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1977

Vegetation and Environmental Features of Forest and Range Ecosystems

George A. Garrison

Ardell J. Bjugstad

Don A. Duncan

Mont E. Lewis

Dixie R. Smith

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Recommended Citation Garrison, George A. et al. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture Handbook No. 475. Washington D.C.

This Report is brought to you for free and open access by the Aspen Research at DigitalCommons@USU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Aspen Bibliography by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@USU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. VEGETATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES OF FOREST AND RANGE ECOSYSTEMS

by

George A. Garrison, Ardell J. Bjugstad, Don A. Duncan, Mont E. Lewis, and Dixie R. Smith

Forest Service July 1977 U.S. Department of Agriculture Agriculture Handbook No. 475

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 001-000-03306-9 Contents

Page Index to FRES Ecosystems and the Kuchler System Equivalents ______m Forest and Woodland Ecosystems ______------iii Shrub land Eco sys terns __------·iv Gr ass Ian d Eco sys terns ------__------· iv Alpine Eco sys tern ------______------iv Introduction ______------______------· 1 Classification of Vegetation ------1 Classification of Productivity and Condition ------2 Source Materials ______------3 The Vegetation Map ------______3 Descriptions of Ecosystems ------3 Appendix A-General References ------63 Appendix B-References on Mammals and Birds ______63 Appendix C-References Used in Describing Individual Ecosystems ______64

Garrison, George A., Ardell J. Bjugstad, Don A. Duncan, Mont E. Lewis, and Dixie R. Smith. 1977. Vegetation and Environmental Features of Forest and Range Eco­ systems.U.S. Dep. Agric., Agric. Handb. 475, 68 p., illus. This publication describes the 34 ecosystems into which all the land of the 48 contiguous States has been classified in the Forest-Range Environmental Study (FRES) of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The description of each ecosystem discusses physiography, climate, vegetation, fauna, soils, and land use. For a number of the ecosystems, the descriptions include discussions of the productivity classes into which these units have been categorized. For each of these ecosystems, the herbage production in each class is given. An index relates the ecosystems to phytocoenoses. Keywords: Ecosystems, environment, forests, range, range productivity, phytocoenoses. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-600120 Index to PRES Ecosystems and the Kuchler System Equivalents

The number and name of each ecosystem is followed by the phytocoenosis designation or desig­ nations (e.g., K-1 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest) assigned by A. W. Kuchler on his 1966 map, "Potential Natural Vegetation," (USDI Geol. Surv. 1967, 1970) .1

FOREST AND WOODLAND ECOSYSTEMS Page Page 19. Aspen-birch ·-··-······-··············-··-···-··-······· 18 K-97 Northern hardwoods 10. White-red-jack pine ...... 3 (seral stages) K-86 Great Lakes pine forest K-98 Northern hardwoods-fir forest 11. Spruce-fir ·················--·-·-·---·-·-·---··-······---· 5 ( seral stages) K-84 Great Lakes spruce-fir forest K-99 Northern hardwoods-spruce K-85 Conifer bog forest ( seral stages) K-87 Northeastern spruce-fir forest 20. Douglas-fir ···--··-············-························· 18 K-88 Southeastern spruce-fir forest K-2 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir 12. Longleaf-slash pine --·--····-·····-·-·-·········- 5 forest K-102 Southern mixed forest K-11 Douglas-fir forest ( seral stages) K-24 Mosaic of cedar-hemlock­ K-106 Subtropical pine forest Douglas-fir forest (K-2) (southern Florida) and Oregon oakwoods (K-22) 13. Loblolly-shortleaf pine ·--·-····-······-·-··---·- 8 K-25 California mixed evergreen K-100 Northeastern oak-pine forest forest K-101 Oak-hickory-pine forest 21. Ponderosa pine ······-···········-·····--·······-···· 21 K-104 Pocosin K-5 Mixed conifer forest K-105 Sand pine scrub K-9 Pine-cypress forest 14. Oak-pine ·---·------··--··--···----·--·-·--···········9 K-10 Western ponderosa forest K-101 Oak-hickory-pine forest K-15 Eastern ponderosa forest K-102 Southern mixed forest K-16 Black Hills pine forest 15. Oak-hickory·------·--·--··--·--·-·----·--···-··--···-- 10 K-17 Pine-Douglas-fir forest K-72 Oak savanna K-18 Arizona pine forest K-73 Mosaic of bluestem prairie 22. Western white pine·········--···-···--············ 24 (K-66) and oak-hickory K-12 Cedar-hemlock-pine forest forest (K-91) 23. Fir-spruce ·-············································ 24 K-75 Cross Timbers K-3 Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest K-80 Black Belt K-4 Fir-hemlock forest K-91 Oak-hickory forest K-7 Red fir forest K-95 Appalachian oak forest K-14 Western spruce-fir forest 16. Oak-gum-cypress --·--·-----·-·--·----·-·-······--·14 K-19 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest K-81 Live oak-sea oats K-20 Southwestern spruce-fir forest K-82 Cypress savanna 24. Hemlock-Sitka spruce ······-··················· 27 K-96 Mangrove K-1 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest K-103 Southern -flood-plain forest 25. Larch ...... ··-······-· ...... 27 17. Elm-ash-cottonwood --···-·--···-·--·--·-······· 15 K-13 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest K-89 Northern flood-plain forest 2 26. Lodgepole pine ·-···------·------30 K-92 Elm-ash forest K-8 Lodgepole pine-subalpine 18. Maple-beech-birch ·-----·------·-·--·--··········· 16 forest K-90 Maple-basswood forest K-93 Beech-maple forest 27. Redwood ------·-·-----···----·-···----·-·--·------··-·-·31 K-94 Mixed mesophytic forest K-6 Redwood forest K-97 Northern hardwoods 28. Western hardwoods --·----·-·---··--·-·-----··-·-31 K-98 Northern hardwoods-fir forest K-22 Oregon oakwoods K-99 Northern hardwoods-spruce K-26 California oakwoods forest 2 Contains the USDA Forest Service's (1966) Forest Survey local types 95-Bristlecone pine and 96-Whitebark 1 Years and accompanying references in parentheses pine that are classified by the Forest Survey as non­ refer to literature cited in Appendix A-General Refer­ commercial but generally occurring in ecosystems re­ ences. lated to others included under this general designation.

III SHRUBLAND ECOSYSTEMS Page Page K-46 Fes~~e-mountain muhly prairie 29. Sagebrush ------33 K-32 Great Basin sagebrush K-56 Foothills prairie K-49 Sagebrush steppe 37. Mountain meadows 3 ______49 K-50 Wheatgrass-needlegrass 38. Plains grasslands ------50 shrubsteppe K-57 Grama-needlegrass-w hea tgrass 30. Desert shrub ------35 K-58 Grama-buffalo grass K-23 Mesquite bosques K-59 Wheatgrass-needlegrass K-33 Black brush K-60 Whea tgrass-bl uestem- K-34 Saltbush-greasewood needlegrass K-35 Creosotebush K-61 Whea tgrass-grama-buff alo K-36 Creosotebush-bursage grass K-37 Paloverde-cactus shrub K-62 Bluestem-grama prairie K-76 Mesquite-buffalo grass 31. Shinnery ------·37 K-64 Shinnery 39. Prairie 52 K-63 S-~nds~ge-bluestem prairie 32. Texas savanna ------39 K-38 Ceniza shrub K-66 Bluestem prairie K-54 Mesquite-acacia savanna K-67 Nebraska Sand Hills prairie K-55 Mesquite-live oak savanna K-68 Blackland prairie K-77 Juniper-oak savanna K-69 Bluestem-sacahuiste prairie K-78 Mesquite-oak savanna K-74 Cedar glades K-79 Fayette prairie 33. Southwestern shrubsteppe ______41 K-52 Grama-tobosa shrubsteppe 40. Desert grasslands ------·54 K-53 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna K-47 Grama-galleta steppe Chaparral-mountain shrub ______K-48 Grama-tobosa prairie 34. 43 K-51 Galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe K-27 Oak-juniper woodland K-28 Transition between oak- 41. Wet grasslands ------56 juniper woodland (K-27) K-42 Tule marshes and mountain-mahogany- K-65 Northern cordgrass prairie oak scrub (K-31~ K-70 Southern cordgrass prairie K-29 Chaparral K-71 Palmetto prairie K-30 Coastal sagebrush K-83 Everglades K-31 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub 42. Annual grasslands 58 35. Pinyon- juniper ______------·- 45 K-41 California steppe K-21 Juniper-pinyon woodland ALPINE ECOSYSTEM GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS 44. Alpine ------.. 61 K-45 Alpine meadows and barren 36. Mountain grasslands ------47 K-40 Fescue-oatgrass 3 Not recognized by Kuchler but included in FRES K-43 Fescue-w hea tgrass because of the significance of their management to K-44 Wheatgrass-bluegrass rangeland management.

IV VEGETATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES OF FOREST AND RANGE ECOSYSTEMS1

Introduction

This is one of the reports developed as part mapping vegetation and his revised map of of the Forest-Range Environmental Study 1966, "Potential Natural Vegetation" (USDI (FRES) of the Forest Service, U.S. Depart­ Geol. Surv. 1967, 1970) were used as a basis ment of Agriculture. This report presents de­ for aggregating many plant communities (phy­ scriptive sketches of 34 soil-vegetation units, tocoenoses) into ecosystems. Ki.ichler's system called ecosystems. These cover all the land area is an approximation of the potential natural of the 48 contiguous States. vegetation of the United States. To simplify The descriptions of the ecosystems are con­ data compilations, the forest and woodland densations of a considerable body of literature, ecosystems were made synonymous with broad data, and personal knowledge of the authors geographic forest types described by the USDA and some of their colleagues. Each description Forest Service (1967) in the standards for its contains brief sections on physiography, cli­ nationwide Forest Survey. mate, vegetation, fauna, soils, and land use. In Many of the "real vegetation types" of today many instances the description also includes an may continue to be managed so that they may approximation of herbage and browse produc­ never develop to the Kuchler potential. Never­ tion, which may be general or detailed, depend­ theless, the concept of potential vegetation pro­ ing upon the amount of information available. vides a realistic common denominator for classi­ Each ecosystem is numbered and titled. The fication. It is quite widely accepted. Therefore, numbering arbitrarily begins with 10. Eco­ equivalents were established where possible system 43 is not described in this publication between the commonly used vegetation units of because, like certain other ecosystems, it does other land inventory systems and the communi­ not occur in the 48 contiguous States. ties established by Kiichler. In this way, data Subunits of the ecosystems described in this from the Bureau of Land Management, Bureau report served as the land units for which 1970 of Indian Affairs, Soil Conservation Service, yields of 22 products of forest and range lands National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Ser­ were estimated. These subunits, called resource vice, and Forest Service were incorporated into classes, also were used as the land bases for an inventory of land by ecosystems. predicting outputs from resources when six An ecosystem, as the term is used in the different management strategies were applied study, may contain one or more major plant in turn within each resource class. communities. In all cases, closely related com­ munities are aggregated into a specific eco­ system. For example, all of the many grassland CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETATION communities are aggregated into eight grass­ In establishing the system of classifying land ecosystems. On the other hand, the pinyon­ vegetation, A. W. Kiichler's (1964) 2 scheme of j uniper community is maintained by itself as an ecosystem in this study. Areas of barren 1 By George A. Garrison, principal plant ecologist, desert and barren rock are included with the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Sta­ ecosystems in which they occur. Lack of com­ tion; Ardell J. Bjugstad, principal plant ecologist, Rocky plete data in some cases and a practical need Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; Don A. Duncan, principal plant ecologist, Pacific Southwest for coordination of classification systems re­ Forest and Range Experiment Station; Mont E. Lewis sulted in some compromises which meet the (retired), formerly range conservationist, Intermoun­ practical objectives of the study. tain Region; and Dixie R. Smith, chief ecologist, Wash­ In brief, the vegetation classification scheme ington Office-all of the USDA Forest Service. used in this report is a composite and com­ 2 Years and accompanying references in parentheses refer to literature cited in Appendix A-General Refer­ promise of some concepts yet is useful to the ences. objectives of the total study.

1 High Low CLASSIFICATION OF Characteristic productivity productivity PRODUCTIVITY AND CONDITION Soil: depth Deep Shallow Forest Ecosystems texture Friable or light Sandy or heavy permeability Permeable Impermeable Classification of productivity and condition in fertility Fertile Infertile FRES differs for forest and for nonforest moisture Optimum Very dry or wet ecosystems. For nonforest ecosystems, tradi­ drainage Well drained Boggy or swampy tional concepts and data are available for use Slope: in evaluating productivity and condition in position Bottom lands Ridgetops and relation to range management. To mechanically and lower upper slopes extrapolate the concepts derived for Forest Ser­ slopes aspect North and South and vice range to all categories of ownership is east facing west facing comparatively easy. For forest ecosystems, the Growing Long Short productivity and condition classifications had season to be changed. Because the Forest Survey pro­ Lesser Luxuriant Sparse vides the best data on forest ecosystems, its vegetation procedures for evaluating productivity and con­ dition were adapted to meet the needs of FRES. Experts who are knowledgeable about the man­ Fortunately, the Forest Survey (USDA Forest agement and ecology of a specific forest eco­ Serv. 1973) was able to classify the Nation's system can point to the environmental factors forest ecosystems in terms of ownership, site most closely related to production of timber, productivity class, and stand condition. herbs and shrubs, and other outputs of that Forest productivity classes.-The range pro­ ecosystem. ductivity of forest ecosystems should be evalu­ Forest condition classes.-Three condition ated by some system that integrates all of the classes unrelated to those used in evaluating outputs, but we cannot yet achieve such a range productivity are recognized for each holistic ideal. We are compelled to accept the forest ecosystem. N onstocked stands are con­ Forest Survey system for estimating produc­ sidered as being in condition 1. Seedling-sapling tivity based on capacity to produce wood. The and pole stands are considered as being in corresponding categories for estimating the condition 2. Sawtimber stands are considered productivity of an acre of forest ecosystem are as being in condition 3. This system is arbitrary, as follows: for it overlooks stocking level, but the Forest Survey cannot as yet provide any better single Forest Survey FRES system for evaluating condition. site class productivity class Condition 1 is found on areas that are not 120 or more cubic feet 1. High stocked with trees. N onstocked areas, accord­ 85 thru 119 cubic feet 2. Moderately high ing to the Forest Survey, have less than 10 50 thru 84 cubic feet 3. Moderately low percent of the area occupied by growing stock 0 thru 49 cubic feet 4. Low of forest trees. The nonstocked condition may Commercial forest types that produce less than be temporary, as in the hiatus between crops 20 cubic feet are classified by the Forest Survey of forest trees, or it may be relatively perma­ as noncommercial unproductive. FRES con­ nent, as on lands covered with brush as a siders forest lands in this category as being of result of forest fires. The Forest Survey classi­ low productivity. fied nonstocked land according to its estimated The productivity of forest ecosystems can be productivity for timber but did not classify described quite precisely in terms of volume of such land by timber type. Data on acreages of wood produced, but the physical and biological nonstocked forest land in a State are given factors related to productivity can only be only by ownership and productivity class. described in generalities. It is impossible to Therefore, FRES prorated the nonstocked areas describe for forest ecosystems the myriad fac­ to the forest ecosystems occurring in each kind tors that affect productivity directly or indi­ of ownership in a State. rectly. Forest ecologists now lean toward de­ Outputs from nonstocked forest ecosystems scribing the potential production of sites in are characterized in general by abundant herb­ terms of moisture relations. Generally, mesophy­ age and browse production, rather high storm tic sites have the highest productivity, and pro­ runoff, and great diversity of species of wild­ ductivity falls off when too much or too little life. Wood production on sites of low produc­ moisture is available. Most of the characteris­ tivity probably would only average 5 percent tics associated with forest site productivity are of the yields of stands in good condition. How­ related to this concept of moisture availability. ever, on sites of fairly high to high productivity, Characteristics of sites of high productivity wood yields might average 25 to 40 percent of and low productivity are as follows: the yields of stands in good condition.

2 In general it would cost comparatively little producers. Accordingly, the productivity classi­ to put nonstocked forest ecosystems under a fication is relative to the production capability range management strategy that would achieve of each range ecosystem, as follows : maximum range outputs. This is in contrast to Potential Potential the relatively great cost of restoring their tim­ herbage herbage ber production potentials. Class production Class production Condition 2 stands with seedlings and sap­ L ______First quartile 3 ______Third quartile lings or poles have trees up to about 9 inches 2 ______Second quartile 4 ______Fourth quartile in diameter generally, or up to 11 inches in the The range condition classes are Good, Fair, Far West. and Poor. They are based on vegetative cover, Condition 3 stands with sawlogs have at least the composition and vigor of the vegetation, and 50 percent of the trees above 9 or 11 inches in soil factors. diameter. SOURCE MATERIALS N onforest Ecosystems General references consulted in preparing Statements of vegetation yields given in the the descriptions of the ecosystems are listed ecosystem descriptions are approximations in in appendix A. References on mammals and some cases, either because there were no pro­ birds are given in appendix B. Other references duction data for some of the vegetation units used in preparing the descriptions of the eco­ or because the aggregating of several related systems are given in appendix C, by individual units under one ecosystem forced some com­ ecosystems. The nomenclature of plants largely promises. Another type of problem exists in follows "Standardized Plant Names," by H. P. conversion of production in pounds per acre to Kelsey and W. A. Dayton (1942). grazing capacity, because herbage production per se does not take into account the differences THE VEGETATION MAP between ecosystems in the quality or nutritive value of their potential output. It is possible, The ecosystems map in the back of this report for example, for forage to be very low in nutri­ is principally a combination of Ktichler's map, tive value even though the volume or weight which was cited earlier, and the USDA Forest of production is high. Thus, computing animal Service map (USDI Geol. Surv. 1969, 1970), unit-months of grazing capacity for some of developed in the Forest Survey of timber types. the ecosystems from the herbage weight data Where the two mapping systems differed as to presented would require application of appro­ forest type boundaries the Forest Service defi­ priate discount factors for proper use level and nition and delineation prevailed. The Forest nutritive status; these factors are not included Service timber type map is based on a com­ in this report. pilation of aerial photographs and production Nonforest classes.-For range ecosystems, inventories in the field. Preparation of the productivity classes are expressed in terms of ecosystems map used in this study was done traditional concepts of herbage production. largely under the guidance of Dr. Bjugstad, Some ecosystems are potentially high producers with assistance in the final stages from Jack of herbage, and others are intermediate or low E. Schmautz, ecologist, Forest Service.

Descriptions of Ecosystems NO. 10.-THE WHITE-RED--JACK PINE ECOSYSTEM Physiography.-The white-red-jack pine represent the white-red-jack pine ecosystem. ecosystem occurs generally on smooth to irreg­ Common associates include oak, eastern hem­ ular plains and tablelands of northern Lake lock, aspen, birch, northern white-cedar, and States and parts of New York and New England. maple. Much of this ecosystem is included in More than 50 percent of the area is gently Ktichler's (USDI Geol. Surv. 1967, 1970) sloping. Great Lakes pine forest community. Climate.-Precipitation averages 25-45 inch­ Fauna.-The white-tailed deer and black es annually and is distributed rather evenly bear are the most common larger mammals in throughout the year. Normal pan evaporation this ecosystem, and the moose inhabits the ex­ is 30-35 inches. During the frost-free season treme northern portion. The woodland caribou of 120-140 days, precipitation is roughly equal formerly was abundant. In times past the east­ to evaporation. ern timber wolf was very numerous and fed Vegetation.-Forests in which 50 percent or on small animals and the larger mammals just more of the stand is eastern white pine, red mentioned, but it has become very scarce and pine, or jack pine, singly or in combination, is classified as an endangered species. The

3 F-312594 Figure 1.-Woodland of eastern white pine in the white-red-jack pine ecosystem.

4 coyote, bobcat, great horned owl, and hawks sided flycatcher, red-breasted nuthatch, brown are among current predators. The snowshoe creeper, winter wren, blue-headed vireo, myrtle rabbit and other small forest mammals are the warbler, slate-colored junco, and white-throated main food source of the predators already sparrow. The endangered Kirtland's warbler mentioned. Spruce grouse and ruffed grouse occurs in limited areas. inhabit the ecosystem. Porcupines inhabit parts Soils.-The cool, moist soils are predominant­ of the ecosystem and become a problem in forest ly Spodosols. They have a low supply of bases management when they are overly abundant. and a horizon in which organic matter and com­ Breeding bird populations average about 153 pounds of iron and aluminum have accumulated, pairs per 100 acres. The blackburnian and the but they have no dense, brittle, or indurated black-throated green warbler are the most horizon (Haplorthods). Soils of a significant abundant. Other birds include the whippoorwill, proportion of the ecosystem are moist through­ crested flycatcher, wood pewee, white-breasted out the year and coarse textured, and they lack nuthatch, veery, tanagers, ruffed grouse, pedogenic horizons (Udipsamments). great horned owl, pileated woodpecker, hairy Land use.-Nearly all of the land is forested woodpecker, downy woodpecker, blue jay, and is used principally for lumbering and rec­ chickadees, red-eyed vireo, black-and-white reation. The associated cropland is devoted warbler, ovenbird, redstart, black-throated largely to growing potatoes and forage for blue warbler, hermit thrush, magnolia warbler, dairy cattle. Large urban areas characterize the Canada warbler, yellow-bellied sapsucker, olive- northeastern portions.

NO. 11.-THE SPRUCE-FIR ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The spruce-fir ecosystem The ruffed grouse is common throughout this occurs on flat plains and tableland in the Lake ecosystem. The wild turkey may be found and New England States and at high elevations toward the south; the spruce grouse is found in the Appalachian Mountains. At high eleva­ more to the north. The eastern timber wolf is tions it occurs as far south as West Virginia. considered an endangered species. Characteris­ Except for some especially high places, local tic breeding birds of the ecosystem in the relief is almost entirely less than 500 feet and Northeastern States are the olive-backed often less than 100 feet. Well over half of the thrush, magnolia warbler, Cape May warbler, area is gently sloping. myrtle warbler, bay-breasted warbler, and Climate.-Normal annual precipitation is white-throated sparrow. The density of terri­ 30-40 inches, half of which falls during the torial males may be as high as 430 per 100 frost-free season of 120'--140 days. Normal an­ acres. nual evaporation is 30-40 inches. Evaporation Soils.-The cool, moist soils of this ecosystem is about equal to precipitation during the frost­ are predominantly Spodosols, although a large free season. acreage of Histosols occurs in the Lake States. Vegetation.-Forests in which 50 percent or The Spodosols have a low supply of bases and more of the stand is spruce or true fir, singly a horizon in which organic matter and iron and or in combination, characterize this ecosystem. aluminum compounds have accumulated. No Common associates include northern white­ dense, brittle, or indurated horizon is present cedar, tamarack, maple, birch, eastern hem­ (Haplorthods). The Histosols are wet, organic lock, and eastern white pine. (peat and muck) soils. Fauna.-The fauna of the spruce-fir eco­ system is similar to that described for other Land use.-In the Northeastern States much northern conifer regions. A list of mammals of the area is forested. Lumbering and recrea­ at Mount Katahdin, Maine, includes moose, tion are major uses of the forest. About 10 per­ woodland caribou, lynx, marten, black bear, cent of the area is in crops or pastures. Most long-tailed weasel, white-footed mouse, and of the cropland is in forage crops for dairy other mice and shrews. The moose, black bear, cattle. In many cases farming is a part-time and white-tailed deer are the most common enterprise. Many farm occupants in this ecosys­ larger animals in the conifer areas. tem earn their living from nonfarm occupations.

NO. 12.--THE LONGLEAF-SLASH PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The longleaf-slash pine eco­ than 300 feet. The southern Gulf Coastal Plains system is restricted to flat and irregular south­ are a grouping of various plains of materials ern Gulf Coastal Plains. Well over 50 percent ranging from sandy or gravelly to moderately of the area is gently sloping. Local relief is less fine textured; these materials developed from

5 F-290077 Figure 2.-A stand of black spruce in the Lake States portion of the spruce-fir ecosystem.

6 F-502248 Figure 3.-Range of wiregrass, slash pine, and saw-palmetto in the longleaf-slash pine ecosystem, on the southern Gulf Coastal Plains. the underlying materials of unconsolidated vegetation. East of the Apalachicola River, wire­ sands, silts, and clays. This ecosystem is often grasses are the main herbaceous plants ; in the referred to as the "southern pine hills," the western section bluestems provide most of the "piney-woods," or "pine-wiregrass type." herbage. Other important grasses include pani­ Climate.-The longleaf-slash pine ecosystem cums, paspalums, and dropseeds. Gallberry, saw­ occurs in a moist, warm climate where the aver­ palmetto, waxmyrtle, and shining sumac are age annual precipitation is 40-60 inches. The prominent among the shrubs. average annual evaporation is 42-48 inches. The Fauna.-Longleaf-slash pine forests provide average precipitation in the east is lowest in habitats for a wide variety of animal life. Ex­ autumn and highest in midsummer and in the cept for a few isolated areas where the black west is lowest in winter and spring. Summer bear or the endangered Florida panther may be droughts are common in spite of the high encountered rarely, the white-tailed deer is the amount of precipitation and relatively low evap­ only large, indigenous mammal. Common small oration. The mean annual temperature is 64 ° mammals include the raccoon, the opossum, tree F, and the average frost-free period is 200-280 squirrels, rabbits, and numerous species of days, increasing from north to south. ground-dwelling rodents. The bobwhite and the Vegetation.-Forests in which 50 percent or wild turkey are the principal gallinaceous game more of the stand is longleaf pine or slash pine, birds. Resident and migratory nongame bird singly or in combination, characterize this species are numerous, as are species of migra­ ecosystem. Common associates include other tory waterfowl. The red-cockaded woodpecker southern pines, oak, and sweet gum. is an endangered species. There are reptiles of On most sites, grasses either dominate the many species, the endangered American alli­ understory or share dominance with shrubby gator being the largest of the reptiles.

