TRANSLATION PROCESS IN TRANSLATING MANGKOBAR TEXT BY NOVICE TRANSLATORS
A DISSERTATION
By LILI SURYANI BATUBARA REG. NO : 118107007 Doctoral Program (S3) Linguistics
FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN 2018
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA TRANSLATION PROCESS IN TRANSLATING MANGKOBAR TEXT BY NOVICE TRANSLATORS
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Postgraduate Program of Linguistics, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, University of Sumatera Utara, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctoral in Linguistics under the authority of the Rector Prof. Dr. Runtung Sitepu, S.H., M.Hum.
Final Examination held on Day : Date : Agustus 2018 Time :
By
Lili Suryani Batubara
Reg. Number 118107007
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA TRANSLATION PROCESS IN TRANSLATING MANGKOBAR TEXT
BY NOVICE TRANSLATORS
I certify that the dissertation I wrote as one of the requirements to obtain the degree of doctor from the Postgraduate Program of Linguistics, the Faculty of
Cultural Sciences of the University of Sumatera Utara is exactly my own work.
I certify that I clearly mentioned the references of the citations I used in some specific parts of this dissertation based on the norm, rule, and etiquette of the technique of a scientific writing.
I certify, in the future, that I am willing to accept the sanction of the revocation of my academic degree which I receive and other sanctions in accordance with the prevailing laws and regulations, provided some parts or all parts of this dissertation are invented not to be my own work or to commit plagiarism.
Medan, Agustus 2018
Lili Suryani Batubara
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Allah SWT the Almighty for giving me the strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this study and to complete it satisfactorily. Without His blessings, this achievement would not have been possible. In my journey towards this degree, I have found a big impact in my life. Therefore, I am most appreciated to all those whose assistance proved to be a milestone in the accomplishment of my dissertation. Indeed, I take advantage of this opportunity to express my most appreciation and gratitude to the most wonderful individuals who made and continue to make a change for the betterment of my personal and academic life. I would like to thank the Rector of Universitas Sumatera Utara, Prof. Dr. Runtung Sitepu, M. Hum., the Dean of the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Dr. Budi Agustono, M.S., for the chance of being a student in the Post Graduate Linguistics Program. I would like to show my warm thank the Head of Linguistics Doctoral Program, Dr. Eddy Setia, M.Ed, TESP, who supported me at every bit and without whom it was impossible to accomplish the end task. I am also grateful to secretaries of the Linguistics Study Program, Dr. Mulyadi, M.Hum and Dr. Thyrhaya Zein, M.A., for the supports during my academic years. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my promoter, Prof. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A., and co-promoters Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D and Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S, for their valuable caring, advice, always guided, encouraged me in writing and finishing this dissertation. Besides, I express my gratitude and appreciation to the examiners Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. Jumino Suhadi, M.A., Ph.D, Dr. Eddy Setia, M.Ed, TESP, Dr. Umar Mono, M.Hum who have shared their valuable time and knowledge in criticizing my dissertation, insightful comments and encouragement. I would like to say thanks to my lecturers, colleagues, for teaching me and the support. My acknowledgement would be incomplete without thanking the biggest source of my strength, my family. My deepest gratitude is dedicated to my beloved parents, H. Anwar Batubara and Hj. Wasiati, without whom I was
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA nothing; they not only assisted me financially but also extended their support morally and emotionally. My parents in law, Maman Suparman and Dede Dasih, my sisters dr. Ratna Suwita Batubara, M. Ked, Sp.A, and Elfiani Batubara S. Pd, Iin Haryani, ST, M.Hum, for their love and caring. Most importantly, my special gratitude goes to my dearest husband, Tedi Haryadi S.Pd, thank you for your patience and endless love through this unforgettable journey. Thank you for taking care of me and family. My special thanks and lots of love also goes to Syakila Anwar Haryadi, my wonderful daughter who has been accompanied and supported me through this journey. I thank them for putting up with me in difficult moments where I felt stumped and for goading me on to follow my dream of getting this degree. As we always believe, a teamwork will make the dreams work! Last but by no means least, I would also thank H. Ch. Sutan Tinggibarani as ‘penasehat adat’ in Angkola community, Padang Sidimpuan that has been as informant and also other participants for cooperative work in this research. My friends Dr. Dewi Kesuma Nst, M.Hum, Irpan Apandi Batubara S.Si, S.Pd, M.Hum, Erna Ikawati, Bima Prana Chitra, Tri Murni for their supports in writing this dissertation. I hope that this dissertation will give a contribution and be a valuable source to anyone in conducting a similar research.
Medan, Agustus 2018
Lili Suryani Batubara
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ABSTRACT Nowadays, translation studies begin to attach the importance to the study of translation process in order to unveil the ‘black box’ of translators. This research finds out the translation process of the novice translators while translating mangkobar text from Angkola Language (AL) to Bahasa Indonesia (BI) and from Bahasa Indonesia (BI) to English (EL). It is aimed at: (i) finding out the types of process dominantly used by the novice translators while translating from AL to BI and BI to EL; (ii) finding out how the translation aids used by the novice translators while translating from AL to BI and BI to EL; (iii) finding out how the novice translators distribute their time over the phases of translation process while translating from AL to BI and BI to EL; (iv) finding out how the novice translators distribute the translation tasks over the phases of translation process while translating from AL to BI and BI to EL. This research uses a qualitative research employing an exploratory case study as a method. The participants of this research are five novice translators. They have experience and several criteria on translation. The text is a mangkobar text (cultural text), and composes of around 221-word long. The data are collected using integrated problem and decision reports (IPDRs), Translog-II, Camtasia studio 9, and retrospective questionnaire. Based on the data analysis, it is found that (i) social affective process is the types of translation process dominantly used by the novice translators while translating from AL to BI; cognitive process is the types of translation process dominantly used by the novice translators while translating from BI to EL; (ii) printed dictionary and google search are as the translation aids used in translating from AL to BI; and google translate while translating from BI to EL; (iii) the novice translators distribute more time in pre-drafting and drafting phase while translating from AL to BI; they distribute more time in drafting and post-drafting phase while translating from BI to EL; (iv) the novice translators distribute more time on processing as translation tasks in drafting phase whether in translating from AL to BI or BI to EL. Keywords: translation process research, translation phases, translation tasks, translation aids, translog, camtasia.
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ABSTRAK
Saat ini, ilmu penerjemahan mulai menunjukkan pentingnya studi tentang proses penerjemahan untuk mengungkap 'kotak hitam' penerjemah. Penelitian ini menemukan proses penerjemahan oleh penerjemah semi-profesional saat menerjemahkan teks mangkobar dari Bahasa Angkola (AL) ke Bahasa Indonesia (BI) dan dari Bahasa Indonesia (BI) ke Bahasa Inggris (EL) . Hal ini bertujuan untuk: (i) menemukan jenis proses yang dominan digunakan oleh penerjemah semi-profesional saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI dan BI ke EL; (ii) menemukan bagaimana alat bantu terjemahan digunakan oleh penerjemah semi-profesional saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI dan BI ke EL; (iii) menemukan bagaimana penerjemah semi-profesional mendistribusikan waktu mereka melalui tahapan proses penerjemahan saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI dan BI ke EL; (iv) menemukan bagaimana penerjemah semi-profesional mendistribusikan tugas penerjemahan melalui tahapan proses terjemahan saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI dan BI ke EL. Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif dengan menggunakan studi kasus eksploratif sebagai metode. Peserta penelitian ini adalah lima penerjemah semi-profesional. Mereka memiliki pengalaman dan beberapa kriteria penerjemah. Teks yang digunakan adalah teks mangkobar (teks budaya), terdiri atas sekitar 221 kata. Data dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan laporan masalah dan keputusan terpadu (IPDRs), Translog-II, Camtasia studio 9, dan kuesioner retrospektif. Berdasarkan analisis data, ditemukan bahwa (i) proses afektif sosial adalah jenis proses penerjemahan yang secara dominan digunakan oleh penerjemah semi-profesional saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI; proses kognitif adalah jenis proses penerjemahan yang secara dominan digunakan oleh penerjemah semi-profesional saat menerjemahkan dari BI ke EL; (ii) kamus cetak dan mesin pencarian google adalah alat bantu terjemahan yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI; dan mesin google translate digunakan untuk menerjemahkan dari BI ke EL; (iii) penerjemah semi-profesional mendistribusikan lebih banyak waktu dalam tahap pra- penyusunan dan penyusunan saat menerjemahkan dari AL ke BI; mereka mendistribusikan lebih banyak waktu dalam tahap penyusunan dan pasca- penyusunan saat menerjemahkan dari BI ke EL; (iv) penerjemah semi-profesional mendistribusikan lebih banyak waktu dalam tahapan proses sebagai tugas penerjemahan baik dalam menerjemahkan AL ke BI atau BI ke EL.
Kata Kunci: penelitian proses penerjemahan, fase penerjemahan, alat bantu penerjemahan, translog, camtasia.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
TS : Translation Studies
DTS : Desciptive Translation Studies
AL : Angkola Language
BI : Bahasa Indonesia
EL : English Language
IPDRs : Integrated Problem and Decision Reports
L1 : Mother Tounge
L2 : First Language
L3 : Second Language
SL : Source Language
ST : Source Text
TAPs : Think-Aloud Protocols
TL : Target Language
TT : Target Text
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT ...... i LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Problem ...... 1 1.2 Identification of the Problem ...... 10 1.3 Research Questions ...... 11 1.4 Purposes of the Study ...... 12 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 12 1.6 Scope of the Study ...... 13 1.7 Structure of the Study ...... 14 1.8 Definition of the Key Terms ...... 14
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 17 2.1 Translation Studies ...... 17 2.1.1 Pure Translation Studies ...... 19 2.1.1.1 Theoritical Translation Studies ...... 19 2.1.1.2 Descriptive Translation Studies ...... 20 2.1.2 Applied Translation Studies ...... 22 2.2 Pauses in Translation Process ...... 22 2.3 Think Aloud Protocols in Translation Process .... 27 2.4 Translation Processes...... 29 2.4.1 Cognitive Process ...... 31 2.4.2 Metacognitive Process ...... 32 2.4.3 Social-Affective Process ...... 33 2.5 Phases of Translation Process ...... 34 2.6 Time Distribution in Translation Process ...... 38 2.7 Translation Tasks in Translation Process ...... 41 2.8 The Use of Translation Aids in Translation Process ...... 42 2.9 Models of Translation Process ...... 45 2.10 Text of Mangkobar ...... 57 2.11 Multilingual Translation ...... 59 2.12 Culture and Translation ...... 62 2.13 Translator’s Cultural Knowledge ...... 65 2.14 Translog-II and its Function ...... 67 2.15 Relevant Studies ...... 75 2.16 Conceptual Framework ...... 83
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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 85 3.1 Research Method ...... 85 3.2 Data and Source of Data ...... 86 3.2.1 Data ...... 86 3.2.2 Source of Data...... 86 3.3 Participants ...... 86 3.4 Source Text ...... 88 3.5 Research Instruments ...... 88 3.5.1 Integrated Problem and Decision Reports (IPDRs) ...... 89 3.5.2 Retrospective Questionnaire ...... 89 3.5.3 Screen Recording Tool ...... 89 3.5.4 Keylogging Tool ...... 90 3.6 Data Collection Method ...... 90 3.7 Data Analysis Method ...... 92 3.8 Technique of Analyzing the Data ...... 93
CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS ...... 96 4.1 Introduction ...... 96 4.1.1 Types of Translation Process ...... 100 4.1.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process ...... 116 4.1.3 Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 121 4.1.4 Distribution of Translation Tasks over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 129 4.1.4.1 Novice A ...... 130 4.1.4.2 Novice D ...... 135 4.1.4.3 Novice F ...... 139 4.1.4.4 Novice G ...... 144 4.1.4.5 Novice I ...... 148
CHAPTER V FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 154 5.1 Findings ...... 154 5.1.1 Types of Translation Process ...... 154 5.1.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process ...... 157 5.1.3 Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 162 5.1.4 Distribution of Tasks over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 166 5.2 Discussions ...... 172 5.2.1 Types of Translation Process ...... 172 5.2.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process ...... 180 5.2.3 Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 183
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5.2.4 Distribution of Tasks over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 190
CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 199 6.1 Conclusions ...... 199 6.2 Recommendations ...... 201
REFERENCES ...... 201
APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Title Page 3.1 The result of the participant selection ...... 88
4.1 Types of translation process in translating (AL-BI) and (BI-EL) ... 101
4.2 The time spent by the novice translators in finishing the work ...... 106
4.3 The total time spent done by novice translators in translating mangkobar text ...... 122
4.4 Distribution of time over the phases of the translation process ...... 123
4.5 The percentage of time spent over the phases of the translation process (AL-BI) and (BI-EL) ...... 126
4.6 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice A ...... 132 4.7 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice A ...... 135
4.8 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice D ...... 137
4.9 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice D ...... 138
4.10 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice F ...... 141
4.11 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice F ...... 143
4.12 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice G ...... 146
4.13 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice G ...... 148
4.14 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice I ...... 150
4.15 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice I ...... 152
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5.1 Translation aids used over the phases of translation process ...... 159
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LIST OF FIGURES
No. Title Page
2.1 Toury’s Representation of Holmes’ Map of Translation Studies. 18
2.2 Nord’s Typology of Translation Aids ...... 45
2.3 Holmes’s Model ...... 48
2.4 Hönig’s Model of an Ideal Translation Process ...... 49
2.5 Daniel Gile’s Sequential Model of Translation ...... 52
2.6 Kiraly’s Psycholinguistic Model of Translation Process ...... 53
2.7 Gopfrich’s Translation Competence Model ...... 54
2.8 Volkova’s Discourse and Communication Translation Model ..... 55
2.9 Moghadas & Sharififar’s Model Translation Process for Specific Problems ...... 57
2.10 The Screenshot of Translog-II ...... 68
2.11 Two Linear View Screen Shots of Translog-II ...... 71
2.12 The Screen Shot of the Pause Plot ...... 72
2.13 The Graph Visualizes the Translation Progression ...... 75
2.14 The Conceptual Framework of the Research ...... 83
3.1 Data Analysis Components by Miles, Huberman and Saldana .... 93
4.1 Translog Work Space (translated from AL to BI) ...... 97
4.2 Translog Work Space (translated from BI to EL) ...... 97
4.3 The End of Playing Session of the Student Translators’ Work .... 98
4.4 Screen Recording of Camtasia Studio 9 ...... 99
4.5 The Recording Log of Novice Translator D (AL-BI)...... 108
4.6 The Recording Log of Novice Translator D (BI-EL) ...... 109
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4.7 The Recording Log of Novice Translator A (AL-BI) ...... 110
4.8 The Recording Log of Novice Translator A (BI-EL) ...... 111
4.9 The Recording Log of Novice Translator F (AL-BI) ...... 112
4.10 The Recording Log of Novice Translator G (AL-BI) ...... 113
4.11 The Recording Log of Novice Translator I (AL-BI) ...... 114
4.12 Using News Website in Pre-drafting Phase ...... 117
4.13 Using Blogs Website in Pre-drafting Phase ...... 118
4.14 Screen Recording of Google Translate ...... 120
4.15 The Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process (AL-BI) ...... 124
4.16 The Distribution of Time over the Phases of the Translation Process (BI-EL) ...... 125
4.17 The Comparative Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 128
4.17 The Comparative Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process ...... 128
5.1 The Percentage of Total Pauses Used Translation Aids During Translation Process ...... 161
5.2 The Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process 164
5.3 The Distribution of Time on Translation Tasks (AL-BI) ...... 167
5.4 The Distribution of Time on Translation Tasks (BI-EL) ...... 168
5.5 The Comparison of Distribution of Time on Translation Tasks (AL-BI and BI-EL) ...... 171
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LIST OF APPENDICES
No. Title Page
1. BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 1
2. NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ PROFILE ...... 3
3. PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF AL CONFIRMED BY PENASEHAT ADAT IN ANGKOLA, PADANG 4 SIDIMPUAN ......
4. THE CERTIFICATE OF PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF BI BY UKBI TEST ...... 6
5. THE CERTIFICATE OF PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF EL BY TOEFL TEST ...... 11
6. LINEAR REPRESENTATION OF THE NOVICE TRANSLATION (AL-BI) ...... 16
7. LINEAR REPRESENTATION OF THE NOVICE TRANSLATION (BI-EL) ...... 22
8. RETROSPECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 29
9. THE SOURCE TEXT IN AL ...... 34
10. THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ TRANSLATED TEXT (BI) AS THE SOURCE TEXT IN BI ...... 35
11. THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ TRANSLATED TEXT (EL) ...... 43
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
There have been a lot of theories, models, and procedures introduced by several scholars in order to understand the phenomenon of translation in the last few decades. A foundational statement for the discipline of translation studies was first proposed by James S. Holmes in 1972 (Toury 1995, p.10). He set out to orient the scholarly study of translation, it put forward a conceptual scheme that identified and interrelated many of the things that can be done in translation studies, envisaging an entire future discipline and effectively stimulating work aimed at establishing that discipline. A paramount factor in making Translation
Studies (TS) an autonomous academic discipline is Descriptive Translation
Studies (DTS) which has been a dominant paradigm in TS since the 1980’s
(Scarpa, Musacchio, and Palumbo, 2009, p.32).
Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of DTS: ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program (Cheung 2013). DTS focuses on three areas of research, namely product-oriented (synchronic; diachronic), function-oriented (translation sociology or socio-translation studies), and process- oriented (psychology of translation or psycho-translation studies). This division should not be viewed discretely because in the course of actual research of 1
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translation of the three divisions are interconnected with one another (Toury 1995, p.10). Each of these three area of research orientations has strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, product-oriented research focuses on the work of translation, function-oriented research focuses on the translation function in the socio-cultural situation associated with the target language text. In other words, the object of study leads to the context underlying the birth of a work of translation. Therefore, such research is very much concerned with the history of translation (Sorvali, 1996, p. 24). Process-oriented research find out to uncover cognitive processes or ‘black box’ of the translators.
As the central aim of process research is to “ understand the nature of cognitive processes involved in translating” (Dimitrova, 2010, p. 406), the volume mainly examines cognitive aspects of the translation process. Research on cognitive processes in translation began in the 1980s with the first generation of cognitive researchers almost all of who relied on the ‘think-aloud protocol’ technique in which a subject would 'think aloud' while translating a text.
Their expressed thoughts were analysed by the researcher in an attempt to find out what was going on in the translator’s ‘black box’ in his mind. At that time, the dominant paradigm for understanding the functioning of the brain was to see it essentially as a computer.
Human translation process research analysis the translation behaviour of translators such as properties of reading and text production rhythms, mental memory and search strategies types of textual units that translators focus on, etc.
It investigates the temporal and contextual structure of those activities and describes inter and intra personal variation in terms of translation competence and 2
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translation performance. Over the years, many scholars and researchers have been interested in finding out what happens in translator's mind during the translation process. It is driven by the idea that what goes on in translator’s head while they are translating is crucial to an understanding of translation, and is not derivable solely from an analysis of the final product, the translated text. The latter provides an incomplete and often misleading way into the translation process, hiding both successful strategies and problems.
