Halogeton Biological semi-woody species is highly preferred by that leachate from its herbage concentrated Suppression domestic livestock during the winter salts on the soil surface (Kinsinger and months. Winterfat is a component species Eckert 1961). In time, the salt concentra- of many plant communities in the salt In 1933, a wildfire burned several hun- tions prohibited the establishment of deserts (Billings 1945). It is best known dred acres plants other than halogeton. of degraded sagebrush range for the extensive, near mono-specific plant east of Wells, Nev. (Young et al. 1999). J. Lack of understanding the nature of the communities it forms on certain soils in dimorphic seeds produced by halogeton H. Robertson was conducting research on the deserts (Gates et al. 1956). These range revegetation and their inherent germination ecology for the Intermountain expanses of nearly pure winterfat consti- was to interact with subsequent manage- Forest and Range Experiment Station of tuted excellent winter ranges. the Forest Service. ment strategies. Early in the autecological Robertson borrowed an Winterfat communities historically were old drill and towed it around the studies of halogeton it was noted that both burn with not subject to stand renewal by wildfires his pickup, black and brown seeds were produced by seeding representative soil because of a lack of herbaceous vegetation types to the same plant (Tisdale and Zappettini crested wheatgrass [Agropyron to carry fires. The relatively dense mono- desertorum (Fisher) 1953). The black seeds proved to be high- Schultes]. Halogeton cultures were subject to natural catastroph- invaded the burned area. ly germinable. The seed consisted of a Robertson took ic stand renewal caused by outbreaks of range managers and ranchers on tours tightly coiled embryo with a minimal cov- of native insects (Young et al. 1999). In the his meandering seeding ering. Germination started almost as soon showing how the Great Basin, winterfat often is found

310 JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT 55(3) May 2002 growing under near truly and conditions ing of such herders is often hampered by Kinsinger. F. E. and R. E. Eckert, Jr. 1961. where the annual depth of wetting in the language barriers. Emergence and growth of annual and peren- soil profile may be less than 25 cm. nial grasses and forbs in soils altered by leachate. J. Range Manage. Winterfat is often growing in a very frag- halogeton 14:194-197. ile environmental setting. The classic Present Status of Halogeton Mathews, W. L. 1986. Early use of crested management formula for winterfat winter wheatgrass seeding in halogeton control. pp ranges is to remove livestock in the early The range of halogeton continues to 27-28. In: K. L. Johnson (ed.) Crested still soil spring while there is sufficient expand (Young et al. 1999). It is now Wheatgrass Symposium. Utah State Univ., growth and moisture available to allow for found east of the Missouri River and in Logan, Utah. replenishment of carbohydrate reserves for Miller, M. R. 1943. Halogeton glomeratus, Canada on the northern Great Plains (see fall flowering. poisonous to sheep. Sci. 97:227-229. Young et al. 1999 for maps of the progres- many winterfat commu- Ralphs, M. H. and L. A. Sharp. 1988. Unfortunately, sion of halogeton spread over time). In the nities were excessively grazed and once Management to reduce livestock loss from Great Basin, halogeton has largely poisonous plants. 391-407 In: L. F. halogeton was introduced it rapidly colo- pp. declined in importance except for the pre- James, M. H. Ralphs, and D. B. Nielson in winterfat communi- nized any openings viously mentioned continued colonization (eds.) The Ecology and Economic Impacts of ties (Eckert 1954). This remains a very of winterfat stands. The range sheep Poisonous Plants on Livestock Production. in the central Great Basin. serious problem industry has greatly declined. This decline Westview Press, Boulder, Colo. by the exotic A. It is further complicated in sheep numbers, coupled with greatly Robocker, W. C., M. C. Williams, R. (Bromus L.) Evans, and P. Torell.1969. Effect of age, annual cheatgrass tectorum improved grazing management, has result- J. halogeton on some of the win- burial, and region on germination and replacing ed in improved range condition in many terfat sites. viability of halogeton seeds. Weed Sci. salt desert winter ranges. 