7 Soils.-Longleaf-slash pine vegetation grows comprise the principal great soil groups. on a wide variety of upland soils, but most of Land use.-Portions of the ecosystem are the soils are acid in reaction, low in content of largely in farms; other portions are largely organic matter, and deficient in the major plant owned by pulp and paper mills. In general, half nutrients. The soils are derived mainly from to nearly all of the ecosystem is forested, and Coastal Plain sediments, ranging from heavy the trend is to more forest and improved pas­ clay to gravel, but with sandy materials pre­ ture and less cropland. In southern Florida dominating. Silty soils occur mainly on expan­ only about one-fourth of the ecosystem is in sive level areas. Although sands are most prev­ forest, which is grazed, and about one-half is alent in hilly sections, they occur on broad in improved pasture. flats in central Florida. Sandy soils having a dense, though not impermeable, subsoil are Productivity apparently most favorable for longleaf pine. The soils are mainly of three orders : ( 1) Herbage and browse production varies from those low in content of bases and having sub­ 0 to 4,000 pounds per acre, depending upon site surface horizons of accumulated clay-they are potential and the amount of the overstory of usually moist, but during the warm season some pine and hardwoods. Even greater herbage are dry part of the time (Ultisols) ; (2) those yields may be attained by conversion of land to with a low supply of bases and having in sub­ pasture, accompanied by fertilization and other surface horizons an accumulation of amorphous agricultural practices. Although it is possible to materials consisting of organic matter and get high yields, the herbage needs to be sup­ compounds of aluminum and, usually, iron­ plemented by protein, energy, and mineral feeds these soils formed in acid, mainly coarse­ during the winter. Appreciable forage yields textured materials (Spodosols) ; and (3) those can be sustained by periodically burning the having no pedogenic horizons (Entisols). Hap­ range. In addition to removing the litter, burn­ ludults, Haplaquods, and Quartzipsamments ing improves forage quality and palatability.

NO. 13.-THE LOBLOLLY-SHORTLEAF PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The loblolly-shortleaf pine Fauna.-The fauna varies with the age and ecosystem generally occurs on irregular Gulf stocking of the timber stand, the percentage of Coastal Plains and the Piedmont where 50-80 deciduous trees, and the proximity to openings, percent of the area is gently sloping. Local bottom-land forest types, etc. The white-tailed relief is 100-600 feet on the Gulf Coastal Plains deer is widespread, as is the cottontail. When and 300-1,000 feet on the Piedmont. About 20 deciduous trees are present, the fox squirrel is percent of the ecosystem occurs on the flat common on uplands. Gray squirrels are found Coastal Plains where more than 80 percent of along intersecting drainages. Raccoon and fox the area is gently sloping and local relief is less are found throughout the ecosystem and are than 100 feet. This is the largest ecosystem in hunted in many areas. the South and Southeast. The eastern wild turkey, bobwhite, and Climate.-The climate is rather uniform mourning dove are widespread. In mature for­ throughout this ecosystem. Precipitation aver­ ests the density of breeding birds is about 240 ages 40-60 inches annually. It is rather evenly pairs per 100 acres. Of the 20 odd species pres­ distributed through the year but peaks slightly ent, the most common include the pine warbler, in midsummer or early spring in the western cardinal, summer tanager, Carolina wren, ruby­ areas. Precipitation exceeds evaporation, but throated hummingbird, blue jay, hooded war­ summer droughts occur. The average annual bler, eastern towhee, and tufted titmouse. The temperature is 60°-68° F. The frost-free period red-cockaded woodpecker is an endangered averages 200-280 days-250 days in the Pied­ species. mont. Soils.-Typical soils are low in content of Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized bases and have subsurface horizons of accumu­ by forests in which 50 percent or more of the lated clay. The clay horizons may be relatively stand is loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, or other thin (Hapludults) or thick (Paleudults). They southern yellow pines, singly or in combination. are usually moist, but during the warmest Common associates include oak, hickory, sweet­ months some are dry part of the time. Near the gum, blackgum, red maple, and winged elm. coast the soils are seasonally wet and have The main grasses are bluestems, panicums, and mottles or concentrations of iron and manga­ longleaf uniola. Dogwood, viburnum, haw, blue­ nese or are gray (Aquults). The Gulf Coastal berry, American beautyberry, yaupon, and Plains are underlain by unconsolidated sands, numerous woody vines are common. silts, and clays, while the Piedmont is a dis-

8 F-497024 Figure 4.-A stand of shortleaf pine in the loblolly-shortleaf pine ecosystem on the Gulf Coastal Plains. sected plateau underlain by schists, gneisses, and woodland and less for crops. granites, sandstones, and shales. Land use.-About 60-70 percent of the eco­ Productivity system is in forest, mostly in farm woodland, but a few large areas are in National Forests Forage productivity is similar to that of the or are managed by large lumber companies. longleaf-slash pine ecosystem. Forage produced About 20 percent of the area is in cropland, and in this ecosystem is also nutritionally deficient cash crops are produced. The trend recently has and must be supplemented during the winter been toward using more of the area for pasture months to maintain the vigor of livestock.

NO. 14.-THE OAK-PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The oak-pine ecosystem oc­ Climate.-The climate is quite uniform curs on diverse land forms from the southern­ throughout the oak-pine ecosystem. Precipita­ most ridges and valleys of the Appalachians tion is relatively high, averaging 40-54 inches westward across the Coastal Plains and north annually, and most of it comes in late autumn into the Ozark Plateaus and Ouachita provinces. and spring. Summers are dry. The average Typically it occupies irregular plateaus where annual temperature varies from 55° to 68° F, 50-80 percent of the area is gently sloping and and the average freeze-free period is 180-220 local relief is 100-300 feet. Almost as commonly days. it occupies hills and mountains where gentle Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized slopes may cover as little as 20 percent of the by forests in which 50 percent or more of the area and local relief may reach 1,000-3,000 stand is hardwoods, usually upland oaks, but feet. in which southern pines, mainly shortleaf pine,

9 F-477181 Figure 5.-A stand of oak and pine in the oak-pine ecosystem.

make up 25-49 percent of the stand. Common lated clay that ranges from relatively thin associates include sweetgum, hickory, and (Hapludents) to thick (Paleudults). They are yellow-poplar. The productivity of the under­ usually moist but may become dry during part story is relatively low, ranging from 50 to 500 of the dry season. The soils of the Ozarks are pounds of herbage per acre per year. developed from cherty limestone, while those of Fauna.-The fauna is similar to that of the the southern Appalachians are developed from adjacent oak-hickory ecosystem. Animals in­ noncherty limestone. clude the white-tailed deer, fox squirrel, and cot­ Land use.-Most of this ecosystem is in tontail, and birds include the mourning dove, farms. About 60 percent is in forest, mostly in bobwhite, and turkey. Many small mammals are small holdings. Twenty percent is cropland. present, and the avian fauna is quite varied. This is a cash-crop area. Less than 10 percent Soils.-Typical soils are low in supply of is in pasture. Much of the livestock produced bases and have a subsurface horizon of accumu- is consumed on the home farm.

NO. 15.-THE OAK-HICKORY ECOSYSTEM

Physiography .-The oak-hickory ecosystem Huron and to southern Texas. Its most continu­ occurs in areas of the eastern United States ous area is that known as the Ozark Plateaus that are more mesophytic than surrounding with extensions (Cross Timbers) into the semi­ areas. It reaches from southern Maine to Lake arid grasslands of the southern Great Plains

10 and the interior low plateaus which fuse with hickory forest and bluestem prairie communities the glacial till plains south of the Great Lakes of the Ozark Plateaus and interior low plateaus and extend westward around the Ozark Plateaus and their extensions, the oak forest of the (immediately west of the central Appalachian Appalachians, the oak savanna, and Cross Highlands) . This ecosystem also occurs on the Timbers. uppermost limits of the Appalachian Highlands, Sweetgum and redcedar are close associates known as the Blue Ridge and the Valley and in the southern (Black Belt) region of the eco­ Ridge provinces of these highlands. These areas system. Maple, elm, yellow-poplar, and black are geologically the oldest uplifts in the United walnut often are close associates in eastern States. and northern parts of the oak forest and the The Ozark Plateaus and their extensions oak-hickory-bluestem mosaic. The major shrubs comprise an area of 72,000 square miles west are blueberry, viburnum, dogwood, rhododen­ of the Mississippi River and south of the Mis­ dron, and sumac. The major vines are wood­ souri River. They consist of plateaus, variously bine, grape, poisonivy, greenbrier, and black­ dissected, and of strong rock. Much of the area berry. Important herbaceous plants are sedge, is steep and lies at altitudes of 1,000 to 2,000 panicum, bluestem, lespedeza, tickclover, gold­ feet. Narrow belts of physiographically similar enrod, pussytoes, and aster; many more are areas extend as far south as Texas and New abundant locally. Orleans and, along streams, north into Iowa. Fauna.-The fauna of the oak-hickory eco­ The interior low plateaus and their extensions system is similar to that of other eastern lie east and north and extend westward around hardwood and hardwood-conifer areas and the Ozark Plateaus. These plateaus are similar varies somewhat from north to south. Impor­ to the Appalachian provinces in that the rocks tant animals in the ecosystem include the and soils are highly weathered. The extensions white-tailed deer, black bear, bobcat, gray fox, are more characteristically glacial till plains. raccoon, gray squirrel, fox squirrel, eastern The Blue Ridge and the Valley and Ridge chipmunk, white-footed mouse, pine vole, short­ provinces are Appalachian Mountain belts west tailed shrew, and cotton mouse. of the Piedmont. The mountains are remnants Bird populations are large. The turkey, ruffed of a former highland. Most of the rocks are grouse, bobwhite, and mourning dove are game old, strong, and of highly complex structure. birds in various parts of the ecosystem. Breed­ These provinces are characterized by "folded" ing bird populations average about 225 pairs mountains in which resistant strata form ridges per 100 acres and include some 24 or 25 species. and weaker rocks are worn down to lowlands. The most abundant breeding birds include the The oak-hickory ecosystem also includes the cardinal, tufted titmouse, wood thrush, summer Black Belt, which is the richest and best known tanager, red-eyed vireo, blue-gray gnatcatcher, lowland on the East Gulf Coastal Plain. It is so hooded warbler, and Carolina wren. The box named because of the deep, black residual soil. turtle, common garter snake, and timber rattle­ The belt varies from 20 to 25 miles wide from snake are characteristic reptiles. near the Georgia border, west through Alabama Soils.-The soils of this ecosystem are varied. and north through Mississippi. Its altitude The northeastern oak-hickory forest and the varies from 200 to 400 feet. Rivers cut through northeastern portion of the Appalachian oak the belt; there are few smaller streams. forest are on Inceptisols and Ultisols. Soils of Climate.-Temperatures vary considerably in the smaller Black Belt area are largely Ultisols. this ecosystem. The frost-free season is about The soils of the largest community in the eco­ 120 days in the northern portion and almost system, the oak-hickory forest, are mainly Mol­ 300 days in southern Texas. In most of the area, lisols and Alfisols in the north and Ultisols in the frost-free season ranges from 160 to 200 the central portion. Two "fingers" of the oak­ days. Annual precipitation ranges from less hickory forest reaching into southern Texas than 30 to more than 50· inches, averaging 35- coincide with areas of Alfisols; Vertisols on 45 inches. More than half of the precipitation all sides are in other ecosystems. falls in the warmest months. In many areas Land use.-Small general farms characterize potential evaporation during the warmest much of the area, but there are also large dairy months is about equal to the precipitation. and livestock farms. Tobacco is an important Vegetation.-The oak-hickory ecosystem var­ cash crop in the east and cotton, in the west. ies from open to closed woods with a strong to The steeper slopes, accounting for almost half weak understory of shrubs, vines, and her­ the area, are mainly in forest, which is used for baceous plants. By definition, oak and hickory both recreation and timber production. A large must make up 50 percent of the stand, singly part of the Nation's coal is mined in this or in combination. The ecosystem includes six ecosystem. vegetation communities: the Black Belt on the Productivity Classes Coastal Plain in Alabama and Mississippi, the Herbage and browse production varies oak-hickory forest and the mosaic of the oak- greatly in this ecosystem, ranging from 200 to

11 3,000 pounds per acre. The variation is due to The soils are variable and include Vertisols differences in the crown cover of hardwoods (Chromuderts plus Eutrochrepts, gently slop­ and in the production capabilities of sites. The ing and clayey), Inceptisols (Eutrochrepts plus data on herbage production in the following Chromuderts, gently sloping and usually moist paragraphs include only those yields achieved and high in content of bases), and Ultisols on land in natural cover-they do not include (Paleudults, which are moderately sloping, yields achieved when low-grade oak-hickory have a thick horizon of accumulated clay, and forests are converted to grasslands. Such grass­ are low in content of bases, plus Fragiudults, lands could logically constitute another produc­ which are gently sloping and have a fragipan). tivity class with yields ranging from 3,000 to Most of the Black Belt is in farms, one-fifth 6,000 pounds per acre. being used for cropland, two-fifths for forests, Class 1.-The vegetation of the oak-hickory­ and the remainder for pastures and urban uses. bluestem mosaic occurring on the Cross Tim­ Class 3 .-The open meadows of the oak and bers and the glacial till area south of the Great oak-hickory forests of the Great Smoky Moun­ Lakes characterizes the highest productivity tains and the Ozark Plateaus characterize pro­ class of this ecosystem. This vegetation is char­ ductivity class 3. Herbage production ranges acteristically a transition between hardwood from 1,200 to 1,800 pounds per acre, averaging forest and prairie biomes. Herbage yields vary about 1,500 pounds. The major herbaceous from 3,000 to 6,000 pounds per acre and aver­ plants are bluestems, poverty oatgrass, panic­ age about 4,500 pounds per acre. The major grass, and three-awns. Forbs are less common. trees are mainly oak and hickory; mixtures of Blackberry, sassafras, and persimmon are the maple, oak, and elm are more common in north­ major browse plants. ern parts than elsewhere. The major grass spe­ The soils are Ultisols (Paleudults plus Fra­ cies are those associated with the tall-grass giudults) and Inceptisols (Dystrochrepts plus prairie; namely, big and little bluestem, Indian Fragiochrepts) which are soils with fragipans grass, switchgrass, and side-oats grama. There that restrict tree roots but support low-growing is a wide variety of forbs in this part of the plants. ecosystem. Class 3 areas are usually small and are used The soils are highly variable but are mainly mainly for pasture or hay production. Mollisols (Argiudolls that have a subsurface Class 4.-The vegetation within the forest horizon in which clay has accumulated) in the proper (excluding open meadows) of the northern part and Alfi.sols (Paleustalfs plus Appalachian oak forest and the oak-hickory Ustorthents which also have a subsurface hori­ community of the Ozark Plateaus characterizes zon in which clay has accumulated) in the south­ this productivity class. ern Cross Timbers area. Large areas of Incep­ In the Appalachian oak forest community, tisols (Ustochrepts, shallow soils extending 20 herbage and browse production (mainly inches to bedrock) also occur in the southern browse) varies from 500 to 800 pounds per part ( Cross Timbers) . acre, averaging 650 pounds per acre. The major About 25 percent of the area of the northern tree species are white oak, northern red oak, oak-hickory-bluestem mosaic is in tame or and white ash. Associates are red maple, yellow native pasture and 10 percent is in woodland. birch, aspen, black cherry, and butternut in the The remainder is in cash crops. About 50 per­ northern parts and yellow buckeye, yellow cent of the southern part of this ecosystem birch, sugar maple, and black cherry in the (Cross Timbers) is rangeland and open wood­ middle and southern parts. White ash is less land; the remainder is in small grains and other important or is absent in the southern areas. cash crops. The major plants of the shrub strata are vibur­ Class 2.-The vegetation that characterizes num, sassafras, mountain laurel, rhododendron, productivity class 2 of this ecosystem is that of madrone, blueberry, blackberry, sedge, sorrel, the Black Belt. Yields of browse and herbage in cinquefoil, fern, and clubmoss. this class range from 1,500 to 3,000 pounds The soils of the Appalachian oak forest are per acre. The vegetation of this area is highly mainly Ultisols (Hapludults plus Dystrochrepts variable, ranging from almost open bluestem and Paleudults) in the southern part and Incep­ prairie to dense forest of tall or medium-height tisols (Dystrochrepts) and Spodosols (Hap­ broad-leaved deciduous trees. There are spo­ lorthods plus Haplaquepts and Fragiochrepts) radic concentrations of redcedar on calcareous in the north. All are moderately sloping to rock outcrops. The major herbage plants are big steep. and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indian grass, About half the oak forest area is in forest or and a mixture of forbs and deciduous trees. farm woodlots, and one-fourth to one-third is in The most common trees are sweetgum, post oak cropland and pasture. Cropland and pasture and other oaks, and hickory. Low-growing trees are more more common in the northern parts. and shrubs include winged elm, ash, and dog­ In the oak-hickory forest community of the wood. Ozark Plateaus and the interior low plateaus, 12 F-517742 Figure 6.-A mixed oak stand in the oak-hickory ecosystem.

13 combined herbage and browse yields are 200 to The soils are mainly Ultisols (Hapludults 300 pounds per acre. The major trees are black, plus Hapludalfs and Paleudults, moderately red, white, post, and blackjack oak; black, bit­ sloping to steep). Some are Ultisols with a ternut, and shagbark hickory; and elm. The fragipan (Fragiudults). major shrubs and vines are blueberry, wild About three-fifths of the oak-hickory forest grape, blackberry, poisonivy, woodbine, green­ area is in forest or woodland, and the other briar, and dogwood. Herbaceous plants include two-fifths is used for cropland and pasture. sedge, panicum, tickclover, goldenrod, pussy­ Conversion of forest land to grassland has toes, and aster. become increasingly common in this area.

NO. 16.-THE OAK-GUM-CYPRESS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The oak-gum-cypress eco­ plains. The largest plains are along the Missis­ system is characterized by the vegetation of the sippi River and extend from the Gulf of Mexico Mississippi Valley and other bottom lands in to the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands and north­ every Southern State, the cypress savanna west eastward to Indiana. Other river flood plains of the Everglades in Florida, the mangrove are much smaller but in aggregate constitute swamps south of the Everglades, and the east several million acres. coast of Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. The alternating drylands and wetlands west Many of the rivers that cross the Coastal Plain of the Everglades are known as the cypress province have little drop in elevation-the Mis­ savanna, which is a monotonous flatland, very sissippi River drops only 7.5 inches per mile few feet above sea level. Outcrops of dense, from Memphis to Vicksburg-and are mean­ fine-grained limestone are scattered through dering. The rivers have created large alluvial the area, but these do not affect the flatness of

• F-501614 Figure 7.-A forest of live oaks, draped with Spanish moss, in the oak-gum-cypress ecosystem.

14 the plain. The mangrove swamps of southern deer, elk, black bear, mountain lion, bobcat and Florida are an extension of the Everglades into wolf, inhabited the forest. Presently the ~hite­ the ocean. Salt water invades that part of the tailed deer is common in most a;eas. Other coastline, making it different from the Ever­ mammals include the gray fox, gray squirrel glades and the cypress savanna. fox squirrel, raccoon, opossum, striped skunk' Climate.-Most of this ecosystem has a moist, eastern cottontail, swamp rabbit, and many mild climate, the frost-free season ranging from small rodents and shrews. 200 days to practically all year at the tip of Birds include wild turkeys and, in the flooded Florida. Precipitation ranges from 60 inches areas, ibises, cormorants, herons, egrets, and in Florida to about 35 inches at the northern kingfishers. Among the numerous species of extremity of the ecosystem in Indiana. More birds in the area, the ivory-billed woodpecker, than half the precipitation comes in the warm­ Bachman's warbler, and the southern bald est months, and in most of the area rainfall eagle are classed as endangered species. The exceeds evaporation during the frost-free Carolina parakeet is extinct. Many species in season. the mangrove swamps and the cypress savanna Vegetation.-The vegetation of this ecosys­ are the same as those in the Everglades, in the tem varies considerably, but the dominants are wet grasslands ecosystem. Common mammals of tree life-form. It is made up of bottom-land in the mangrove area are the fox squirrel and forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand raccoon. Nesting birds include the mangrove is tupelo, blackgum, sweetgum, oak, and bald­ cuckoo and various herons and egrets. The key cypress, singly or in combination-except deer is very scarce and is classed as an endan­ where pines comprise 25-49 percent of the gered species. stand (in which case the ecosystem is oak-pine). Soils.-Soils of this ecosystem are varied. In Common associates include willow, maple, syca­ the largest area, the Mississippi bottom land, more, cottonwood, and beech. Most species are they are Mollisols, Alfisols, and, primarily, broad-leaved deciduous trees: Trees of the Inceptisols. The soils of the small area in south­ mangrove swamp are mainly black mangrove ern Florida are primarily Inceptisols. In the and red mangrove. The vegetation of the many bottom lands extending inland from the cypress savanna is dominated by needle-leaved Atlantic coast, the soils are mainly Ultisols, deciduous frees and some broad-leaved ever­ smaller areas of Inceptisols being near the green or deciduous trees and shrubs. The trees coast. and shrubs occur in groves surrounded by open Land use.-Nearly all of the area is in farms. grassland dominated mainly by three-awn spe­ The wettest parts that are not artificially cies. Mangrove swamps are often flooded by drained, about 10 percent of the area, remain in tidewater; the cypress savanna is flooded less forests. The remainder is evenly divided frequently and only by fresh water. between cropland and pasture. Cotton, soy­ Fauna.-This ecosystem is the most fertile beans, and corn are major crops in most of the and productive of southern habitats for wild­ region; rice and sugarcane are important life. In times past, large animals, such as the locally.

NO. 17.-THE ELM-ASH-COTTONWOOD ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The elm-ash-cottonwood northeastern areas. Temperatures vary consid­ ecosystem occurs in narrow belts along major erably, the January mean daily low ranging streams or scattered areas of dry swamps. The from zero in the north to 30 ° F in the south. major portion is on the lower terraces and The average frost-free period varies from 100 flood plains of the Mississippi, Missouri, Platte, days in the north to 200 days in the south. Kansas, and Ohio Rivers from the Dakotas, Vegetation.-The vegetation of this ecosys­ Minnesota, and Ohio south through Kansas and tem is a tree life-form of low to tall broad­ Missouri. The ecosystem also is scattered leaved deciduous trees, varying from open to throughout the area including States adjacent dense and often accompanied by vines. Cotton­ to the Great Lakes and extending to the east wood species usually dominate the ecosystem coast, where it occurs on dissected glacial-till and often occur in pure stands. Cottonwood is plains. most common along the streams. Swamp cot­ Climate.-The ecosystem crosses several cli­ tonwood is more common in other places. Com­ matic zones. It is characteristic of sites that mon associates in the north are willow species are moist as a result of either flooding or pre­ and green and white ash. Sycamore and sugar­ cipitation. Average annual precipitation varies berry are common associates in the south. Other from 10 inches near the foothills of the Rocky common associates are willow, sycamore, beech, Mountains to 50 inches in the southern and and maple. The cottonwood-willow stage is

15 F-437117 Figure 8.-A stand of ash in the elm-ash-cottonwood ecosystem.

short lived. This stage is followed by the river catbird, goldfinch, yellow-billed cuckoo, indigo birch and silver maple-American elm types in bunting, cardinal, lark sparrow, mockingbird, the north and by the sycamore-pecan-American common crow, blue jay, robin, ruby-throated elm or sugarberry-American elm-green ash hummingbird, and Cooper's hawk. types in the south. Soils.-The soils are mainly Mollisols (Hap­ Fauna.-Since this ecosystem is far flung laquolls plus Udifluvents, Hapludolls, and Hap­ and is in the main flood plains of rivers dissect­ ludalfs) which are seasonally wet and have a ing a number of other, quite different ecosys­ thick, nearly black surface horizon and gray tems, the fauna is varied and, in many cases, subsurface horizons. The materials in the hori­ influent from the surrounding ecosystems. zons have been altered or removed, but no clay Forest-edge animals and birds are common, or calcium carbonate has accumulated. and numerous ones include the cottontail, bob­ Land use.-At least 30 percent of this eco­ white, white-tailed deer, raccoon, red fox, system is in forest, mainly as small woodlots coyote, striped skunk, spotted skunk, meadow on wet bottom land and steep slopes bordering jumping mouse, fox squirrel, and ground squir­ stream valleys. The rest is cropland devoted rels. The sharp-tailed grouse inhabits grassy primarily to corn, soybeans, oats, and other feed areas and open areas in the forest. The ruffed grains. Much of the grain is fed to beef cattle grouse is also present. Other birds include the and hogs on the farms where it is grown.

NO. 18.-THE MAPLE-BEECH-BIRCH ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The maple-beech-birch eco­ 3,000 feet above the broad valleys. Farther system is best developed in the New England west, in the Lake States, the ecosystem occurs States. Typically, it occurs on open high hills on irregular plains and tablelands. There, 50- and low mountains. Only about 20-30 percent 80 percent of the area is gently sloping and of the area is gently sloping. Ridges rise 500 to local relief is normally 100-300 feet.