In pre-computer days in the 1980s, In order to acquire objective data about human translation processes, Krings contributed greatly to our knowledge by transferring procedures used by cognitive psychologists (Ericson and Simon,
1980, 1984) to a translation, asking his subjects to think aloud while translating and instructing them to use different colours when making changes to a text.
In the 1990’s, additional tools like keystroke logging and eye tracking were introduced in an attempt to grasp a deeper understanding of the mental processes involved in translation but the concept of the mind as computer remained the dominant paradigm to obtain the information on pausing and timing in text production (Alves, 2003; Hansen, 2006; Jakobsen, 2006). The program Translog has been designed. Translog can be used to study mental processes were recorded using Translog (Jakobsen, 1999, p.9) keeps a log of all keyboard activity, including mouse actions, while typing translation. So, we can study the typing process itself in real-time as well as all the editing that goes into writing a translation, how much time is spent on what translation tasks, and the connection between time delay and information processing (Jakobsen, 1999, p.10). 3
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The old paradigm of translation research leads to a review of a product or a work of translation. Researchers who follow this paradigm view that the focus of research translation is the product (Toury, 1980) is not the process of translation.
The view is based on the fact that data in the form of product or work of translation can be obtained easily and lingual units that can be studied vary, ranging from word level to textual level. Meanwhile, the new paradigm of translation research sees the process of translation as the main object of translation research studies (Hatim and Mason, 1990). As a result, researchers in this field are concerned with processes rather than products. The reason is because the product is essentially the result of the translation process and the quality of a work of translation is largely determined by translation process. Therefore, the translation aspect as decision makers in the translation process becomes very important and a top priority of the research. They express lack of aims in product research because statements about the quality of translation, translation and translation approaches tend to be subjective and speculative. Such a study, they argued, would not be able to explain the phenomenon of holistic translation.
Both research paradigms described above have strengths and weaknesses.
The strength of product research lies in its ability to provide input regarding the quality of translation to the target text reader. The disadvantages lie in statements about the quality of translation, translation strategies and translation approaches that tend to be subjective and speculative because the study of translated text is not related to the translator's background and the decision-making process undertaken by the translator. The strength of the research process lies in its ability to uncover the black box or cognitive process of the translator, which is seen as 4
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an indicator of the decision-making process by which the translator performs a translation work. The weakness lies in the side of the methodology. Translation situations are deliberately created and controlled entirely by researchers.
Such a situation clearly does not reflect the natural situation of actual translation activities (Nababan, 2007).
Commonly, in Indonesia the research focus on translation process is not as popular as translation product. However, in other countries there has been an increasing interest in studying the translation process since the mid 1980’s
(Li, 2004, p. 301). Translation process research has been ongoing for approximately thirty years now, but the field has grown significantly in the last decade or so, as evidenced by the number of recent publications dedicated to the topic (see, for example, the volumes by Hansen 1999; Alves 2003; Göpferich
2008; Mees et al. 2010; Shreve and Angelone 2010).
With the shift of focus to the translation process, the translators also become more important in the focus of research. Wills (2004, p.3) says,
“A translator is supposed to be a bridge between linguistic and cultural communities, but at the same time is different from both the source text author and the target text reader (ship). It is stated that there are two important role of translators, language and culture. Guo (2012) describes culture as patterns of customs, traditions, social habits and values ‘the entire ways of a people’.
In a similar to Vermeer (1992, p. 37) refers to culture as ‘the totality of norms, conventions and opinions which determine the behaviour of members of society, and all results of this behaviour’. Language is included in, and affected by these
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results, and it is the establishment of this link between language and culture that was central to the developments undergone by DTS.
There have been many researches on translation process but only some of them made a great contribution to this research and treated differently as what the writer did. Each of the research described above have strengths and weaknesses.
The research of Dechert and Sandrock (1984) for the simplicity of their study based on the time spent translating a simple text in which did not present any difficulty for the translators. However, the strength of this research used a cultural text (mangkobar text) that presented several difficulties of terminological problems made it very difficult to translate, such as metaphor, puns, etc. This was also purposed to preserve and maintain the Angkola culture as local wisdom, as what Sibarani (2012) said that local wisdom is seen as a tool used to show how people’s living system maintain and preserve nature and surrounding environment that is the lifebood of their life. Since this research used a cultural text, it also made a significant different from between this current research and Sofyan’s
(2017) research in which one of his research questions was about the dominant process used by the student translators in translating a text from EL into BI.
Another study was done by Jakobsen (2002) gave contribution to this research. Jakobsen was interested in detecting differences in the distribution of time over the phases of translation in the groups of four non-professional (students of translation) and four professionals. All were native speakers of Danish, but
Jakobsen introduced a new variable making them translate two texts into L1 and two texts into L2. Meanwhile, this research has two strengths: the first was it took native speakers of Angkola Language (AL) and Bahasa Indonesia (BI). 6
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The second, it was introduced a new variable one cultural text into L1 (AL), L2
(BI), and L3 (EL) by taking them into two translation processes: from L1(AL) into L2 (BI) , and L2 (BI) into L3 (EL).
Many previous researches involved the different characters between professional and students (non professional) or only student translators in translation process as their subjects in their research (Rosa, 2017; Carl, Lacruz,
Yamada, and Aizawa, 2016; Sofyan, 2013; Gopferich, 2010; Jakobsen, 2002).
Most of their research focused on the difference between operational pauses taken by student and professional translators in phases of translation process. On the other hand, this research focused on the translation process involving novice translator (semi professional) behaviour which hoped would provide some kind of new information for next research.
Since the role of translators can not be ignored in translation process, this study tries to find out what is happening in the minds of translators when dealing with cultural text in the translation process, included the study on types of translation process, distribution of time and tasks over the translation phases, and the use of translation aids. The researcher asked the translator to translate a text.
The resulting translated text is subsequently evaluated. The results of this evaluation provide an overview of the competence of the translator. With advances in technology, video cameras can also be used to collect data related to translator behavior such as the type of dictionary used and the frequency of dictionary use (Nababan, 2004).
Basically human beings use languae as the most important means of communication, and language is influenced by people’s culture and beliefs 7
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whether consciously or unconsciously. It relates that translation process is largely viewed as “communication of translation” (Basylev, 2008). Therefore translation involves both language and culture. Nida and Taber (1969, p. 13) took into consideration the cultural elements by stating that the role of a translator is to facilitate the transfer of the message, meaning, and cultural elements from one language into another and create an equivalent response to the receivers. He also suggested that the message from the source language is embedded by a cultural context. Some factors should be taken into consideration when translating, for example Mounin (1976) suggests that to translate is not only to respect the structural or linguistic meaning of a text but also the global meaning of the message including the environment , the period, and the culture, etc.
In her preliminary research, the writer observed and noticed that some of
the students did not feel satisfied on their translated text and did not have self
confidence to do the translation even though the SL was their mother tongue.
And the writer found some of them taking pauses for a long time to solve their
problems by opening dictionaries, reference books, and search for online sources.
But some students took pauses for not doing anything; neither did they write nor
did they open dictionaries or reference books. It reveals that they only rely on
their previous or background knowledge to solve their problems on translation
tasks. In addition, the writer also observed that most of the students did not
follow the phase of translation process. They spent more their time in drafting
phase, and spent a little time in post-drafting. In other words, they just focused on
how they wrote the draft in translation process and also did the revision also in
this phase. This fact strengthens the urgency of research on translation process 8
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and moreover translate the cultural text with the custom language. So, this
observation reveals that cultural text can not be regarded as the easy task to be
translated even though it is done by the native speaker of AL. Mangkobar (as a
cultural text used) is considered as the artistic activity in the procession of
Angkola wedding ceremony, it uses artistic language function, which is
deliberately using a distinctive style, word choice, and appropriate intonation
(Parinduri, 2013, p. 13).
As a typology of translation aids, which Britta Nord created in 1997 for her study on professional translators using translation aids as synonym for reference tools, which are external representations of knowledge used by a translator to complement his/ her internal or implicit knowledge. It was also used by some researchers in their studies including Risku (2013), Reinhardt
(2011), Pym (2013), Kudashev and Pasanen (2005). As Risku (2013, p. 2-4) states in her article, Knowledge management and translation, that it is crucial for translators to be able to recall both implicit and explicit knowledge in order to manage the act of translation. She says that “translators are dependent on their own skills, intelectual capacity and creativity, on constantly expanding their knowledge, and on the availability of technological and social knowledge resources when seeking solutions to the problems posed by specific translation.”
She identifies translators as knowledge experts claiming that translation is knowledge work based on their shared feature of lacking standardised procedures that, if followed would ensure success. Although translators may employ translation strategies learned in translator training and have their own way of working, the flow of translation process remains dependent on the demands and 9
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requirements imposed on the translator by the source text and the specifics of the commission at hand.
Furthermore, translation process reveals the mental processes taking place during they are translating by different order phases in the factors that can influence it and in translator’s reactions to those factors. In other words, different translators may go through different process depend on which process they feel more comfortable in doing the tasks. In doing so, the writer are concerned not only getting new insights into the process, but also in improving existing practice.
Applying different types of translation process, this leads the writer to consider the distribution of time spent on each of the three translation phases: pre-drafting, drafting, and post-drafting, the translation tasks performed and also the use of translation aids during the translation process. Based on Rosa’s findings a well- managed translation process can be the indicator of a good translation product
(2017).
1.2 Identification of the Problem
The area of DTS is divided into product, process, and function-oriented.
Process-oriented DTS, which interests the researcher most and which are normally most empirically and experimentally-oriented. Process-oriented DTS focused on the translator’s ‘black box’ in other words describing the mental process of a translator which relied on the ‘think-aloud protocols’ technique in which a translator would 'think aloud' while translating a text and record in recordings are made to verbalize a translation process. When investigating translation process, it is important to bear in mind that translation is also a profession and that 10
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translators work in a variety of settings: as freelancers at home, as in-house translators in translation agencies, in companies and government institutions.
Therefore, as Vienne observes, need to “focus on real-world professional translation as enabling intercultural communication instead of translation as a means of linguistic comparison or language learning” (Vienne, 1994, p. 524).
In relation to these area, this research focused on the area of process- oriented descriptive translation studies as this research verbalized the recordings and composed all the activities done by novice translators while translating the text, finding how the process undertaken during translation.
1.3 Research Questions
Based on the background of the problems previously stated to a set of interrelated research questions are formulated as follows:
1. What types of translation process is dominantly used by novice translators
while translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI and BI to EL?
2. How are translation aids used by the novice translators while translating
Mangkobar text from AL to BI and BI to EL?
3. How do the novice translators distribute their time over the phases of
translation process while translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI and BI
to EL?
4. How do the novice translators distribute the translation tasks over the
phases of translation process while translating Mangkobar text from AL to
BI and BI to EL?
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1.4 Purposes of the Study
There are three purposes of the study that were achieved by the researcher.
They are :
1. To determine the types of translation process is dominantly used by the
novice translators while translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI and BI
to EL.
2. To find out how the translation aids are used by the novice translators
while translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI and BI to EL.
3. To find out how the novice translators distribute their time over the phases
of translation process while translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI and
BI to EL.
4. To find out how the novice translators distribute the translation tasks over
the phases of translation process while translating Mangkobar text from
AL to BI and BI to EL.
1.5 Significance of the Study
Theoretically, this study is very useful as the contribution to translation theories, especially descriptive translation studies, concerning the cultural translation in translation process. Practically, this study gives and leads to features of processes that lead to success in translation performance. Knowledge of successful processes is valuable in translator training and in any efforts aimed at reforming existing to be professional practices.
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1.6 Scope of the Study
This study focused primarily on the process-oriented descriptive translation study not the product-oriented which has been studied by Jensen, 2001;
Krings, 2001; Hansen, 2002; Jakobsen, 2007. It is informed by novice translator as the focus of the pedagogical approaches in translation (Tirkkonen-Condit,
1990/1992; Pontinen and Romanov, 1989; Jääskeläinen, 1990; Kussmaul &
Condit, 1995; Alves, 2006). It emphasizes the importance of factors contributing to the features of translator’s performance, and successful processes, strategic behaviour.
The features of translator’s performance and successful processes can be investigated by examining the processes undertaken by the novice translators.
In this study, a Mangkobar text was translated into two processes, firstly, it was translated from Angkola Language to Bahasa Indonesia (Mother tongue – First language); secondly, translated from Bahasa Indonesia to English (First language-
Second language). The process of translation was defined by three phases suggested by Mossop (2000) and Gouadec (2007) that included a) Pre-translation or pre-drafting phase b) translation or drafting phase c) post-translation or post- drafting phase which was followed by the translation tasks suggested by Mossop
(2000) and Jakobsen (2003) including production, documentation and revision over the phases and complemented by using keystroke logging and screen recording log files, and retrospective questionnaires. The translation process was assessed in terms of how the work was planned, performed, and revised.
This study was about discovering the novice’s preferences and tendencies, addressing their needs in translation performance. 13
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1.7 Structure of the Study
This dissertation is organized as follows: Chapter 1, introduction; it clarifies the background of what to be done, presents the research questions, describes the purpose of the study. It is also explain what, how, and why the study needs to be performed. Chapter 2 gives review of the relevant literature, theoretical approaches to the translation process, especially the ones that developed in order to explain the empirical findings of the last twenty years.
Special sections are devoted to the phases of the translation process, translation task, and translation aids. Chapter 3 presents the methodology of the research including the participants of the research. Chapter 4 and 5 present data analysis with the purpose of providing the answers to each of the questions in the formulation of the problem. Chapter 6 presents the research findings and disscussions. Chapter 7 conclusions and recommendations draw conclusions and discuss the implications for further research.
1.8 Definition of the Key Term
To avoid ambiguous meaning about the technical terms used in this research, those terms are as follows :
1. Translation Process is an activity while doing the translation that includes
pre-drafting phase, drafting phase, and post-drafting phase.
2. Pre-drafting phase is the activity in translation process in which
a translator spends time to read the ST in order to understand and
comprehend it.
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3. Drafting phase is the activity in translation process that starts with the
typing of the first character of the keystroke and ends when a translator
sets the final punctuation mark or equivalent keystroke.
4. Post-drafting phase is the activity in translation process in which
a translator revises the first draft he/she has made in the drafting phase.
5. Novice translator is a person who has acquired a methodological basis and
a certain amount of translation competence but still faces a number of
problems while translating, and it is also called semi-professional
translator.
6. Cognitive processes are the set of all mental abilities related to attention,
working memory, remembering, producing and understanding language,
problem solving, decision making, recognition, evaluation ,comprehension,
etc.
7. Pause is time delay taken by novice translators during text production in
translation process that correlates with cognitive processing.
8. Translation task is the items while doing the translation that includes
processing, production, revision, technical, production + revision,
production + technical revision, documentation, technical revision.
9. Learning style is the expression of personality specifically in the learning
situation.
10. TAPs are written transcripts of the recordings of novice translators’
performances while doing translation task.
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11. Translog is a keylog software program that allows a researcher to record or
logs all the keystrokes done by the novice translators on computer
keyboard while translating (developed by Arnt Lykke Jakobsen in 1995).
12. Camtasia is a screen recording software used to record screen activities
done by novice translators directly via screencast.
13. Translation aids is a more detailed division of the information sources used
by a translator as synonym for reference tools.
14. Mangkobar is a cultural event conveyed verbally and non-verbally, here
the writer has transcribed it to a written text. In the writer’s opinion, the
suprasegmental elements contained in the oral language are not so relevant
to the aim of the translation. Mangkobar text is a classic cultural text in
Angkola custom that delivers good advice.
15. Angkola culture is the culture in Angkola community as found in Padang
Sidimpuan, South Tapanuli, North Sumatera.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Translation Studies
Hatim and Munday (2004, p.6) define translation as “the process of transferring a written text from source language (SL) to target language (TL)”.
In this definition they do not explicitly express that the object being transferred is meaning or message. They emphasis on translation as a process. It also implies that the process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST ) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL ) into a written text (the target text or TT ) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL ).
In addition, Robinson (1997, p.49) has proposed that "translation is an intelligent activity involving complex processes of conscious and unconscious learning." The researcher agrees with his proposal and also with the statement that translation is basically a problem-solving task. Robinson (1997, p.51) suggests that "translation is an intelligent activity, requiring creative problem-solving in novel, textual, social, and cultural conditions." A translator should know that translation is a learning activity and it involves the use of the main direct
(memory, cognitive and compensation) and indirect (metacognitive, affective and social) language-learning strategies proposed by Oxford (1990).
In the last three decades of the 20th century Translation Studies started to become an autonomous science. James Holmes, an American poet and translator coined the term Translation Studies for this new scientific approach. 17
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He believes that the main intention of Translation Studies is thedevelopment of a full and comprehensive translation theory (Venuti, 2004, p. 185). Translation studies is the new academic discipline related to the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. By its nature it is multilingual and also interdisciplanary, encompasing the languages, linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, and a range of types of cultural studies.
James Holmes considered as a major step in the scholarly study of translation. It provides a theoretical system that both recognises and unifies many aspects of translation studies. It predicts an entire future dicipline and effectively encourage work aimed at establishing that discipline. used to judge translations for so long a time. Holmes grouped and mapped scientifically, and arranged his topics hierarchically.
Figure 2.1 Based on Toury’s representation of Holmes’ map of translation studies (Toury 1995, p. 10)
Many researches in translation studies has been driven by pedagogical concerns. In addition, research funding has become more increasingly depend on the ability of applicants to predict, convincingly, a significant impact of their projects both the research and the wider community (Millán, C., and Bartrina, F. 18
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2013, p.32). Therefore, research in translation studies, as in many other disciplines, has become increasingly application-driven.
2.1.1 Pure Translation Studies
In Holmes’s explanations of this framework (Holmes 1988, pp.184-90), the objectives of the ‘pure’ areas of research are: (1) the description of the phenomena of translation; and (2) the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomena (translation theory).
2.1.1.1 Theoretical Translation Studies
The result of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or more likely partial theories of translation restricted according to the subdivisions in figure 2.1. By general, Holmes is referring to those writings that seek to describe or account for every type of translation and to make generalizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole (one example would be Toury’s laws of translation). Theoretical studies are restricted according tothe parameters (medium, text-type, etc.).(i) Medium- restricted theories subdivide according to translation by machine and humans, with further subdivisions according to whether the machine/ computer is working alone (automatic machine translation) or as an aid to the human translator (computer-assisted translation), to whether the human translation is written or spoken and to whether spoken translation (interpreting) is consecutive or simultaneous. (ii) Area-restricted theories are restricted to specific languages or groups of languages and/or cultures. Holmes notes that language-restricted theories are closely related to work in contrastive
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linguistics and stylistics. (iii) Rank-restricted theories are linguistic theories that have been restricted to a level of (normally) the word or sentence. At the time
Holmes was writing, there was already a trend towards text linguistics. (iv) Text- type restricted theories look at discourse types and genres; e.g. literary, business and technical translation.