17:63-65. Halogeton has faced increased competi- Tisdale, E. W. and G. Zappettini. 1953. tion from more vigorous native vegetation Halogeton studies on Idaho ranges. J. Range Management of Grazing Animals and from competing exotic annuals. Manage. 6:225-236. Barbwire Russian thistle (Salsola Williams, M. C. 1960. Biochemical analyses, Much of what is known about managing paulsenii Litv.) has invaded much of the germination, and production of black and livestock to prevent halogeton poisoning Great Basin and it overlaps in ecological brown seed of Halogeton glomeratus. Weeds 8:452-461. has been developed by the Poisonous requirements with halogeton to a greater Young, J. A. 1988. The public response to the Plant Research Unit of USDA, ARS, extent than Russian thistle (S. targus L.) catastrophic spread of Russian thistle (1880) located at Logan, Utah. Lynn F. James, the (Young and Evans 1979). The invasion of and halogeton (1945). Agr. History research leader for the Poisonous Plant the upper portions of the salt desert ranges 62:122-130. Laboratory, and his associates have con- by cheatgrass has also contributed to the Young, J. A. and R. A. Evans.1979. Barbwire tributed much of the literature concerning decline in the distribution and abundance Russian thistle seed germination. J. Range halogeton intoxication of herbivores and of halogeton (Young and Tipton 1990). Manage. 32:390-394. livestock management strategies (Young The general decline in the range sheep Young, J. A. and D. McKenzie. 1982. et al. 1999). James and Cronin (1974) industry in the Great Basin can not be Rangeland drill. Rangelands 4:108-113. Young, A. and B. A. Sparks. 1985. Cattle the following management points blamed only on halogeton poisoning. J. offered in the cold desert. Utah State Univer. Press, predation and economic fac- to minimize range sheep losses from Labor cost, Logan, Utah halogeton poisoning: 1) avoid over graz- tors also contributed to the reduction in Young, J. A. and Tipton, F. 1990. Invasion of ing that creates habitat for halogeton, 2) sheep, but for individual operators who cheatgrass into arid environments of the develop grazing management programs suffered large death losses, halogeton poi- Lahontan Basin. pp 37-41 In: McArthur, that result in improving range condition, soning was very significant. E. D., Romney, E. V., Smith, S. D., and 3) reduce grazing pressure during Tueller, P. T. (eds.) USDA, Forest Service, droughts, 4) avoid late spring grazing that Gen. Tech. Report INT-276, Ogden, Utah. injures native perennials, 5) supply ade- Literature Cited Young, J. A., P. C. Martinelli, R. E. Eckert, quate water, 6) observe the sheep and Jr., and R. A. Evans. 1999. Halogeton. Misc. Publ. 1553. Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, they are grazing, 7) allow time know what Billings, W. D. 1945. The plant associations of Washington, D. C. for rumen microorganisms to adapt to the Carson desert region, western Nevada. oxalates, 8) introduce animals to haloge- Bulter Univer. Botany Studies 7:89-123. ton-infested areas gradually, 9) do not Cronin, E. H. 1973. Pregermination treatment unload animals from trucks into halogeton of black seed of halogeton. Weed Sci. patches unless there is supplemental feed 21:125-127. and water, 10) never allow hungry animals Eckert, R. E., Jr. 1954. A study of competi- to graze in large, dense patches of haloge- tion between whitesage and halogeton in Nevada, J. Range Manage. 7:223-225. ton, and 11) do not trail thirsty animals D., L. A. Stoddart, and C. W. Cook. by Gates, into watering places surrounded 1956. Soil as a factor influencing plant distri- halogeton without food supplement. The bution on the salt deserts of Utah. Ecol. continued use by the Great Basin range Monogr. 26:155-175. sheep industry of non-resident herders, James, L. F. and E. H. Cronin. 1974. often from countries with vastly differing Management practices to minimize death environments, has contributed to the losses of sheep grazing halogeton infested occurrence of halogeton poisoning ranges. J. Range Manage. 27:424-426. (Ralphs and Sharp 1988). Adequate train-

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