16 Climate.-Mean annual precipitation ranges a varied fauna. The black bear is present in from 40 to 48 inches and is about 41 inches at many areas. The wolf is no longer common, but central locations. The average annual snowfall the red fox and gray fox are rather widespread, of 72 inches covers the ground for about 87 as is the bobcat. Several species of squirrels are days each year. The number of freeze-free days in the forest, and a number of smaller rodents ranges from 120 to 150 per year. The mean inhabit the forest floor. daily maximum temperature is 24°-36° F in The ruffed grouse is widespread, and the January and 74°-80° F in July. The corre­ bobwhite inhabits the interspersed farmlands sponding minimum temperatures are 4°-18° F and forest openings. Songbirds include the and 52°-60° F. Potential evapotranspiration is ovenbird, red-eyed vireo, hermit thrush, scarlet 17-28 inches. The mean annual water surplus tanager, blue jay, black-capped chickadee, wood ~ s 10-34 inches. pewee, and magnolia warbler. Vegetation.-A forest is classified as being Soils.-Typical soils have a low supply of in this ecosystem when 50 percent or more of bases and a subsurface horizon that is dense the stand is maple, beech, or yellow birch, singly and brittle but not indurated or that contains or in combination. Common associates include an accumulation of organic matter and iron and hemlock, elm, basswood, and white pine. aluminum compounds (Fragiorthods and Hap­ Fauna.-The white-tailed deer occurs lorthods). Other major soils have light-colored throughout much of the maple-beech-birch eco­ surface horizons and a subsurface horizon that system. The hardwood forest and the openings is dense and brittle but not indurated (Fra­ and farms within it provide food and cover for giochrepts).

F-522874 Figure 9.-A mixed stand in the maple-beech-birch ecosystem. The largest trees are sugar maples. Other trees are yellow birch. The saplings are beech. The ground vegetation is largely a mixture of young trees and hobblebush. 17 Land use.-Much of the area is in farms. The steeper land is mainly forested, produces Feed grains and forage for dairy cattle are the significant amounts of timber, and is an impor­ principal crops. Potatoes are important locally. tant recreation resource.

NO. 19.-THE ASPEN-BIRCH ECOSYSTEM Physiography.-The aspen-birch ecosystem gray birch, singly or in combination. Common lies mainly within the Great Lakes section of associates include maple and balsam fir. Major the Central Lowland east of the Mississippi aspen species in the Great Lakes area are big­ River and extends from western Minnesota to tooth and quaking aspen. Paper birch is a com­ Lake Erie. This area is characterized by a great mon associate. Balsam poplar is important only variety of features of recent glacial origin. In along streams and the margins of swamp$. addition to moraines and outwash plains, thou­ Fauna.-The fauna of the aspen-birch eco­ sands of lakes and large areas of swamps are system is similar to those of the spruce-fir and in the area. The underlying rock strata of the white-red-jack pine ecosystems, with which area are buried by thousands of feet of glacial this ecosystem is intermingled. The white-tailed till. These strata span the ages from Cambrian deer and black bear. are common. The coyote, to Carboniferous. Three strong formations of bobcat, great horned owl, and other predators dolomite, limestone, and sandstone form out­ feed on a variety of small mammals. The ruf­ crops on the edges of two cuestas. The interven­ fed grouse is present. Among the songbirds are ing weak beds do not form any particular f ea­ the tufted titmouse, blue jay, hairy woodpecker, tures. Elevations vary from 600 to 1,500 feet. downy woodpecker, wood thrush, eastern wood Climate.-The areas occupied by this ecosys­ pewee, goldfinch, catbird, and red-eyed vireo. tem have a moist and cool climate. The frost­ Soils.-The aspen-birch ecosystem occurs on free period varies from 100 to 140 days. Aver­ a wide variety of soils, but they are mainly age annual temperatures are 35°-47° F. Annual within three orders. The better drained soils precipitation is 30-35 inches, of which 40-66 are mostly Alfisols, and the wetter, poorly percent falls during the warmest months. Pre­ drained soils are Entisols and Mollisols. cipitation during the frost-free season ranges Land use.-More than 80 percent of the area from about 80 percent of the evaporation poten­ is in forest. Lumbering, recreation, and mining tial to about equal that potential. are major industries. Feed grains and forage Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized for dairy cattle and other livestock are the main by forest in which 50 percent or more of the products of cropland. Potato growing is impor­ stand is aspen, balsam poplar, paper birch, or tant locally.

NO. 20-THE DOUGLAS-FIR ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The Douglas-fir ecosystem 25 to 40 percent of the precipitation occurs in encompasses one of the larger blocks of western the coldest months. The amount of precipitation timber in that it includes much of the moun­ during the frost-free season is equal to, or not tains in western Oregon and western Washing­ less than, 40 percent of the evaporation, in ton and extends well south into the northern western Oregon and western Washington. In California Coast Ranges. It is an extensive the rest of this ecosystem, precipitation during ecosystem, for there are large acreages of it in the frost-free season is only 30 to 40 percent of the Northern Rocky Mountains and lesser scat­ the evaporation potential. tered areas in the Blue Mountains of Oregon Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized and the Middle and Southern Rocky Mountains. by forest consisting of 50 percent or more The elevational range is great, from 500 feet Douglas-fir, except where redwood, sugar pine, up into the high mountains. or western white pine comprise 20 percent or Climate.-The length of the frost-free season more of the stand. Most common ecological is 200 days in western coastal areas and 160 descriptions of one of the largest blocks of tim­ days in the rest of western Oregon and Wash­ ber in western Oregon and Washington define ington. In the rest of the ecosystem, the frost­ it as subclimax stands in areas where the cli­ free season is about 80 to 120 days. Average max is western hemlock-western redcedar. annual precipitation is 40 to 80 inches in the Common shrubs in the ecosystem are of the extreme west and 20 to 30 inches in most of the genera of maple, rockspirea, filbert, blueberry, interior portion of the ecosystem. In the snowberry, barberry, currant, blackberry, nine­ extreme west 50 to 60 percent of the total bark, rose, and spirea. Herbage includes grass precipitation occurs during the period Decem­ and other vegetation having a grasslike growth ber to March. In the rest of the ecosystem, only form, especially in the stands in interior States.

18 F-502403 Figure 10.-A young stand of paper birch in winter, in the aspen-birch ecosystem, in the Great Lakes area.

19 95-G-48608 Figure 11.-A stand of old Douglas-firs with western hemlock in the underetory, in the Douglas-fir ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest 20 Here, pinegrass and Carex concinnoides are months (AUM's) per acre. present. Without management of the average tract of Fauna.-Common large mammals in this eco­ old cutover land, it usually becomes uneco­ system include elk, deer, and black bear. Grizzly nomical to use it for grazing, because of the bear and moose are in the northern Rockies. invasion of bracken and brush. Under serious Blue and ruffed grouse are present. Most of the and responsible management, there are some northwestern part of the ecosystem has hawks possibilities for more and better use of forest and owls. Mammalian predators include moun­ lands for livestock. Chiefly, there is the pos­ tain lions and bobcats. Small mammals include sibility of grazing recently logged lands in com­ mice, squirrels, marten, chipmunks, and bushy­ bination with seeded land at lower elevations. tailed wood rats. Some of the more common A relatively small number of cattle- or sheep­ birds are the chestnut-backed chickadee, red­ raising operations presently make use of breasted nuthatch, gray jay, and Steller's jay. recently logged-over lands, yet it is possible to Soils.-In western Washington and Oregon start grazing patch clearcuts within 2 or 3 years the soils of this ecosystem are Inceptisols and after logging ( as soon as new tree seedlings Ultisols. In the northern coastal area of Cali­ are established) and continue grazing for about fornia they are Ultisols. In the Blue Mountains 15 years, or until the tree canopy closes. of Oregon, the soils are Mollisols with an over­ Land use in this ecosystem in the Blue Moun­ burden of very absorptive Vitrandepts. In the tains of Oregon and in the northern Rockies is northern Rockies the soils are Inceptisols (in­ similar to the grazing-timber growing relation­ cluding considerable areas of Vitrandepts), ship in the ponderosa pine ecosystem. "Jun­ Alfi.sols, and Mollisols; In the Middle and South­ gling" or "brushing-up" is, however, more ern Rocky Mountains, the soils are Mollisols, prevalent in interior Douglas-fir stands than in Entisols, and Alfi.sols. the ponderosa pine stands. The pine stands are Land use.-About 75 percent of the land area estimated to be 60 percent jungled, whereas is forested, and lumbering is a major industry. interior Douglas-fir stands are about 90 percent Less than 20 percent is in crops or improved jungled. Suppression of timber growth by too pasture. Fruit, vegetables, and grain are the great a density of trees has been slower to occur major crops. Forage and feed grains occupy in the stands of Douglas-fir than in the stands large acreages. of pine because of the former's tolerance to The best sites in this ecosystem have his­ shading. Nevertheless, wherever the stand den­ torically been used for timber production in sity is excessive in this ecosystem, forage pro­ western Washington, Oregon, and California. duction has been reduced to 150 pounds per acre. Use of the land for livestock production is not so well known. However, there are now more Productivity sheep in western Oregon and Washington than in the range flocks of the eastern parts of these Grazing in major portions of this ecosystem, States. The big increase in sheep raising has in western Washington, western Oregon, and been in farm flocks in the lowlands on land western California, is usually confined to patch enclosed with woven-wire fences. However, clearcuts and lands converted to pasture by some privately owned cutover lands in the hills logging and grass seeding. Under good manage­ and mountains have been converted to seeded ment, grass production of 1,000 to 3,000 pounds ranges for livestock, and the favorable precip­ per acre can be achieved. With no opening of itation has permitted high stocking rates to be the tree canopy, herbage production is 50 to successfully achieved-1 to 2 animal unit- 150 pounds per acre.

NO. 21.-THE PONDEROSA PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-Since ponderosa pine has a walls and faces. Semiarid, low mountain sites rather wide range of adaptability and can are common, but it is difficult to characterize dominate some of the less mesic true forest the physiography of the ecosystem because it sites, it occupies low mountains and foothills varies greatly. in many places; yet in mixtures with other Climate.-The length of the frost-free season species, it is found at moderate elevations. The at any location in the ecosystem depends largely extensive distribution of ponderosa pine and upon the latitude and elevation. In general, in associates includes parts of 14 western States much of the northern area the frost-free period from Nebraska to the Pacific coast and from is 120 days, whereas in many foothill areas and Arizona to Canada. It is the largest western in parts of the Sierra and the Gila Mountains forest type in the United States. Local topog­ of the Southwest, it can be 240 days. raphy can be gentle, as on plateau tops and Annual precipitation is about 15 to 20 inches low mountains, or it can be steep, as on canyon in the more pure pine areas, but where there

21 are combinations of pine and other conifers at Soils.-The soils occupied by the ponderosa moderate elevations, the precipitation can total pine ecosystem vary tremendously. Along the 30 inches. In the far western sector, only 25 western edge of the Columbia Plateau and the percent of this moisture falls in the warmest east slope of the Cascade Mountains, they are months. In the Northern Rocky Mountains, 40- Mollisols, Inceptisols, Entisols, and Aridisols. 50 percent of the precipition occurs in the In northern and eastern California, ponderosa warmest months. In the middle to southern pine stands are associated with Ultisols. At the Rockies, 66 to 75 percent occurs in the warmest northern edge of the Columbia Plateau (Oka­ months. In the southern areas and those at nogan Highlands) and in much of the Northern low elevations, precipitation during the frost­ Rocky Mountains, pine and the related forest free season is only 20 percent of the evapora­ types occur on Inceptisols; the soils of the rest tion potential. In northern areas precipitation of these areas are largely Alfi.sols and Entisols. during the growing season may be as high as In the Blue and Wallowa Mountains of eastern 40 percent of the evaporation potential. Oregon, pine stands occupy Mollisols. In the Vegetation.-By definition, ponderosa pine Middle and Southern Rocky Mountains, pines forest is 50 percent or more of one of these and associates are on Mollisols, Aridisols, Enti­ pines: ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, sols, and Alfi.sols. Pine stands in the Gila Moun­ limber pine, Arizona ponderosa pine, Apache tains are largely on Mollisols. The small stands pine, or Chihuahua pine. The exceptions are of pine in the Great Basin are on Aridisols. those situations where western white pine or Land use.-Ponderosa pine lands continue to sugar pine comprises 20 percent or more of the be producers of softwood that is highly desired stand; then these species control the name of for either millwork or framing. The forage sup­ the forest. ply within the ecosystem has been highly prized The impact of logging and eco1ogical dynam­ for summer range, since the land is usually high ics can cause some problems in maintaining enough to get good precipitation and the forest good delineation of the ponderosa pine ecosys­ soils are deep enough to store sufficient water tem. This ecosystem is idealized as open and for growing timber and good ground cover. parklike with an excellent ground cover of These precipitation and soil characteristics grasses, sedges, and forbs or with an under­ make the ecosystem productive of forage dur­ story of shrubs of low to medium height. The ing the hot months when range forage at lower shrubs, however, may vary from antelope bit­ elevations has dried. terbrush in Oregon to bearmat in the Sierra Currently forage production in the ponderosa Nevada in California. In perhaps 60 percent of pine ecosystem is lagging behind its potential, the area, the idealized open character of the and the total productivity is suppressed enough ponderosa pine ecosystem has changed to that to create a seasonal shortage of summer range of a dense and growth-retarded stand,3 par­ for livestock. In some areas this shortage is ticularly in the Pacific Northwest. such that if ranchers stock to fully use the Fauna.-In the ponderosa pine ecosystem, winter, spring, and fall range, there is a 40 to the major mammalian influents are the Rocky 50 percent shortage of summer range. Many Mountain elk, mule deer, mountain lion, and ranchers are forced to meet this situation by coyote. Animals of less importance include the using spring and fall range also as summer bushy-tailed wood rat, white-footed mouse, bob­ range. Ranchers operating this way have to cat, rock squirrel, cottontail, porcupine, mantled accept substantial weight losses in brood cows ground squirrel, Kaibab squirrel, and chip­ by fall of each year, and they have to accept munks. The Kaibab squirrel is rare. It is calf crops only about 75 to 83 percent of the endemic to this ecosystem on Arizona's Kaibab calf crops of ranchers with true summer range Plateau. who maintain 1,000- to 1,400-pound cows with The most abundant and important resident a 90 percent calf crop. birds in the ponderosa pine ecosystem include The mountain range of the ponderosa pine the pygmy nuthatch, long-crested jay, sharp­ and Douglas-fir ecosystems is a prime summer shinned hawk, Rocky Mountain nuthatch, moun­ range for a high proportion of the mule deer tain chickadee, Cassin's purple finch, red­ and is a spring and fall range for elk. Approxi­ shafted flicker, red-backed junco, western gos­ mately 20 to 30 percent of the herbage is hawk, and western red-tailed hawk. Birds that reserved by land managers for use by big are common during the summer include the game. However, this is not to say that this chestnut-backed bluebird, Audubon's warbler, range is critical for big game; for these animals Natalie's sapsucker, western chipping sparrow, the winter forage supply of low-elevation shrub horned owl, and band-tailed pigeon. and bunchgrass ranges is critical.

3 "Dense and growth-retarded" means 2,000 to 10,000 Productivity pine stems per acre instead of 125 per acre. In most such cases, growth rings are 20 to 40 per inch instead of Excessive density of tree stands and con­ 15 or fewer rings per inch. sequent arrested tree growth in some parts of

22 F-459737 Figure 12.-A parklike stand of timber and ground cover of grass in the ponderosa pine ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest. the ponderosa pine ecosystem make it impos­ to produce 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of herbage sible to estimate the potential timber and forage per acre. productivity of many sites. At such locations The quality of herbage for livestock and game an inverse relationship can be found between is improved by the timber stand improvement the density of the tree stand and forage practice of thinning; that is, the nondigestible production. fraction of forage decreases and the proportion About 500 to 600 pounds of herbage per acre of carbohydrates increases. The floristic com­ is commonly produced in open stands of mature position of the herb and shrub understory in pine with about 200 saplings per acre. In stands pine forests seems to vary with several factors, that have an understory of tree reproduction including the overstory. In the Northwest, numbering 2,000 stems per acre, the herbage grasses and sedges of such genera as Calama­ production is only about 250 pounds per acre. grostis, Carex, Agropyron, Festuca, Muhlen­ At about 5,000 stems or more per acre, herbage bergia, Poa, Stipa, and Danthonia constitute production can be O to 50 pounds per acre. 10 to 40 percent of the composition. Shrubs are When pure stands of ponderosa pine are thinned very conspicuous in certain areas and include to approximately 75 to 100 stems per acre, such genera as Purshia, Ceanothus, Rosa, Sym­ herbage production of 850 pounds per acre is phoricarpos, Holodiscus, Spirea, Salix, and obtainable. On reseeded skid trails it is possible Arctostaphylos. Various forbs are common.

23 NO. 22.-THE WESTERN WHITE PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The western white pine eco­ pine ecosystem is similar to that of the fir­ system mainly occurs in the high mountains of spruce ecosystem. The ecosystem is noted for the Northern Rocky Mountains of western its population of big game, particularly the Montana and northern Idaho. It is also in scat­ Rocky Mountain elk and mule deer. Smaller tered small areas in the Cascade Mountains of mammals include the snowshoe hare, long­ Oregon and Washington. Less than 20 percent tailed weasel, marten, coyote, bobcat, and vari­ of the total area is gently sloping, and local ous mice and shrews. The black bear is present. relief is over 3,000 feet. Elevations are mostly The many birds include the ruffed grouse, 4,000 to 8,000 feet. chestnut-backed chickadee, red-breasted nut­ Climate.-Annual precipitation in this eco­ hatch, and Swainson's thrush. system is 20 to 30 inches; of this, 60 to 65 per­ Soils.-Most of the soils have formed from cent occurs during the warmest months. During ashy materials or have low bulk density and the frost-free season, precipitation is 20 to 40 large amounts of amorphous materials, or both. percent of the evaporation potential. The length Horizons are weakly developed (Andepts). The of the frost-free period is 80 to 120 days. most productive sites in this ecosystem have Vegetation.-Forests in which 20 percent or moist but well-drained soils and occur in valleys more of the stand is western white pine or sugar and on moderate to gentle slopes with northern pine characterize this ecosystem. Ki.ichler's exposures. classification of cedar-hemlock-pine forest cor­ Land use.-Heavy forests cover much of the responds with this ecosystem. Daubenmire and land; croplands occupy less than 2 percent of Daubenmire (1968) would classify western the ecosystem. The forests are important for white pine as being in various western redcedar timber production as well as summer cover for habitats, but also as being seral to some west­ wildlife-the area is famous for its elk hunting. ern hemlock and true fir habitats. In summary, Wood of western white pine is soft and highly western white pine is sometimes found in pure "workable," like that of eastern white pine; stands yet commonly occurs in mixtures with thus, it is valued for a variety of millwork other conifers. Shrubs and forbs are prominent items. The most productive forage sites are in the understory, whereas grasses and sedges usually limited to logged-over areas or natural are minor. meadows and openings that are adjacent to, or Fauna.-The fauna of the western white interspersed within, the general forest type.

NO. 23.-THE FIR-SPRUCE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The fir-spruce ecosystem lies Fifty percent or more of the stand is silver fir, within the Sierra-Cascade and the Northern, subalpine fir, red fir, white fir, mountain hem­ Middle, and Southern Rocky Mountains prov­ lock, Engelmann spruce, or blue spruce, singly inces. It is normally the highest forest zone in or in combination-except where western white the mountain ranges but varies from as low as pine comprises 20 percent or more of the stand 1,500 feet in the Northwest to as high as 12,000 (in which case the ecosystem would be classi­ feet in the Southern Rocky Mountains. Much of fied as western white pine). Because of the the topography is rough and broken. dense overstory and limited understory, heavily Climate.-Annual precipitation ranges from stocked stands are usually not considered a somewhat less than 22 inches in the Rocky forage resource for domestic livestock unless Mountains to 50-75 inches in the Sierras. In timber is harvested by patch clearcuts. the Rockies 50-65 percent of the precipitation The usual dense stand produces about O to 50 falls in the warmest months, while in the pounds of herbaceous and shrub material. Patch Sierra-Cascade Mountains province only 25-40 clearcuts or burns which are rehabilitated by percent falls in the warmest months. Precipita­ tree planting and grass seeding can produce tion in the period December-March is 50-60 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of herbage per acre for percent of the annual total in the Sierra­ 10 to 12 years. Cascade Mountains and 15-25 percent in the Fauna.-Seasonally, the fir-spruce ecosystem Rocky Mountains. During the frost-free season, and, in particular, the interspersed openings precipitation is 20 to 40 percent of the evapora­ and stream bottoms with broad-leaved woody tion potential. species such as aspen and willows are used by Vegetation.-The fir-spruce ecosystem is moose, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer. characterized by open to dense forests of low Mountain caribou originally wintered in Idaho, to tall needle-leaved evergreen trees and patches Washington, and Montana; a few still do. The of shrubby undergrowth and scattered herbs. wolverine, lynx, black bear, mountain lion,

24 F-379196 Figure 13.-The shrub understory in this forest in the western white pine ecosystem provides good cover for wildlife. 25 F-522875 Figure 14.-A stand of Pacific silver fir and noble fir in the fir-spruce ecosystem.

26 coyote, and wolf occur in the ecosystem. The species of mice. grizzly bear is present, though in a fraction of Soils.-The soils of this ecosystem are its original numbers and is classified as a rare extremely varied. In the Northwest, Inceptisols species. Grizzlies are about the only predator (Cryandepts and Cryumbrepts) predominate. of elk and possibly are a useful natural control Ultisols occur in the Sierra Nevada Range. over excessively large elk herds. Alfisols (Boralfs) are common in the Rocky Several of the species that have been men­ Mountains, and there are also significant areas tioned use the fir-spruce ecosystem only sea­ of Entisols. Areas of deep overburdens of sonally, primarily as cover or in following absorptive Vitrandepts are very productive migratory routes. This is the case with the moun­ sites in eastern Oregon and the northern tain sheep and the mountain goat, which occur Rockies. more commonly in steep rocky areas. Among the Land use.-Heavy forests cover much of birds in the ecosystem are several of the blue the ecosystem, and they are used as wildlife grouse and spruce grouse groups, ruffed grouse, habitats and watersheds and for recreation and and various chickadees, nuthatches, bluebirds, lumbering. There is virtually no cropland. Much robins, and jays. Among the more common of the area is owned by the Federal Govern­ rodents and lagomorphs are the porcupine, ment. Grazing by domestic livestock is gen­ beaver, snowshoe rabbit, squirrels, flying squir­ erally limited to natural parks and meadows rels, pocket gophers, chipmunks, and various that occur within the forest matrix.

NO. 24.-THE HEMLOCK-SITKA SPRUCE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The hemlock-Sitka spruce Usual herbs are American twinflower, hollyfern, ecosystem extends south from British Columbia cutleaf goldthread, and redwoods violet. along the Oregon and Washington Coast Ranges Fauna.-The most common large mammals and occupies part of the Cascade Range in in this ecosystem include the elk, deer, black Washington. The elevation ranges from 200 to bear, and moose. In the hemlock areas of the 4,000 feet. northwestern portion, the red-tailed hawk, Climate.-The length of the frost-free season screech owl, pygmy owl, and great horned owl for that portion of the ecosystem along coastal are avian predators. Mammalian predators Oregon and Washington is about 200 days. The include mountain lions, bobcats, wolves, the portion in the northern Cascades has a frost­ Pacific marten, and the western spotted skunk. free season of about 120 days. Precipitation is Smaller animals include the deer mouse, Doug­ about 60 to 115 inches annually in western Ore­ las squirrel, bushy-tailed wood rat, Town­ gon and Washington. In western Oregon and send's chipmunk, and coast mole. Among the Washington, about 60 to 70 percent of the pre­ more common birds are the red crossbill, cipitation occurs in the months of December to chestnut-backed chickadee, red-breasted nut­ March. In western Washington the amount of hatch, raven, gray jay, Steller's jay, hermit precipitation is mostly equal to double the warbler, western wood pewee, and pine siskin. evaporation potential. In western Oregon it is Blue and ruffed grouse are also present. 80 percent of potential evaporation. Soils.-Along coastal Oregon and Washing­ Vegetation.-This ecosystem is defined as ton and in the northern Cascade Mountains, having 50 percent or more of the forest in the soils of this ecosystem are Inceptisols. western hemlock or Sitka spruce or both. Other Land use.-Nearly all the area is in forest. tree species which may be present to a lesser In the Pacific Northwest, most of the ecosystem degree are Douglas-fir, grand fir, and western is privately owned. Lumbering is the major redcedar. Common shrubs include the vine industry. The narrow valleys and coastal plains, maple, red whortleberry, Cascades mahonia, about 5 percent of the total area, are cleared. California dewberry, and coast rhododendron. Hay for dairy cattle is the chief crop.

NO. 25.-THE LARCH ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The larch ecosystem occupies Climate.-The length of the frost-free season the high mountains of eastern Oregon, northern in the ecosystem is 120 days in the Blue Moun­ Idaho, and western Montana. Less than 20 per­ tains of eastern Oregon and 80 to 120 days in cent of the area is gently sloping. Local relief the northern Rockies. Annual precipitation is is over 3,000 feet. Larch commonly occupies the 20 to 30 inches in eastern Oregon and 20 to 50 upper slopes or northern exposures at lower inches in the northern Rockies. Of this pre­ elevations-about 3,500 feet. cipitation, 40 to 50 percent occurs in the period

27 F-70500 Figure 15.-A stand of western hemlock and Sitka spruce in the hemlock-Sitka spruce ecosystem. The large trees are Sitka spruce.