Text-type approaches came to prominence with the work of Reiss and
Vermeer, among others, in the 1970s. (v) The term time-restricted is self- explanatory, referring to theories and translations limited according to specific time frames and periods. The history of translation falls into this category. (vi)
Problem-restricted theories can refer to certain problems such as equivalence
(a key issue that came to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s) or to a wider question of whether so-called ‘universals’ of translation exist. Partial is referring to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explained and predicted called Translation Theory (TTh).
2.1.1.2 Descriptive Translation Studies
Descriptive branch of ‘pure’ research in Holmes’s map is known as descriptive translation studies (DTS). It may examine: (i) the product; (ii) the function; and (iii) the process (See Toury, 1995, p. 10)
(i) Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations. This can involve the description or analysis of a single ST–TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST (into one or more TLs). These smaller- scale studies can build up into a larger body of translation analysis looking at a specific period, language or text/ discourse type. Holmes (2004, p.185) foresees that ‘one of the eventual goals of product-oriented DTS might 20
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possibly be a general history of translations–however ambitious such a goal might sound at this time’.
(ii) By function-oriented DTS, Holmes (2004) means the description of the ‘function of translations in the recipient sociocultural situation: it is a study of contexts rather than texts’. Issues that may be researched include which texts were translated when and where, and the influences that were exerted. Holmes’ terms this area ‘socio-translation studies’. Nowadays it would probably be called the sociology and historiography of translation. It was less researched at the time of Holmes’s paper but is more popular in current work on translation studies.
(iii) Process-oriented DTS in Holmes’s framework is concerned with the psychology of translation, i.e. it is concerned with trying to find out what happens in the mind of a translator. Work from a cognitive perspective includes think-aloud protocols (where recordings are made of translators’ verbalization of the translation process as they translate). More recent research using new technologies such as eye-tracking shows how this area is now being more systematically analyzed.
Theoretical, descriptive and applied areas of translation studies influence one another, but Holme’s devisions represent a flexible separation of the various areas of translation studies, which have very often been confused, thus pointing to the great potential of the discipline.
Finally, the researcher found herself in the descriptive area, process oriented which interest her most and which are normally most empirically and experimentally oriented, gained particular popularity in Germany and Finland: 21
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the translator’s ‘black box’ has been studied by Krings (1986), Lörscher
(1991), Jääkeläinen (1989) and many others with the help of think aloud protocols
(TAPs).
2.1.2 Applied Translation Studies
Applied Translation Studies (ATS), the performative branch of translation
Studies (TS), is concerned with translation activities that address a particular goal or specific (group of) final user (s) and that imply doing something with, for or about translation according to some standard of quality. ATS designates fields which partlybelong in TS and partly in other disciplines (Gambier. Y, Doorslaer,
2010, p.7).
The applied branch of Holmes’s framework concerns applications to the practice of translation: (i) translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design; (ii) translation aids: such as dictionaries and grammars; (iii) translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student translations and the reviews of the published translations
(Holmes, 2004, p. 182).
2.2 Pauses in Translation Process
Pause is considered to signal cognitive effort in various kinds of complex processes involving planning and problem solving: “The more the delays, the more cognitive operations are required by the output” (Butterworth, 1980, p. 156).
Pause analysis has been a frequently applied methodology in studies focusing on spoken or written language production, for example in the fields of second language acquisition, writing research, and translation. To mention some recent examples, a pause can be taken to measure the speech fluency of second language 22
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learners (Kapranov, 2013), and to study differences between the monolingual writing process and translation (Immonen, 2011). It should be noted, however, that although pauses can indicate cognitive processing, they can be influenced by a number of other factors, and with current data collection methodologies it is virtually impossible to identify the specific motivation of a particular pause
(O’Brien, 2006, p. 7).
Pauses can be the result of cognitive processing, but can also manifest from a distraction that is unrelated to the text production process. To mitigate for this potential confound, researchers may find it worthwhile to look at pauses in conjunction with participant behaviour that immediately precedes or follows the observed pause (Schilperoord, 2001, p. 61). Despite the lack of understanding as to what motivates a specific pause during text production, researchers have adopted pauses as an indicator of cognitive effort in translation as well.
Translation can be regarded as a complex cognitive task that involves planning and problem solving linked with interlingual and intercultural processing. This cognitive effort may manifest, among other possibilities, as a pause in the translation process. Consequently, a pause’s potential as an indicator of problem recognition and problem solving makes it relevant to various purposes within translation process research.
New insight into the translation process was made possible by the adoption of keylogging programs; one such example is that of Translog, which was developed by Jakobsen and Schou (1999). They define Translog is a program that allows researchers to record a variety of writing tasks done on a computer keyboard without interfering with the writing process. The program 23
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registers all keystrokes, changes, deletions, additions, cut-and-paste operations, and cursor movements during the writing process. Translog also records time stamps, i.e., logs information about the exact time at which each keystroke operation is made thus enabling a numerical representation of the pause duration that occurs when typing. As opposed to TAP data, pauses in Translog data refer to breaks in the writing process, or to be more exact, in keystroke operation.
Translog enables the study of pauses as short as 0.01 seconds, although most studies that have used Translog to collect data have set a pause value between 1–5 seconds. The minimum length of pause can be defined in the settings in order to exclude shorter intervals from the automatically produced numerical data.
Data collection with various screen recording software such as Camtasia offers further insight into the translation process (www.techsmith.com) and provides information about the pauses that the user makes. Screen recording programs records the translation process of the participant as a video file that shows the process exactly as it takes place on the screen. The method does allow for pause analysis, but to a limited extent; unlike Translog, Camtasia does not provide any numerical data, and therefore the timing of pauses must be done manually by the researcher after data collection, using the player’s pause function along with the program timer running on seconds. Similar to Translog, pauses in screen recording data refer to breaks in the writing process, but the determination of a pause is based on moments during which nothing takes place on the screen. Therefore, pauses in the two kinds of data cannot be considered identical, since screen recording data provides information that is not present in
Translog data, such as information search and dictionary look- ups. Consequently, 24
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the researcher has access to additional information that may be a glimpse into the problem-solving process.
In Angelone (2010, p.20), who uses a two-pronged approach via think- aloud protocols and screen recording in order to account for translators’ uncertainty management during the translation process, a pause has to do with
“non-articulated problem recognition behaviour. That is, Angelone notes pauses in screen recording data, such as scrolling over a given ST unit (with or without synchronous articulation) and repositioning the cursor, and considers “extended pauses” of more than 3 seconds in the screen recording data as problem indicators
(ibid. 36). Contrary to Göpferich, Angelone does not pay attention to pauses in the think-aloud data: only direct or indirect articulations are considered problem recognition in the TAP data. In Krings’ study, only pauses that are not filled by writing are taken into account. Unfilled pauses are considered as secondary problem indicators, meaning that they imply a problem in the process if at least one other problem indicator can be identified, whereas primary problem indicators are sufficient for problem identification. For example, if a subject does not utter anything for more than three seconds and this pause is followed by a sigh (another secondary problem indicator), the participant is, according to Krings (1986), experiencing a problem.
Jääskeläinen (1999, p. 166) also regards a pause as a secondary problem indicator, which she, however, decides to exclude from the data analysis since
“their functions seem to be highly idiosyncratic” and therefore, “would be difficult to determine how many secondary indicators would be required for identifying marked processing. In addition, Dragsted (2004, 2005) the pause length is the 25
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decisive factor in her study on cognitive segmentation patterns of experts and novices. Dragsted (2005, p. 53) states that “comparing all subjects on the basis of the same pause unit value would amount to comparing the motion of a turtle and a leopard as if they both belonged to the same species of animals.” This is based on the assumption that participants think and work at different paces and have different text production speeds: for a fast typist and processor, a pause of
1.5 seconds, for example, may signal hesitation or another segment boundary, whereas a slower text producer may typically break between words at her typing speed. Thus, in order to investigate cognitive processing instead of typing skills,
Dragsted applies different pause values to individual subjects depending on their total production speed, which then enables her to make observations on segmentation that are independent of individual differences. Without going into details of the procedure itself, the resulting pause unit values range from approximately 1 second to approximately 2 seconds.
In Immonen (2006, pp. 313-315) the significant value is set as low as 0.01 seconds. Immonen’s aim is to find out whether translation as a writing process differs from a monolingual writing process, and if so, in which aspects.
Immonen focuses on pause qualities in fluent production, which refers to typing uninterrupted by corrections, deletions or cursor movements. By doing so, she seeks answers to questions such as how pause time is distributed in fluent text production and fluent translation, and how this distribution may differ in text production and translation. By setting the values as low as possible in the
Translog program, she can detect even the most miniature yet statistically significant differences. 26
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In this research, with the help of a keylogging program, Translog, the lenght of pauses is determined as low as 0,01 seconds as the lenght of pause duration that has been mentioned by Immonen (2006).
2.3 Think Aloud Protocols in Translation Process
The analysis of think-aloud protocols (TAPs) in translation studies began in Europe in the late 1980s. It was felt that in order to complement the hitherto predominatly deductive and often also normative models of the translation process, empirical and inductive methods should be developed. The models presented until then usually described what ideally happened or rather with pedagogical aim- what should happen, in translating. It was people like Krings,
Könings an Lörscher in Germany, Dechert and Sandrock in Britain, Jääskeläinen and Tirkkonen-Condit in Finland.
What was needed was a means to find out what goes on in translator’s mind, a means to get a glimpse into the “black box” as it were. In the field of psyhology, a method had been developed by Claperede (1932) and Duncker
(1935) in connection with introspection (Börsch, 1986, p. 198), which was taken up by Ericsson and Simon (1984) and applied to the translation process by the reserachers mentioned above. In these think-aloud experiments, as they are called, subjects are asked to utter everything that goes on in their minds while they solve a task, in this case when they translate the text. These utterences are tape-recorded or videotaped and then further transcribed into think-aloud protocols, which are then analyzed from a variety of viewpoints and still predominantly the main tool for gaining access to the translation process (Jääskeläinen, 2009, p.290). It is
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implied that TAPs is as monologue protocols because the participants are asked to talk themselves during the translation process. That is the reason why this research is applied the monologue protocols in data collection because according to Hansen
(2002, p. 89) found that monologue protocols contained a large amount of trivial data.
In general, there are some serious doubts as to its correlation with the real mental process going on in a translator’s mind. Some researchers believe that the only thing we can get access to with the help of TAPs are intermediate products of these processes or mental content, comprising among other things prior experinece, focus of attention at any given moment, attitudes, emotions, and plans
(Nisbet and Wilson, 1977). Toury (1995, p. 235) also cautions that it would be wrong to maintain that thinking aloud provides any direct access to the mental process. But even though think aloud protocols should not be taken as direct reflections of thought process they can be regarded as data which are correlated with underlying thouhgt process. Also, Ericson and Simon’s assumption that the concurrent verbalization does not interfere with the cognitive process (1984, p. 78) is quite disputable. Jakobsen (2003) demonstrated that the use of concurrent TAPs results in a slow-down (by about 25%) and break down of the cognitive processes.
One solution to this problem would be the use of retrospective TAPs, which was also suggested in Ericson and Simon’s survey. Proponents of this method (Hansen, 1999; Alves, 2003; Jakobsen, 2003; Buchweitz and Alves, 2006) argue that it presents an alternative for the studies of cognitive processes in translation (Buchweitz and Alves, 2006, p. 243). Of course, the dilemma remains: retsrospective TAPs afford reports that are better structured, and that allow the 28
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participant to better report inferential thinking (Alves, 2003, p. 76); on the other hand, there is certain risk of embellishment and elaboration (Ericson & Simon,
1984). But now, the problem can be minimized with the use of Translog as the keylogging tool and Camtasia as the screen recording tool, which permit to re- play the whole translation process. In this research, the researcher use these two tools to record and videotape the whole translation process done by the participants of the research.
2.4 Translation Processes
Defining translation process is not an easy task. Malmkjaer (2000, p. 163) states that: Translation process may be used to designate a variety of phenomena, from the cognitive processes activated during translating, both conscious and unconscious, to the more ‘physical’ process which begins when a client contacts a translation bureau and ends when that person declares satisfaction with the product produced as the final result of the initial inquiry.
Both aspts are of equal importance for translation studies. It is found that the methodology and difficulties are differ fundamentally. As example Sager’s
(1993) process model related to the physical sense of the translation process :
Specification Preparation Translation Evaluation
In the psycholinguistic sense, the translation process can be described as follows :
Input Black box Output
House (2000, p. 150) emphasizes that “we are dealing here not with an isolable process but rather with a set of processes, as a complex series of problem solving and decision making processes”. These processes have been described and classified in various ways. An example of a simple enumeration of
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translation tasks is Breedvald’s (2002) list of activities that translators perform during the translation process, such as reading ST; commenting ST; evaluating
ST; process planning; realizing translation problem; producing/ formulating TT; writing TT; reading TT; evaluating TT.
In process-oriented research describes the processes taking place in the translator’s mind during translating the text. As suggested by Schubert (2009), translation process research tends to focus either on external or internal processes
(also Göpferich, 2008, p. 1). The external process may be defined as “everything in the translation process which can be observed by another person, which he also refers to as the translation workflow (Schubert, 2009, p. 19). Due to this, mental processes are often referred to as the translator’s black box. Similarly,
Breedveld (2002, p. 9) describes translation not only as mental process but also as a social process in which different actors interact and influence the text in production. Example of external process , observable process data are translator’s use of tools or their consultation with colleagues and clients. Internal translation process concern mental activities, which can not be studied directly and therefore tend to be studied by methods that are borrowed from cognitive psychology, especially verbalizing methods. Internal processes such as thoughts, feelings, beliefs, etc, may be further subivided into conscious and non conscious
(subconscious) activities. Following Göpferich (2008, p.1) refers to conscious internal activities as cognitive processes. Meanwhile according to Hutchins (2000, p.1), cognitive processes are involved in memory, decision making, inferencing, reasoning and learning.
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According to Göpferich (2008, p. 1) mental processes can be divided into conscious and subconscious processes. The former are referred to as cognitive processes, which with a view on the individual translator constitute the central aim of translation process research (Dimitrova, 2010, p. 406). The others processes are going to explain below.
2.4.1 Cognitive Process
Following cognitive science, cognitive processes are processes that are involved in memory, decision making, inference, reasoning, learning, and so on
(Hutchins, 2000, p. 1). Hence, cognitive translation process studies contribute to the knowledge of how the translator’s mind functions when performing the complex task of translation (Risku, 2010, p. 94). Viewing translation as a writing activity, cognitive translation processes may be categorizeded as belonging to one of three phases being transformed under the influence of a series of information processes: (1) planning, (2) drafting and (3) post- drafting (Jakobsen, 2003). The phases are listed in a linear way, but as Breedvald (2002, p. 93f.) notes, the process as a whole should be seen as a recursive and reiterative process, in which different sub-processes do not occur in a fixed order, but are dominant at different moments throughout the processes.
Taking into account that cognitive processes are determined partly by external processes, the latest trend in cognitive science is to no longer see information processing as an activity taking place exclusively inside the individual human’s mind, but as interplay between human mind, body and situation/environment. The primary concern of the so-called Situated, Embodied Cognition paradigm is the fact that the individual and the present environment form an integral part of the processes of thought and behavior (Risku, 2010, p. 99). In effect, it is assumed that humans also think by carrying out physical, epistemic actions, ordering and reordering the environment and changing their 31
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focus of perception and attention through eye and body movements (Risku, 2010, p. 100). According to Risku (2010, p. 103), any attempts to explain translation by describing processes in the mind of an individual alone are bound to fail. What we need to do is to combine investigations on what happens in a translator’s mind with what happens elsewhere, e.g. in translators’ hands, in their computers, on their desks, in their work environment and in their dialogues and interactions with their collaboration partners. In other words, we need to focus on the relationship between the mind, the body, artifacts, and the social environment. The cognitive relationship between humans and artifacts is highlighted in the Distributed
Cognition paradigm (Hutchins 2000), which consider cognition as a distributed phenomenon across individuals and across internal and external representations, which are termed artifacts. According to Hutchins, artifacts are defined as things that make humans smarter and are parts of a distributed cognitive process
(Christensen, 2011, p. 139).
2.4.2 Metacognitive Process
As suggested by Göpferich (2008, p.1), the ability to reflect on one’s own mental processes may be described as metacognition. Broadly defined, metacognition is any knowledge or cognitive process that refers to monitoring and controlling any aspect of cognition, or simply, thinking about cognition.
Metacognition usually precedes or follows a cognitive activity. However, they are closely intertwined, because they may overlap during processing. It is worth noting that also internal and external processes are interrelated. Internal processes take place within external workflows (Schubert 2009, p. 19), which means that
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internal processes are influenced by external processes. In other words, external processes guide, constrain, and even determine cognitive behavior (Zhang 1997, p. 180). Also translators’ observable actions must be expected to have a counterpart in translators’ internal processes (Christensen, 2011, p. 149).
2.4.3 Social-Affective Process
According to Cohen et al (1996, p. 3) the translation processes are derived from two separated strategies. Social strategies include the actions that learners select for interacting with other learners, a teacher, or with native speakers , for example asking questions for clarifications, helping fellow student to complete a task, or cooperating with others, creating cultural awareness can be used concerning these strategies (Oxford, 1990, pp. 18-21). By this strategy, it is indicated that translator can work well in translation process if accompanied by other people for assistance.
Affective strategies are learning strategies concerned with managing and controlling the motivation, emotions and attitudes towards learning. Techniques such as developing a positive attitude towards language learning, writing down or sharing feelings experienced in language learning, taking risks, doing relaxation-oriented activities can be used concerning these strategies (O’Malley &
Chamot, 1990, pp. 3-4). Brown (1987, pp. 93-4) says that as to the socio-affective strategies, it can stated that they are related with social mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socio affective strategies. According PACTE (2003, p. 59) social-affective is predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation
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resources and information and communication technologies applied to translation
(dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic corpora, search enginess, etc).
In conclusion, the three strategies in translation process are applied depending the translator’s competence. Even though, some translators are interwined, there may be a certain strategy through which the translator can work well during the translation process.
2.5 Phases of Translation Process
The translation process, in a broader sense, is a series of translating activities involving several phases. Process-oriented translation research went through several phases which were informed not only by the changes in translation practice but also by more scientific methods which allowed “more systematic descriptions and accounts” of this practice (Hurtado Albir, 2015, p. 6). Some researchers such as (Krings 1986; Mossop 2000; Jensen 2001; Jakobsen 2002;
Asadi and Seguinot 2005; Goudec 2007) have divided production of translation into various phases, and it was more structured view of the process.
Krings (1986, pp. 186-187) divides the translation process into three phases. They are: the first phase is Vorlauf, the prepatory and comes before the beginning of translating. During this phase, translators read the text and make note of possible problems. During the second phase, Hauptlauf, where translators produce the translation performing various actions, such as they produce the text of translation, consult to dictionaries and correct their translations. Finally, the
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third phase, Nachlauf, is dedicated to reading through the target text and trying to improve it.