28 F-500637 Figure 16.-Stand of young larch trees in foreground, in the larch ecosystem. In this ecosystem, local relief exceeds 3,000 feet.

December to March in the eastern Oregon area similar to the faunas of the Douglas-fir and and only 35 to 40 percent occurs in the coldest fir-spruce ecosystems. Larch, however, being a months in the northern Rockies. During the deciduous conifer, lets more light into the stand frost-free season, precipitation is 20 percent of during part of the year. The difference in the the evaporation potential in eastern Oregon amount of light leads wildlife to prefer the and 20 to 40 percent in the northern Rockies. larch stands at times. Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized Soils.-In eastern Oregon, the soils of this by forests in which 50 percent or more of the ecosystem are Mollisols, particularly on north stand is western larch, except where western and northeast slopes where there is an over­ white pine comprises 20 percent or more of the burden of deep, absorptive Vitrandepts. In the timber volume. Ecologically, larch is considered northern Rockies they are Inceptisols, Alfisols, seral to stands of grand fir and stands of and Mollisols. Douglas-fir. This ecosystem produces 75 to 150 Land use.-Much of the land is heavily pounds of understory herbage per acre. How­ forested, affording wildlife habitats, providing ever, where it is patch clearcut, planted to trees, livestock forage, and offering opportunities for and seeded to grass, it will produce 2,000 to recreation, as well as producing timber. Mining 3,000 pounds of herbage per acre for 10 to 15 is important in northern Idaho and western years. Understory species are commonly of the Montana. A very small percentage of the land is genera found in spruce-fir stands and some cropped. Forage and grain grown in some of the Douglas-fir stands. valleys provide feed for dairy cattle and other Fauna.-The fauna in the larch ecosystem is livestock.

29 NO. 26.-THE LODGEPOLE PINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The lodgepole pine ecosys­ frost at almost any time of year. This species tem occupies sites on high mountains of West­ grows where the average annual rainfall is as ern States. It occurs even in some places where low as 20 inches, but it can grow well with 50 less than 20 percent of the area is gently sloping inches of precipitation. During the frost-free and at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 11,500 season in lodgepole pine areas, precipitation is feet, with local relief over 3,000 feet. However, commonly 20 percent of potential evaporation the ecosystem is best developed on gentle and is often 40 percent. Lodgepole pine stands mountain slopes. are adapted to varied distribution of rainfall. In Climate.-Commonly, lodgepole pine is on the southern Cascade Mountains and the mid­ sites where the length of the frost-free season Sierras, lodgepole pine stands receive 50 to 60 is 80 to 120 days, but it seems to be tolerant of percent of their annual precipitation in the

F-489697 Figure 17.-A stand of old lodgepole pines in the lodgepole pine ecosystem.

30 period December to March. Yet, in the middle spruce-fir forests of the same elevational zone. Rockies they receive only 15 to 35 percent of Low productivity of understory flora in many their precipitation in this period. cases limits the number of animals that can be Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized supported. Islands of uncut lodgepole pine pro­ by forests in which 50 percent or more of the vide excellent escape routes and protective stand is lodgepole pine. Ecologically, lodgepole refuges or cover for big game animals. pine stands are seral to some of the western Soils.-In the Sierras, the lodgepole pine eco­ interior coniferous forests. "Doghair" stands system occupies Ultisols. In the eastern Cas­ often develop after fires. Understory species, cades of Oregon, it occupies Entisols. In the if present, are of about the same genera as Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon, lodgepole found in stands of western larch, spruce-fir, pine grows best on Vitrandepts, which deeply and interior Douglas-fir. Herbage production overburden bedrock or Mollisols. In the Rocky can be O to 50 pounds per acre in dense stands Mountains, this ecosystem occupies Inceptisols, or 2,000 to 3,000 pounds per acre where clear­ Mollisols, and Alfisols. cuts, burns, or conversions to a different conif­ Land use.-Much of the land of this ecosys­ erous stand are carried out. Of course, herbage tem is forested. About 80 percent is owned by productivity in treated areas declines with the Federal Government. In addition to produc­ closure of the tree canopy and in 10 to 20 ing timber, the forest yields water, affords years will return to a very low level. wildlife habitats, and provides opportunities Fauna.-The lodgepole pine ecosystem has for recreation. Several national parks are in about the same fauna as Douglas-fir, larch, and the area of this ecosystem.

NO. 27.-THE REDWOOD ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The redwood ecosystem deer is present in the redwood ecosystem. Elk occupies only the low coastal mountains of use the ecosystem in some areas but are much northern California and the southwestern por­ less numerous than in the past. Mountain lions, tion of Oregon. Less than 20 'percent of the area bobcats, and black bears may be seasonally is gently sloping. Local relief ranges from active within the forest. The red-tailed hawk, 1,000 to 3,000 feet. screech owl, and great horned owl feed on mice Climate.-The climate is moist and tem­ and other small animals on the forest floor. perate. Annual precipitation averages nearly The sharp-shinned hawk and Cooper's hawk 60 inches, of which 10-25 percent falls in the prey chiefly on birds. The band-tailed pigeon warmest months and 60- 70 percent in the may occur as a summer resident. The blue period December to March. Normal annual pan grouse is the most common ground-nesting bird. evaporation is 40-50 inches. The amount of Other characteristic birds include the pileated precipitation is two and one-half to five times woodpecker, gray jay, brown creeper, hermit the potential evaporation during the frost-free warbler, and red crossbill. season. Soils.-The soils are Ultisols. Base satura­ Vegetation.-The vegetation of this ecosys­ tion is low; organic matter content is high. A tem is a dense forest of very tall, evergreen, relatively thin subsurface horizon of accu­ needle-leaved trees, sometimes with much mulated clay is present (Haplohumults). undergrowth-20 percent or more of the stand Land use.-Most of the land is in privately is redwood. The dominant plants are redwood owned farms, ranches, or forest. Lumbering and Douglas-fir. Other major components of is the major industry. Only about 10 percent the vegetation include grand fir, salal, Pacific of the ecosystem is in grassland used for graz­ waxmyrtle, coast rhododendron, western hem­ ing. The cultivated land in valleys, less than 5 lock, box blueberry, and swordfern. percent of the total area, is used mainly for Fauna.-The Columbian black-tailed or coast growing forage and grain for dairy cattle.

NO. 28.-THE WESTERN HARDWOODS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The western hardwoods eco­ Mountains, and this portion of the ecosystem system occurs in northern California and south­ (mostly aspen areas) varies considerably. ern Oregon on tablelands where 50-80 percent Climate.-The west coast portion of this eco­ of the area is gently sloping and the relief is system has rainy winters and dry summers. only 300-500 feet and on low mountains where Annual precipitation ranges, on the average, slopes are mostly steep and the local relief is from 15 inches in California to 48 inches in 1,000 to 3,000 feet. It also occurs in the Rocky Oregon and occurrs mostly as rain between the

31 months of November and May. Normal annual white oak, Coulter pine, Digger pine, coast live pan evaporation ranges from about 40 inches oak, canyon live oak, blue oak, valley oak, and in Oregon to nearly 100 inches in southern interior live oak. In California this ecosystem California. Evaporation during the frost-free lies mainly between the annual grasslands and season ranges from about two to five times the the chaparral and mixed conifer zones. The potential evaporation. The climate of the widely widely scattered Rocky Mountain and Plains scattered Rocky Mountain portions corresponds States "hardwood" portion of the ecosystem con­ to that described for adjacent or surrounding sists primarily of quaking aspen stands with an ecosystems. understory of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. In Vegetation.-This ecosystem is characterized many places where the aspen stands are inclu­ by forests in which 50 percent or more of the sions within areas of sagebrush or conifers, stand is hardwood species-except where west­ they are important sources of food and cover ern white pine, sugar pine, or redwood com­ for wildlife. Cottonwood becomes dominant on prises 20 percent or more of the stand (in plains, more or less replacing aspen. such cases the ecosystem is classified as western Fauna.-In California several subspecies of white pine or redwood). The vegetation is a the mule deer are numerous in various parts forest of low to medium-tall, broad-leaved of this ecosystem. The now-extinct California deciduous or evergreen trees, sometimes with grizzly was once numerous. An occasional black an admixture of low to medium-tall needle­ bear comes down from forests at higher eleva­ leaved evergreens, often with an understory tions. Mountain lions· are no longer numerous; of grass and shrubs. the largest numerous predatory animals are the In the California and Oregon portions of this coyote and the bobcat. Avian predators include ecosystem, dominant species include Oregon golden eagles and red-tailed and other hawks.

F-522876 Figure 18.-Some of the trees in this forest in the redwood ecosystem are more than a thousand years old.

32 F-325590 Figure 19.-A representative scene in the western hardwoods ecosystem.

Two endangered species, the California condor Rocky Mountain area is essentially that of the and the San Joaquin kit fox, occur. California adjacent or surrounding ecosystems, but the quail are often abundant at lower elevations, aspen stands serve as important areas of food and mountain quail winter at the higher eleva­ and shelter for many species of wildlife. Where tions. The striped skunk is widespread. Among hardwood stands occur on river bottoms in the the more common small mammals are the plains, they are a home for many arboreal and Beechy ground squirrel, kangaroo rat, pocket forest-edge species that are not present in the gopher, and a number of types of mice. Also surrounding open country. occurring in this part of this ecosystem are Soils.-In Oregon the soils of this ecosystem additional species found in the annual grass­ are deep and have well-developed illuvial hori­ lands ecosystem. zons (Argixerolls). Drainage is generally good. The fauna of the Oregon oakwoods portion Farther south, in California, the surface hori­ of the ecosystem is somewhat similar to that zons are somewhat lighter and lower in content in the California portion, but species represen­ of organic matter, but the illuvial horizon of tative of the southern part of the California accumulated clay is again present (Xeralfs). oakwoods may not be present and more north­ Land use.-Livestock grazing in the ecosys­ ern species, such as the ruffed grouse, are tem is limited to the more open portions of present. Deer are common; elk were numerous stands adjacent to grasslands. Wildlife find in the past. The western gray squirrel fre­ cover in the several variations of the ecosys­ quents stands of Garry oak. The fauna of the tem, and the aspen portions provide browse .aspen portion of the ecosystem throughout the for big game .

NO. 29.-THE SAGEBRUSH ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The sagebrush ecosystem is of the lower reaches of adjacent mountains. prominent principally on the Columbia Pla­ This broad ecosystem occupies vast plains and teaus, in the Northwestern States; in the cen­ plateaus derived from lava flows, ancient lake tral portion of the Great Basin, in Utah, beds, and broad basins of alluvium. The more Nevada, and southern Idaho; in the Wyoming individual plateau sections are usually delin­ Basin; and on the Colorado Plateaus and some eated in terrace and tablelike fashion and range

33 F-419065 Figure 20.-Sagebrush shrubs in the sagebrush ecosystem. In the area shown, herbaceous plants are lacking, having been killed by overgrazing. from rolling lava plains to maturely fringed and this ecosystem. Other wild mammals that are dissected mesas. Elevations range roughly from principal inhabitants of this ecosystem are the 600 feet to 10,000 feet. Great Basin coyote, black-tailed jackrabbit, Climate.-The length of the frost-free season pygmy cottontail, Ord's kangaroo rat, and normally is 120 days but is reduced to only 80 Great Basin kangaroo rat. days at certain mountain sites. Annual precip­ Bird populations are low during the breeding itation is 5 to 12 inches-in some places almost season, averaging only about 25 pairs per 100 20 inches-40 to 50 percent of it coming in acres. The major influent birds include the the period December to March and only 25 to marsh hawk, red-tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, 40 percent occurring in the warmer half of the golden eagle, bald eagle, Cooper's hawk, prairie year. Precipitation is only 20 percent of the falcon, burrowing owl, and long-eared owl. The evaporation potential during the frost-free sage grouse and chukar are important game season. birds. More than 50 additional species of birds Vegetation.-The sagebrush ecosystem is nest within the ecosystem. characterized by shrubs, principally of the Soils.-In the Columbia Plateaus province, the genus Artemisia, which are usually 1 to 7 feet sagebrush ecosystem occupies Mollisols having high. In some situations, other shrubs are part black, friable, organic surface horizons and a of the vegetation. In other places, grasses such high content of bases. Inceptisols (Andepts) of as those of the genera Agropyron, Festuca, Poa, ashy nature are conspicuous in parts of the and Bromus, as well as broad-leaved herbs, are Columbia Plateaus. In the Great Basin and found in the understory. part of the Wyoming Basin, the soils of the Fauna.-Pronghorn, or antelope, use parts of sagebrush ecosystem are Aridisols which have this ecosystem as rangeland throughout the pedogenic horizons, are low in content of year, whereas mule deer prefer to use sage­ organic matter, have a clay horizon in some brush rangeland only during the winter. The places, and have accumulations of various salts Utah prairie dog is an endangered species of in some places. In part of the Colorado Plateaus

34 province, as well as part of the Wyoming Basin, same as those of productivity class 1. Herbage they are Entisols, which have no pedogenic production ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds horizons. The remaining soils of the sagebrush per acre. Forage production ranges from 300 to ecosystem in the Colorado Plateaus province 500 pounds per acre. are Aridisols and Mollisols. Class 3.-Productivity class 3 includes the Land use.-Most of the land within the sage­ more productive portion of Ktichler's Great brush ecosystem is used for sheep and cattle Basin sagebrush community. Rainfall averages grazing, principally in the spring and fall. nearly 10 inches per year. The class is charac­ Where sufficient water is available, irrigation terized by dense to open brush, 1 to 3 feet in ranching and farming are practiced. The prin­ height, with various mixtures of grass and cipal crops are hay, grain, potatoes, and beets. forbs. The dominant shrub is big sagebrush. Some important associated plants are shadscale, Productivity Classes hopsage, ephedra, and milkvetch. Herbage pro­ duction ranges from 500 to 1,000 pounds per Class 1.-Productivity class 1 represents the acre. Forage production varies from 100 to 200 best growing conditions in the sagebrush eco­ pounds per acre. system. It includes the most productive sites of Class 4;.-Productivity class 4 encompasses Ktichler's sagebrush steppe and wheatgrass­ the area of least moisture in the sagebrush needlegrass shrubsteppe communities. Dense to ecosystem. Rainfall is less than 10 inches a scattered shrubs and dense to open grasslands year, and evaporation is high. The physiognomy are characteristic of the class. Dominant spe­ is similar to that of class 1, except that the cies of the sagebrush steppe are big sagebrush, brush is more scattered and of lower stature bluebunch wheatgrass, and Idaho fescue. Other in many places. Dominant species, in addition important plants are balsamroot, Sandberg to big sagebrush, are black sagebrush and low bluegrass, and lupine. Dominant species of the sagebrush. Herbage production ranges from wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe are west­ 0 to 500 pounds per acre. Forage production ern wheatgrass, needle-and-thread, and plains ranges from O to 150 pounds per acre. bluegrass. Herbage production varies from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per acre. Forage HERBAGE PRODUCTION production ranges from 500 to 700 pounds per acre. A summary of herbage production in the Class 2.-Productivity class 2 of the sage­ ecosystem follows: brush ecosystem includes the less productive Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds portions of the sagebrush steppe and wheat­ class per acre class per acre grass-needlegrass shrubsteppe communities. 1 1,500-2,000 3 500-1,000 The physiognomy and dominant species are the 2 1,000-1,500 4 0- 500

NO. 30.-THE DESERT SHRUB ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The desert shrub ecosystem percent of the evaporation potential during the is a composite of various desert shrublands and frost-free season. includes the salt flats of Great Salt Lake, the Vegetation.-The vegetation of the ecosystem southwestern desert plains and plateaus, the is characterized by xeric shrubs varying in western third of the Great Basin's mixture of height from 4 inches to many feet. Stands are mountains and basins, the eastern edge of the generally open, with a large amount of bare Great Basin, parts of Wyoming and Big Horn soil and desert pavement exposed. However, Basins, and parts of the dissected Colorado some stands may be relatively dense. Under­ Plateaus. story vegetation is generally sparse. During Climate.-The normal length of the frost-free years of above-average rainfall, annuals may season is 120 days in the more northerly parts be conspicuous for a short time. of the ecosystem and 200 days in the southwest. Fauna.-There is a great diversity of habi­ Annual precipitation is only 5 to 10 inches. tats in the desert shrub ecosystem. Conse­ In the western portion of the ecosystem where quently, the species of the fauna are quite varied. the Pacific climate has an influence, 50 percent However, dominant animals are characteris­ or more of the meager precipitation occurs in tically species of rats and pocket mice. In the the winter, whereas in the more easterly por­ saltbush-greasewood community the pale kan­ tions which are under the influence of continental garoo mouse and little pocket mouse are com­ or Rocky Mountain weather, only 15 to 25 per­ mon. Animals associated with black sagebrush cent of the precipitation occurs during the are the desert wood rat and Nuttall's cotton­ winter. The amount of precipitation is only 20 tail. The black-tailed jackrabbit is most numer-

35 ous in the greasewood sites. The cactus mouse tall cactus areas. The Sonoran pronghorn is and desert kangaroo rat are abundant in the classed as an endangered species; few if any saltbush desert. Merriam's kangaroo rat is of this species are left in southern Arizona. strongly associated with creosotebush. Other The masked bobwhite quail is also an endan­ important species in the ecosystem are the long­ gered species in this ecosystem. tailed pocket mouse and antelope ground Soils.-The soils of the desert shrub ecosys­ squirrel. tem include Aridisols (with pedogenic hori­ Common larger mammals in the desert shrub zons) in the Great Basin and on southwestern ecosystem are the desert kit fox, coyote, and desert plains and plateaus, Entisols (with no western spotted skunk. Desert mule deer and horizons), and Aridisols in the Wyoming Basin peccary are associated with the paloverde­ and on the Colorado Plateaus. The soil of the cactus shrub community. Many desert birds are Great Salt Flats is unclassified. very selective in their type of habitat. Grease­ Land use.-In the northern extension of this wood may furnish a permanent residence for ecosystem, livestock grazing is the principal the loggerhead shrike. Areas where tall cactus industry. Much of this grazing is done in the is plentiful furnish homes for many birds, winter. Where irrigation water is available, including the Gila woodpecker, several species ranching and farming are practiced. The prin­ of owl, and the purple martin. Gambel's quail, cipal crops are hay and small grains. In some the cactus wren, and the roadrunner are com­ areas potatoes and sugar beets are grown. mon in the southern part of the ecosystem. In the Sonoran Basin and southern Arizona Reptiles include numerous species of snakes and New Mexico, limited grazing is done at and lizards, including the Gila monster of the favorable times. Irrigation farming is prac-

F-468713 Figure 21.-Shadscale and winterfat dominate this vegetation community of the desert shrub ecosystem. 36 ticed where water is available. Crops such as bush-greasewood, are included in this produc­ cotton, citrus fruits, winter vegetables, and tivity class. Average sites of the mesquite alfalfa are grown. bosques community are also included. Black­ brush is the dominant species of the blackbrush Productivity Classes unit. Shadscale, greasewood, and saltbush are dominants in the saltbush-greasewood unit. Production in this ecosystem varies greatly Other important species in this community are from year to year, depending on the moisture saltgrass, winterfat, and bud sagebrush. supply. Class 4.-This productivity class is associ­ Class 1.-Productivity class 1 includes Ktich­ ated with the drier and hotter portions of the ler's mesquite bosques community, which has desert shrub ecosystem. Three communities, a relatively high production potential. Better creosotebush, creosotebush-bursage, and palo­ sites in this community, those that are flooded verde-cactus shrub, are included in this class. periodically, have produced nearly 1 ton of her­ Bursage is dominant in the creosotebush unit, bage per acre where the mesquite cover has while creosotebush and white bursage are domi­ been reduced artificially. Such production may nant in the creosotebush-bursage unit. The be indicative of the original potential of this paloverde-cactus shrub community is character­ unit. The dominant plant species is mesquite. ized by paloverde, pricklypear, cholla, saguaro, Herbage production on the more frequently and bursage. The stands of low to medium­ flooded sites is between 750 and 1,000 pounds tall shrubs are characteristically quite open. per acre. Forage production is from O to 500 Herbage production ranges from 40 to 100 pounds per acre. A forest of low deciduous trees pounds per acre in the creosotebush and creo­ is characteristic. sotebush-bursage units and from 100 to 250 Class 2.-This class includes the more moist pounds in the paloverde-cactus shrub unit. sites of the saltbush-greasewood community. About 30 to 40 percent of the herbage can be Greasewood, saltgrass, and pickleweed are considered to be forage. dominant and associated species. Herbage pro­ duction varies from 500 to 750 pounds per acre. HERBAGE PRODUCTION Forage production ranges from 50 to 200 A summary of herbage production in the pounds per acre. Low to medium brush and suc­ ecosystem follows : culent forbs are characteristic-with or with­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds out grass. class per acre class per acre Class 3.-The more productive sites of two 1 ...... 750-1,000 3...... 250- 500 major plant communities, blackbrush and salt- 2 ·-···· 500- 750 4 40- 250

NO. 31.-THE SHINNERY ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The shinnery ecosystem cov­ cipitation is a quarter of the potential evapora­ ers considerable areas of sand hills and river tion in the western part of the ecosystem and dunes across the southern Great Plains, the one-half in the eastern part. major portion occurring along the Canadian Vegetation.-The vegetation of the shinnery River. The ecosystem is estimated to occupy ecosystem is a midgrass prairie with open to about 6 million acres. The valley of the dense stands of broad-leaved deciduous shrubs Canadian River is estimated to be 1,000 feet and occasional needle-leaved low trees and below the surrounding areas, is cut deep into shrubs. The major shrubs are Havard oak and red sandstone, and is 5 to 20 miles wide. Ter­ mesquite. Little bluestem and side-oats grama races, mesas, cliffs, and side canyons charac­ are the most common grass species. Sand blue­ terize the landscape. Water, when the river is stem is sometimes locally common. Sand sage­ low, disappears and reappears through sand brush and yucca are the most common low beds. shrubs. Climate.-The shinnery ecosystem is rather Fauna.-The fauna of the shinnery ecosystem small geographically; thus, the climate is rela­ is a mixture of species common in the sur­ tively uniform throughout the area. The frost­ rounding plains grasslands, pinyon-juniper, and free season lasts 180-200 days. Precipitation southwestern shrubsteppe ecosystems, forest­ ranges from about 15 inches in New Mexico to edge species also being present along the river 25 in Oklahoma. Two-thirds to three-fourths of bottoms. the precipitation falls in the warmest months; Soils.-The soils of most of the shinnery the amount of precipitation in winter is low. ecosystem are Mollisols. In the extreme western The potential evaporation is several times the portion are Aridisols. Alfisols are in two small precipitation. During the warmest months, pre- areas. The "island" of shinnery far to the south

37 SCS-TE-910-6 Figure 22.-Grassland in the shinnery ecosystem; scattered stands of oak in rear. of the rest of the ecosystem is on Alfisols. In are used as native rangeland or are farmed if some places the soils are Entisols. conditions permit. Land use.-Where shrubs are not too dense, Class 3.-The vegetation characterizing this livestock grazing is common. productivity class is a mixture of midgrasses and short grasses occurring on or near the outer Productivity Classes edge of valleys and on the valley walls. Class 3 areas receive runoff when it occurs, but are dry Class 1.-The most productive areas of this for long periods. Herbage yields average 1,000 ecosystem yield an average of 2,000 pounds of pounds per acre. The major grasses are three­ herbage per acre. These areas have a high pro­ awns, gramas, and, in scattered areas, western portion of tall-grass species, such as big blue­ wheatgrass. Shrubs, such as Havard oak and stem and sand bluestem, together with mid­ sumacs, occur more commonly here than else­ grasses, such as side-oats grama and little blue­ where in the ecosystem. Mesquite occurs as stem. The soils are mainly Mollisols ( Calci ustolls scattered low trees. The soils are mainly plus Haplustolls) which are medium to high in Aridisols (Haplargids, gently to moderately content of bases and are moist during part of sloping). Class 3 areas are used as native the growing season but dry for extended per­ rangeland. iods. Most of the level areas are dry-farmed or Class 4.-This productivity class is repre­ irrigated. Wind erosion makes continuous use sented by vegetation occurring on the more of cover crops necessary. The trend is toward sandy areas (stabilized sand dunes). Herbage hay production. yields average 500 pounds per acre. Sand blue­ Class 2.-Herbage yields average 1,500 stem and little bluestem are the major grass pounds per acre in this productivity class. The species. Other species are big sandreed, giant major species are little bluestem and side-oats and sand dropseed, and hairy and side-oats grama. There are scattered stands of big blue­ grama. Yucca and sand sagebrush are the two stem and sand bluestem. The shrub species most important low shrubs. The soils are mainly characteristic of this ecosystem occur in small, Entisols (Ustipsamments, moderately sloping) dense patches. The soils are mainly Alfisols characterized by fine sand. Class 4 areas are (Haplustalfs). Areas in productivity class 2 still in native grasses and forbs.