Jensen (2001, pp. 98-99) uses the same division but gives different names to the phases. This is motivated first by the fact that her work is written and
English and the use of German names could pose some problems to those readers who do not speak this language. Secondly, she wants the terminology to coincide to some extent with Bereiter and Scardamalia’s (1987) whose models of
Knowledge Telling and Knowledge Transforming Jensen bases theoretical framework for her research) notion of start-up time. Jensen (2001, p. 99) distinguishes three phases (to be able to delimit the phases which used Translog and TAPs) :
1. Start-up time, is translators set up goals for the task and plans ahead. During this phase, the translators may form a mental representation of the text to be translated by reading the source text and analyzing it for problems. 2. The writing phase, is the first version of the translation actually written. 3. The revision phase, is the target text may be compared to the source text and further modified or improved. Each stage corresponds to what Jakobsen (2002) calls: 1. Pre-drafting
(start-up), 2. Drafting (writing phase), and 3. Post-drafting (revision phase), respectively. The first stage refers to all operations prior to the actual 'translating', including preparation of the material, pre-reading of the text, terminology searches to obtain key words in the source text, etc. The second, 'transfer' or ‘drafting’, is the core activity of translation, shifting to another language-culture combination.
The third, revision phase, is related to editing and corrections that are to be made to meet the client's quality requirements. 35
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According to Gouadec (2007, p. 12) Pre-translation includes anything that takes place up to the moment the translator actually receives the material for translation, and post-translation covers all activities that follow the delivery of the translated material (ibid.). In the words of Mossop (2000, p. 40) there are no systemic observations or even proceed when they translate. They are :
1. Pre-drafting (before sentence by sentence drafting begins)
2. Drafting
3. Post-drafting (after sentence by sentence drafting is complete)
Mossop describes the process of translation as a process consisting five tasks performed over three phases of translation production :
1. Interpret the source text self-description,of how professional translators
2. Compose the translation
3. Conduct the research needed for task 1 and 2
4. Check the draft translation for errors and correct if necessary.
5. Decide the implications of the commission, how do the intended users and
uses of the finished product affect tasks 1 to 4?
The distinction that he makes between phases and tasks is what makes his model different from the rest, because the latter imply that the tasks are somehow inherent to the nature of the phases, while for Mossop (2000, p. 40) the important factor is the distribution of the tasks over the phases, as “each task can be performed during any phase (with the exception of task 4, which can not occur during phase 1)” . Mossop makes this point comparing his model with Sager’s where preparation is pre-drafting, translation is drafting, and evaluation is post- drafting. Specification or commission would precede the pre-drafting phase. 36
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The main problem for Mossop (2000, p. 40) is that”we do not know, and need to know how translators distribute the tasks over tha phases”. However, the tasks can not be demarcated as clearly as the phases. As example, the borderline between processing required for interpreting the source text and composing the translation is often very difficult to establish. While, Kussmaul (1997, p. 243) concludes that “the traditional notion that in the translation process we can distinguish two separate phases should [...] be replaced by a model that leaves room for overlapping of the phases.” In Mossop, the translator’s activities are bound to concrete phases, which can be seen from the chart Gouadec usus to illustrate his model. This can be due to the fact that Gouadec’s book was intended primarily for describing professional practices and group work, so quite often it is prescriptive rather than descriptive.
That is why Gouadec’s ideal professional translator will not waste the time on unnecassary actions; the work is perfectly structured and ruled by pragmatic
(in non linguistic sense of the word) norms, not bound to psychological realities.
But since we are going to deal with the real world translators, and not even professionals, in this research, novice translators (semi-professional translator),
Guoadec’s rigid lists become difficult to apply. That is why at the end, the researcher is going to stick to Mossop’s view of the translation process. Jensen
(2001, p. 51), finds the term phase inappropiate in the context of the translation process, as its recursive nature”makes it difficult to identify distinct cognitive process”. Therefore, she prefers the processes instead of phases. The reseracher thinks that this is an important point, as the term phases in our research is going to refer to pre-drafting, drafting, and post-drafting which can be easily delimited. 37
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2.6 Time Distribution in Translation Process
Traditionally, time in translation has not been regarded as one of the defining factors, a supposition based on the ideas that while oral interpreters normally work at speech delivery speed, “translators generally have hours, days, or even weeks to complete the operations” (Gile, 1995, p. 111). This means that they have time to consult with experts, colleagues, and search database, and dictionaries to solve individual problems.
However, the actual situation professional translators often find themselves in is quite different from this idealized description, which is perhaps best suited to the learning environment. Many of them, even those not working with news and other partucularly perishable texts, have to work to very tight dealines, a fact recognized by many scholars. Most freelancers agree that if you can not earn enough money to pay the bills, as in many countries of the world translator’s work is not extremely well paid. In Gouadec (2007, p. 215) for the translators, this can mean having to be prepared to work fifteen or sixteen hours a day for days on end to met the deadline on a major contract, and then facing several nail-biting days, or even weeks, with little or no work.
In time used for the task, a clear correlation was found between professional experience and faster performance of the task. Thus, professionals spent on the evarage 136 minutes on the task, translation students 284 minutes and language students 269 minutes. Experience, as expected, correlates with a shorter time to finish the task. The differences are substansial between professionals and students, even when the professionals are divided into the two subgroups of senior and junior professionals; the senior professionals spent on average 90 minutes, the 38
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junior professionals spent 184 minutes. In this respect, this study contradicts the findings from earlier TAPs studies of the time (Jääskeläinen, 1999; Jakobson
2003). The fact that the translation students spent the longest time is hypotically atributble to them having been sensitized to problems (Jääskeläinen, 1999, p. 118) and therefore spending a lot of time trying to solve them, and perhaps also to wanting to do the job as perfectly as possible, knowing that they were taking part in a research project led by one of their teachers. Performing a task with concurrent introspection increases the time for the task (Ericsson & Charness,
1997, p.10). This has also been shown for translation by Krings (2001) and
Jakobsen (2003). Thus, while the figures given here can be assumed to be indicative of actual differences beween subjects with different backgrounds, they should not be taken as accurate measures of the time necessary for a person with a certain background (professional or not) to produce translation of a ST of a given lenght.
In their task, all participants went through an initial phase of acquainting themselves with ST. Then followed a phase of writing down a first version of the
TT. In all cases, the TT was written down in mainly linear fashion, starting from the first sentence, and then going sentence by sentence through the text. This phase of writing the TT was then followed by a phase for all participants during which they read through their TT once or several times, evaluating it and making varying numbers of revisions. There were thus three major discernible phases in their task performance, confirming the results from other studies, although in the literaturethere are also a few reported cases (Krings 1986; Jääskeläinen 1999;
Lörscher 1992) where certain subjects do not go through the third phase. 39
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The result regarding relative allocation of time for the different phases also differ from previous studies. The main difference is the relatively large proportion of time spent on the post writing phase by all participants. Jääskeläinen (1999, p.
122) reported similar findings from earlier study, assuming that a relatively long post-writing phase can be seen either as an individual characteristic or as being an evidance of particular phase in the development of translation students, possibly under the influence of translator training. The lenght of the ST as another potential contributing factor to th speific pattern of time distribution.
Meanwhile in the present study, the ST was quite long for a TAPs study
(for instance , almost three times longer than that in Jääskeläinen’s study.
Probably, it is more difficult to maintain an overview of a longer text (mentally as well as on the paper or the computr screen); therefore revising only during the writing phase will not be sufficient, and more work during the post-writing phase will be required.
All professionals and one translation student verbalized how and in what phases they usually work, inicating awareness of their own procedural knowledge.
Being accustomed to performing translation tasks, it is only to be expected that they should have developed their own preferred working habits and be sufficiently aware of them to be able to verbalize them already at this stage. They do this by orally producing TT chunks of various size, also orally producing alternative translations. This means that they also start revising during the pre-writing phase.
This could be seen as an instance of the application of relief strategy (Krings,
1986, p. 179), solving some reception and production problems already during this first phase. The type of pre-writing phase including the use of aids, can be 40
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considered to have a psychological function and give a greater sense of security when facing the task. Isak’s verbalization after having read the ST and orally translating parts of it can be seen as a corroboration of this. And this is in line with the researcher that eager to see the distribution of time over the three phases of translation process.
2.7 Translation Task in Translation Process
Based on the classification of translation tasks suggsted by Mossop (2000, p.40), they are :
1. Interpret the source text (Processing in this research) 2. Compose the translation (Production) 3. Conduct the research needed for task 1 and 2 (Documentation) 4. Check the draft translation for errors and correct if necessary (Revision) The fifth task, which is “decide the implications of the commission, how do the intended users and uses of the finished product affect tasks 1 to 4” is not going to be treated as a separate task in the research classification since it is not the focus of the pedagogical activity, but rather as the whole strategy adopted for the distribution of time and the choice of wording on the basis of translation brief
(see above).
Production is visually represented as typing new text. The part of processing dedicated to forward planning, which logically also forms part of production. The same happens with the processing dedicated to revision. So, in the use of translog, it is indicated to unite them all of these manifestation of mental processes under the heading of processing, which basically represents all the pauses made during translation process.
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Documentation consisted of looking up words in multimedia dictionaries and searching for information on the internet (the sources of information the participants have unlimited access to during the research).
Revision was divided into two types, they are revision and technical revision. The former standing for deletion of previously written words and phrases or insertion of new text in the body of the translation. The latter consisted in correcting typos and spelling mistakes. Such a distinction was made due to the fact that these corrections are not equal. The same division was used by Jakobsen
(2003) in the study with the help of Translog. Meanwhile the activites included technical adjustments, such as scrolling up and down, minimizing windows, opening new documents, etc are variuos manipulation with the windows and the text which is as an important part of the time.
Some time had to be spent on solving technical problems resulting from the use of the screen recording program. The researcher calls the activities connected with solving these problems technical problems, and no account of them is taken in the final analysis.
In some cases it was impossible to separate production from revision or technical revision, as the two appeared to take place almost simultaneously.
The time unit chosen for the research was one second, following the recomendations by Jakobsen (1998, p. 3).
2.8 The Use of Translation Aids in Translation Process
The definition of the translation process is adapted from Hansen (2003, p.
26) refers to it as: everything that happens from the moment the translator starts
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working on the source text until he finishes the target text. It is all encompassing, from every pencil movement and keystroke, to dictionary use, the use of the internet and the entire thought process that is involved in solving a problem or making a correction - in short everything a translator must do to transform the source text to the target text.
Therefore, it could be said that the translation process encompasses three types of interactions: interactions with the texts (source and target), interactions with external resources (translation aids and reference materials) and interactions with internal resources, i.e. the translator’s own memory. The translation process will be discussed in terms of what can be observed here using Camtasia Studio 9 as screen recordings, i.e. the translator’s interactions with the texts and the interactions with internal and external online resources.
Translation is an action which can rarely be executed merely on existing knowledge. It may be possible to translate basic texts without using external resources such as dictionaries or other people, and even then the level of linguistic competence in both languages involved needs to be high. Thus, dictionaries and other external representations of information are used frequently in translation and can not be ignored as integral part of it. Information and knowledge are in hub of translation as action, because translators simply can not transfer the meanings from one language to another without understanding the information offered in the source text and finding an acceptable correspondence of that information in the target language. As the use of tools and resources made the translation process more complex, new, more comprehensive methods for capturing and analyzing these complex processes were required as, externally, there is much more to be 43
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examined: the on-screen activities, the keyboard actions, the mouse movements, the logs of online activities.
From the cognitive point of view, processes that were inferred or observed to be happening in translators’ heads already have or will inevitably change with the impact of translation memory software, machine translation or any future
AI-assisted systems. This is something that Asadi & Séguinot (2005, p. 526) already recognized ten years ago, referring to one of the ‘production styles’ they observed in their participants, i.e. what they call prospective thinking as being
“reminiscent of the style used in pre-computer translation”. Therefore, it could be argued that as translation environments become ever more complex so too do the cognitive processes that needs to be examined. As a matter of fact, the cognitive aspects associated with the use of technology are the subject of new research directions in cognitive translatology (Muñoz Martin, 2015).
O’Brien, 2006, 2008; Alves & Liparini Campos, 2009; Christensen, 2011;
Radulescu, 2015). Furthermore, the translator’s physical environment and the changing nature of working patterns, which also largely depend on the available technology, also play an important role in placing the translation process in a wider socio-technical context. Therefore, the shift from the ‘black box’ to the ‘tool box’’ emphasizes the need for process research to move further beyond cognition and beyond technology alone into the realms of techno-cognition. In the context of the use of resources for translation purposes, the ‘black box’/’tool box’ dichotomy also needs to be revisited to encompass the cognitive implications of the technology.
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Figure 2.2 Nord’s typology of translation aids (2009, p. 209)
2.9 Models of Translation Process
Models of the translation process have been developed within translation computational of machine translation and translation studies (TS) to model the process of human translation. It points out the similarities and differences between these translations models, and suggests future avenues for the development of computational models of the translation process. Linguistically oriented translation models attempt to describe the translation process that ultimately aims to achieve equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translation process is largely viewed as “communication of translation” (Basylev, 2008).
Some of the key translation model components are grouped around a translation mechanism, translation process stages, nonlinear intellectual operations, selection
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process, creativity, and assessment (Nelyubin, 2003). This is in line with a paradigm shift (Alekseeva, 2010) focused on the nature of translation, a communicative approach, integration, strategy, discourse and cognitive processes.
Therefore to emphasize two important trends in contemporary translation modeling. First, following the basic distinction between a model that describes the translation process and a model that describes the translator’s actions, as discussed elsewhere (Volkova, 2012), Gile (2009, p. 15) differentiate between a descriptive (static) translation model and a prescriptive (dynamic) translation model, and hence a model that either explains an “operating principle” or functions as an “operation manual.” Second, a translation model may productively function as an applied framework for working out a translation strategy and hence as a tool for the translation (source text oriented) analysis.
Holmes (1988) sees the translation process as both a serial and a structural analysis-process in which the product and process of translation must be recognized as a unit. He agrees with a distinction between the product-oriented and the process-oriented study of translating. But he believes that the nature of the product cannot be understood without a comprehension of the nature of the process. In other words, the one is the result of the other. He proposes a model for translation process that takes place on two planes; the serial and structural.
“…after one has read a text in time, one retains an array of data about it in an instantaneous form. On these grounds, it has more recently been suggested
(though nowhere, as far as I know, clearly set out in model form) that the translation of texts (or at least of extensive texts, or at least of complex texts) takes place on two planes: a serial plane, where one translates sentence by sentence, and 46
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a structural plane, on which one abstracts a ‘mental conception’ of the original text, then uses that mental conception as a kind of general criterion against which to test each sentence during the formulation of the new, translated text (Holmes,
1988, p. 82).
He mentions that the serial plane and structural plane should carry out respectively to create a balance between the two levels. According to this method, the serial plane is the level at which the source text is transferred into a receptor text through a process of analysis, transference, and restructuring and the structural plane is assessed continually during the translation process, through multiple levels of processing. Then three rules are determined:
The first, that of derivation rules (DR), determines the way in which the translator abstracts his map of the source text from the text itself, and the third, that of projection rules (PR), determines the way in which he makes use of his map of the prospective target text in order to formulate the text, while the second, that of correspondence rules (CR) or matching rules (MR) or, if one prefers, equivalence rules (ER) de termines the way in which he develops his target-text map from his source-text map.
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Figure 2.3 Holmes’s model (Holmes, 1988, p. 84)
Holmes states that the map of the source text will be a conglomerate of highly disparate bits of information. Then he presents three maps for source text:
1) Map of a linguistic artifact: it contains contextual information; 2) Map of a literary artifact: it contains inter-textual information; 3) Map of a socio-cultural artifact: it contains situational information. In the case of three types of information, the translator should seek “correspondences with which to design his target text map… or he starts thinking How am I going to translate this? (ibid, p.
85).
According to Hönig’s model, translators first read th ST (upper right corner of the model). Their source text reception, however, differs from that of ordinary readers in a non translation specific situation, since their text reception is influnced by the translation task they have in mind.
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Figure 2.4 Hönig’s model of an ideal translation process (Hönig, 1991, p. 79)
The source-text reception differs between ordinary readers in a non- translation-specific situation and professional translators who want to translate that text because reception is influenced by the translation task they have in mind.
In this model, the translator’s mental processing occurs in two different workspaces: the uncontrolled workspace and the controlled workspace.
The translator’s first understanding’ of text takes place in the uncontrolled workspace involves the activation of frames and schemes, which are structured
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domains of long-term memory, in associative processes (Hönig 1991, pp.78-
79). He mentions that the translator will become aware of his translation task by collecting and collating data from his uncontrolled workspaces, the prospective target text, using the projected source text. This leads to a macro-strategy which may take place more or less automatically for professional translators or “very deliberately, possibly with the aid of translation-relevant textual analysis” (Ibid, p. 80). Approved data may become part of the target text in four different ways (Hönig, 1991, p. 80) :
1) As a linguistic reflex stimulated by the first contact between the projected
ST (source text) and semantic associations in the uncontrolled workspace.
2) As an automatic transfer from the uncontrolled workspace after a macro-
strategy has been worked out.
3) As a product of a micro-strategy applied in the controlled workspace
which has been approved by monitoring.
4) As a product of interdependent processes taking place in the
controlled and uncontrolled workspaces, whereby the final approval can
be either by uncontrolled (automatic) or controlled (cognitive) processes.
During the translation phase, the processes in the uncontrolled workspace are complemented by an associative competence (or transfer competence: the ability and knowledge about translation, to complete the transfer process from the Source Text to the Target Text; PACTE, 2000). Then, decisions are evaluated in controlled workspace and leaded to a target text.
Gile (1995) proposes a model of efforts related it to simultaneous and consecutive interpreting, based on the concept of processing capacity 50
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stemming from cognitive psychology (figure 2.5). The model of Gile presupposes a distinction between automatic and non-automatic mental operations, which consume part of the processing capacity available. However, the great deal of researches showed that professionals can switch between automatic processes in routine tasks and conscious processing in new situations (Jääskeläinen, 1999,
2009). Gile emphasizes the non-automatic character of the mental operations and presented three types of effort in simultaneous interpreting: (1) Efforts related to listening and analyzing, (2) Efforts related to discourse production in reformulation, (3) Short-term memory efforts. He mentions that the translation process is recursive, and the several steps may be processed simultaneously. To
Gile, the direction of translation and the languages involved will influence the process. Today, scholars have illustrated that translation is non-linear task and the mind keeps looking for alternatives even after a translation problem has been solved.
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Figure 2.5 Daniel Gile’s Sequential Model of Translation (Gile, 1995, p. 167)
Kiraly (1995) presents a model of the translation process base on an external communicative/ social activity and an internal cognitive activity which draws on psycholinguistics (Figure 2.6). In social model, the translator is considered an active participant in three interrelated situational contexts, of the source text, of the TT, and a particular context.
According to Kiraly, cognitive (psycholinguistic) model of translation is defined as follow : The translator's mind is an information-processing system in which a translation comes from the interaction of intuitive and controlled processes using linguistic and extra linguistic information. (1995, p.102). The principal components of the model involves (1) information sources, including long-term memory, source text input, and external resources (e.g., reference books, data bases, native- speaker informants, subject experts); (2) the intuitive
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workspace, which is relatively uncontrolled and subconscious; and (3) the controlled processing center.