38 NO. 32.-THE TEXAS SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The Texas savanna eco­ days. Precipitation ranges from 20 to 30 inches system occupies the western end of the West annually, more than half of which falls in the Gulf Coastal Plain and the southern part of the warmest months and less than a quarter in the Great Plains. It is commonly referred to as the period December to March. Annual evaporation Rio Grande Plains of south Texas and the is 70-80 inches; during the period May to Edwards Plateau of south-central Texas. The October, the potential evaporation is about Rio Grande Plains is alluvial and is possibly a twice the precipitation. deltaic plain of the Rio Grande. It is a relatively Vegetation.-This is a high-shrub savanna flat plain, about 400-600 feet above sea level, ecosystem with a dense to very open synusia of that rises 1,000 feet rather abruptly to the broad-leaved, deciduous and evergreen, low Edwards Plateau. The Edwards Plateau itself trees and shrubs and needle-leaved, e".ergreen, reaches an elevation of 3,600 feet at its western low trees and shrubs. The grass vanes from end. Its edges are maturely dissected by short to medium tall, and the herbaceous vege­ streams. The surface in its interior is a flatland tation varies from dense to open. Mesquite is traversed by dry valleys or "draws". the most widespread woody plant. Others are Climate.-ln this ecosystem the frost-free Acacia spp., oaks, juniper, and ceniza along the season ranges from about 250 to well over 300 Rio Grande valley and bluffs. Opuntia spp. are

SCS-TE-9263-7 Figure 23.-Herefords in an open stand of low trees and shrubs and short and medium-tall grasses in the Texas savanna ecosystem.

39 widespread. The herbaceous plants are mainly acacia savanna on the West Gulf Coastal Plain bluestems, three-awns, buffalo grass, gramas, represents the class. This savanna is a dense­ and curly mesquite and tobosa on the Edwards to-open grassland with broad-leaved, deciduous, Plateau. low trees and shrubs. Acacia spp. are the most Fauna.-The Texas savanna ecosystem is common shrubs, and mesquite is scattered noted for the abundance of white-tailed deer throughout the community. The major grasses and wild turkeys. The collared peccary is com­ are seacoast bluestem, plains bristlegrass, and mon in some areas along the Rio Grande, where buffalo grass. Herbage production averages several species of Mexican or tropical distribu­ 2,100 pounds per acre, of which about 35 per­ tion make their only entry into the United cent is forbs. The most abundant forbs are one­ States. Examples are the chachalaca and the seed croton, horse mint, and prairieconeflower. coatimundi. The armadillo is present. The fox The soils of productivity class 2 are Molli­ squirrel is hunted in wooded areas along sols (Haplustolls plus Argiustolls, gently slop­ streams. Among the fur bearers are the ring­ ing, and Calciustolls, shallow and gently tail and the raccoon. sloping), Alfi.sols (Haplustalfs plus Haplustolls Great numbers of white-winged doves once and Calciustolls, shallow and gently sloping), nested in brushy areas along the southern Rio and Vertisols (Pellusterts plus Chromusterts, Grande, but clearing of land for agricultural gently sloping). All these soils have similar purposes has contributed to reducing their characteristic subsurface horizons high in con­ population. The golden-cheeked warbler is a tent of bases, are mostly shallow, and are inter­ rare species. The mourning dove, scaled quail, mittently dry for long periods during the warm­ and bobwhite are game birds in the ecosystem. est months. Most of this area remains in ranges A number of hawks and owls are present. of native shrubs and grasses, which are grazed Soils.-Soils in the Texas savanna ecosystem by beef cattle. About 10 percent of the area, are varied, but the different soil orders are mainly along the Rio Grande and the Nueces unusually well correlated with the different River, is irrigated. plant communities within the ecosystem. The Class 3.-The mesquite-oak savanna and the mesquite-live oak savanna, for example, is on juniper-oak savanna on the Edwards Plateau the only Entisols within the ecosystem. The are vegetation communities in this productivity soils of the juniper-oak savanna are almost class. In the areas of these savannas, herbage entirely Mollisols, while an "island" of Alfi.sols production averages up to 1,500 pounds per within the area of Mollisols corresponds with acre. Mesquite and oak dominate the open the boundaries of the mesquite-oak savanna. In synusia of broad-leaved deciduous trees of the the mesquite-acacia savanna, Mollisols, Alfi.sols, mesquite-oak savanna. Ashe juniper and live and Vertisols occur. oak dominate the open synusia of trees of the Land Use.-Land which is not cropped and juniper-oak savanna. The herbaceous domin­ on which the brush is not too dense is grazed ants of both savannas are little bluestem, curly by livestock. mesquite, tobosa, and buffalo grass. Pricklypear occurs here and there throughout the plateau area. Forbs are of lesser importance. Productivity Classes The soils are Mollisols (Haplustolls, shallow, Class 1.-The mesquite-live oak savanna extending 20 inches to bedrock, plus Pellusterts, community on the West Gulf Coastal Plain gently to moderately sloping) in the mesquite­ characterizes this productivity class. Herbage oak savanna and Alfi.sols (Haplustalfs plus yields average 2,600 pounds per acre. Annual Argiustolls, gently to moderately sloping) in precipitation averages 29 inches but fluctuates the juniper-oak savanna. The juniper-oak greatly, and droughts are common. Conse­ savanna occurs on the deeper soils that have a quently, the yield of herbage also fluctuates thin subsurface horizon of accumulated clay, greatly. Major components of the overstory are while the mesquite-oak savanna occurs on shal­ live oak, shin oak, and mesquite. Major grasses low soils that have subsurface horizons in which are seacoast bluestem, Texas wintergrass, curly salts or carbonates have accumulated. More mesquite, and three-awns. Forbs are important than four-fifths of the area of these two savan­ and often make up about 25 percent of the nas is in rangeland or shrubs and grasses used herbage production. The soils are Entisols by cattle, sheep, and goats. The remainder is (Ustipsamments) that are moderately sloping. used for dry farming. Deer habitats in the area These are loamy sands and are intermittently dry for long periods. About four-fifths of the are managed for economic returns. vegetation community remains as rangeland of Class 4.-The ceniza shrub vegetation com­ native shrubs and grasses. The remainder is munity of productivity class 4 is characterized irrigated or dry-farmed. by open to dense stands of broad-leaved, decidu­ Class 2.-Although this class contains a num­ ous and evergreen shrubs and a patchy synusia ber of vegetation communities, the mesquite- of grass. It is located along the lower Rio

40 Grande valley and bluffs. The dominant vege­ shrub community is located, is irrigated. The tation consists of creosotebush, ceniza, and remainder of the unit is on valley slopes and mesquite, underlain with patches of gramas, bluffs which are still in native shrub and grass curly mesquite, sacaton, Arizona cottontop, and species. Conversion of brush areas to agricul­ three-awns. Pricklypear is common. Herbage tural use has resulted in a drastic reduction in production sometimes averages as much as the nesting habitat of the white-winged dove 1,600 pounds per acre but is usually much less. in the United States. The soils of this vegetation community are Vertisols (Pellusterts plus Camborthids and HERBAGE PRODUCTION Torrerts, gently sloping) which are clayey soils that, when dry, have wide, deep cracks that A summary of herbage production m the remain open intermittently for periods totaling ecosystem follows : more than 3 months. This area can be very Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds productive when there is adequate precipita­ class per acre class per acre tion. Most of the floor of the Rio Grande valley, 1...... 2,250-3,000 3 750-1,500 in which approximately 50 percent of the ceniza 2. .. 1,500-2,250 4 0- 750

NO. 33.-THE SOUTHWESTERN SHRUBSTEPPE ECOSYSTEM Physiography.-The southwestern shrub­ mento section, through southern Arizona, New steppe ecosystem occurs south of the Rocky Mexico, and Texas. This ecosystem occurs at a Mountains. It occurs as relatively large blocks lower altitude than the pinyon-j uni per ecosys­ of almost-level desert plains isolated between tem and is often referred to as the semidesert roughly parallel low mountain ranges of the grass-shrub type. Sonoran Desert, Mexican Highland, and Sacra- CZimate.-Temperatures in this ecosystem

F-477569 Figure 24.-Areas of short grass and scattered shrubs and of shrubs with scattered patches of short grass are characteristic of the southwestern shrubsteppe ecosystem. 41 are not as variable as in ecosystems covering creosotebush and yucca characterizes this pro­ larger geographic areas. The frost-free season ductivity class. Herbage production averages ranges from slightly less than 180 days in Ari­ 500 pounds per acre, ranging from 450 to 600 zona to more than 240 days at the southeastern pounds. Black grama and tobosa occur most boundary, in Texas. Precipitation, half of which commonly. The soils are mainly gently sloping normally falls in the warmest months, varies Aridisols that have a loamy horizon of accumu­ from 10 inches in the west to about 18 inches lated clay and, usually, a horizon containing at the eastern boundary of the ecosystem. large amounts of calcium carbonate or gypsum. Potential evaporation is high, being 80-90 The Trans-Pecos shrub savanna, where juni­ inches annually. During the warmest months it pers commonly occur, also characterizes this is 4 to 10 times the precipitation. productivity class. This community occupies the V egetation.-The southwestern shrubsteppe Stockton Plateau, which is the southwestern ecosystem is characterized by vegetation types portion of the Edwards Plateau. It is in a belt ranging from short grass with scattered shrubs of higher rainfall and at a higher altitude than to shrubs with scattered areas of short grasses. the grama-tobosa shrubsteppe. The major grass Yucca is one of the most characteristic woody species of this community are tobosa, curly plants in the ecosystem. Mesquite is abundant mesquite, and buffalo grass. Forbs are of lesser in many areas. Creosotebush and tarbush are importance. Soils are mainly gently to moder­ dominant among the shrubs. Black grama, ately sloping Entisols, which are clayey, have a three-awns, and tobosa dominate the herbs. regular decrease in organic-matter content with Side-oats grama and curly mesquite are also depth, have a gravelly or stony surface in this important. The shrub-grass stands occupy shal­ area, and are usually less than 2 feet deep above low soils with no development or little develop­ caliche. Four-fifths of this vegetation commu­ ment. The grass-shrub stands occupy the soils nity remains as rangeland. The remainder is with more development. under irrigation or in nonfarm uses. Fauna.-Because of the geographic prox­ Class 2.-The Trans-Pecos shrub savanna imity of the two ecosystems, the fauna of the characterizes this productivity class. Herbage southwestern shrubsteppe ecosystem is similar yields average 300 pounds per acre. Shrubs to that of the desert grasslands ecosystem. such as tarbush and creosotebush are common. Pronghorn, or antelope, and mule deer are the Short grasses such as tobosa, chinograss, and most widely distributed large game animals. bush muhley are present. Forbs are few. The The common white-tailed deer occurs in the shrubs and dwarf shrubs occur as stands that eastern portion of the ecosystem, in Texas. The are dense or scattered; consequently, herbage collared peccary or javelina is common in the production varies. The soils are mainly gently southern part of the ecosystem. The white­ sloping Aridisols ( Calciorthids) that are shal­ winged dove is locally important in Arizona, as low and have a horizon in which large amounts is the more widespread mourning dove. The of calcium carbonate or gypsum have accumu­ scaled quail and Gambel's quail are present in lated. The area of productivity class 2 is used most of the area, and the bobwhite reaches the mainly as rangeland. eastern portion of the ecosystem. The black­ Class 3.-This class is represented by the tailed jackrabbit, desert cottontail, kangaroo grama-tobosa shrubsteppe community. There is rat, wood rats, and numerous smaller rodents a relatively common occurrence of Joshua-tree compete with domestic and wild herbivores for yucca and other species of yucca, as well as a available forage and are preyed upon by the grass synusia varying from open to dense. Black coyote, bobcat, golden eagle, great horned owl, grama and tobosa are the major species in the red-tailed hawk, and ferruginous hawk. grass synusia. Herbage production varies from Soils.-In the western portion of this eco­ 150 to 300 pounds per acre and averages system, the soils are primarily Aridisols. Some approximately 200 pounds. This vegetative com­ are Mollisols. The eastern portions, the Trans­ munity occupies a small area in western Ari­ Pecos shrub savanna, are mainly on Aridisols in zona. The soils are Aridisols (Durargids) that the north and Entisols in the south. Junipers have a hardpan cemented with silica and Enti­ occur entirely in the areas of Entisols, accord­ sols (Torriorthents) that extend less than 20 ing to Kuchler. inches to bedrock. This area is used as Land use.-The areas in this ecosystem are used as rangeland except where they have been rangeland. converted to irrigation farming or other uses. Class 4.-No one type of vegetation charac­ terizes this productivity class. The class is char­ acterized by areas tending toward the desert Productivity Classes shrub ecosystem; in these areas shrub vegeta­ Class 1.-The grama-tobosa shrubsteppe tion is more prevalent, and herbage production community that has a low shrub population of averages 100 pounds per acre. Major shrubs are

42 creosotebush, tarbush, Joshua-tree yucca, and HERBAGE PRODUCTION juniper. Major grasses are tobosa and gramas. The soils are mainly gently to moderately slop­ A summary of herbage production in the eco­ ing and have a stony surface. They are Aridi­ system follows: sols (Durargids) that have a hardpan and Enti­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds sols (Torriorthents) that extend less than 20 class per acre class per acre inches to bedrock. Class 4 areas are used as 1 ,,,, 450-600 3. , ...150-300 rangeland. 2 ,,,, 300-450 4 0-150

NO. 34.-THE CHAPARRAL~MOUNTAIN SHRUB ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The chaparral-mountain highly productive understory. Recent activities shrub ecosystem occupies mountain areas over of man have altered the types of vegetation to 3,000 feet high in northern California and such a degree that reconstruction of their orig­ southern Oregon, areas ranging from sea level inal state would be difficult. to low mountains (up to 3,000 feet high) in the Fauna.-The fauna is quite diverse from southern part of the California Coast Ranges, north to south in the chaparral-mountain shrub mountains over 3,000 feet high in the Middle ecosystem; however, some species are quite Rocky Mountains, low mountains in the Gila widespread. Mule deer throughout the ecosys­ Mountains, and low and high tablelands in the tem and white-tailed deer in the south are the southern part of the Great Basin. most important large mammals. Other large Climate.-The length of the frost-free season mammals, such as the coyote, mountain lion, in much of the California portion is 160 to 200 bobcat, black-tailed jackrabbit, ringtail, striped days, depending on latitude and elevation. How­ skunk, and spotted skunk, are widespread in ever, one area along the southern coast has a the ecosystem. Some important species, such as frost-free season of 300 days. In the Middle the javelina and the band-tailed pigeon, are Rocky Mountains, the frost-free period is 80 to found only in the southern part of the ecosys­ 120 days, depending on elevation. The Gila tem. The wood rat is one of the most character­ Mountains have a frost-free period of 160 to istic animals of the ecosystem. Other small 180 days. In the southern part of the Basin and mammals include ground squirrels and mice. Range province the frost-free season lasts 200 Birds are very numerous in the brush types days. Annual precipitation varies from 10 to 28 of the ecosystem throughout the year. More inches, sometimes more. The California area than a hundred species were identified in the receives only 10 to 25 percent of its precipita­ scrub oak type in Utah. Over 40 resident birds tion in the warmest months. The northern part were noted in the oak-juniper community. of the Great Basin and the part of the ecosys­ Among the birds in the oak-juniper areas are tem in the Middle Rocky Mountains get 40 to 50 the golden-fronted woodpecker, turkey, and bob­ percent of their precipitation in the warmest white. Reptile species are quite numerous in the months. The Gila Mountains and the southern southern portion of the ecosystem. Two rare part of the Basin and Range province receive and endangered species are found in the eco­ 50 to 66 percent of their annual precipitation in system, both in the chaparral community. One the warmest months. of them, the California condor, has its range Year-round mild temperatures in much of the partially within the community. The other is California portion of the ecosystem tend to off­ the San Joaquin kit fox. A third endangered set some of the disadvantages of lack of rain in species, the masked bobwhite, has been extir­ summer. Furthermore, coastal areas receive pated from the United States portion of the some moisture from fog in summer. The pre­ ecosystem. cipitation is normally only 20 percent of the Soils.-In the northern part of California, evaporation potential in the Middle Rocky the chaparral-mountain shrub ecosystem occu­ Mountains, the Gila Mountains, and the south­ pies Ultisols which are low in content of bases ern Basin and Range province. In California and have subsurface horizons of clay and weath­ , the precipitation is 20 to 40 percent of the erable minerals. The remainder of the Califor­ evaporation potential. nia portion of the ecosystem in the Coast Vegetation.-The vegetation of the ecosystem Ranges occupies Mollisols which are on steep consists of dense to open brush or low trees. slopes, are high in content of bases, and lack _Deciduous, semideciduous, and evergreen spe­ accumulations of clay; Alfisols which have cies are represented. Some of the brush types accumulations of clay and sometimes have a are so dense that understory vegetation is prac­ carbonate-cemented horizon; and Entisols tically eliminated, while other types support a which have no horizons, are low in content of

43 F-522877 Figme 25.-Areas of brush and low trees are characteristic of the chaparral-mountain shrub ecosystem. organic matter, and are less than 20 inches deep sion of the shrubland has also increased deer in some places. In the Rocky Mountains, this habitats. ecosystem occupies Mollisols that have a sub­ The interior and southwestern portions of surface horizon of clay. In the southern edge of the ecosystem are largely used for livestock the Basin and Range province and the upper grazing. Lands in these places that are suitable Gila Mountains, the ecosystem mainly occupies for cropping and irrigation are most often used Aridisols that have a low content of organic for production of forage crops. matter and a loamy horizon of accumulated clay. Productivity Classes Land use.-Large portions of the California areas of the ecosystem have been converted to Class 1.-Productivity class 1 includes the grass range for livestock and for firebreaks. northern two-thirds of the chaparral commu­ Production of range livestock is the principal nity in California and southern Oregon and the enterprise in these places. The vegetation serves more productive part of the mountain-mahog­ as cover to retard erosion and protect water­ any-oak scrub community. Precipitation in class sheds, thus benefitting croplands, high-value 1 areas is as high as anywhere in the ecosystem. developments, and urban areas below. Grassed Where a site is not fully occupied by thick fuel breaks to retard spread of fires and the brush, high yields of herbaceous vegetation are required grazing treatment of them are striking common. and may become more common. The conver- Dominant plants of the chaparral community

44 are chamise, species of manzanita, and species Class 3.-Productivity class 3 encompasses of California-lilac. Chamise may form a dense, the less productive areas of the chaparral com­ impenetrable cover in places. Gambel oak is munity, including the part in southern Califor­ dominant in this productivity class of the eco­ nia. The mountain-mahogany phase of the system but may be associated with substantial mountain-mahogany-oak scrub community is amounts of other species. Herbage production also included. Dominant plants in the chaparral in the productivity class is 1,500-2,000 pounds areas are chamise, manzanita, and California­ per acre. Forage production may be as high as Iilac. The dominant species of the mountain­ 900 pounds per acre, or it may be less than 100 mahogany phase is mountain-mahogany. Herb­ pounds, depending on the thickness and species age production ranges from 500 to 1,000 pounds of the brush. per acre. Forage production varies from 50 to Class 2.-This productivity class includes 300 pounds per acre. moderately productive sites of the mountain­ Class 4.-The coastal sagebrush community mahogany-oak scrub and the oak-juniper wood­ is included in this productivity class. It is char­ land communities and the transition between acterized by low-growing brush (generally 1 to the two. Gambel oak and other deciduous shrubs 2 feet high). Dominant species are California are dominant in the northern areas but give buckwheat, white sage, and black sage. Herbage way to evergreen species in the southern areas. production in this class is from Oto 500 pounds The dominant species of the oak-juniper wood­ per acre. Forage production is from 0 to 100 land are alligator juniper, one-seed juniper, pounds per acre. Emory oak, and Mexican blue oak. Blue and side­ oats grama, as well as numerous brush species, HERBAGE PRODUCTION are associated with this community. Herbage A summary of herbage production in the eco­ production in the productivity class is 1,000 to system follows: 1,500 pounds per acre. Forage production, Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds depending on the thickness of the brush and class per acre class per acre species composition, varies from 100 to 700 1 ...... 1,500-2,000 3 500-1,000 pounds per acre. 2 ...... 1,000-1,500 4 0- 500

NO. 3 5.-THE PINY ON-JUNIPER ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The pinyon-juniper ecosys­ being almost as wide as they are tall. tem occupies portions of the Basin and Range Herbage production is determined to a large province (Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, and extent by the amount of tree canopy. However, southeast Oregon) with its intermingled basins soil factors that affect the moisture supply also and mountains and also occupies many of the affect the production of herbage. These factors Colorado Plateaus, where it is often adjacent are texture, development of the B horizon, depth to sagebrush sites. Juniper usually occupies of solum, stoniness, and nature of the substrata. rockier and rougher terrain than sagebrush. Slope or aspect is also a factor. Where sagebrush is common on the plains, ter­ Fauna.-The major mammalian influents in races, and gentle portions of plateaus, the the pinyon-juniper ecosystem are the mule pinyon-juniper ecosystem tends to occupy the deer, mountain lion, coyote, and bobcat. Elk are adjacent contiguous sites of eroded and rough locally important. The less important influents dissections. include the wood rat, white-footed mouse, cliff Climate.-The normal length of the frost­ chipmunk, jackrabbit, cottontail, rock squirrel, free season is 120 days. Annual precipitation is porcupine, and gray fox. The ring-tailed cat 10 inches, 40-50 percent of which occurs dur­ and spotted skunk occur rarely. ing the warmest months in the Great Basin, The most abundant resident birds in the pin­ whereas 50-66 percent occurs during the warm­ yon-juniper ecosystem are the gray titmouse, est months in the Colorado Plateaus. Woodhouse's jay, western red-tailed hawk, Precipitation is normally only 20 percent of the golden eagle, red-shafted flicker, pinyon jay, evaporation potential during the frost-free lead-colored bushtit, and rock wren. Summer season. residents include the western chipping sparrow, Vegetation.-The name "pygmy forest" char­ night hawk, black-throated gray warbler, acterizes the pinyon pine and juniper wood­ northern cliff swallow, western lark sparrow, lands of this ecosystem. The trees occur as Rocky Mountain grosbeak, desert sparrow, and dense to open woodland and savanna woodland. western mourning dove. The common winter They may grow to a height of 30 feet but are residents are the pink-sided junco, Shufeldt's generally less than 15 feet tall. They are bushy, junco, gray-headed junco, red-backed junco,

45 F-522878 Figure 26.-"Pygmy forests" are characteristic of the pinyon-juniper ecosystem.

Rocky Mountain nuthatch, mountain bluebird, Productivity Classes western robin, and long-crested jay. Turkeys are locally abundant during the winter. Class 1.-Productivity class 1 is associated Among the reptiles are the horned lizard, with open or savanna woodlands, the deeper sagebrush swift, collared lizard, and Great (depths of 12 inches or more), better developed Basin rattlesnake. soils, and northerly aspects, where moisture Soils.-In the Basin and Range province, the conditions are most favorable to plant growth. pinyon--juniper ecosystem occupies Aridisols Dominant species are one-seed juniper, Utah which have pedogenic horizons, are moderate juniper, pinyon pine, singleleaf pinyon, and to low in content of organic matter, and may western juniper. Important understory species have accumulations of carbonates. In the Colo­ are big sagebrush, western wheatgrass, blue­ rado Plateaus the woodland occupies Aridisols, bunch wheatgrass, blue grama, cliffrose, bitter­ Entisols which have no pedogenic horizons, and brush, and Indian ricegrass. Herbage produc­ Mollisols which have an organic surface hori­ tion varies from 600 to 800 pounds per acre. zon and a high content of bases. Forage production is from 200 to 300 pounds Land use.-The pinyon-juniper ecosystem is per acre. used principally for grazing and yields a limited Class 2.-Productivity class 2 occurs on sites amount of timber products, mainly pinyon of fairly open woodlands and on soils compar­ Christmas trees, pine nuts, and juniper fence able to those of productivity class 1. The domi­ posts. nants and understory species are the same as

46 those of productivity class 1. Herbage produc­ land. The class also occurs on the drier soils. tion varies from 400 to 600 pounds per acre. Dominants are the same as those in the other Forage production is from 150 to 200 pounds. three classes, but the understory is sparse and Class 3.-Productivity class 3 occurs on sites may consist almost entirely of scattered cryp­ with a moderate cover of woodland or on soils tantha and pricklypear. Herbage production is with lower water-holding capacity than those from O to 200 pounds per acre. Forage produc­ of the two higher productivity classes. The tion is from O to 75 pounds per acre. dominant species remain the same, but the shrubs may be sparse or suppressed. Associated HERBAGE PRODUCTION grasses are thinned out to some extent. Herb­ age production is from 200 to 400 pounds per A summary of herbage production in the acre. Forage production is from 75 to 150 ecosystem follows: pounds per acre. Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds Class 4.-Productivity class 4 occurs on sites class per acre class per ac1·e where the woodland cover is heavy; the crown 1 ..... 600-800 3 .... 200-400 canopy may cover 50 percent or more of the 2 _ .. _ .... ·- _ 400-600 4. 0-200