Figure 2.6 Kiraly’s psycholinguistic model of translation processes (Kiraly, 1995, p. 102)
Representing an ideal process for translation, Gopferich’s 2007 translation competence acquisition model is based on PACTE group and Honig’s model.
In this model language competence is considered as a subcomponent of the translation competence in line with the PACTE model which considers the use of particular learning strategies in the translation acquisition process while the restructuring of knowledge is taking place. Gopferich’s model is mainly developed to study the acquisition of translation competence. Conducting a three- year longitudinal study, Gopferich believes that it is possible to study the
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students’ psychological disposition (p. 22). Furthermore, this model adds the competence called “translation routine activation” which is a matching competence founded on transcoding. This competence permits a translator for capturing creativity in translator competence (p. 21).
Figure 2.7 Gopfrich’s translation competence model (Gopfrich, 2007, p.20)
Discourse and communication translation model by Volkova (2014) in
(See Figure. 2.8) is the type one model descriptive and explanatory in character that gives a variety of features (translation-relevant communicative discourse parameters) for working out a translation strategy. The concept is focused on how to build a translation strategy and therefore does not either provide any set strategies or seek to give universal guidelines.
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Figure 2.8 Volkova’s discourse and communication translation model (Volkova 2014, p.4)
The discourse and communication translation model is based on a set of interrelated levels: a textual level, a discursive level, and a communicative level.
Within this framework, the process of translation is cyclic: decisions are made at each level, and as the translation process unfolds, the cycle may be repeated.
A translator analyzes for the source text properties and features: linguistic
(lexical and semantic, syntactic, stylistic, and pragmatic) source text parameters, it’s discursive characteristics (text authorship, addressness, and narrative), discourse nodal points, discourse constitutive features (goals, values, chronotopos, topic and participants of discourse, and interdiscursivity), and communication- related functions, typical features and strategies define decisions made by a translator and build up translation microstrategies on the textual level and translation macrostrategies on discursive and communicative levels (Volkova,
2014, p. 2).
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Another model of translation process developed by Moghadas and
Sharififar (2014) deal with the cognitive process of problem-solving to translate a neologism as a specific problem in the source text by using TAPs. Then it is possible to identify all the material in the TAPs which relates to this particular item and its translation. They present a cognitive flowchart model for the translation process of neologisms in ideal situations (figure 2.9). They use the famous coding scheme of Krings (1986) and Gerloff (1986) with some modifications as strategies of problem solving and problem indicators, to analyze the data obtained from their professional participants.
The model starts with the visual recognition of the neologism in the source text. After recognition, continuation of the process depends on the special storing information in LTM (e.g. translation competence). Accordingly, this is the knowledge in memory which can help constructing a justification of the solution for the problem. Then translator may use translation aids immediately
(comprehension) or he/she prefers to analyze the linguistic aspects of the neologism briefly. Before comprehension, the translator may draw an inference the neologism meaning which comes back to his/her world knowledge or experiences (it may happen only one time in the process). After comprehension, the translator may find out the solution(s) or it can be done after linguistic analysis process. After presenting the solution or preliminary solution(s), the translator monitors the progress of the problem-solving and evaluates the solution. If the solution is satisfactory, the problem solving process comes to end. If the solution is unsatisfactory, the translator feels the need of revision, or backs to the linguistic analysis or comprehension phase to present another solution. The model shows 56
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that the process direction of linguistic analysis and comprehension phases may be passed several times from beginning to end (Moghadas & Sharififar, 2014, p. 12).
Figure 2.9 Moghadas & Sharififar’s model translation process for specific problems (Moghadas & Sharififar, 2014, p. 11)
The seven translation models elaborated in this section are not only used as the basis of translation models of this research but also provided an insight to develop a new translation model as none of them involved the cultural aspect or theory in translation process.
2.10 Text of Mangkobar
Every ethnic group has unique oral tradition. Oral tradition is cultural material and tradition transmitted orally from one generation to another.
The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speeches or songs and may
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take the form of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral law and other knowledge across generations without a writing system (Siregar, G. B, 2010, p.52 )
One of the ethnic groups in North Sumatera is Angkola. The big ceremony in Angkola consists of: Siluluton (sorrow), Siriaon (happiness). The wedding ceremony is called by Horja (party) as a happy event. The wedding ceremony of
Angkola is started with Mangkobar; talking in good manner, politely which is very special and unique among Dalihan Na Tolu (three pillars). This phrase can be translated as the “three support stones on the earth”; folk exegetes say that when the stones are placed equidistant from each other they serve to support a cookpot.
Angkola commentators go on to say that that the three support stones of Angkola adat are kahanggi ( a man’s lineagemates), anak boru (the firs group’s wife- receivers), and mora (“wealthy’, the first group’s wife-givers). The close cooperation and mutual indebtedness of these three fundamental “stones” of
Angkola society are said to underlie good social order and peace in villages
(Toland, J. D, pp.155-156).
The word Mangkobar in Angkola language is equivalent with the word
“speaking” in Bahasa (Parinduri, 2013, p. 8). Generally, language activity follows four skills. They are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The speaking skill is the skill to deliver idea, particular information use words and sentences.
In KBBI (2008, p. 188) there are some definitions the word “speak”, 1. Talking, converse 2. Give the idea 3. Negotiate. In Angkola context, Mangkobar can be defined as formal speaking which is held in Angkola custom event, whether in
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Siluluton (sorrow) or Siriaon (happiness). As a norm that has been given,
Mangkobar has the rule that has been made by Angkolanese.
In practical, even though there are some variations in uttered process and uttered contents but it is a cultural heritage which is one of the sacred culture and it is still done in the Angkola custom. Mangkobar has its own attraction. For someone who doesn’t comprehend the custom, and doesn’t understand the
Angkola language, and doesn’t know the social relationship in Angkola perhaps this event Mangkobar will be regard as the boring event because most of the topic which is uttered is the same thing uttering. But that is the applied of olong
(affection) in Angkola custom. All the family components are regarded as important family that must do Mangkobar. The one who really understands about this custom and knows his position in that custom, he will be left offended if he is not given the chance to say something in Mangkobar. If not, it will cause internal conflict.
2.11 Multilingual Translation
Since every translator is first a bilingual but not every bilingual will choose to become a practicing translator a thorough insight into the nature of bilingual knowledge is a necessary starting point. In the evolutionary perspective on the development of translation expertise the knowledge of two languages is only a starting point, a mere but essential prerequisite. Although it is generally agreed that sufficient mastery of two languages does not guarantee that a bilingual person (whether a natural bilingual or an L2 user) will make a good translator,
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“bilingual competence constitutes a psycholinguistic foundation upon which it is possible to develop translation competence” (Presas 2000, p. 20).
Translation ability, translation skill and translation competence and expertise require the knowledge of at least two different languages. Whether one calls it a mere prerequisite or a vital requirement to translate, bilingual knowledge is the decisive factor to be able to consider interlingual translation as an activity which one can perform. The fact is so obvious that it has frequently been taken for granted together with its consequences for the development of translation as a skill and translation as professional expertise. As observed by Presas (2000, p. 27),
“comparative studies of monolingual and bilingual individuals reveal that the acquisition of a second language involves the development of certain cognitive features which are of interest for translation teaching”. Such ca pacities as lateral thinking, flexibility and the ability to make remote as sociations (Ben Zeev 1977,
Appel and Muysken 1996) coupled with “greater skill in handling the linguistic code, due to the fact that bilinguals learn to separate the mental content of the lexical element from its graphic or aural form at a very early stage” (Presas 2000, p. 27 see also Bialystok, 2001) seem to be what is needed for translation as a human skill.
Indonesian people is a multicultural society formed from differences culture including language differences. In addition to the diversity of local languages owned Indonesian as the national language. Indonesian people use more than one language, namely their mother tongue (local language) and Indonesian language as national language. The use of regional languages is also called the use of the first language, while the use of Indonesian language is also referred to as 60
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the use of a second language. The use of such language is called diglossia
(Aslinda, et al., 2007, p. 26). The term bilingualism is often referred to as multilingualism, a term used to describe the state of the use of more than one language by individuals, groups, or societies (regional, national, national, and state). The need for foreign language mastery especially English strengthens the status of Indonesian society into a multilingual society.
Multilingualism refers more to the description of a speaker who speaks more than two languages, can be three languages, or four, even five languages at once. Its use is almost the same as bilingualism, which knows when and where a language will be used. For example, the Javanese, in addition to being able to speak Javanese (as their mother tongue), also able to speak Indonesian as L2, and English as L3, some even Japanese, Dutch, etc (Putra, Y., and Bagus, I, 2003).
English as the most important foreign language in Indonesia should be studied in a wider context. In regard to skills expansion, the ability to translate needs to be given attention and is indispensable (Duff, 1989, p. 7). In the traffic of international trade, communication documentation which is bilingual and multilingual; the role of the translator is important. For that purpose, it needs wide understanding and interpretation of the translation from the level of history, background, basic understanding of translation, the process of translating, equivalence in translating, translating problem, and evaluating the translation. To overcome difficulties in translating texts, sufficient attention must be given to the theory of translation which is indeed a very old study (Nababan, 1999, p.14) which can not be separated from linguistic understanding, which is closely related to both English and Indonesian. It was also done in this research that the participants translated Mangkobar text through multilingual translation. 61
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2.12 Culture and Translation
Cultural perspective, however, has never been brought into discussion.
This can be seen in most of the following definitions. As Brislin (1976, p. 1) stated that the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the language are in written or oral form; whether the language have established orthographies or do not have such standardization or whether one or both language is based on signs, as with sign language of the deaf. Nida and Taber (1969, p. 12) also stated that translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closets natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In the definitions appearing in 1960s-1970s, some similarities were: (1) there is a change of expression from one language to the other, (2) the meaning and message are rendered in the TL, and (3) the translator has an obligation to seek for the closest equivalent in the TL. Yet, there is no that cultural is taken into account except in that of Nida and
Taber themselves do not mention this matter very implicitly.
Following their explanation on closest natural equivalent”. However, we can infer that cultural consideration is considered. They maintain that the equivalent sought after in every effort of translating is the one that is so close that the meaning/message can be transferred well. As stated by Hariyanto, S (1996) that the concept of closest natural equivalent is rooted in Nida’s concept of dynamic equivalent. His celebrated example is taken from the bible, that is the translation of lamb of God into the Eskimo language. Here lamb symbolizes innocence especially in the context of sacrifice. As a matter of fact, Eskimo 62
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culture does not know” lamb of god”. Thus the word nor symbolis seal of anything. Instead of lamb of God he prefers seal of god transfer the message. Here he considers cultural aspects.
Guo (2012) describes culture as patterns of customs, traditions, social habits and values ‘the entire ways of a people’. In a similar vein, Vermeer (1992) refers to culture as ‘the totality of norms, conventions and opinions which determine the behaviour of members of society, and all results of this behaviour’.
Language is included in, and affected by these results, and it is the establishment of this link between language and culture that was central to the developments undergone by DTS. Prior to this period, there was a clear demarcation between the concerns of translation studies at the time and any sort of culturally informed studies in that field. But if it was the exchanges between cultures throughout history that necessitated translation in its most basic sense, it follows that translation (as a process and a product) should be regarded as a medium for, and product of, cultural exchange (Torrop 2002; Yan and Huang 2014).
Even as early as the 18th century, Humboldt (cited in Xie 2009) elucidated most clearly the seemingly paradoxical nature of the translation research methodology, stating that the impossibility of equivalence was ‘inherent in language’ because different languages created different worldviews. Although this stops short of mentioning culture explicitly, it provides evidence that a discussion of translation in context – one that looked to wider circle of influence was not an entirely new one at the time of the cultural turn, over a century later. Looking again at the views of leading theorists such as Lawrence Venuti and Bassnett, it is
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clear that ideas such as these were influential in the advancement of translation theory after DTS.
The translation theorist André Lefevere directly challenged the widely- accepted conventions of DTS and questioned the supposed neutrality of the autonomous processes to which translation had until that point adhered.
He envisaged translation as being not primarily about language (in a purely linguistic sense) or the mechanical conversion of lexical units between languages, but as a form of transfer, with language representing an expression and repertory of the cultures involved (Pettersson, 1999; Lefevere, 1992).
Casagrande (1954, p.338) pointed out that “the attitudes and values, the experience and traditions of a people inevitably become involved in the freight of meaning carried by a language”. In effect, one does not translate languages, one translates cultures. Halliday & Hasan (1985, pp.5-7) underscored the importance of culture in translation. For them, the theory of context comes before the theory of text. Context here means context of situation and culture. This context is necessary for adequate understanding of the text, which becomes the first requirement for translating. Thus, translating without understanding text is non- sense, and understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible
(Hariyanto, 2004). Therefore, the question remains: which view is correct? The answer, according to Snell-Hornby (1995, p.41) is not to choose between the two.
If the extremes are put at the ends of a cline, the answer lies between the two. In brief, theoretically the degree of probability for perfect translation depends on the degree the ST is embedded in its culture; the greater the distance between the ST and TT cultures, the higher the degree of impossibility. 64
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Modern translation theorists such as Catford (1965), Nida (1964), Savory
(1957), Newmark (1988), and Wills (1982) have underscored the fact that translators are not only in need of bilingual competence, but also a good knowledge of the cultures of the languages concerned. For them, a cultural gap should not hinder the attempts to translate across languages for these gaps can be narrowed and cultural objects or concepts can be matched in one way or another.
They have suggested various solutions to facilitate the process of translation such as using componential analysis, applying case grammar to translation, using the most appropriate method of cultural transposition such as literal translation, claque, communicative translation and cultural transplantation as well as utilizing the techniques of semiotics, pragmatics and other relevant disciplines (Hervey &
Higgins, 1992, pp.28-40).
Doing a translation of a text from a source language into a target language posess many problems in term s of adequacy of the result. The text must first be well understood before the general meaning or message can be drawn from the sentence. This is the reason why translation studies are categorized as part of
Comparative Linguistics. It is generally accepted that comparing two languages through the studies of the grammar will facilitate the process of translation. It is therefore, necessary for the translator to learn the SL and TL equally well, so that the message is clearly understood.
2.13 Translator’s Cultural Knowledge
Cultural knowledge refers to the awareness and understanding knowledge of the way of life of a linguistic community which includes habits, social system, 65
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religion, good manners etc. A translator does not only need language skills but also cultural knowledge to understand the cultural habits to interact with speakers of another language. Indeed, culture reveals the language’s mode of functioning.
Schleiermacher (1992) thought that it is not acceptable to work with language in an arbitrary way. The authentic meaning of language should be gradually discovered through history, science and art. This assumption adds another dimension to the required cultural knowledge of the translator. It is the intellectual production written in the language in question, and which contributes, in this way, to the formation of the language. Cultural knowledge does not only help to understand a text’s content but also shows the way in which a particular foreign reader is best addressed. Hence, it provides, access to the translation operations, which Schleiermacher (1992) advocated: understanding and communicating.
Therefore, the researcher emphasizes the necessity of cultural knowledge for understanding and communicating. Incompatibility between cultures should be taken into account as well. De Pedro (1999, p.548) affirmed that “translators have to be aware of these gaps, in order to produce a satisfactory target text”. In her paper about textual competence mentioned earlier, Nord (1991, p.8) insisted on what she called the translator’s contrastive text competence. In this competence she highlighted the ability to compare and be aware of cultural specificities. She stated that it “[…] consists of the ability to analyze the culture-specificities of textual and other communicative conventions in both lingua cultures (and) identify culture-bound function markers in texts of various text types”.
In conclusion, it’s true that persons who know both the source language and the target language well can often make the transfer from one form to the 66
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other very rapidly, without thinking about the semantic structure overtly.
However, for the complicated texts, and when the translators may not be equally fluent in the two languages (if they are mother-tongue speakers of only one) the study of the principles to be presented here will enable them to make a more adequate translation.
2.14 Translog-II and its Function
In order to acquire objective data about human translation processes, the program Translog has been designed. Translog can be used to study translation processes, hence the name Translog, but it can be equally used for other kinds of computer-based reading or writing. Since its first conception in 1995, Translog has gone through several re-implementations. Right from its beginnings, Translog had two main components, originally called Writelog and Translog (Schou,
Dragsted, and Carl, 2009) the former component was designed for recording writing processes in time, while the latter component served for playback. These components are now referred to as the Translog-User and the Translog-Supervisor which are two interdependent programs.
A major extension was introduced in the context of the EU project Eye-to-
IT in 2006 when a new version Translog-2006 could connect to eye-tracker through the GWM module (Sparkov, 2008) so as to record both, keyboard and gaze behaviour in time. Translog-2006 was a complete re-implementation in C#, supporting Unicode and XML. However, the communication with the eye tracker through GWM turned out to be too inflexible and so a further development of
Translog-II now communicates directly with the eyetracker. 67
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Figure 2.10 The screenshot of Translog-II
It shows the source text (top) and the beginning of a translation (bottom) in the target text window. It plots the accumulated gaze movement during the translation of the 8 words: “was imprisoned for life today for the killings” into
Danish, which lasted approximately 10 seconds. Red and green dots are gaze- sample points (sampling rate 60Hz.) for the right and left eye respectively, and the blue circles represent fixations. Much more gaze activity is measured on the target window during translation.
This part describes the purpose and usage of the Translog-II software.
Similar programs such as Script Log (www.scriptlog.net/demo.asp), and Input
Log (www.inputlog.net/download.html) are mainly intended for logging and
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analyzing writing processes, while Translog is specially designed for the acquisition of data for translation process research, and is widely used in the translation process research community. Schou et al (2009) count more than 80 publications making use of Translog, for translation process research of linguistic phenomena, (e.g. the translation of metaphors, cognates, idioms, etc.) as well as translator behaviour and cognitive processes (e.g. translator's awareness, memory constraints, (self)revision etc.), translation expertise, translation under time pressure, and machine translation post-editing. Translog is also used for translator training, teaching and learning purposes.
Translog-II records user activity data (UAD) all the keystrokes and gaze movements (if an eye-tracker is connected). It classifies the keystroke data as 1) insertion, 2) deletion (delete and backspace), 3) navigation (cursor movements), 4) copy/cut-and-paste, 5) return key or 6) mouse operations. Since the keylogger runs in the background, the recording does not interfere with the writing or translation process. Translog-II logs the exact time at which each keystroke operation is made. If connected to an eye-tracker, Translog-II also records 7) gaze-sample points, 8) computes fixations (i.e. clusters of gaze-samples) and 9) mappings of fixations to the closest character on the screen. This latter operation performs a mapping from the spatial location of the gaze on the screen to a character offset in the text. That is, an X/Y coordinate of a fixation center is mapped onto a character position of the text that is being looked at. Since there is some noise in the recordings of gaze-sample points, the representation in the log file is such that fixations and to a certain extent also mappings can be re-computed offline. The gaze and the keystroke information can then be correlated, as they both refer to 69
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textual positions. The information is stored in an XML format and can be replayed or analyzed with Translog-II or analyzed in external tool. Carl and Müller (2011) and Carl and Jakobsen (2009) give more information on the XML representation.
Here we describe the data acquisition software Translog-II.
Translog-II has three main functions :
1. Create a project file:
Determine the size and orientation of a source and a target window on the
screen for reading and writing permission respectively.
Produce texts for the source and/or the target window, their layout, text
font, size, color, line spacing etc.
Determine which data are to be logged, keyboard and eye- tracking,
2. Run and record a Translog-II session:
Load a project file
Calibrate eye-tracker (if connected)
Record and log UAD
3. Replay and analyze a recorded log file:
Statistics: figures about text production/elimination/navigation events
User view: replays the translation session in time (Figure 1)
Linear view: plots a textual representation of the UAD (Figure 2.11)
Pause plot: shows a 2D representation how the text emerge in time
(Figure 2.12).
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Figure 2.11 Two linear view screen shots of Translog-II
Two linear view screen shots of the same text with different temporal resolution. Top: each dot represents 1 second pause. Bottom: a dot represents 0.1 seconds between successive keyboard activities. The Translog-II Supervisor program implements the functions (create a project file) and (replay a log file),
Translog-II User is only used to record a Translog session and to store the UAD in a log file. A Translog-II project file can be configured for a reading experiment, where only the “source window” which contains the text to be read will be visible in the recording session, it can be configured for a writing experiment, where only the “target window” is visible, in which a text can be typed, or for a translation experiment, in which both windows are visible. In fact Translog-II also allows for post-editing texts, if a pre-defined text is entered in the target window. Translog-II 71
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allows the source and the target windows to be horizontally or vertically oriented and the source or target windows to be left or right, or bottom or top.
As in previous Translog versions, texts can be displayed in smaller portions, e.g. one sentence at a time. Each portion can be displayed for a certain number of pre-defined seconds, or the writer may decide to go on to the next portion of source text when ready to do so. The the pause plot can be seen in figure 2.12 below where the blue dots indicate the accumulation of pauses during a translation session (in seconds) (Carl, 2012, pp. 154-159).
Figure 2.12 The screen shot of the pause plot
Translog User
The Translog-II User program is an interface for displaying and typing text and for logging UAD. To start a translation session, a project file must be loaded.
According to the settings in a project file, the eyetracker needs be calibrated, then
Translog-II User opens a source and/or a target text window, plots the pre-defined texts in the source window and waits for the translator to type a translation into the target window. As the size, orientation and rendering of the windows and the font is defined in the project file, it is not possible to re-size the windows in Translog-
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II User, to change the font. It is possible to use Translog-II User as a post-editing, by providing (machine) translation in the target window and to record text modifications during post-editing.
Translog-II replay mode
The most interesting feature in Translog is the replay mode. Translog
Supervisor computes some statistical figures on the number keystrokes, but more interesting are certainly the possibilities to replhe log file. As mentioned above, there are three different ways visualize the UAD, the user view, the linear view, and the pause plwhich are respectively presented in the figures 2.10, 2.11 and
2.12.
The user view (a screen shot is shown in Figure 1) replays the typiprocess in real-time, and radio buttons can be used to accelerated decelerated, to pause the replay, rewind or forward it etc. In additionhe keystrokes, Translog-II also plots the gaze-sample points, fixationand fixated words. In Figure 1, gaze sample points and fixations wecollected over a period of approx. 30 seconds illustrating the gaze paand the coordination of reading and writing activities. It is possibleselect whether gaze and fixation information should be plotted.
The linear view represents the UAD in a textual (linear) manner. Each key and mouse activity has a representation in the linear view and pauses are either indicated as asterisks, and/or numeric value indicating the duration between successive activities. The granularity of the pause display can be selected starting from 1ms up to any amount of time. This gives the possibility to get an overview over the coarse temporal structure of a translation session, reducing the temporal
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information to a minimum (Figure 2.11, top), or to zoom into a sequence to study pausing behaviour as small as a few hundreds of second (Figure 2.11, bottom).
The third Translog-II replay mode is the pause plot. A pause plot represents essentially the same information as the linear view does, time in as 2D graph. Keyboard activities are indicated on the horizonX-axis, while the vertical
Y-axis shows the accumulation of time (pauses). Figure 2.12 shows a segment of a translation session.
It is possible to scroll through the pause plot, to zoom in or ouTranslog-II also allows to synchronize all three visualization methods. That is, all three windows (user and linear view as well as pause plot) can be opened at the same time, and by clicking the synchronization item the cursor in all three windows will be positioned at the same time. The option in the user view would then trigger a synchronous replay in the three windows. Figure 2.13 shows the graph visualizes the translation progression of the 8 English words: “was imprisoned for life today for the killings” into Danish: “fik enfængselsdom på livstid i dag for at slå”. This translation segment corresponds to the accumulated gaze movements in Figure
2.13, which lasted approximately 10 seconds. Blue dots represent fixations on the source text, green dots fixations on the target text, the characters are insertions and the red characters are deletions.
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Figure 2.13 The graph visualizes the translation progression
2.15 Relevant Studies
A brief overview of studies have been done in analyzing translation process. According to Rosa in 2017, he did a study on translation process involving student and professional translators of master degree program majoring translation studies at University of Sumatera Utara. He used an exploratory case study as the research method involving Translog-II, Camtasia Studio 8, Integrated problem and decision reports and retrospective questionnaire as the instruments of data collection. The findings of his reasearch were: (i) the time spent in translation process can not be used as the measurement to qualify a translator as a professional translator, (ii) the translation speed is better to be based on words rather than on clauses because the number of words is different from one clause to another clause, (iii) both student and professional translator spent most of their time in translation process for pauses, (iv) the model of translation process based
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on an SFL theory, particularly language metafunction theory. Noor Rosa’s findings are going to contribute in terms of the time spent in translation process, but the different from present study is going to investigate the time distribution in translation process on cultural text.
Next, the study was done by Sofyan in 2016. He conducted a study on translation process involving student translators of master degree program majoring translation studies at University of Sumatera Utara. He used an exploratory case study as the research method involving Translog-II, Camtasia
Studio 8, and retrospective questionnaire as the instruments of data collection. The findings of his reasearch were: (i) Cognitive strategy is the type of translation process dominantly used by the student translators; (ii) word substitution is the type of self correction done mostly by the student translators; (iii) Google translate is the online resource used mostly by the student translators in all translation phases; (iv) using social-affective strategy, spending longer time to do self- corrections, and good management of online resources resulted in a better quality of translated text. Sofyan’s findings are going to contribute in terms of the dominant process used by novice translators in translating the text.
Next, the study was done by Alonso (2015, pp. 99-100) points out that over 83 per cent of the respondents said they used wikipedia almost always, often or occasionally during translation, but only about five per cent of them reported never using it, which indicates that almost 9 out of 10 actually used wikipedia to some extent as they translated. Most interestingly, they did not refer to wikipedia only in its encyclopedic aspect but also as a multilingual corpus or dictionary
(2015, p. 100). In most cases, they used wikipedia to provide them with a broad 76
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sense of the topic they were seraching information on, and, in line with Lahtinen’s results, cross checked with other sources (2015, p. 102). All in all, almost 80 per cent of the respondents in Alonso’s study regarded wikipedia as useful of very useful as a translation aids, and approximately 58 per cent considered it as very easy to use and reliable as a source. Although her research focus was on wikipedia, Alonso reposts that the respondents used a number of different online resources. Google was the most used resource, as 85.7 per cent of the subjects reported using it, closely followed by mono and bilingual dictionaries (82.8%), whereas terminology databases were used by almost 60% and wikipedia by approximately 54% of the respondents. Alonso’s findings are very useful in this study, it can contribute to enrich the theory of translation aids and determine kinds of translation aids that is going to be used in this present study.
Next, Esfahani (2015) used Think-aloud protocols as a method for eliciting the activity which is occuring in a translator’s mind. In his study, think-aloud protocols have been used not only as a data collecting method but also as a technique for training translators which may be effectual in increasing student’s uncertainty management and solving problems. In this study, four methodologies have been used; screen recording, sight translation, think-aloud protocols, and interview. Uncertainty is an estate of indecision in the process of translation, and it is closely related to solving problems and uncertainty management during the translation activity. There are seventy five upper intermediate ESL learners, who were taught translation in a fifty five hour translation process workshop, were using think-aloud protocols for translating texts. His findings showed that students who were using think-a;oud protocols to verbalize the text presented better 77
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uncertainty management in their next translation activities. This study showed think-aloud protocols can be used in classrooms as a technique for teaching translation. This finding contributes to the present research in terms of the used of think-aloud protocols for translating the text.
Another study was done by Salmi and Chevalier (2014). They examined how change in language used in web searching affected students’ information searching strategies. As the Finnish subjects of their study, who represented non- native French speakers, were translation students from the University of Turku.
However, in this study, the participants were not performing a translation task but were given a series of questions to which they had to find correct answers by means of the Web, which could be seen as sub-tasks in terms of information searching that takes place during translation. Salmi and Chevalier found that (i) when the Finnish students had to use Finnish to search information on questions presented to them in French, they either added general keywords (i.e. glossary, dictionary or wikipedia) referring to resources or searched for information in another language, most often in English (2014: 3). Another finding showed that
(ii) the choice of language used in the searches affected the task complexity as on some topic information was not as readily available in Finnish as it was in French.
When using languages other than the dominant web language English for web searches, it was necessary to use multiple languages, in this case also English. (iii) it took more time and more queries for the students to find the needed information in Finnish than in French. This findings contributes to the present research in terms of information searching in using the translation aids that takes place during translation. 78
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Another study was done by Karimnia (2014). The study was to investigate if translators’ learning style and the interaction of translator's learning styles and proficiency level affect the translation quality of expressive texts. Participants included 52 translators who worked in translation centers in Shiraz. The elicitation instruments used for data collection were (a) an Oxford Quick Placement Test, used to measure the participants’ proficiency level, (b) the Felder (2006) learning style questionnaire, to find out the participants’ learning styles, and (c) a paragraph of expressive text which was translated to determine the quality of participants’ translations. Pearson’s correlation, t-test and two-way ANOVA procedures were used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that translators’ learning styles significantly affect their quality of translation in that sensing translators outperformed visual ones. However, the interaction of learning style and proficiency level did not prove to be significant. This finding contributes to the present research in terms of translator’s learning styles to find the dominant process used in translating the text.
Next, as O’Brien duly notes, “the growth in research has also come about due to the development and increased accessibility of tools and methods for measuring specific cognitive aspects of the translation task, in particular screen recording, keystroke logging and eye tracking” (2013, p. 5). Such technologisation and industrialisation of translation, together with the new methods of investigation, have had an immediate impact on the volume and direction of research in translation studies. This was duly noted by Munday, according to whom “the emergence and proliferation of new technologies have transformed translation practice and are now exerting an impact on research” (Munday, 2012, 79
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p. 179). This impact is reflected in the growing interest in translation technology research, both in terms of ‘surveying’ the developments and their uptake by professional translator (e.g. Hirci, 2013) and in carrying out empirical- experimental research which, broadly speaking, examines the use of technology by translators and the effects it has on the translation process (Asadi & Séguinot,
2005; Alves & Liparini Campos, 2009; Enríquez Raído, 2014). The increasing technologisation of the professional translation workplace has encouraged translation studies to reach beyond its traditional borders, whether to assess and develop computer-aided translation tools and machine translation or to understand the effects of technology on the translator and on the translation process. This findings is going to contribute as terms the use of translation aids or translation resources when translating Mangkobar text in this research.
The other related research was done by Zhou and Lin (2012) who investigated the translation process of the students translators while translating.
Psycholinguistically-oriented thinking-aloud method was used to collect the data from self-reports protocols. They found that (i) there exist four phrases
(preparation, incubation, illumination, and evaluation) both in English-Chinese and Chinese-English translation process. (ii) The participants did fairly well in
English-Chinese translation than in Chinese-English translation. Translation scores vary with the change of the translation tasks (English-Chinese or Chinese-
English) and also with the growth of university grades. As far as translation startegies were concerned, (iii) they were more likely to employ strategies in the incubation and illumination phrases. Fewer strategies were applied in the preparation phrase and hardly any startegies used in the evaluation phrase, and 80
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there were significant differences on the startegy use of the participants from two grades in the incubation and the evaluation phases. This research is different from the present research in the stages translation process as this research was passed through two languages (Chinese-English and English-Chinese), while the present research was through three languages (Angkola Language-Bahasa Indonesia and
Bahasa Indonesia-English). However, it used the same method of translation.
Another study was done by Eftekhary and Aminizadeh (2012).
They explored the strategies used by senior translation students of Islamic Azad
University, Bandar Abbas Branch apply while translating literary texts using
Thinking Aloud Protocols. To achieve this, twelve senior student translators participated in their study. It was found that fourteen strategies were detected with look-up was as the most frequent strategy used by the subjects in the study.
Using imagery and paraphrasing were the other frequent startegies used by the subjects respectively. Switching to L1 while translation was found the lowest startegy as reported in TAPs by the subjects. Deductive reasoning strategies were the second lowest startegy reported. Such startegies were resourcing and referencing, evaluating and monitoring, problem solving and co-text recourse stood in between. This finding contributes to the present research in analyzing the strategy in translation process done by the translator involving TAPs method.
Another study was done by Carl (2012). He presented a novel implementation of Translog-II. Translog-II is a Windows-oriented program to record and study reading and writing processes on a computer. In this research, it was an instrument to acquire objective, digital data of human translation processes. As their predecessors, Translog 2000, Translog 2006, also Translog-II 81
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consists of two main components: Translog-II Supervisor and Translog-II User.
The two components are interdependent: Translog-II User serves to record experimental translation sessions, while in Translog-II Supervisor project files can be generated, log files replayed and analysed. It was found to give an overview of the tool and its data visualization options.This research findings was helpful to the present research in terms of defining the implementation of Translog-II in the translation process.
All of those previous studies mentioned above were elaborated and then contributed to the formulation of this present research. The research done by
(Carl, 2012; Alonso, 2015; Esfahani, 2015; Sofyan, 2016; Noor Rosa, 2017) were the most related contribution to this research in terms of the use of the instruments of the research. The spesification of this research that make this research was different from other previous research include the use of translation aids in conducting the translation and the text that was translated; which was in this research, researcher chose the cultural text. The term novice translator was then confirmed by the research done by Jääkeläinen in 1989. In addition, Mossop’s research in 2001 was to highlight to do a research on time and tasks distribution over the phases in translation process. In addition, the program, such as Translog-
II and Camtasia Studio 9 were used by Carl in 2012 as the instruments in his research.
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2.16 Conceptual Framework
Translation Process
(Jakobsen, 2003)
Mangkobar Text
The Dominant
Translation Process Used
(Gopferich, 2008) Time Distribution Translation Translator’s Phases Performance (Mossop, 2000) Translation Tasks Distribution
The Use of Translation Aids Translation Aids Management (Nord, 1997)
Figure 2.14 The conceptual framework of the research
Based on the research conceptual framework above, this research focused on process-oriented which investigated the mental process taking place during the novice translators when translating Mangkobar text. The translation process in this research focused on the dominant types of translation process, distribution of time, distribution of tasks over the translation phases, and the use of translation aids in translation process. Then, the findings of this research showed the dominant types of translation process (cognitive, metacognitive, and social-affective strategy), 83
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time used in the three phases of translation, types of translation tasks, and translation aids management in translation process.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
Following to the research questions that have been formulated, this research was a qualitative research that focused on the finding problems and deeply understanding a central phenomenon development (Cresswell, 2011, p.16).
In this research, the researcher analysed mental processes during the translation process that translated a Mangkobar text in Angkola Language into Bahasa
Indonesia text and Bahasa Indonesia text into English text as the central phenomenon requiring exploration and understanding.
This research belongs to a qualitative research employing an exploratory case study as a method which suggested by Berg (2001). When conducting an exploratory case study, fieldwork and data collection had been undertaken before defining the research question. The research was process oriented which was done by involving two aspects of data that were objective and genetic data.
The source of objective data was the Mangkobar text in Angkola Language translated by novice translators for a pilot study. While genetic data in the form of information related translator background of information, and background of decision-making during the translation process.
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3.2 Data and Source of Data
3.2.1 Data
The data used in this study were the ST, the TT, and the process of translating the ST. They were in the forms of linear representation from Translog-
II and supported by screen recording from Camtasia Studio 9. Analysis of these data revealed the dominant types of translation process, time distribution, translation tasks distribution, and translation aids employed by the novice translators.
3.2.2 Source of Data
The source of the data used was the written source of the Mangkobar text in Angkola Language consisting of three paraghraphs from anak boru (son in law) consists of 221 words. The results of a translation by novice translators who translated the Mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to EL.
3.3 Participants
The participants of this research were five novice translators. AL is their mother tongue and they are native speakers of BI and emphasizing on the participants’ homogeneous profile.
1) Their mother tongue is AL;
2) They all have ever been participated in Mangkobar event;
3) They work as semi-professional translators and recieve money for any
translation- related work;
4) They are all familiar with major web search techniques for translation
process;
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5) They are all familiar with the type and style of texts to be used, as a result
of attending some Translation Workshop or Translation Seminar.
Besides, there was a conscious effort to control the participants, which is specific variables that allowed to see how the quality of the translation was influnced by the process undertaken during the translation. The methods choosen were :
1) Background Questionnnaire (translation experience)
There were 13 novice translators and given a background qustionnaire to
select the participants who met the given criteria (see appendix 1). 10 out
of 13 returned the questionnaire and were suggested to take other
participant selection criteria;
2) Their proficiency level of mother tongue AL (L1) was ‘very good’,
confirmed by ‘penasehat adat’ in Angkola, Padang Sidimpuan;
3) The proficiency level of BI (L2) required for the participant was ‘unggul’
with the range score 578 and 618 by Test of Bahasa Indonesia Proficiency
(UKBI);
4) The proficiency level of English (L3) required for participant was between
503 and 550 by Test of English Proficiency (TOEFL).
The result of the participant selection through the presccribed criteria
mentioned above is presented at Table 3.1 below.
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Table 3.1 The result of the participant selection
Test of Bahasa Angkola TOEFL No. Name Indonesia Language Test Score Rank Score 1 Novice A Very good 578 Unggul 537 2 Novice B Very good NA NA 525 3 Novice C Good 419 Madya 500 4 Novice D Very good 602 Unggul 550 5 Novice E Good 420 Madya 475 6 Novice F Very good 618 Unggul 503 7 Novice G Very good 601 Unggul 517 8 Novice H Good 502 Madya NA 9 Novice I Very good 590 Unggul 550 10 Novice J Very good NA NA NA
There were five novice translators to be the selected participants of this research that met the requirements of the prescribed criteria above (see Table 3.1).
By this selecting process, the researcher was able to assume that they shared the important characteristics concerning language and translation competence.
3.4 Source Text
In this reserach, the participants were given one text of Mangkobar to be translated and it was taken from the transcript of Angkola wedding ceremony.
The lenght of the text is 221 words respectively. The familiarity with topic and style was a variable that needed to be controled as much as possible.
3.5 Research Instruments
As this research was a qualitative research, the main instrument was the researcher herself. The researcher was assisted by some supporting instruments,
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such as IPDRs, retrospective questionnaire, screen recording tool, keylogging tool. The supporting instruments were as follows.