NO. 36.-THE MOUNTAIN GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The mountain grasslands productivity of some of the higher sites. ecosystem of the western Mountain States con­ Fauna.-In the foothills portion of the moun­ sists mainly of open, untimbered areas, yet it is tain grasslands ecosystem, pronghorn, or ante­ often adjacent to or surrounded by ponderosa lope, are resident and mule deer are winter pine, Douglas-fir, or lodgepole pine at moderate visitors. Where there is an interface with the elevations. At high elevations the ecosystem is sagebrush ecosystem, common animals are the subalpine and is on mountain slopes or faces black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy cottontail, and adjacent to spruce-fir forests and patches of various mice. At low to medium elevations, alpine fir or whitebark pine. It also occupies various subspecies of ground squirrels are pres­ some of the best drained soils of valleylike ent, as well as the badger. At medium to high areas intermingled with mountains, and it oc­ elevations, the grasslands seasonally support cupies various foothills, tablelands, and low Rocky Mountain elk and mule deer. The pocket mountains. The higher mountain settings can gopher is well distributed throughout the eco­ be rich with streams and lakes. These beautiful system. Predators which are well distributed at pastoral openings and exposures commonly pro­ high elevations are the bobcat, black bear, and vide unobstructed mountain vistas which are not coyote. Two of the more common birds present observable from mountain terrain completely are the robin and horned lark. Marsh hawks, cloaked in forest. sparrow hawks, and golden eagles are common Climate.-The normal length of the frost-free raptors. season in most of the mountain grasslands eco­ Soils.-In central Colorado the ecosystem system is 120 days. However, in the mountain occupies Aridisols and Mollisols with developed valleys of the Northern Rocky Mountains, it is horizons. In the Yellowstone River area of less than 120 days, being only 80 days or less at south-central Montana, the grassland soils are high elevations. Annual precipitation in much Entisols with no horizon development. In the of the ecosystem is 20 inches, and in the high grasslands of the Northern Rocky Mountains, mountains it is 30 inches or more. Sixty-six to the soils are Alfi.sols and Mollisols. Mollisols are 75 percent of the precipitation falls during the also the major soils of the Columbia Plateau's warmest months in central Colorado and east foothills or Palouse hills. Much of the central of the Continental Divide in Montana. In the and eastern portion of rolling hill land is locally Northern Rocky Mountain grasslands west of termed part of the Palouse Prairie and has the Divide, 50 to 66 percent comes during the wind-laid soil of great depth. warmest months, and in the Palouse hills of the Land use.-Much of the ecosystem at lower Northwest, only 25 to 40 percent comes during elevations or on foothills was plowed soon after this period. Annual precipitation is 30 to 35 per­ settlement for production of small grains, most cent of the evaporation potential. notably the Palouse Prairie hills of north Vegetation.-Although the mountain grass­ central Oregon and the extreme eastern portion lands ecosystem ranges from foothills at north­ of Washington and adjacent parts of Idaho. erly latitudes to high mountain sites, it is Unbroken portions of the foothill grasslands characterized throughout by bunchgrasses of on steep slopes and in canyons are used as the fescue and wheatgrass groups. An abun­ spring-fall range for livestock and as winter dance of desirable forbs appears to increase the range for big game. These areas are a partic-

47 F-502579 Figure 27.-This open rangeland of fescue and wheatgrass, next to timbered areas, is representative of the mountain grasslands ecosystem. ularly critical resource in big-game manage­ grasses are of the genera Muhlenbergia, Stipa, ment. At moderate elevations the mountain Danthonia, and Agropyron. Herbage production grasslands are sites of livestock ranches in some varies from 1,500 to 2,250 pounds per acre. places. At higher elevation, as in Colorado, Class 3.-This class occupies low mountains Wyoming, and Montana, the grasslands are and higher foothills in areas where not more important summer ranges for big game and than 40 percent of the precipitation comes in cattle, prime watersheds and recreation areas, the growing season. Its dominant grasses are and the traditional mountain settings of sheep Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. The and shepherds. large forbs of the genera Balsamorhiza and H elianthella are conspicuous. Herbage produc­ Productivity Classes tion varies from 750 to 1,500 pounds per acre. Class 4.-Productivity class 4 occupies foot­ The productivity classes for this ecosystem hills at northerly latitudes and, at its lower are related to total precipitation, the abundance edge, is bordered and invaded by big sagebrush. of precipitation during the growing season, and Bluebunch wheatgrass is the dominant plant. soil factors. There are about 300 to 500 bunches of it per Class 1.-This productivity class is commonly 100 square meters. The spaces in between are associated with high-elevation lands of subal­ sparsely to fairly well covered with Sandberg pine character, or nearly so, where 66 to 75 bluegrass and small forbs, mostly annuals. percent of the precipitation falls in the growing Herbage production varies from 0 to 750 season. There are many grasses, including Idaho pounds per acre. fescue and five species of wheatgrass. Forbs may make up 35 percent or more of the cover. Herbage production varies from about 2,250 HERBAGE PRODUCTION pounds to 3,000 pounds per acre. A summary of herbage production in the eco­ Class 2.-This class occupies areas that are system follows: at moderate to high elevations and reach subal­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds pine conditions. Desirable forbs constitute 10 class per acre class per ae1·e to 35 percent of the vegetation in some places. 1 -· 2,250-3,000 3 750-1,500 Several fescues are prominent. Associated 2 1,500-2,250 4 0- 750

48 NO. 37.-THE MOUNTAIN MEADOWS ECOSYSTEM

Psysiography.-The mountain meadows eco­ pockets in which temperatures deter establish­ system consists of wet to intermittently wet ment of some forest stands as effectively as sites in the forest zone of mountains in the intermitte~t high moisture in the rooting zone. Western States. Typically it occurs on almost Vegetation.-Grasses, sedges, rushes and in flat to gently sloping topography, as in valleys some cases, phreatophytic shrubs domi~ate the and basinlike areas along lakes and streams, mountain meadows ecosystem. Under the best where surface or subsurface water accumulates conditions 70 percent of the ground is covered in the root zone for at least part of the year. by vegetation, more than three-fourths of which Climate.-Saturation of the soil in this eco­ may be perennial grasses. Sedges may consti­ system during at least part of the growing tute as much as 15 percent of the cover. Peren­ season is strongly related to local topography or nial forbs with showy flowers make up only geology, rather than to the climate of the eco­ about 10 percent of the cover. The proportions system. However, there must be adequate an­ of the various growth forms are easily manip­ nual precipitation on the site or runoff from ulated by the degree and timing of grazing. higher areas to create the soil moisture condi­ Fauna.-In many places this ecosystem con­ tions necessary to the development of the tains lakes and streams that provide water for meadows. The temperature regime of meadows wildlife, and it is usually more productive of is generally that of the surrounding areas, yet herbage than surrounding areas. Thus, it in some cases, meadows are the sites of frost attracts fauna daily from the larger ecosystems

F-437368 Figure 28.-Rangeland in the mountain meadows ecosystem in the Southwest, surrounded by stand of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in the fir-spruce ecosystem.

49 in which it occurs. The wetter meadows, espe­ of mountain meadows, those of considerable size cially those with streams or permanent lakes, warrant sophisticated range management and are a home for such wildlife as beaver, water­ investment in physical improvements. Where fowl, and fish. The fauna of intermittently wet water flows or permanent pools occur in the meadows may shift as moisture conditions drainage lines through meadows, consideration change. For example, the burrowing rodents should be given to an intensive form of meadow and the predators which feed upon them use management, including provision for wildlife the meadows only during the drier periods. and certain types of recreation. Deer, elk, and moose are among the large mammals which, though using heavy timber Productivity Classes sites for cover, depend heavily upon meadows The length of the wet period and the depth for food. In large expanses of forest and range­ of soil largely regulate productivity in the land, the meadows are about the only suitable mountain meadows ecosystem. Sedge and hair­ habitat for the nesting of migratory waterfowl. grass meadows are the most productive, yield­ Soils.-Soils of mountain meadows commonly ing 3,000 pounds or more of herbage per acre. have been, and are currently, recipients of Another type of meadow is one dominated by alluviation, illuviation, or glaciation products such shrubs as willow. Such meadows are mod­ from above. Consequently, no classification by erate to poor producers of grass forage but a soil orders is attempted for this ecosystem. good source of browse for deer, moose, and Land use.-Small, high-elevation mountain other animals. The least productive meadows meadows commonly have not been cultivated. are those on soils whose wet season is short or Only at lower elevations or in more accessible on shallow soils or soils that are shallow in areas have meadows been converted to hayland effect because of a tight soil horizon near the or drained and farmed. On the other hand, surface which restricts drainage. Such shallow many small mountain meadows have been oblit­ and temporarily wet sites commonly produce erated by roadbuilding and trails made by only unpalatable species of rush. horses used for recreation. Disturbances to plant cover have, in some cases, resulted in the HERBAGE PRODUCTION cutting of streambeds' to such depths that the A summary of herbage production in the water table has been lowered. Where this has ecosystem follows: happened, the meadows have lost their produc­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds tive herbaceous cover and have been invaded by class per acre class per acre brush or lodgepole pine stands. 1 ...... 3,000-4,000 3 1,000-2,000 Because of the potentially high productivity 2 2,000-3,000 4 0-1,000

NO. 38.-THE PLAINS GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The plains grasslands eco­ ranges from 10 inches in the north to more than system, also known as the Great Plains, occurs 25 inches in the south, 68-80 percent of the on a broad belt of high land which slopes gradu­ precipitation falling in the warmest months. ally eastward and down from an altitude of Normal annual pan evaporation is roughly four 5,500 feet near the eastern foothills of the times the precipitation. Precipitation ranges Rocky Mountains to an altitude of 1,500 feet in from about one-third to one-half of potential the Central States, where it gives way to the evaporation. prairie ecosystem. The most striking feature Vegetation.-Short, warm-season grasses of the ecosystem is the phenomenal flatness of predominate in this ecosystem, and there is a the interstream areas, which make up a great minor interspersion of forbs and shrubs. Vast expansive fluviatile plain or alluvial slope. The stretches are dominated almost exclusively by eastern margin has been most exposed to ero­ blue grama, buffalo grass being a companion in sion, being near the trunk line of drainage and many areas. However, the eastern part of the in a climate of greater rainfall than the wes­ ecosystem is dominated by grasses of medium tern edge. The plains grasslands ecosystem of stature, such as western wheatgrass and needle­ 280 million acres is larger than any other grass. The occasional shrubs include juniper, vegetation region in the United States. silver sagebrush, silver buffaloberry, and skunk­ Climate.-Temperatures vary considerably, bush sumac in the northern reaches and rabbit­ the frost-free season ranging from less than brush and mesquite in the southern part. Forbs 100 days in the north to more than 200 days in are generally quite common, but many are Texas. The ecosystem is characterized by pe­ ephemerals. riodic droughts. Average annual precipitation Fauna.-Huge herds of American bison once

50 F-504689 Figure 29.-Cattle on productive rangeland in the phenomenally flat plains grasslands ecosystem. migrated with the seasons across the central Land use.-Large areas of the most produc­ plains. Currently, the pronghorn, or antelope, tive sites have been converted to crop farming; is probably the most abundant large mammal, the remainder is rangeland. but mule deer and white-tailed deer are often abundant where brush cover is available, as Productivity Classes along stream courses. The white-tailed jack­ rabbit occupies the northern part of the eco­ Class 1.-Productivity class 1 is character­ system and the black-tailed jackrabbit, the area ized by the wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass south of Nebraska. The desert cottontail is community, which is adjacent to the northcen­ widespread. The lagomorphs, the prairie dogs, tral part of the prairie ecosystem and receives and a variety of small rodents are preyed upon more rainfall (about 18 inches) than other by the coyote and a number of other mammalian areas of the plains grasslands ecosystem. West­ and avian predators, one of which, the black­ ern wheatgrass, big bluestem, and needlegrass footed ferret, is classed as an endangered are characteristic, medium-tall to tall grasses species. The wolf once existed on the plains in being dominant. Woody plants are absent or great numbers, feeding to a considerable ex­ grow sparingly along streams. Herbage produc­ tent upon bison. tion ranges up to 2,000 pounds per acre, 70 per­ The lesser prairie chicken, formerly abun­ cent being forage. Fifty percent utilization is dant, is now classed as a rare species. Sage considered appropriate for maximum sustained grouse, greater prairie chickens, and sharp­ yield. tailed grouse are present in the area. Among the The soils of class 1 areas are Mollisols which many smaller birds are the horned lark, lark have the characteristic carbonate horizon but bunting, and western meadowlark. The endan­ have a weak, thin horizon of accumulated clay gered golden-cheeked warbler is in the south­ characteristic of Argiustolls; they are gently eastern portion of the ecosystem in places sloping. Approximately one-fourth of the land where the Ashe juniper is present. Stock pond is in native grasses. The other three-fourths is construction has created an important "duck used for growing grain as a cash crop. factory" in the northern Great Plains. Class 2.-The wheatgrass-needlegrass com­ Soils.-The soils of this ecosystem are varied. munity of the western Dakotas is characteristic Mollisols occur from the Canadian border to of productivity class 2. It occurs as a moder­ the southern boundary of the ecosystem in ately dense, short or tall, wide expanse of gently Texas, as do Entisols. Alfi.sols and Aridisols are to moderately rolling grassland dissected by less extensive and are mostly in the southern small, deeply eroded, intermittently flowing portion. streams. The dominants are western wheat-

51 grass, blue grama, needle-and-thread, and green western redcedar. needlegrass. Forbs and woody plants occur Class 4.-This production class is character­ sparingly. Herbage production ranges up to ized by the grama-buffalo grass and the mes­ 1,500 pounds per acre, 70 percent being forage. quite-buffalo grass communities of the south­ Fifty percent utilization is considered appropri­ central Great Plains. Annual precipitation ate for maximum sustained yield. averages 20 inches, exceeding that of northern The soils of class 2 areas are Mollisols, in­ areas of this ecosystem. However, high average cluding Argiborolls plus Haplustolls that are annual temperatures cause much of the mois­ gently sloping. Most of the soils have a subsur­ ture to evaporate. Blue grama and buffalo grass face horizon that is high in content of bases and are, exclusively, the dominant herbaceous a subsurface horizon in which clay has accumu­ plants. They form a fairly dense grassland. lated. Precipitation averages 15 inches per year. Mesquite commonly occurs in the southeastern Three-fifths to three-fourths of the land is in portion of this ecosystem. Herbage production native grasses grazed by cattle and sheep. Irri­ ranges up to 500 pounds per acre, 60 percent gation is common along streams. being forage. Sixty percent utilization is pos­ Class 3 .-The grama-needlegrass-w heat­ sible because of the outstanding resistance of grass and wheatgrass-grama-buffalo grass the native short grasses to damage by grazing; communities in the 12-inch precipitation belt this is partly due to their low stature. represent this productivity class. Class 3 areas The soils are mainly Mollisols and Alfisols, are rather short, fairly dense grasslands domi­ and there is a scattering of Entisols. The topo­ nated almost exclusively in many places by blue graphy ranges from gently sloping to moder­ grama. Associated dominants are western ately sloping. The most common characteristic wheatgrass, needle-and-thread, and buffalo of these soils is that they are intermittently grass. Juniper occurs in some places. Herbage dry for long periods. The Mollisols and Alfisols production ranges up to 1,000 pounds per acre, have a subsurface horizon in which salts or 60 percent being forage-50 percent of the carbonates and clays have accumulated. About herbage is short-grass plants. Fifty percent three-fifths of the land is in grass, and one­ utilization is considered appropriate for maxi­ fourth is dry-farmed. The remainder is under mum sustained yield. irrigation. The soils of class 3 areas are mainly gently to moderately sloping Mollisols and Entisols HERBAGE PRODUCTION which are intermittently dry for long periods during the warm season and usually have a hori­ A summary of herbage production in the zon of accumulated clay and calcium carbonate. ecosystem follows: The areas also include Aridisols. About three­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds fourths of the land is in grass, and about 5 class per acre class per acre percent is dry-farmed. The remainder is either L .. 1,500-2,000 3 500-1,000 irrigated or classified as open woodland of 2 1,000-1,500 4 0- 500

NO. 39.-THE PRAIRIE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The prairie ecosystem is a Texas to Indiana, the prairie boundary lies relatively large contiguous grassland which lies close to the 40-inch isohyet. On the west, the between the deciduous forests of the East and southern boundary is near the 30-inch isohyet; the short-grass plains of the West, on the flat while further north, the prairie reaches the 20- to rolling hill land of the Central Lowland. inch isohyet. In general, more precipitation oc­ Topographic relief delineates the boundaries of curs in the warmer part of the year. During the this ecosystem, the 1,500-foot contour being the growing season the amount of precipitation, western boundary and the 500-foot contour, the on the average, varies from 60 percent of poten­ eastern boundary. The northern limits extend tial evaporation in the west to 100 percent in into Canada, and the southern limits extend into the east. southern Texas. Most of the lands of this eco­ Vegetation.-The prairie ecosystem is known system, excluding those south of the Missouri to many as the tall-grass or true prairie. Blue­ River, are those of young glacial drifts and stems constitute about 70 percent of the vegeta­ dissected till plains. The area south of the Mis­ tion and reach heights of 5 to 6 feet in lowland souri River is older, has well-developed drain­ areas. Large numbers of flowering forbs are age systems, and is flat to rolling hill land. present but are usually overshadowed by the Climate.-The climate varies widely in this grasses. Most of the plants are classified as ecosystem. The length of the frost-free season warm-season plants. Woody vegetation is rare. varies from less than 120 days in the north to Willow occurs in some places in exceptionally almost 300 days in the south. On the east, from moist areas of the northern part of the ecosys-

52 tern, and needle-leaved evergreens and broad­ tern is an important breeding area for a number leaved deciduous trees are scattered in the of species of migrating waterfowl. Many of these southern part. Deciduous trees are common migrators winter on the coastal plains of Texas along permanent streams in the eastern portion. and Louisiana. Mourning doves have become Fauna.-Bison once grazed at the western abundant as shelterbelt plantings have devel­ margin of the tall-grass prairie, and the prong­ oped. Among the gallinaceous birds, the sharp­ horn, or antelope, is still present there. Jack­ tailed grouse, greater prairie chicken, and bob­ rabbits are common residents of the prairie, white are present in fair numbers. However, and cottontails are present where there are the northern greater prairie chicken is con­ streams and cover. Burrowing rodents include sidered a rare species, and Attwater's prairie ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, chicken, on the Gulf coast of Texas, is listed and many smaller rodents. Burrowing predators as an endangered species. include the badger and the black-footed ferret, Soils.-The soils of the prairie ecosystem are now considered an endangered species. The primarily Mollisols. There are smaller areas Texas red wolf is classed as an endangered of Entisols and one small area of Vertisols. species on the southern border of the ecosystem. Most of the soils have dark upper horizons. The coyote is still common. Land use.-Most of the ecosystem has been The northern portion of the prairie ecosys- converted to cropland.

'

F-622879 Figure 30.-The dominant grasses in the lowland areas of the prairie ecosystem-sometimes referred to as the true prairie or tall-grass prairie-can be taller than a man.

53 Productivity Classes ment of dwarf to medium-high shrubs (broad­ leaved and cedar shrubs). These grasslands Class 1.-This productivity class is charac­ occur on gently to moderately sloping areas. terized by lands that are level, have deep, fertile Dominant species in the cedar glades com­ soils, and receive adequate moisture for maxi­ munity include little bluestem, big bluestem, and mum production of vegetation. Big bluestem, Indian grass. Big bluestem, sand bluestem, and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indian grass, and prairie sandreed are dominants on the Nebraska side-oats grama are the dominant plants. Herb­ Sand Hills prairie. Herbage production aver­ age production ranges from 4,500 to 6,000 ages 2,500 pounds per acre, 70 percent of which pounds per acre on the bluestem prairie. is forage. Fifty percent is usable to maintain Seventy percent of the herbage is forage. Fifty maximum sustained yield. percent utilization is most satisfactory for The cedar glades lie in a 42-inch precipitation maximum sustained yield. The soils are Molli­ belt, but the soils are shallow and draughty. The sols and have dark surface horizons that are soils in the Nebraska Sand Hills show weak rich in organic matter. About 10 to 15 percent pedogenic development and, consequently, be­ of this area is in permanent pasture of tame come dry quickly during periods of drought. and native grasses. The remainder of the area is The cedar glades soils are Ultisols that have a used for growing corn and other feed grains. thick horizon of accumulated clay, and the soils of the Nebraska Sand Hills are Entisols that Class 2.-This productivity class is charac­ contain easily weatherable materials. Both terized by lands that have gently sloping, clayey areas are draughty for extended periods each soils and receive adequate moisture for the year. Most of the class 2 areas are in native growth of herbaceous plants. However, summer grass ranges grazed by livestock. droughts are common. Little bluestem and Class 4.-This productivity class is character­ Texas needlegrass are dominants in the black­ ized by grasslands that differ from the typical land prairie community, in Texas. Seacoast prairie ecosystem by having dwarf shrubs and bluestem and coastal sacahuista are dominant scattered open groves of deciduous trees. The in the bluestem-sacahuista prairie community sandsage-bluestem prairie and Fayette prairie of the coastal plains of Texas and Louisiana. communities represent this class. Herbage Herbage production averages 3,000 pounds per yields in these units average 1,500 pounds per acre, of which 70 percent is forage. Fifty per­ acre. Forage yields are 60 percent of herbage cent utilization is considered satisfactory. The yields. Forty percent utilization is satisfactory. soils are Vertisols that have a black or dark­ The dominant species in the sandsage-bluestem gray surface horizon. About two-thirds of the prairie community are little blueste!)l, sand area is in cropland, and one-sixth is in pasture. bluestem, sand sagebrush, and hairy grama. The remainder is in abandoned fields or narrow On the Fayette prairie dominant grasses are strips of woodland along streams. little bluestem and buffalo grass, and dominant Class 3.-The cedar glades and Nebraska trees are oak and hickory. About one-fifth of Sand Hills prairie communities represent this the class 4 area remains in native range grazed productivity class of the prairie ecosystem. by beef cattle. The remainder is used for grow­ They are medium-tall grasslands with an ele- ing grains as cash crops.

NO. 40.-THE DESERT GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The desert grasslands eco­ Texas to about 120 in Utah. system occurs in scattered areas on tablelands Vegetation.-The grass life-form predomi­ of moderate to considerable relief in the Colo­ nates on these plateaus at intermediate eleva­ rado Plateaus province in Arizona, New Mexico, tions, and shrub life-forms are dominant at and Utah and on the plains with low mountains higher and lower elevations. In transition zones, of the Mexican Highland section in southwest­ shrubs give way to galleta to black grama to ern Texas. Elevations range from 5,000 to blue grama. Consociations of these species oc­ 7,000 feet. These tablelands or plateaus are cur, but almost pure stands are the rule. Tobosa moderately to severely dissected by rugged replaces galleta in the southern extensions in canyons. Texas of this ecosystem, and three-awn becomes Climate.-The amount of precipitation in the dominant in the northern extensions in this ecosystem is low, ranging from 8 to 12 Utah. In its northern extensions this ecosystem inches annually. Usually more than half falls is a more open grassland with low shrubs. in the warmer part of the year. During the Fauna.-Pronghorn, or antelope, are the pri­ frost-free season, the evaporation potential is mary larger mammals in the desert grasslands five or more times the normal rainfall. The ecosystem. Mule deer also occur. The coyote and frost-free season ranges from over 200 days in bobcat are among the chief animal predators.

54 F-489029 Figure 31.-The grass life-form predominates in the desert grasslands ecosystem, but mismanagement can result in an increase in the occurence of cactus and desert shrubs.