3.5.1 IPDRs
IPDRs was introduced by Daniel Gile (1995) is a type of “diary” that accompanies a translation. It consisted of notes about “problems” that the translator encountered in the tasks, the tentative solutions considered, the resources consulted and reasons for adopting a particular solution in the end
(Gile, 2004, p. 10). Furthermore, Dam-Jensen and Heine (2009) pointed out that
“IPDR was developed as a tool for studying student's decision-making in translation" (p. 5).
3.5.2 Retrospective Questionnaire
The retrospective questionnaire was piloted after the initial questionnaire trial. This questionnaire was given primarily to the five novice translators as the participants. This testing was carried out because the modification were both more substantial and more related to the course content. The result of it was the data of this research particularly in terms of using translation aids while doing the translation process.
3.5.3 Screen Recording Tool
Screen recording tool was a screen capture and recording software developed by TechSmith Corporation. In this research, the screen recording used was Camtasia Studio 9, the latest version of Camtasia Studio. Camtasia was chosen due to the fact that it has been reported to be compatible with Translog
(Jakobsen, 2006, p. 103)
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Camtasia was used to record all movements and actions on the screen of a computer during the pauses in translation process, including substituting, the time spent, deleting, using online resources, etc by translators.
3.5.4 Keylogging Tool
The keylogging tool that was used in this research was Translog II.
Translog was a keylog software program (developed by Arnt Lykke Jakobsen in
1995) that allows a researcher to record or logs all the keystrokes done by the translators on computer keyboard while translating. Translog was created after some years of exclusive use of TAPs in translation process research to respond to
“the need felt for quantitative reinforcement of assumptions about translating based on qualitative data only” (Jakobsen, 1999, p. 11). The latest version is
Translog II which is capable of recording both keyboard and mouse activity. It is downloaded from the CRITT website at bridge.cbs.dk, where the program is freely distributed for academic purposes together with manuals and video tutorials. The program consists of two components: Translog-II Supervisor is used to create, modify, replay, and analyse a project; Translog-II User is acted as the actual test environment accessed by the participants, which also logs the keystrokes and temporal aspects of the process.
3.6 Data Collection Method
In this research, the data were used to evaluate the research were collected by using the instruments including IPDRs, retrospective questionnaire, TAPs ( the translation process was recorded and videotaped by using Translog–II and
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Camtasia Studio 9 that were installed in computer used in this research, then the recordings were transcribed to produce TAPs).
The translation process was conducted in a room that was designed as closely as possible to the workfield of translators. Translog-II and Camtasia
Studio 9 were installed in laptop SONY VAIO Core I3. The novice translators were given the time to learn how to use the Translog-II and Camtasia Studio 9 and they could ask questions and made themselves familiar to work with Translog-II program and its features. The mangkobar text was given in Translog-II work sheet that available in the program. Translog-II as the keylogging recorder was used to observe the time spent by the novice translator in order to get the data concerning the distribution of time and distribution of translation tasks over the translation process. Then, the translation process was recorded by using Translog-II and
Camtasia Studio 9. All of the novice translators were allowed to use all translation aids to support them in translation process.
The IPDRs was used to observe and record the translators activities while they were translating the text. The novice translators was given plenty of time until they could finish their works. Finishing their works, they were asked to complete the retrospective questionnaire to let them in giving the comment on their work. Triangulation is an attempt to use other means to overcome the problems that arise in the provision of data (Mahsun, 2011, p.236). This reserach used triangulation method to come to the research findings by combining keylogging: Translog-II, Camtasia Studio 9 and retrospective questionnaire.
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3.7 Data Analysis Method
The data collected using TAPs analyzed qualitatively through the following procedures (Lauffer, 200, p.202). The data were analyzed to find out the mental processes while the novice translators were translating the mangkobar text.
At this stage, the data were used to find out what happened during the translation process. All of the processes were described, such as pauses, deletion (spelling, word, clause, sentence deletion), substitution, translation strategy preference, and time spent. Then, the data were analyzed in terms of the process dominantly used by the novice translators while translating the text. And then, the data were also found out the processes taking place when the novice translators were translating the mangkobar text. At this stage, the data were used to find out the time distribution used over each of translation phases.
And then, the data also were analyzed to find out the information about the translation tasks used over each of translation phases. At this stage, the researcher counted the total number of translation tasks during the novice translators translating the mangkobar text and classified them based on their classification stated by Brian Mossop (2000, p.40), including processing, production, documentation, and revision, technical revision, technical adjustment, production and revision, production and technical revision. Then, the researcher found out how the novice translators distributed translation tasks over each of translation phases.
Then, the data were analyzed to get the information about the translation tools used when translating the mangkobar text. Camtasia Studio 9 and retrospective questionnaire were used to get the data related to the management of
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translation aids in translation process. At this stage, the researcher played the recorded data obtained trough Camtasia Studio 9 to analyze how the novice translators managed the translation aids in completing their works in each of translation phases.
Triangulation is an attempt to use other means to overcome the problems that arise in the provision of data (Mahsun, 2011, p. 236). The three triangulation techniques used: 1. Triangulation of data sources, 2. Methodological triangulation
(data retrieval), and 3. Theory of triangulation.
3.8 Technique of Analyzing the Data
In analyzing the data, the technique was done by using interactive analytical model of Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014) which is an interaction between components with data collection process as a cycle-shaped process. The analysis was done with three main components: (1) data condensation, (2) data display, and (3) conclusion drawing. Here is a data analysis diagram proposed by
Miles, Huberman and Saldana :
Figure 3.1. Data analysis components
According to Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014, pp.31-33) in the analysis of qualitative data, there are three activities that occur simultaneously.
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Activities in data analysis are: data condensation, data display, and conclusion drawing / verifying.
1. Data Condensation
Data condensation has the goal of processing the data that arises in writing notes in which the process consists of selection, focus, simplification, abstraction, and transformation data close to the whole of the field records in writing, interview transcripts, documents, and other empirical materials.
In this research the first step selected data Mangkobar text from anak boru sides, then it was followed by simplification. The simplification process was done by simplifying the text, and deleting some phrases of the text which were too long. After process of abstraction, this step performed a Mangkobar text in work sheet, the last was transformation stage. In this stage, researcher presented data and used it in work sheet typed in the Translog.
2. Data Display
Data display is the process of organizing data, unification of information that enables inferences and actions in tabular form. Data display helps to understand what is happening and doing something, including more in-depth analysis or taking action based on understanding. In this research, display the data, tables, and diagrams were used. The tables and diagrams were used to tabulate the dominant types of translation process, time spent in translating over the phases of translation, distribution of translation tasks, and also types of translation aids by the novice translators. This process was done by referring to the research problems.
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3. Drawing and Verifying Conclusions
This analysis activity is drawing conclusions and verification from the beginning of data collection, a qualitative analyzer begins searching for the meaning of things, noting the regularity of explanations, possible configurations, causal paths, and propositions. Final conclusions may not appear until the data collection ends, depending on the size of the collection of field notes, coding, storage, and retrieval methods used, the researcher's skills, and the demands of the funder.
In this research, the data were verified. It was done through the triangulation method in which the data obtained from the TAPs were confirmed with the data obtained from the retrospective questionnaire. It was used to confirm whether the analysis of results on the TAPs of novice translators were in agreement with what they wrote in the retrospective questionnaire. Then, analysis was concluded to formulate as the findings of the research. Based on those, the types of process, distribution time, distribution tasks, and types of translation aids were produced.
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CHAPTER IV
DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
The participants are 5 (five) novice translators or semi-professional translators. Their mother tongue are AL, they are all native speakers of BI, and also share a relatively homogeneous profile. They work as semi-professional translators and recieve money for any translation related work. They have proficiency level of AL (L1) as mother tongue was ‘very good’, confirmed by
‘penasehat adat’ in Angkola, Padang Sidimpuan, and the proficiency level of BI
(L2) was ‘unggul’ with the minimum score 578 by Test of BI Proficiency (UKBI), and the last was the proficiency level of EL (L3), the minimum score was 503 by
Test of EL Proficiency (TOEFL). They were asked to translate one mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to EL, and it was taken from the transcript of
Angkola wedding ceremony.
The novice translators were provided a laptop SONY VAIO Core I3 which Translog-II and Camtasia Studio 9 were installed in it, and it was connected to internet for online activities. The internet modem was used Andromax M3Z with 100 mbps speed. They did the translation on the Translog recording space
(see Figure 4.1) and whatever they did on the keyboard during the translation process was recorded.
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Figure 4.1 Translog work space (translated from AL to BI)
Figure 4.2 Translog work space (translated from BI to EL)
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In figure 4.1, the format of work space of translating from AL to BI provided for the novice translators where the ST is on the top. This research used this because it is a common way of most translators do their works, where they can move their head up and down while doing translation. In figure 4.2, translating from BI to EL has the same work space as in figure 4.1.
The researcher recorded the work of the novice translators by using
Translog-II in the process of data collection. During this session, the researcher took a note on every activity the novice translators performed. The notes included the identification of translation tasks, distribution of time over the three phases, types of process, and the time spent for pauses, etc. The end of the playing session showed the complete translated text as can be seen in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 The end of playing session of the novice translators’ work
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In Figure 4.3 showed the final work of the novice translators on Translog, the upper space contains the ST and the lower space contains the TT. At the end playing session, the researcher copied the TT on Translog into the Microsoft
Word for further analyis. The Translog provides the linier representations on what have been done by the novice translators in terms of keyboard activities during the translation process.
Camtasia Studio 9 software program (see Figure 4.4) was used to record all of the screen activities during the translation process. This program was used to get the data related to the novice translators’ online activities. By this program, the researcher could identify the websites visited by the novice translators and what they did with all the informations that they got from those websites.
Figure 4.4 Screen recording of Camtasia Studio 9
The five participants in this research (novice translators) for the sake of codes of ethics of the research are hereinafter respectively called novice A, D, F,
G, and I. In addition, another instrument, retrospective questionnaire (see
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Appendix 8) was used to get the written data related to the translation process and primarily used to complete the triangualation method applied in data analysis.
4.1.1 Types of Translation Process
The types of translation process in this research analyzed and described by adopting the theory of learning strategies included cognitive process, metacognitive process, and social affective process. In addition to the cognitive process of translation, the interaction of individuals towards existential realities such as learning is a concern whose origins began in ancient times. Therefore, knowing the translator as a learner, in particular knowing their learning style, serves to understand their choices and identify their skills. The learning style refers to the fact that individuals use their own method or strategy for learning.
Even though these strategies will change depending on the learning context, the fact is that each subject tends to develop certain preferences or trends that define their style of learning. The learning style is composed of cognitive traits, affective and physiological characteristics that serve as indicators of how individuals structure content, elaborate concepts, interpret information, solve problems and respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1988).
The data of this were obtained through the Translog recording, screen recording of Camtasia, and observation (IPDRs). Through Translog recording, it was described that sometimes the novice translators did not do or did not type anything on the Translog work sheet. Then, another instrument, a computer screen recording (Camtasia studio 9) was used to know whatever the novice translators were doing when they did not do anything on the keyboard. Through this instrument, it was found out every activities related to the use of translation aids, 100
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such as online resources, and also it revealed the novice translators’ activities related to physical activities while they were translating, such as stretching activities, facial expression, called someone also recorded by this instrument. Not only screen recording of Camtasia, but also observation was another method to reveal and support the novice translators’ activities related to the physical activities. Asking questions to the novice translators while they were translating were recorded in the IPDRs during the observation.
The researcher recorded all the novice translators’ activities during translation process and analyzed the type of learning strategies that they used in translation process through these three instruments: Translog recording, screen recording, and IPDRs. These three instruments were combined to describe the type of translation process undertaken by the novice translators in translating the text by two processes; first process was translated from AL to BI, and the second process was translated from BI to EL. They were shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Types of translation process in translating (AL-BI) and (BI-EL)
Type of Translation Translation Phases Linearity Process
Novice AL – BI BI – EL Translator AL – BI BI – EL AL - BI BI – EL Not Not Orderly Orderly Orderly Orderly Linear Linear Social Novice A √ - - √ Cognitive and Inline and Inline affective
Linear Linear Novice D - √ - √ Cognitive Cognitive and Inline and Inline Linear Linear Social Novice F √ - - √ Cognitive and Inline and Inline affective
Linear Linear Social Novice G - √ √ - Cognitive and Inline and Inline affective
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Linear Linear Social Novice I - √ √ - Cognitive and Inline and Inline affective
The data in Table 4.1 shown that five novice translators (novice A, novice
D, novice F, novice G, and novice I) dominantly applied social affective process while translating mangkobar text from AL to BI. Most of them follow the translation phases orderly, it means they started the translation by reading the ST and activating their background of knowledge related to the idea in the ST (pre- drafting phase). Then, they wrote the translation draft from beginning to the end of the text (drafting phase). Finished writing in the drafting phase, they edited their first draft of the TT before submitting their final draft (post-drafting phase).
Meanwhile, novice D applied the cognitive process. He did not follow the translation phases orderly. Novice D did not do the pre-drafting, it means he did not read the ST respectively. He started not only writing the translation draft from beginning to the end of the text (drafting phase) but also activating his background of knowledge related to the idea in the text at once. Finished writing in the drafting phase, he edited his first draft of the TT before submitting the final draft
(post-drafting phase). In translating the text from BI to EL, novice D applied cognitive process, also he did not follow the translation phases orderly, he only did the drafting phase. It indicated that he really depended on his background of knowledge and also did revision while he did the drafting.
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice G started the translation by reading the ST and activating his background of knowledge related to the idea in the ST (pre-drafting phase). Then, he wrote the translation draft from beginning to the end of the text (drafting phase) followed by editing the draft
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of the TT at once, and he did not do post-drafting phase in specific time.
Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, novice G and novice
I applied cognitive process as they followed completely the prescribed order of translation phases from pre-drafting by reading the ST and activating their background of knowledge, then wrote the translation draft from beginning to the end of the text in drafting phase. Then, they edited their first draft of TT before submitting their final draft (post drafting).
Three out of five novice translators did not follow the translation phases orderly while translating the text from BI to EL. They did not spend their time in reading the ST, they read the ST while translating the text in drafting phase and did some of revisions in post-drafting phase.
In addition, in terms of linearity, the data in Table 4.1 showed that all of the novice translators applied linear and inline method while translating the text whether from AL to BI or from BI to EL, that was indicated through the way they did revision. They did some revisions in linear way, indicated by moving from one clause to another clause and one paragraph to another paragraph not jumping or skipping the clause or paragraph.
The translation process analysis is also supported by the data related to the pauses taken by each of novice translators while translating mangkobar text whether from AL to BI or from BI to EL. Pauses can be identified and measured with the help of Translog. Pauses are time delay taken during text production in translation process correlates with cognitive processing. In this research, pauses play an important role because a pause is one of the media to describe what happened to novice translators during translating a text. Based on the data
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recorded in the Translog, novice A spent 30 minutes 15 seconds to finish translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, with the total pauses 11 minutes 23 seconds were applied in three translation phases of translation process. He only spent 20 seconds of pauses in pre-drafting phase in which he read the ST, 6 minutes 46 seconds was spent most in drafting phase, and 4 minutes 17 seconds was spent in post-drafting phase to revise the TT. The lenght of time to finish the translation and the lenght of pauses in finishing translating BI to EL were even greater. In this case novice A spent 50 minutes 35 seconds to finish the translation work. He spent 25 minutes 51 seconds for total pauses. Most of the pauses duration was still spent in drafting phase 22 minutes 27 seconds, and 3 minutes 25 seconds was spent in post-drafting. At drafting phase, he transated simultaneousy did revision.
Then, novice translator D spent only 17 minutes in finishing translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, 4 minutes 28 seconds of which was spent for taking pauses. He did not read the ST at all in pre-drafting, he spent 4 minutes 15 seconds in drafting phase, and 14 seconds was spent in post-drafting phase.
Meanwhile, he spent 15 minutes in finishing translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, and only 2 minutes spent in taking the pauses because he did not spend on pre-drafting and post-drafting. He took pauses only to see his revision on his drafting of translation. He did it in both of processes which were AL to BI and BI to EL.
Furthermore, novice F spent 27 minutes 37 seconds to finish translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, with the total pauses 13 minutes 17 seconds were applied in three translation phases of translation process. He only spent 20
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seconds of pauses in pre-drafting phase in which he read the ST, 8 minutes 30 seconds was spent most in drafting phase to translate and also do revision simultaneously, and 4 minutes 26 seconds was spent in post-drafting phase to revise the TT. Novice F spent 31 minutes 13 seconds to finish translating mangkobar text from BI to EL. He spent 16 minutes 34 seconds for total pauses.
Most of the pauses duration was still spent in drafting phase 13 minutes 26 seconds, and 3 minutes was spent in post-drafting.
Then, novice G spent only 13 minutes 51 seconds in finishing translating text from AL to BI, 4 minutes of which was spent for taking pauses. He spent to read the ST 18 seconds in pre-drafting, 3 minutes 50 seconds in drafting phase and did some revisions also, and there was no taking pauses in post-drafting phase. It means he did nothing in that phase. Meanwhile, he spent 14 minutes 17 seconds in finishing the work, 1 minute 18 seconds in pre-drafting 5 minutes 15 seconds in drafting phase translating and as taking pauses from BI to EL because he did not spend on pre-drafting and post-drafting. It means he also did nothing in those phases.
Then, novice I spent 20 minutes 23 seconds in finishing translating mangkobar text from AL to BI and 9 minutes 30 seconds for pausing. The pauses applied in pre-drafting, drafting. He read the mangkobar text before starting to translate. While in drafting phase, he did translation and simultaneously revision.
Meanwhile, in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, he spent 27 minutes 16 seconds, and 14 minutes 43 seconds taken for pauses. Most of the pauses were applied in drafting phase, he also did translation and simultaneously revision.
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The time spent by each of novice translators in finishing their work was summarized in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 The time spent by the novice translators in finishing the work
AL – BI BI – EL Novice Total Total Total Total Translator Time Pauses Percentage Time Pauses Percentage (minutes) (minutes) (minutes) (minutes) Novice A 30 11 37% 50 26 52% Novice D 17 4 24% 15 2 13% Novice F 27 13 48% 31 16 52% Novice G 14 4 29% 14 5 36% Novice I 20 9 45% 27 14 52%
The percentage used in Table 4.2 shows that the ratio of pauses with the total time spent by the novice translators in finishing their work. Table 4.2 indicates that four out of five of the novice translators took longer pauses in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL. Meanwhile, only one novice translator took longer pauses in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI. The 26 minutes out of 50 minutes spent by novice A for pauses means that 52% of the total time spent in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL was used for taking pauses.
Meanwhile, he took pauses 37% of the total time in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI. Then, novice translator F took longer pauses in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL. He took pauses as long as 52% of the total time spent in translating from BI to EL and 48% of the total time spent in translating from AL to BI.
For novice G and I also took longer pauses in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL. Novice G took pauses as long as 36% of the total time spent, and novice I took pauses as long as 52% in translating from BI to EL, but 29% of the
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total time spent by novice G in translating from AL to BI, and 45% of the total time spent by novice I in translating from AL to BI.