They prey upon black-tailed jackrabbits, cot­ soils are mainly Entisols (Torriorthents) that tontails, wood rats, and a large number of small are shallow (20 inches to bedrock), loamy or rodent species, such as the kangaroo rat and clayey, never moist for as long as three con­ the deer mouse. Scaled quail range into the secutive months, and moderately sloping to grasslands, especially where brush has made steep. Class 1 areas also include some Aridisols an invasion. Among the smaller birds of the (Calciorthids plus Torriorthents) that are ecosystem are the horned lark, several spar­ gently sloping. The class 1 portion of the desert rows, the loggerhead shrike, and nighthawks. grasslands ecosystem is used as rangeland for Avian predators include the golden eagle, great livestock. horned owl, and various hawks. Class 2.-The grama-galleta steppe commu­ Soils.-The soils are almost entirely Entisols nity of northern Arizona and New Mexico that have no pedogenic horizons and Aridisols characterizes this productivity class. Herbage that lack pedogenic horizons and are never production averages 500-750 pounds per acre. moist for as long as three consecutive months. Blue grama and galleta dominate this low to Land use.-Most of this ecosystem is used as medium-tall grassland. Woody plants such as rangeland. Mormon tea and succulents such as Opuntia and Yucca spp. occur more commonly than in the Productivity Classes grama-tobosa prairie community. This com­ munity is highly responsive to rainfall, so pro­ Class 1.-The grama-tobosa prairie com­ duction varies considerably. The soils are main­ munity characterizes this productivity class. ly Aridisols (Haplargids and other Aridisols It is an open grassland of rather low growth plus Torriorthents) that are gently to moder­ and scattered succulents. Herbage production is ately sloping and are never moist for as long 750 to 1,000 pounds per acre. Woody plants as three consecutive months. This class also oc­ are absent or occur sparingly. Blue grama and cupies some areas of Entisols (Torriorthents). tobosa are the characteristic dominants. The Less than one-third of class 2 land is pri-

55 vately owned, the remainder being in Indian soils and are droughty. This situation occurs reservations or held by the Federal Govern­ in grama-tobosa prairie areas and in galleta­ ment. Most of the areas are native rangeland. three-awn shrubsteppe areas. These droughty About 2 percent of the land is used for irriga­ areas characterize productivity class 4. The tion or dryland farming. dominant species remain the same or almost Class 3.-The open grassland with low shrubs the same as in class 1 and class 3, but herbage known as the galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe production drops to O to 250 pounds per acre community of southeastern Utah characterizes and the vegetation is usually very sensitive to this productivity class. Herbage production hard use. The soils are gently to moderately averages 250-500 pounds per acre. Three-awn, sloping Entisols that have no pedogenic hori­ galletta, sand sagebrush, and Mormon tea are zon, are loamy or clayey, and have a regular the major species. Numerous other species of decrease in organic matter content with depth. grass, forbs, and woody plants occur, but less Class 4 areas are used as grazing lands for commonly. The soils are mainly Aridisols (Cal­ sheep and cattle. ciorthids plus Torriorthents) which slope gent­ ly or moderately and have a horizon in which large amounts of calcium carbonate or gypsum HERBAGE PRODUCTION have accumulated. In Utah, class 3 areas also A summary of herbage production in the are on Entisols. The class 3 portion of the ecosystem follows: desert grasslands ecosystem is used as range­ Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds land for cattle and sheep. class per acre class per acre Class 4.-Some parts of the desert grasslands 1 . 750-1,000 3 250- 500 ecosystem occur on relatively shallow sandy 2 500- 750 4 0- 250

N0.41.-THE WET GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The wet grasslands ecosys­ value. Rainfall in the Central Valley of Cali­ tem is characterized by the narrow belt (1-50 fornia may be less than 10 inches; thus, the wet miles wide) of coastal wet prairies and marshes conditions in the "tule marshes" are due pri­ stretching from the Mexican border to Long marily to topography and runoff. Other areas Island, N. Y., exclusive of the coastline of in the ecosystem receive much more precipita­ Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. It is also tion, which amounts to as much as 60 inches characterized by the Everglades and the pal­ or more in the Everglades. The length of the metto prairie of southern Florida, the tule frost-free season ranges from practically all marshes of the low fiuviatile plain in the Cali­ year in extreme southern Texas and Florida fornia Trough, and the flood plains of the Great to less than 200 days in the northern end of the Salt Lake and other lakes of the Intermontane ecosystem, on the upper Atlantic coast. Poten­ Plateaus. tial evaporation ranges from many times the The coastal prairie is a plain of clay alter­ rainfall in California to less than the annual nating with sands and is almost untouched by rainfall in the eastern portion of the ecosystem. erosion, except for the steep-sided channels of In the farflung coastal portions of the ecosys­ transverse streams, whose bottoms may be 30 tem, intrusion of salt water may have more to 40 feet below sea level. The Everglades are a effect on the vegetation than does climate or permanent swamp. The palmetto prairie, adja­ soil. cent and to the north, is slightly drier. Both Vegetation.-The coastal prairies (marshes) occupy an extensive, almost flat, marl and lime­ are occupied by cordgrasses, including smooth stone shelf generally covered with a few feet cordgrass and saltmeadow cordgrass ( the lat­ of muck and a little sand. The tule marshes of ter being more prevalent on the Atlantic coast), central California are the result of the Sacra­ saltgrass, and a few forbs. The vegetation mento and San Joaquin Rivers forming natural forms a medium-tall to very tall grassland, levees-at low altitudes (10 to 60 feet above usually dense. The palmetto prairie and Ever­ sea level)-which entrap water along these glades are dense, medium-tall to tall grasslands. rivers. There are numerous lakes along these There are scattered palms and shrubs on the rivers, and many have been drained and are palmetto prairie and scattered low to medium­ used as cropland. These lakes, in the broad, flat tall broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs in silt floors of basins with internal drainage, are the Everglades. The major species of the pal­ of the playa type. metto prairie are wire-grass and saw-palmetto. Climate.-The wet grasslands ecosystem The major plants of the Everglades grassland varies so greatly geographically that any gen­ are sawgrass and three-awns. The vegetation eral climatic description is of questionable of the tule marshes is a tall graminoid vegeta-

56 tion consisting of tules and other bulrushes, species from adjacent palmetto prairie, cypress cattail, and soft flag. Several species of sedges swamp, magnolia forest, and mangrove areas. occur less commonly. A slight change in the water level causes Fauna.-The fauna of the wet grasslands marked changes in the habitat and the fauna. ecosystem varies as much as its geography. The Among the many mammals are the white-tailed ecosystem, especially its open-water and more deer, Florida panther, black bear, raccoon, bob­ marshy areas, serves as a seasonal home for cat, opossum, skunks, bats, marsh and swamp tremendous numbers of migratory waterfowl. rabbits, cotton rat, and fox squirrel. Avian The Central Valley of California and the coastal fauna is very varied; many influent species are marshes of Texas and Louisiana are prime cited in descriptions of adjacent areas. Before examples. Endangered species, including the the water level in much of the Everglades was whooping crane, the Texas red wolf, and lowered by drainage, the area was the home of Attwater's prairie chicken, use the Texas large numbers of herons, egrets, limpkins, mot­ coastal area, and the American alligator is a tled ducks, Everglade kites, and other birds. yearlong resident of the Gulf coast and the Now the Florida great white heron is classified Everglades. Other endangered species that for­ as rare. The Everglades kite is classified as merly made more use of the ecosystem are the endangered. Florida panther of the Southeast and the tule Soils.-Soils in this ecosystem are extremely elk that once ranged into the California tule varied, all soil orders found in the continental marshes. Most of the fauna are tolerant of a United States being represented. Entisols are moist or wet environment. Many species from prevalent in the Central Valley of California. adjacent prairies and forests make extensive Land use.-Because of wide variations in site use of the wet grasslands. Fresh- and brackish­ conditions, there is no consistent pattern of land water fishes, reptiles, and amphibians are abun­ use in this ecosystem. It is used for hunting, dant and varied. fishing, trapping, crop production, improved The Everglades has a wide variety of influent pasture, rangeland, and other purposes.

F-522880 Figure 32.-A forest of cabbage palmetto forms the background of this range area in the wet grasslands ecosystem in southern Florida.

57 Productivity Classes best. Most of the class 3 land is intensively developed for resorts and recreation. The major Class 1.-Productivity class 1 is character­ plants of the palmetto prairie community are ized by the southern cordgrass prairie commu­ wiregrass, hairawn muhly, creeping bluestem, nity, which is the most productive vegetation miscellaneous bluestems, and saw-palmetto. unit in the wet grasslands ecosystem. The The soils are mainly Entisols (Psamma­ average herbage yield is 10,000 pounds per quents plus Haplaquads and Quartzipsam­ acre. Smooth cordgrass is the major species ments) that are loamy fine sand or coarser and is considered highly palatable to cattle. material and are permanently or seasonally Other common plants are Carex spp., saltgrass, wet. Other soils of class 3 are Alfi.sols ( Ochra­ and tules. Forbs and shrubs range from none qualf s plus Psammaquents) and Spodosols to few. The construction of "walkway" levees (Haplaquods plus Quartzipsamments) which has greatly improved the accessibility of the are sandy and have mottles of iron and man­ rangeland to livestock. ganese compounds. Restricted drainage is a The soils are mainly Histosols (plant residues problem. that are moderately decomposed; gently slop­ Most of the class 3 land is used for grazing ing) and Mollisols (Haplaquolls plus Udipsam­ by cattle. Thirty to 50 percent of the area in ments and Humaquepts) which are wet and pastures has adequate water-control systems have a thick, nearly black surface horizon and and a high cattle-carrying capacity. The trend gray subsurface horizons. is to more improved pastures. Winter vegetable About 50 percent of the land of the southern gardens and citrus and other subtropical fruit cordgrass prairie is used for growing rice and orchards are increasing in importance. tame forage, including alfalfa and grasses. Class 4.-The tall, graminoid vegetation of This part of the ecosystem is also used for hunt­ the tule marshes in the Sacramento and San ing, fishing, and trapping. Joaquin Valleys and on old beds of the Great Class 2.-The Everglades characterizes pro­ Salt Lake and large lakes in Nevada charac­ ductivity class 2. Herbage yields range from terizes this productivity class. Few data are 6,000 to 9,000 pounds per acre. However, most available on yields of herbage. The major spe­ of the herbage is Jamaica sawgrass, a species cies are tules and other bulrushes and cattails. of little to no value for grazing by cattle. About Carex spp. occur in some places. 10 percent of the Everglades has been converted The soils were primarily Histosols (highly to pastures of desirable herbage, which yield decomposed plant residues) but are now clas­ approximately 8,000· pounds per acre. Other sified as Entisols (Xerorthents plus Durixeralfs, plants in native stands are three-awns, Boeh­ Haploxeralfs, Xerofluvents, Palexeralfs, and meria cylindrica, tules, and cattails. Woody Haplaquolls) because of extensive draining and plants occur in the bayheads, the most common the use of the land for growing irrigated crops. being sweetbay and redbay. Very few of the tule marshes remain. Those The soils are mainly Histosols (plant residues that do are in high demand as places for hunt­ moderately decomposed or highly decomposed; ing ducks and geese. Most of the class 4 land is gently sloping) which are wet organic (muck) farmed. Important crops are asparagus, sugar soils. About 50 percent of the 7,200 square beets, potatoes, corn and other grains, and hay miles of the area is in Indian reservations, -all grown within the levee systems which National Parks, and game refuges. Hunting, protect the land against flooding. fishing, and other recreational activities are major uses of much of the Everglades. About HERBAGE PRODUCTION 5 percent is cropland, and 15 percent is in pasture. A summary of herbage production in the Class 3.-The palmetto prairie and northern ecosystem follows : cordgrass prairie characterize this productivity Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds class. Herbage yields range up to 6,000 pounds class per acre class per acre per acre-few data exist for the northern cord­ 1 ...... 9,000-12,000 L ...... 3,000- 6,000 grass prairie, so this is a broad estimate at 2 .... . 6,000- 9,000 4 0- 3,000

NO. 42.-THE ANNUAL GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The annual grasslands eco­ foothill grasslands. These grasslands form a system is characterized by the California steppe discontinuous zone between the upper limits of vegetation community, which occupies exten­ the valley floors and the western hardwoods sive areas in the Central Valley of California ecosystem, which occurs mainly at elevations and along the Pacific Coast. This community is between 500 and 2,000 feet above sea level. The often ref erred to as the California annual or Sierra-Cascade Mountains are on the east, and

58 the California Coast Ranges are on the west. Several species of mule deer occur in areas The California steppe occupies the lower foot­ with brush. The California quail is now numer­ hills of these ranges. The foothills are rolling ous mainly in areas where brush or rock out­ hills interspersed with numerous level valleys. crops provide cover. The mourning dove occurs These lands have their origin in colluvial throughout the area. Common mammals include material from the mountain ranges and fans of the Beechy ground squirrel, cottontail, black­ alluvial material. The flow of alluvial and col­ tailed jackrabbit, mice, and kangaroo rats. luvial material is much stronger from the Many species, such as the coyote and bobcat, Sierra-Cascade Mountains on the east than occur in, or enter from, the adjacent woodlands. from the Coast Ranges. Consequently, the accu­ Common birds include the horned lark, west­ mulation is much greater and more extensive ern meadowlark, western kingbird, mocking­ on the eastern side of the Central Valley than bird, loggerhead shrike, house finch, lesser gold­ on the western side; it is more obvious in the finch, red-shafted flicker, and scrub jay. The San Joaquin Valley than in the Sacramento rattlesnake is an important predator of rodents. Valley. Numerous small springs and seeps occur The roadrunner feeds partly on reptiles. Other throughout the ecosystem, the water table being avian predators include the golden eagle, red­ close to the surface in the bottoms of valleys. tailed hawk, and Cooper's hawk. A number of Climate.-Most of the annual grasslands eco­ snakes and lizards are present. Additional spe­ system has a climate of hot, dry summers and cies occurring in this ecosystem are found in mild, relatively moist winters. The length of the western hardwoods ecosystem. the frost-free season is 250-300 days. Precipi­ Soils.-The soils of this ecosystem are mostly tation ranges from less than 10 inches at low Entisols and Alfi.sols. In general, the Entisols elevations in the southern portion to more than are at the lower elevations of the Central Val­ 40 inches at the higher elevations at the north­ ley, and the Alfi.sols occur at slightly higher ern border. Little rain falls in the summer. Up elevations, away from the valley floor. A small to three-fourths of the annual precipitation area of Aridisols occurs in the more arid south­ may fall in the period December-March. Poten­ ern portion of the San Joaquin Valley. tial evaporation during the warmest months is Land use.-The land at the lower elevations often many times the precipitation. These of what was the annual grasslands is mostly climatic conditions are extremely favorable for irrigated and makes up the bulk of one of the the growth of cool-season annuals, which make richest agricultural areas in the world-the up practically all the herbage. Central Valley of California. At slightly higher Vegetation.-The vegetation of the ecosys­ elevations, some land is dry-farmed, but the tem is of grass life-form. Annual grasses, area is mostly used for grazing by cattle. The mostly introduced, dominate the cover. The area receives very heavy recreational pressure dominant plants are wild oats, several species from nearby metropolitan areas, including Los of brome, wild barley, and fescue. Perennial Angeles and San Francisco. bunchgrasses, where they occur, include needle­ grasses, creeping wildrye, and pine bluegrass. Productivity Classes Perennials are scarce or absent at lower eleva­ tions and increase at the upper elevations of Herbage production is greater on the north­ the ecosystem. Forbs, with the exception of ern than on the southern annual ranges of filaree, are numerous but of secondary impor­ California. This is due mainly to more precipi­ tance. Many people believe the prehistoric vege­ tation in the north. However, the productivity tation was perennial, but historical evidence is classes are basically the same for both areas. meager and reconstruction of the original The herbage yields reported in the following perennial vegetation (if it were perennial), if paragraphs are based mostly on research at the it can be done at all, is accomplished only with San Joaquin Experimental Range of the USDA complete protection and considerable effort. The Forest Service, in the Sierra Nevada .foothills. earliest references, from the early 1800's, indi­ The Experimental Range, 25 miles north of cate that the California steppe was dominated Fresno, is in the southern part of the ecosys­ by annual grasses. In this ecosystem, annual tem. The ranges in this ecosystem are very plants, with their short life cycle and rather responsive to rainfall, which varies consider­ shallow root system, have probably shown the ably. Changes in the amount of rainfall can most consistent and profitable response to range cause a variation of well over 100 percent in fertilization. herbage production from year to year. Fauna.-Intensive agricultural development Class 1.-The vegetation of the swales char­ has changed the fauna of the annual grasslands acterizes this productivity class. Herbage yields ecosystem. Many species have been eliminated range up to 4,400 pounds per acre. The swales or "moved up in the hills." The California comprise roughly 10 to 15 percent of the annual grizzly, wolf, and pronghorn, or antelope, have grasslands. The dominant plants are foxtail long since disappeared, and the San Joaquin fescue, Mediterranean barley, clovers, filaree, kit fox is classified as an endangered species. and rushes. Considerable fluctuation in species

59 F-447499 Figure 33.-Rangeland in the annual grasslands ecosystem in California. Annual grasses dominate the ground cover; the trees are oak. composition of the herbage may occur rapidly receives the hardest grazing use. as a result of climatic fluctuation. This site is The soils are Alfisols and Entisols (Xeror­ probably more stable than the other sites in this thents)-fine sandy loams that represent the ecosystem and usually receives intense use for transition from transported soils in the swales grazing. to soils developed in place on the slopes. The soils are mainly Entisols ( dark gray, Class 3.-0pen, rolling upland sites where sandy clay loams with fairly good water-hold­ herbage production averages 1,850 pounds per ing capacity, better than those of the slopes). acre represent this productivity class. These The swales receive much seepage water, to the sites are located on slopes with gradients of point of being saturated in wet winters. 10 to 25 percent and have a very open cover of Class 2.-The vegetation on the gentle slopes trees and only scattered rock outcrops. Domi­ characterizes this productivity class, producing nant plants are soft chess, foxtail fescue, filaree, 2,200 to 3,300 pounds of herbage per acre. The and clovers. The soils are mainly Alfisols and vegetation of this class occupies the area just Entisols (Xerorthents that are sandy loams, above the swales and is on a slope of 10 percent about 24 inches deep) . or less. This class makes up about 10 percent Class 4.-This productivity class is charac­ of the California steppe. The dominant plants terized by the vegetation on the rocky, brushy, in the southern portion are foxtail fescue, soft rolling-to-steep sites where herbage yields chess, Mediterranean barley, and clovers. Wild average 1,000 pounds per acre. These sites have oats are dominant in the northern part. The slopes of 25 percent or more and have numerous land in this class, along with the swales, usually rock outcrops or many shrubs and trees. They

60 differ considerably from place to place, includ­ HERBAGE PRODUCTION ing some productive soils, as well as some thin sandy soils. This class makes up 60 to 75 per­ A summary of herbage production in the cent of the California steppe. The dominant ecosystem follows: plants are red brome, soft chess, and filaree. Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds The soils are Alfisols (Haploxeralfs plus class per acre class per acre Xerorthents that are shallow and moderately L ______3,300-4,400 3 ..... 1,100-2,200 sloping to steep) . 2 ____----· ____ 2,200-3,300 4 0-1,100

NO. 44.-THE ALPINE ECOSYSTEM

Physiography.-The alpine ecosystem occurs mostly as snow. Evaporation and wind move­ largely as an interrupted chain of stands on the ment are marked. highest peaks in the Rocky Mountain and Vegetation.-Grasses and grasslike species Pacific Mountain Systems. Valley glaciers have of rather low stature predominate, but the sculptured most alpine areas and provided open, number of associated forbs is large. Dwarf spectacular landscapes. Cirques, hanging tri­ willows occur, in some places, on the moist soils butaries, and various types of moraine are of protected slopes and valleys. common. Fauna.-The pika, pocket gopher, and yel­ Climate.-The climate is rigorous. The aver­ low-bellied marmot are the only permanent age monthly temperature may be 3° C in Janu­ mammalian residents of the alpine ecosystem. ary and 50 ° C in July. Frost may occur any Summer visitors include mule deer, elk, moun­ night during the summer. Precipitation is esti­ tain sheep, weasels, marten, chipmunks, and mated to be 35-50 inches per year, falling the golden-manteled ground squirrel. The only

F-386561 Figure 34.-Low grasses and grasslike plants predominate in the alpine ecosystem.

61 nesting birds are the horned lark, water pipit, about 600-900 pounds per acre, of which 40 black rosy finch, rock wren, white-tailed ptar­ percent could be used as forage. Soils range migan, and robin. from Inceptisols on the upper slopes to Spo­ Soils.-The soils of this ecosystem commonly dosols on the lower slopes. have no pedogenic horizons (Entisols), have Class 3.-This production class is found, gen­ weakly differentiated horizons (Inceptisols), or erally, on ridge tops and convex land surfaces. have a low supply of bases and an accumula­ The characteristic dominant plants include tion of amorphous materials in subsurface hori­ alpine avens, sedges, dryas, moss silene, and zons (Spodosols). These cold soils normally clovers. Herbage production ranges from 300 to belong in the cryic great groups. The terrain 600 pounds per acre. No more than 10-15 per­ is sometimes referred to as "fragile," because cent of the herbage could be used for forage. of the ease with which the soils can be displaced In many places, the soils are shallow, stony, by horses' hooves on recreation trails or water­ and coarse-textured. Pedogenic horizons are eroded where ground cover becomes broken. absent or weakly developed. Land use.-This ecosystem provides summer Class 4.-This productivity class occurs on grazing for sheep under careful management. the shallowest soils of the fell-field and the Their deep snowpacks make areas in the eco­ boulder-field. It may occasionally include wet system prime watersheds. The ecosystem pro­ areas where intensive frost action is taking vides opportunities for summer and winter place. Dominant plants of the boulder-field are recreation and habitats for wildlife. lomatium, mountainsorrel, bluebell, sedges, and alpine avens. The dominant plants of the fell­ Productivity Classes field include sedges and such pulvinate species as alpine clover, Rocky Mountain railwood, and Class 1.-Microtopography where moisture moss silene. tends to accumulate characterizes this produc­ Herbage production in this productivity class tivity class. Sedges and tufted hairgrass are varies from a few scattered plants to 300 characteristic dominants. Dwarf willows may pounds per acre. Forage is limited, but sheep form an overstory. Herbage production ranges wander into the rock-field during dry years from 900 to 1,200 pounds per acre. Eighty to to find such forage as bluebell. 100 percent of the herbage could be considered to be forage, but only 40-50 percent should be HERBAGE PRODUCTION used by grazing animals. Soils are normally members of the "Aqu" suborders, are seasonally A summary of herbage production in the wet, and are mottled with gray blotches. ecosystem follows : Class 2.-Upper and lower slopes fall within Productivity Pounds Productivity Pounds this productivity class. Dominant plants include class per acre class per acre kobresia, sedges, alpine avens, tufted hairgrass, 1 .900-1,200 3 ... 300- 600 and American bistort. Herbage production is 2 ...... 600- 900 4 0- 300

62 Appendix A-General References

Austin, M. E. Shelford, V. E. 1965. Land resource regions and major land resource 1963. The ecology of North America, 610 p. Univ. Ill. areas of the United States. USDA Soil Conserv. Press, Urbana, Ill. Serv., Agric. Handb. 296, 82 p. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Daubenmire, R., and Jean B. Daubenmire. 1967. Section 74: geographic forest types. In Forest 1968. Forest vegetation of eastern Washington and survey handbook. USDA Forest Serv. Handb. northern Idaho, Wash. State Univ., Wash. Agric. 4813.1, p. 74-74.2-3. Exp. Stn., Tech. Bull. 60, 104 p. Fenneman, N. M. 1931. Physiography of Western United States. 534 p. 1973. The outlook for timber in the United States. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. USDA Forest Serv. Forest Resour. Rep. 20, 367 p. Kelsey, H. L., and W. A. Dayton. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. 1942. Standardized plant names. 675 p. J. Horace 1967. Potential natural vegetation. USDI Geo!. Surv., McFarland Co., Harrisburg, Pa. Natl. Atlas Sheet 90. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous 1969. Classes of land-surface form. USDI Geo!. Surv., United States. (Manual and map). Am. Geogr. Soc. Natl. Atlas Sheet 62. Spec. Pub!. 36, 1965 rev., 116 p. New York. Little, E. L., Jr. 1953. Checklist of native and naturalized trees of the 1969. Distribution of principal kinds of soils: orders, United States. USDA Forest Serv., Agric. Handb. suborders, and great groups. USDI Geol. Surv., 41,472 p. Natl. Atlas Sheet 86.

1971. Atlas of United States trees. Vol. 1. Conifers 1969. Major forest types. USDI Geo!. Surv., Natl. and important hardwoods. USDA Forest Serv., Atlas Sheet 182. Misc. Pub!. 1146. Lull, Howard W. 1968. A forest atlas of the Northeast. USDA Forest 1969. Potential natural vegetation of Alaska. USDI Serv., 46 p. Geo!. Surv., Natl. Atlas Sheet 89. Miller, D. W., J. J. Geraghty, and R. S. Collins. 1962. Water atlas of the United States. Water Inf. 1970. The national atlas of the United States of Cent., Inc., Port Wash., N.Y. America. 417 p. USDI Geol. Surv., Wash.

Appendix B-References on Mammals and Birds

Bent, Arthur Cleveland. 1961. Life histories of North American birds of prey. 1961. Animal ecology. 468 p. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Part 1. 409 p. Dover Pub!., Inc., New York. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Palmer, Ralph S. 1961. Life histories of North American birds of prey. 1954. The mammal guide. 384 p. Doubleday and Co., Part 2. 482 p. Dover Pub!., Inc., New York. Inc., Garden City, N. Y. Rasmussen, D. I. 1941. Biotic communities of the Kaibab Plateau, Ari­ 1963. Life histories of North American gallinaceous zona. Ecol. Monogr. 11 :229-275. birds. 490 p. Dover Pub!., Inc., New York. Shelford, Victor E. Cadbury, J., and A. D. Cruickshank. 1963. The ecology of North America. 610 p. Univ. of 1942. Breeding-bird census, climax red and white Ill. Press, Urbana, Ill. spruce forest. Audubon Mag. Sept.-Oct. 1942 Sect. Smith, W. P. 2:32 1944. Breeding bird census, white pine-hemlock forest. Ely, Alfred. Audubon Mag. Sept.-Oct. 1944 Sect. 2 :24. 24. 1939. North American big game. 533 p. Chas. Scrib­ Taylor, Walter P. ner's Sons, New York. 1956. The deer of North America. 668 p. The Stack­ Johnson, D. W., and E. P. Odum. pole Co., Harrisburg, Pa., and the Wildl. Manage. 1956. Breeding bird populations in relation to plant Inst., Wash., D.C. succession on the Piedmont of Georgia. Ecol. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport 37:50-62. Fisheries and Wildlife. Kendeigh, S. C. 1968. Rare and endangered fish and wildlife of the 1946. Breeding birds of the beech-maple-hemlock com­ United States. USDI Bur. of Sport Fish., Resour. munity. Ecol. 27: 226-245. Publ. 34.

63 Appendix C-References Used 1n Describing Individual Ecosystems

WESTERN RANGE Humphrey, R.R. 1933. The desert grassland: a history of vegetational SAGEBRUSH changes and an analysis of causes. Bot. Rev. 24: Beetle, A. A. 193-252. 1960. A study of sagebrush: the section tridentatae of Jameson, D. J. Artemisia. Wyo. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 367. 1962. Effects of burning on a galleta-black grama Fosberg, M.A., and M. Hironaka. range invaded by juniper. Ecol. 43 :760-763. 1964. Soil properties affecting the distribution of big Leithhead, H. L. and low sagebrush communities in southern Idaho. 1959. Runoff in relation to range condition in the Big Am. Soc. Agron. Spec. Publ. 5, p. 230-236. Bend-Davis Mountain section of Texas. J. Range Tisdale, E. W., M. Hironaka, and M. A. Fosberg. Manage. 12:83-87. 1965. An area of pristine vegetation in Craters of the Paulsen, H. A., and F. N. Ares. Moon National Monument, Idaho. Ecol. 46 :349-352. 1961. Trends in carrying capacity and vegetation on ______M. Hironaka, and M. A. Fosberg. an arid southwestern range. J. Range Manage. 1969. The sagebrush region in Idaho: a problem in 14:78-83. range resource management. Univ. of Idaho, Idaho Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 512, 15 p. 1962. Grazing values and management of blackgrama and tobosa grasslands and associated shrub ranges DESERT SHRUB of the Southwest. USDA Forest Serv., Tech. Bull. 1270, 56 p. Bleak, A. T., and N. C. Frischknecht. Potter, L. D., and J.C. Krenetsky. 1965. Problems in artificial and natural revegetation 1967. Plant succession with released grazing on New of the arid shadscale vegetation zone of Utah and Mexico range lands. J. Range Manage. 20 :145-151. Nevada. J. Range Manage. 18:59-65. Thomas, G. W., and V. A. Young. Cable, Dwight R., and Fred H. Tschirley. 1954. Relation of soils, rainfall, and grazing manage­ 1961. Responses of native and introduced grasses fol­ ment to vegetation-western Edwards Plateau of lowing aerial spraying of velvet mesquite in south­ Texas. Texas Agric. and Mech. Univ., Texas Agric. ern Arizona. J. Range Manage. 14:155-159. Exp. Stn. Bull. 786. Nichol, A. A. , Whittaker, R. H., and W. A. Niering. 1952. Natural vegetation of Arizona. Ariz. Agric. 1965. Vegetation of the Santa Catalina Mountains, Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 127, p. 189-230. Arizona: a gradient analysis of the south slope. Reynolds, Hudson G., and S. Clark Martin. Ecol. 46 :429-452. 1968. Managing grass-shrub cattle ranges in the Southwest. USDA Forest Serv., Agric. Handb. 162. CHAPARRAL-MOUNTAIN SHRUB Rosenzweig, Michael L., and Jerald Winakur. 1969. Population ecology of desert rodent communi­ Same as southwestern shrubsteppe. ties: habitats and environmental complexity. Ecol. PINYON-JUNIPER 50: 558-572. Schmutz, Ervin M., Dwight R. Cabe!, and John J. Same as southwestern shrubsteppe. Warwick. 1959. Effect of shrub removal on the vegetation of a MOUNTAIN GRASSLANDS semidesert grass-shrub range. J. of Range Manage. 12 :34-37. Costello, D. F. Turner, Raymond M., Stanley M. Alcorn, and George 1954. Vegetation zones in Colorado. In Introduction to Olin. The manual of the higher plants of Colorado, by 1969. Mortality of transplanted saguaro seedlings. H. D. Harrington. Sage Book Co., Denver, Colo. Ecol. 50:835-844. Daubenmire, R. F. West, Neal E., and Kamal J. Ibrehim 1942. An ecological study of the vegetation of south­ eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. Ecol. 1968. Soil-vegetation relationships in the shadscale Monogr. 12 (Jan.) :53-79. zone of southeastern Utah. Ecol. 49 :445-456. Hurd, Richard M. SOUTHWESTERN SHRUBSTEPPE 1961. Grassland vegetation in the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming. Ecol. 42(3) :459-467. Cable, D.R. Johnson, W. M. 1969. Competition in the semidesert grass-shrub types 1962. Vegetation of high altitude ranges in Wyoming as influenced by root systems, growth habits, and as related to use by game and domestic sheep. Univ. soil moisture. Ecol. 50:27-38. of Wyo., Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 387. Gehlbach, F. R. Mueggler, W. F., and C. A. Harris. 1967. Vegetation of the Guadalupe escarpment, New 1969. Some soil and vegetation characteristics of Mexico-Texas. Ecol. 48:404-419. mountain grasslands in central Idaho. Ecol. 50 ( 4): Goebel, C. J., and C. W. Cook 671-678. 1960. Effect of range condition on plant vigor, pro­ Pickford, G. D., and E. H. Reid. duction, and nutritive value of forage. J. Range 1942. Basis for judging subalpine grassland ranges Manage. 13:307-313. of Oregon and Washington. USDA, Circ. 655, 37 p.

64 Strickler, Gerald S. Reppert, J. N., M. J. Morris, and C. A. Graham. 1961. Vegetation and soil condition changes on subal­ 1962. Estimation of herbage on California annual­ pine grassland in eastern Oregon. USDA Forest type range. J. Range Manage. 15: 318-323. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-40, 46 p. Pac. Northwest Stoddart, L. A., and A. D. Smith. Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 1955. Range management. 433 p. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. MOUNTAIN MEADOWS Wagnon, K. A., H. R. Guilbert, and E. H. Hart. Crane, B. K. 1959. Beef cattle investigations on the San Joaquin 1950. Condition and grazing capacity of wet meadows Experimental Range. Calif. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. on the east slope of the Sierra-Nevada Mountains. 765, 71 p. J. of Range Manage. 3 ( 4) : 303-307. Walker, C. F., and W. A. Williams. Pickford, G. D., and E. H. Reid. 1963. Responses of annual-type range vegetation to 1942. Guides to determine range condition and proper sulphur-fertilization. J. Range Manage. 16:64-69. use of mountain meadows in eastern Oregon. USDA William, W. A., C. M. McKell, and J. N. Reppert. Forest Serv. Range Res. Rep. PNW-3, 19 p. Pac. 1964. Sulphur fertilization of an annual-range soil Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, during years of below normal rainfall. J. Range Oreg. Manage. 17: 1-5. Saunderson, H. R. Wood, W. E. 1967. Herbage production on high Sierra-Nevada 1950. Rangeland use in California. J. Range Manage. meadows. J. Range Manage. 20(4) :255-256. 50: 204-212. ALPINE DESERT GRASSLANDS Johnson, P. L., and W. D. Billings. Same as southwestern shrubsteppe. 1962. The alpine vegetation of the Beartooth Plateau in relation to cryopedogenic processes and patterns. ANNUAL GRASSLANDS Ecol. Monogr. 32 :105-135. Bentley, J. R., L. R. Green, and K. A. Wagnon. Paulsen, H. A., Jr. 1958. Herbage production and grazing capacity on 1960. Plant cover and foliage use of alpine sheep annual-plant range pastures fertilized with sulphur. ranges in the Central Rocky Mountains. Iowa State J. Range Manage. 11:133-140. Coll., J. Sci. 34:731-748. ______and M. W. Talbot. Pond, F. W., and D. R. Smith. 1951. Efficient use of annual plants on cattle ranges 1971. Ecology and management of subalpine ranges in the California foothills. USDA, Circ. 870, 52 p. on the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming. Univ. of Burcham, L. T. Wyo., Wyo. Agric. Exp. Stn., Res. J. 53, 24 p. 1956. Historical backgrounds of rangeland use in Cali­ Smith, D.R. fornia. J. Range Manage. 9: 81-86. 1969. Vegetation, soils, and their interrelationships at Conrad, C. E., E. J. Woolfolk, and D. A. Duncan. timberline in the Medicine Bow Mountains, Wyom­ 1966. Fertilization and management implications on ing, Univ. of Wyo., Wyo. Agric. Exp. Stn., Sci. California annual-plant range. J. Range Manage. Monogr. 17, 13 p. 19:20-26. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Duncan, D. A., and L. 0. Hylton, Jr. 1958. Timber resources for America's future. USDA 1970. Effects of fertilization on quality of range Forest Serv., Forest Resour. Rep. 14, 713 p. forage. In Range and wildlife habitat evaluation­ a research symposium, p. 57-62. USDA, Misc. WESTERN FOREST Publ. 1147. DOUGLAS-FIR Green, L. R., K. A. Wagnon, and J. R. Bentley. 1958. Diet and grazing habits of steers on foothill Daniel, T. W., and M. E. Ensminger. range fertilized with sulphur. J. Range Manage. 1945. Grazing on cutover lands of western Washing­ 11 :221-227. ton. State Coll. of Wash., Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn .. Heady, H.F. Pop. Bull. 179. . 1958. Changes in a California annual plant community Franklin, J. F., and C. T. Dyrness. type. Ecol. 39 :402-416. 1969. Vegetation of Oregon and Washington, UST)A Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-80, rev. 1973. L '. 1961. Continuous vs. specialized grazing systems: a Northwest Forest and Range. Exp. Stn., Portlana, review and application of the California annual Oreg. type. J. Range Manage. 14 :182-193. ------and C. T. Dyrness. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. 1964. Palatability of herbage and animal preference. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8, 417 p. J. Range Manage. 17 :76-82. Pac. Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Port­ Jones, M. B. land, Oreg. 1960. Response of annual range to urea applied at Reid, E. H., L. A. Isaac, and G. D. Pickford various dates. J. Range Manage. 13 :188-192. 1938. Plant succession on a cutover, burned, and McNaughton, S. J. grazing Douglas fir area. USDA Forest Serv. Res. 1968. Structure and function in California grasslands. Note PNW-26. Pac. Northwest Forest and Range Ecol. 49 :962-972. Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Naveh, Z. PONDEROSA PINE 1967. Mediterranean ecosystems and vegetative types in California and Israel. Ecol. 48: 445-459. Costello, D. F., and H. E. Schwann. Ratliff, R. A., and H. F. Heady. 1946. Conditions and trends on ponderosa pine ranges 1962. Seasonal changes in herbage weight in an in Colorado. USDA Forest Serv. Rocky Mt. Forest annual grass community. J. Range Manage. 15: and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colo., and Rocky 146-149. Mt. Reg. Off., Denver, Colo.

65 Garrison, G. A. Fanning, C. D., C. M. Thompson, and Dean Isaacs. 1965. Changing conditions in northwest forested 1965. Properties of saline range soils of the Rio ranges. Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters [Denver, Colo.] Grande Plain. J. Range Manage. 18:190-193. 1964: 67-68. Johnston, M. 1963. Past and present grasslands of southern Texas 1969. Challenge of forest grazing in Pacific North­ and N.E. Mexico. Ecol. 44 :456-466. west. In Abstracts of papers at 22nd annual meet­ McMahan, C. A., and C. W. Ramsey. ing, Amer. Soc. of Range Manage. [Calgary, Al­ 1965. Response of deer and livestock to controlled berta, 1969]. p. 31. Amer. Soc. of Range Manage. grazing in central Texas. J. Range Manage. 18:1-7. Pearson, H. A., and D. A. Jameson. Stoddart, L. A., and A. D. Smith. 1967. Relationship between timber and cattle produc­ 1955. Range management. 433 p. McGraw-Hill Book tion on ponderosa pine range: the Wild Bill Range. Co., Inc., New York. USDA Forest Serv. Rocky Mt. Forest and Range Thomas, G. W., and V. A. Young. Exp. Stn. 1954. Relation of soils, rainfall, and grazing manage­ Pickford, G. D., and E. H. Reid. ment to vegetation-western Edwards Plateau of 1948. Forage utilization on summer cattle ranges in Texas. Texas Agric. and Mech. Univ., Texas Agric. eastern Oregon. USDA, Circ. 796, 27 p. Exp. Stn. Bull. 786. Reid, E. H. Thorp, B. C. 1948. Forest grazing in the Pacific Northwest. Proc. 1926. Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th Soc. Am. Foresters 1947 :296-302. meridian, Univ. of Texas Bull. 2606. 1964. Forage production in ponderosa pine forests. Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters [Denver, Colo.] 1964. PLAINS GRASSLANDS Rummell, R. S. Bjugstad, A. J., and W. C. Whitman. 1951. Some effects of livestock grazing on ponderosa 1970. Significance of reduced plant vigor in relation pine forest and range in central Washington. Ecol. to range condition. J. Range Manage. 23 :181-184. 32(4): 594-607. Holscher, C. E., and E. J. Woolfolk. WESTERN WHITE PINE 1953. Forage utilization by cattle on northern Great Plains ranges. USDA, Circ. 918. Same as Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine. Houston, W.R. 1961. Some interrelations of sagebrush, soils, and FIR-SPRUCE grazing intensity in the northern Great Plains. Ecol. 42:31-38. Same as Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine. Larson, F., and W. Whitman. HEMLOCK-SITKA SPRUCE 1942. A comparison of used and unused grassland mesas in the Badlands of South Dakota. Ecol. 23: Franklin, J. F., and C. T. Dyrness. 438-445. 1969. Vegetation of Oregon and Washington. USDA Reed, M. J., and R. A. Peterson. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-80, rev. 1973. Pac. 1961. Vegetation, soils, and cattle responses to stock­ Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, ing and grazing on northern Great Plains ranges. Oreg. USDA, Tech. Bull. 1252, 79 p. Smoliak, S. LARCH 1956. Influence of climatic conditions on forage pro­ Same as Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine. duction of shortgrass rangeland. J. Range Manage. 9:89-91. LODGEPOLE PINE Weaver, J.E., and F. E. Clements. 1938. Plant ecology. 601 p. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Same as ponderosa pine. Inc., New York. WESTERN HARDWOODS PRAIRIE Same as annual grasslands. Aikman, J. M. GREAT PLAINS 1955. Burning in the management of prairie in Iowa. SHINNERY Iowa A cad. Sci. Proc. 62: 53-62. Buttery, R. F. Allred, B. W. 1960. Grazed glades can grow good grass. J. Range 1949. Distribution and control of several woody Manage. 13 :234-235. plants in Texas and Oklahoma. J. Range Manage. Costello, D. F. 2:15-29. 1969. The prairie world. 242 p. Crowell Co., New Lotspeich, F. P., and M. E. Everhart. York. 1962. Climate and vegetation as soil forming factors Ehrenreich, J. H. on the Llano Estacado. J. Range Manage. 15 :134- 1959. Effect of burning and clipping on growth of 141. native prairie in Iowa. J. Range Manage. 12 :133- Stoddart, L.A., and A. D. Smith. 137. 1955. Range management. 433 p. McGraw-Hill Book ______and J. M. Aikman. Co., Inc., New York. 1963. An ecological study of the effect of certain man­ Weaver, J.E., and F. E. Clements. agement practices on native prairie in Iowa. Ecol. 1938. Plant ecology. 601 p. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Monogr. 33: 113-130. Inc., New York. Hopkins, H. H. TEXAS SAVANNA 1951. Ecology of the native vegetation of the loess hills in central Nebraska. Ecol Monogr. 21 :125-147. Box, T. W. Hulbert, T. 1960. Herbage production in four range plant com­ 1969. Fire and litter effects in undisturbed bluestem munities in south Texas. J. Range Manage. 13 :72- in Kansas. Ecol. 50: 87 4-877. 76. Kelting, R. W. 1954. Effects of moderate grazing on the composition 1961. Relationships between plants and soils of fom and plant production of a native tall-grass prairie communities in south Texas. Ecol. 42 :794-810. in central Oklahoma. Ecol. 35 :200-207.

66 Kucera, C. L., and J. H. Ehrenreich. LOBLOLL Y-SHORTLEAF PINE 1962. Some effects of annual burning on central Mis­ souri prairie. Ecol. 43 :334-336. Duvall, V. L., and Norwin E. Linnartz. ______and S. C. Martin. 1967. Influences of grazing and fire on vegetation 1957. Vegetation and soil relationships in the glade and soil of longleaf pine-bluestem range. J. Range region of the southwestern Missouri Ozarks. Ecol. Manage. 20 :241-247. ______and L. B. Whitaker. 38 :285-291. Martin, S. C., and J. S. Crosby. 1964. Rotation burning: a forage management sys­ 1955. Burning and grazing on glade range in Missouri. tem for longleaf pine-bluestem ranges. J. Range USDA Forest Serv. Tech. Pap. CS-147. Cent. States Manage. 17:322-326. Forest Exp. Stn., Columbus, Ohio. Grelen, H. E., and V. L. Duvall. Porter, C. L. 1946. Common plants of the longleaf pine-bluestem 1966. An analysis of variation between upland and range. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. SO-23, 96 p. lowland switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L., in cen­ South. Forest Exp. Stn., New Orleans, La. tral Oklahoma. Ecol. 47 :980-992. ______and E. A. Epps, Jr. Vogel, W. G., and A. J. Bjugstad. 1967. Season of burning affects herbage quality and 1968. Effects of clipping on yield and tillering of yield on pine-bluestem range. J. Range Manage. little bluestem, big bluestem, and Indiangrass. J. 20:31-33. Range Manage. 21 :136-140. Pearson, H. A., L. B. Whitaker, and V. L. Duvall. Weaver, J.E., and F. E. Clements. 1971. Slash pine regeneration and regulated grazing. 1938. Plant ecology. 601 p. McGraw-Hill Book Co., J. Forestry 69:744-746. Inc., New York. OAK-PINE EASTERN FOREST Same as loblolly-shortleaf pine. WHITE-RED-JACK PINE OAK-HICKORY Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Bazzaz, F. A. Blakiston Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 1968. Succession on abandoned fields in the Shawnee Hills, southern Illinois. Ecol. 49: 924-936. SPRUCE-FIR Bjugstad, A. J., and H. S. Crawford. 1967. Cattle in the woods or woods in the pasture. Same as white-red-jack pine. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note NC-23. North Cent. LONGLEAF-SLASH PINE Forest Exp. Stn., St. Paul, Minn. ______and A. V. Dalrymple. American Society for Range Management, Southern 1968. Behavior of beef heifers on Ozark ranges. Univ. Section. of Mo., Mo. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull. 870. 1955. Range resources of the South. Univ. of Ga., Ga. ______D. A. Murphy, and H. S. Crawford. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. N. S. 9, 31 p. 1968. Poor returns from Ozark woodland grazing. Duvall, V. L., and Norwin E. Linnartz. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note NC-60. North Cent. 1967. Influences of grazing and fire on vegetation Forest Exp. Stn., St. Paul, Minn. and soil of longleaf pine-bluestem range. J. Range Caplenor, D. Manage. 20:241-247. 1968. Forest composition on loessal and non-loessal ______and L. B. Whitaker. soils in west-central Mississippi. Ecol. 49:322-331. 1964. Rotation burning: a forage management sys­ Clarkson, R. B. tem for longleaf pine bluestem ranges. J. Range 1966. The vascular flora of the Monongahela National Manage. 17:322-326. Forest, West Virginia. Castanea 31:1-119. Gansner, D. A. Crawford, H. S., and A. J. Bjugstad. 1965. Missouri forests. USDA Forest Serv. Resour. 1967. Establishing grass range in the southwestern Bull. CS-2. Cent. States Forest Exp. Stn., Colum­ Missouri Ozarks. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note bus, Ohio. NC-22. North Cent. Forest Exp. Stn., St. Paul, Grelen, H. E., and V. L. Duvall. Minn. 1946. Common plants of the longleaf pine-bluestem ______and R. G. Leonard. range. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. SO-23, 96 p. 1965. The Sylamon deer study. Proc. 17th Annu. South. Forest Exp. Stn., New Orleans, La. Conf., Southeast. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., p. ______and E. A. Epps, Jr. 9-13. 1967. Season of burning affects herbage quality and Davis, A. M. yield on pine-bluestem range. J. Range Manage. 1967. Rangeland development through brush control 20:31-33. in the Arkansas Ozarks. Univ. of Arkansas, Agric. Hottel, J.B., and A. F. Arnold. Exp. Stn. Bull. 726. 1965. Crop, pasture, timber, and livestock enterprises Ehrenreich, J. H., and J. S. Crosby. for the Boston Mountain and Ozark Highland areas 1960. Forage production on sprayed and burned areas of Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas, Agric. Exp. Stn. in the Missouri Ozarks. J. Range Manage. 13:68-69. Rep. Ser. 135. ______and J. S. Crosby. Nelson, T. C., and W. M. Zillgitt. 1960. Herbage production is related to hardwood 1969. A forest atlas of the South. 27 p. USDA Forest crown cover. J. Forestry 58 :564-565. Serv. South. Forest Exp. Stn., New Orleans, La. ______and R. A. Ralston. Pearson, H. A., L. B. Whitaker, and V. L. Duvall. 1963. Forage and timber production alternating on 1971. Slash pine regeneration and regulated grazing. shallow soils in the Ozarks. Proc. Soc. Am. For­ J. Forestry 69 :744-746. esters [Boston, Mass.], p. 80-83. Society of American Foresters. Halls, L. K., and H. S. Crawford. 1954. Forest cover types of North America. 67 p. 1960. Deer-forest habitat relationships in North Ar­ Soc. of Am. Foresters, Wash., D. C. kansas. J. Wildl. Manage. 24:387-395. Sternitzke, H. S. ______and H. S. Crawford. 1960. Arkansas forests. 58 p. USDA Forest Serv. 1965. Vegetation response to an Ozark woodland South. Forest Exp. Stn., New Orleans, La. spraying. J. Range Manage. 18 :338-340.

67 ______R. A. Read, and H. S. Crawford. Lemon, P. C. 1960. Forage and ground-cover conditions in unman­ 1945. Wood as a substratum for perennial plants in aged Ozark forests. South. Forest Res. 1 :1-16. the Southeast. Am. Midi. Nat. 34:744-749. Hottel, J.B., and A. F. Arnold. Porter, C. L., Jr. 1965. Crop, pasture, timber, and livestock enterprises 1967. Composition and productivity of a subtropical for the Boston Mountain and Ozark Highland areas prairie. Ecol. 48 :937-942. of Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas, Agric. Exp. Stn. Williams, R. E., J. T. Cassady, L. K. Halls, and E. J. Rep. Ser. 135. Woolfolk. Hough, A. F. 1955. Range resources of the South. Univ. of Ga., Ga. 1965. A twenty-year record of understory vegetation Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. N.S.-9, 31 p. [In cooperation changes in a virgin Pennsylvania forest. Ecol. 46: with South. Sect., Am. Soc. for Range Manage.] 370-373. Jones, A. S., and E.G. Patton. ELM-ASH-COTTONWOOD 1966. Forest, "prairie," and soils in the Black Belt of Sumter County, Alabama, in 1832. Ecol. 47 :75- Beals, E.W., and J.B. Cope. 80. 1964. Vegetation and soils in an eastern Indiana Martin, S. C. woods. Ecol. 45 :777-792. 1955. The place of range livestock in the Missouri Ganser, D. A. Ozarks. J. Range Manage. 8: 105-111. 1965. Missouri forests. USDA Forest Serv. Resour. Murphy, D. A., and J. H. Ehrenreich. Bull. CS-2. Cent. States Forest Exp. Stn., Colum­ 1965. Effects of timber harvest and stand improve­ bus, Ohio. ment on forage production. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: Society of American Foresters. 734-739. 1954. Forest cover types of North America. 67 p. Soc. Pearson, P.R. of Am. Foresters, Wash., D.C. 1962. Increasing importance of sugar maple on two MAPLE-BEECH-BIRCH calcareous formations in New Jersey. Ecol. 43:711- 718. Same as white-red-jack pine. Ray, H. C., and M. Lawson. 1955. Site characteristics as a guide to forest and ASPEN-BIRCH grazing use in the Ozarks. J. Range Manage. 8: 69-73. Same as white-red-jack pine. Read, R. A. WET GRASSLANDS 1951. Woodland forage in the Arkansas Ozarks. J. Range Manage. 4:391-396. Halls, L. K. Sherman, R. W. 1957. Grazing capacity of wiregrass-pine ranges of 1967. Economics of sawtimber production in Appal­ Georgia. J. Range Manage. 10:1-5. achia, Ohio. Ohio Agric. Res. and Dev. Cent. Porter, C. L. (Wooster, Ohio), Res. Circ. 152. 1967. Composition and productivity of a subtropical Society of American Foresters prairie. Ecol. 48 :937-942. 1954. Forest cover types of North America. 67 p. Rummell, R. S. Soc. Am. Foresters, Wash., D. C. 1957. Beef cattle production and range practices in Sternitzke, H. S. south Florida. J. Range Manage. 10:71-78. 1967. East Texas post oak region. USDA Forest Serv. Shelford, V. E. Resour. Bull. SO-11. South. Forest Exp. Stn., New 1963. The ecology of North America. 610 p. Univ. of Orleans, La. Ill. Press, Urbana, Ill. Whittaker, R. H. Shiflet, T. A. 1962. Net production relations of shrubs in the Great 1963. A conservation program for grazing woodlands Smoky Mountains. Ecol. 43 :357-377. in the Southeast. J. Range Manage. 16 :18-21. Southwell, B. L., and R. H. Hughes. 1966. Forest dimensions and productions in the Great 1965. Beef cattle management practices for wire­ Smoky Mountains. Ecol. 4 7: 103-121. grass-pine ranges of Georgia. Univ. of Ga., Ga. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull N.S. 129. OAK-GUM-CYPRESS Williams, R. E. Beals, E.W., and J.B. Cope. 1958. Practical range management in the South. J. 1964. Vegetation and soils in an eastern Indiana Range Manage. 11 : 270-27 4. woods. Ecol. 45:777-792. -----~ J. T. Cassady, L. K. Halls, and E. J. Blomquist, H. L. Woolfolk. 1940. Introduction to the grasses of North Carolina. 1955. Range resources of the South. Univ. of Ga., 8 p. [Mimeographed] Duke Univ., Durham, N.C. Ga. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. N.S. 9, 31 p. [In Coopera­ Caplenor, D. tion with South. Sect., Am. Soc. for Range Manage.] 1968. Forest composition on loessal and non-loessal Yarlett, L. L. soils in west-central Mississippi. Ecol. 49 :322-331. 1965. Control of saw palmetto and recovery of native Golley, F., H. T. Odum, and R. F. Wilson. grasses. J. Range Manage. 18 :344-345. 1962. The structure and metabolism of a Puerto ______and R. D. Roush. Rican red mangrove forest in May. Ecol. 43 :9-19. 1970. Creeping bluestem (Andropogon stolonifer Halls, L. K. (Nash) Hitchc.). J. Range Manage. 23:117-122. 1970. Growing deer food amidst southern timber. J. Range Manage. 23 :213-215.

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