From the data collected which were the combination of Translog recording, screen recording, and observation (IPDRs) described that the novice translators dominantly used one out of three types of translation process in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, it is social affective. Social affective in which they interacted with other people through the writings published, such as blogs and news from the internet websites. They searched some writings and read them as the supporting materials to help them in completing the translation work.
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice D did not spend the time before he started to work on his translation. It means that based on the log recorded, he did not spend the time in pre-drafting as shown in the Figure 4.5.
In other words, he did not follow the prescribed the translation phases in translation process. Even though he did not read the ST before writing the translation draft, it did not mean he missed the pre-drafting phase. As shown in figure 4.5, he did it simultaneously with the drafting phase. The log recorded that he spent only 10 seconds after he finished translating the first sentence of the first paragraph.
The figure 4.5 indicates that once he started to write on the Translog, he wrote the TT and then he did the pause as long as 10 seconds. To confirm what he was doing during the pause, the researcher played the screen recording and found no activity performed. In fact, the pauses were applied to decide the equivalence of some culturally terms in the following sentence. In this case, he did not use any
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translation aids to get the information. He depended only on his memory in revision and background of knowledge about mangkobar text. In post-drafting, he spent 14 seconds. In the short duration, log recorded that he did revision on some sentences or phrase in the text, and the type of this process is called cognitive learning styles.
Figure 4.5 The recording log of novice translator D (AL-BI)
Meanwhile, in translating from BI to EL novice D applied cognitive learning style also. Log recorded that he did not spend the time in pre-drafting and post- drafting as can be seen in figure 4.6. He did the drafting phase and took several pauses during the translation process. This indicates that he much relied on his background of knowledge in drafting and revised his work, and he did not use any translation aids, such as online resources, dictionary and etc at all during the translation process. In addition, he spent 2 minutes to do revision when he was still in drafting phase during the pauses, it can be seen in figure 4.6. It was recorded by Camtasia program. It is also the indication that he applied the cognitive learning style process. 108
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Figure 4.6 The recording log of novice translator D (BI-EL)
The log recorded that novice A spent short duration as long as 20 seconds in pre-drafting before he started to work on translation in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI (see Figure 4.7). He spent more time in drafting phase especially by searching the equivalent of the words by using translation aids, i.e. printed dictionary and called his brother. This is supported by the observation done by researcher who recorded that he called his brother to ask about some cultural terms that he was not very sure. This indicates that his learning style is social affective. Then he followed the prescribed phases of translation process.
The type of this process is called cognitive learning strategy. So, he did the combination of cognitive and social affective process but social affective strategy was dominantly used by him.
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Figure 4.7 The recording log of novice translator A (AL-BI)
Meanwhile, in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, he did not do the pre-drafting phase. In Figure 4.8 showed that once he started to work on Translog, he jumped to the drafting phase. It is indicated that he did not read the ST before writing the draft of translation. He took several pauses in drafting phase which was 22 minutes. It means he did many things while taking pauses, he searched the information by using the online resources and did some revisions on his first draft in the recorded of Camtasia as screen recording. This means that the novice A applied cognitive learning style.
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Figure 4.8 The recording log of novice translator A (BI-EL)
Another evidence showed that novice F applied the combination of social affective and cognitive process. The number and length of pauses he did in each of translation phases. In figure 4.9 showed that he took several pauses during the translation process. He spent 21 seconds in pre-drafting while working on translation in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI and no pre-drafting while he was working in translating from BI to EL. During this time, he did not do any activities on Translog, he was just reading the ST. It was supported by the observation done by the researcher who recorded his work. Meanwhile, in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, novice F applied the cognitive process.
This was indicated by following the translation phases.
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Figure 4.9 The recording log of novice translator F (AL-BI)
In addition, novice G applied the combination of cognitive and social affective process. It was indicated by reading the whole ST and spent 18 minutes before beginning the translation draft when translated from AL to BI. He was not only reading the whole of ST but also using the translation aids on online activities to search related articles about ST. Even though he did not follow the three translation phases, he translated sentence by sentence based on the context of ST, paragraph by paragraph. In drafting phase, he spent four minutes to finish the translation draft. In Figure 4.10 shows that during the translation process, he took several pauses . In indicates that he applied social affective, by using the translation aids. Based on the Camtasia recorded that he consulted with his scholar that knows better than him to get the information about the equivalent of some cultural terms. He did not do the post- drafting after finishing the translation draft.
In fact, he did the revision simultaneously with the drafting phase.
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Figure 4.10 The recording log of novice translator G (AL-BI)
Meanwhile, in translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, he applied cognitive process. He did his work by following the prescribed phases of translation. He spent fourteen minutes in finishing the work. The log recorded that he spent one minute 39 seconds in pre-drafting phase (see Figure 4.11). In this stage, he read the ST to get the comprehension, used translation aids in which online sources to get the related article about the topic and took some important notes. Once he finished the pre-drafting, he came into drafting phase in which he wrote the first draft of his translation. After finishing the first and second phases, he began to revise the draft, especially the cultural terms that was difficult to find in TT. In other words, he followed all of the translation phases in translation process. He took pauses for about five minutes, the screen recorded that he read again the translation draft, and then revised the TT grammatical accuracy and confirming the naturalness of TT before producing the translated text.
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Figure 4.11 The recording log of novice translator I (AL-BI)
In terms of linearity in translation process, he applied linear method of translation process. It means he began translating from the title and proceed in linear untill the end of translation phase. In other words, he translated the first sentence before the seond sentence, the first paragraph before the second paragraph, and so third.
Furthermore, the novice I also applied the combination of cognitive and social affective process in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI but dominantly used was social affective process. He spent 01.39 minutes in pre- drafting. During this stage he read the ST to get the comprehension and used translation aids, the online activities to search for related articles. Figure 4.11 shows that novice I started to write the draft of his translation after spending 45 seconds for pre-drafting phase in translating text from BI to EL. It means that he followed the translation phases orderly. Another evidence showed that novice I applied social affective was when he called someone to get information related to the ST by Camtasia recorded. Based on the Translog activities while taking pauses
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spent 09.30 minutes in the translation process he also used the printed dictionary to get the equivalent of some cultural words. However, in terms in linearity, he did the translation in linear way. It could be seen when he did the revisions in drafting phase, he revised after completing the first paragraph, he did it sentence by sentence or phrase by phrase.
In addition, in translating BI to EL novice I dominantly used the cognitive strategy. It indicates that he followed the translation phases while doing the translation. In this stage, he tried to find the equivalent of the ST, cultural shifts, and encoding the ST understanding in the TT to get the meaning equivalence. In the post-drafting phase, he spent 01.30 minutes to read the translation draft and also revised the grammatical of TT, confirmed the naturalness of TT. In terms of linearity, he applied inline method by revising the text at sentence level and phrase level to adjust the SL phrase structure with the TL phrases structure. He took several pauses during the translation process, he did many revisions when he was in drafting phase recorded on the Translog and spent 12.28 minutes.
Knowledge of successful processes is valuable in translator training and in any efforts aimed at reforming existing professional practices. Successful translators also have relatively articulate subjective theories of translation which guide their performance. By virtue of their strategic touch they focus their attention, their conscious decision-making and their use of translation aids so that their investment in effort results in sufficient communicational gains.
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4.1.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process
The act of translation, even in its most rudimentary form, requires knowledge: knowledge about the source language and target language, as example the grammar and lexicon, as well as knowledge about the topic and genre of the source text, and possibly about the intended target audience. A professional translator may have all the knowledge that he needs to translate simply, general texts and those that are within his scope of familiarity, but more often than not he will also require information that is not readily available as existing knowledge in his head. This creates a need for external information which can be fulfilled in several different ways (Volanen, S. 2015, p. 1).
Translation is an action which can rarely be executed merely on existing knowledge. It may be possible to translate basic texts without using external resources such as dictionaries or other people, and even then the level of linguistic competence in both languages involved needs to be high. Thus, dictionaries and other external representations of information are used frequently in translation and can not be ignored as integral part of it. But translator’s work process has changed drastically over the last three decades, at least in regard of technology. Although there are still a few translators who mostly use pen and paper as their translation aids. Nowadays, most translators use computers and electronic resource materials rather than paper dictionaries and encyclopedias. However, in this study, the novice translators used paper dictionary to translate mangkobar text from AL to
BI.
In this study, Camtasia program was used to record all screen activities, both online and offline by novice translators during each pauses in the translation process in order to gain information of actions which would not be visible in the
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Translog data. Referring to the objectives of the research, the researcher used Camtasia program to record all of the translation aids, such as not only internet resources but also with the printed information sources. The data concerning the types of translation aids in translation process were also gained from the retrospective questionnaire. The data from screen recording and retrospective questionnaire were analyzed to reveal the types of translation aids used by novice translator in translating mangkobar text in two sessions, the first session was in translating from AL to BI, and the second session was from BI to EL in each of translation phases. In translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, four out of five novice translators used translation aids in the process of translation. They used translation aids in pre-drafting, drafting, and post-drafting phases. In this process, novice translators depended primarily on their pre-existing knowledge before using external information sources or translation aids. In pre-drafting phase, novice translators chose and visited several websites such as margasiregar.wordpress.com, askolan.wordpress.com as shown in Figure 4.12 and
Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.12 Using news website in pre-drafting phase
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These online sources were categorized as blog and news. Novice translators used these sources in order to support their background knowledge that related to the source text.
Figure 4.13 Using blogs website in pre-drafting phase
In drafting phase, the novice translators looked up the printed dictionary entitled “Kamus Moderen Bahasa Angkola Mandailing written by A. Bazar
Harahap. The printed dictionary is a bilingual dictionary, i.e. AL – BI in order to find equivalence for particular terms as the text is cultural text that contains custom language in Angkola and also it is spoken language. They did not find the particular terms in online dictionary so they chose bilingual printed dictionary, as the example were santabi sampulu, botima. By using this dictionary finally they found the meaning ‘santabi sampulu’ means salam hormat, ‘botima’ means sekian. Another term that they translated was ‘mora ni mora’ Novice A, novice D, novice G in their first draft wrote ‘mora ni mora’, but after conlsulted to dictionary, they revised their first draft. Novice A revised it by making paraphrase to be ‘setara keluarga mertua saudara laki–laki istri’, novice D revised it to be
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‘mora kami yang bersaudara’, novice G revised it to be ‘mora serta kerabatnya’, while novice F and I kept their first draft.
Since translators simply can not transfer meanings from one language to another without understanding the information offered in the source text and finding an acceptable correspondence of that information in the traget language.
Another term which was unfamiliar to them was ‘tua sahala ni raja’. In this case, most of the novice translators tried to call their family and friends to ask the meaning, clarification or verification. Novice A in his first draft wrote ‘raja’, novice F wrote ‘bangsawan’, novice G wrote ‘kaum raja’, novice I wrote ‘tetua adat’ in translating the term, and all of them revise it. Novice A revised it to be
‘barisan raja’, novice F revised it to be ‘raja yang bersahaja dan terhormat’, novice G kept his first draft, he did not revised it, novice I revised to be ‘raja dan bangsawan’, meanwhile novice D did not make an revision at all on that term.
Mostly novice translators used online resources in drafting phase.
For example, ‘melangsungkan/ menjalankan pesta’. Novice translators A in his first draft wrote’carry on the celebration’, novice D wrote ‘hold this ceremony’, novice F wrote ‘go through the wedding ceremony’, novice G wrote ‘hold the celebration’, novice I in her first draft wrote ‘hold the ceremony’ in translating the sentence. Then, Novice A revised his draft to be ‘celebration runs well’ with the help of online resources by visiting Google translate (see Figure 4.14). He revised it by deleting the words in the first draft and change the structure of phrase to complete his revision. Meanwhile novice D kept his first draft, he did not revise it, novice F revised his first draft to be ‘hold the wedding ceremony’, novice G kept his first draft – did not do revision, novice I wrote ‘this wedding ceremony
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must be held’, he did the revision also by deleting the phrases and changing the structure of it. They just wrote the word that they needed to search on the google translate, and then the google served them with a variety of diction they could choose to get the intended word to revise the word they needed to write in the TT.
Most of them did the revision while they were doing the drafting and did the revision based on the context of the situation moreover when translated from BI to
EL.
Figure 4.14 Screen recording of Google translate
It is also very important to consider the cultural reference in doing translation process. English vocabulary has the word ‘house’ and ‘home’ which refer to the same object. Where as in Indonesian language we only know the word
‘rumah.’ So, it will difficult for the translators to translate it according to the cultural of English language since in Indonesian language does not have that term.
House in English language is the form of a house in its form physically, whereas
‘home’ is a house which gives peace and humanity. That is why native
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speaker will say: I will go home, not, I will go house. The difference of this cultural perception will make the translation task difficult to find the equivalent meaning.
The readership’s source culture knowledge must also taken into account while one is doing a translation process. Since it is very important to convey all the meaning in a text, especially implicit information. so that the reader can understand what the text is about. Furthermore, where appropriate and available, the novice translators should also encourage to make use of online corpora in the foreign language which can provide valuable examples as to how individual foreign items are usually dealt with in the target culture. For example: see the translation of this sentence:
SL : Pada malam hari ini, kita berkumpul bersama di rumah mora ni mora.
TL : Tonight, we are here in our mora ni mora (parents in law ) house.
The given words in brackets are to give general idea or an explanation of a certain type of text or culture, the TL should not carry all the meaning possessed by the SL. The words put in brackets will do. In this case there are a lot of possibilities for the TL.
4.1.3 Distribution of Time Over the Phases of the Translation Process
The distribution of time takes an important role in translation process.
It shows how the translators manage their time in translating the text. Therefore, the distribution of time by novice translators was analyzed in this research. The analysis involved the total time spent by each of novice translators, the time spent for each of the activities over the three translation phases in translation process, and also the differences of each novice translators in distributing their time in 121
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translation process. In this research, the data were obtained from Translog recorded used as the data to analyze the total time spent and the distribution of time spent done by each of novice translators over the three phases of translation and also obtained from Camtasia Studio recorded used to analyze the activities done by each of novice translators over the three phases of translation in translation process.
The novice translators were asked to translate the cultural text from AL to
BI and then translate it from BI to EL. In this research, there are two sessions in translating process, therefore the ST were in AL and BI; and the TT were in BI to
EL. The first ST was mangkobar text was composed of 221 words respectively.
The second ST was in BI which was the result of their translation in the first session.
Based on the Translog recorded that five novice translators distribute the time over the three phases differently when translated the mangkobar text either in translating from AL to BI and from BI to EL. In terms of time spent, there was the difference between translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to
EL. In translating the text from BI to EL, four novice translators spent longer time than translating the text from BI to EL. It was displayed in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 The total time spent done by novie translators
Novice Time Spent in Translation Process (minutes) No. Translator AL – BI BI – EL 1. Novice A 30:15.219 50:34.547 2. Novice D 17:01.640 14:55.907 3. Novice F 27:37.218 31:13.344 4. Novice G 13:51.015 14:17.032 5. Novice I 20:23.859 27:16.125
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Based on the data displayed in Table 4.3, in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice A spent 30 minutes 15 seconds, novice D spent 17 minutes
02 seconds, novice F spent 27 minutes 37 seconds, novice G spent 13 minutes 51 seconds, and novice I spent 20 minutes 24 seconds. Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, novice A spent 50 minutes 35 seconds, novice D spent 14 minutes 56 seconds, novice F spent 31 minutes 13 seconds, novice G spent 14 minutes 17 seconds, and novice I spent 27 minutes 16 seconds. It indicates that four novice translators spent longer time in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, meanwhile in the contrary one novice translator spent longer time in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI. In this case, novice D found fewer difficulties when translated from BI to EL. In terms of finding the equivalence of cultural terms to be drafted into TT.
The novice translators also were different in distributing their time over the three phases of translation in translation process. It included pre-drafting phase, drafting phase, and post-drafting phase. Novice translators spent longer time in drafting phase than the other phases of translation either in translating the mangkobar text either from AL to BI or from BI to EL. On the basis of TAPs, it was calculated the time spent on each phases, and it was represented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Distribution of time over the phases of the translation process
Time Distribution in the Translation Phases (sec) Novice No. AL – BI BI- EL Translator Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Drafting Drafting drafting drafting drafting drafting 1. Novice A 20 1334 501 - 2644 391 2. Novice D - 1045 15 - 896 - 3. Novice F 21 1025 632 - 1451 462 4. Novice G 18 813 - 78 677 142 5. Novice I 100 1165 - 45 1328 363 123
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Based on the data displayed in the Table 4.4 above, in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice A distributed 20 seconds in pre-drafting,
1334 seconds in drafting, and 501 seconds in post drafting. It means that novice A distributed the longest time in drafting phase. Novice D did not distribute the time in pre-drafting, he distributed 1045 seconds in drafting, and 15 seconds in post- drafting. Novice F distributed 21 seconds in pre-drafting, 1025 seconds in drafting, and 632 seconds in post-drafting. Novice D distributed 18 seconds in pre-drafting, 813 seconds in drafting, and no post- drafting. Then, novice I distributed 100 seconds in pre-drafting, 1165 seconds in drafting, and also no post-drafting. It concluded that all the novice translators distributed the longest time in drafting phase in translation process. Meanwhile they distributed the shortest time in pre-drafting as presented in Table 4.4. The distribution of time over the phases of translation process was displayed in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15 The distribution of time over the phases of translation process (AL-BI)
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Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, novice A distributed 2644 seconds in drafting, and 391seconds in post drafting. It means that novice A distributed the longest time in drafting phase. Novice D did not distribute the time in pre-drafting and post-drafting, he distributed 896 seconds in drafting. Novice F distributed 1451seconds in drafting, and 462 seconds in post- drafting. Novice G distributed 78 seconds in pre-drafting, 677 seconds in drafting, and 142 seconds in post-drafting. Novice I distributed 45 seconds in pre-drafting,
1328 seconds in drafting, and 363 seconds in post-drafting. It also concluded that all the novice translators distributed the longest time in drafting phase in translation process. Meanwhile they distributed the shortest time in pre-drafting as presented in Figure 4. 16.
Figure 4.16 The distribution of time over the phases of the translation process (BI-EL)
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The percentage of time spent by novice translators in translating mangkobar text either from AL to BI and from BI to EL was summarized in Table
4.5.
Table 4.5 The percentage of time spent over the phases of the translation process (AL-BI) and (BI-EL)
AL - BI BI – EL Novice Translator Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Drafting Drafting drafting drafting drafting drafting
Novice A 1% 73% 28% 0% 87% 13% Novice D 0% 99% 1% 0% 100% 0% Novice F 1% 62% 38% 0% 75% 25% Novice G 2% 98% 0% 9% 74% 17% Novice I 8% 92% 0% 3% 81% 16%
As represented above in Table 4.5, in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, the percentage of time spent on different phases was almost identical for the five novice translators. However, everything changed in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL; most of novice translators increased significantly on the time spent, especially in drafting phase in translation process. Only one novice translator cut down significantly on the time spent when translated the mangkobar text from BI to EL as representated in Table 4.5.
In the first session, translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI, four novice translators did the pre-drafting. In pedagogical situation, the translator is advised to read the ST before starting to translate it. As seen in Figure 4.15 two out five translators still did the pre-drafting. Camtasia recorded that they took the time to prepare the new document and layout they preferred as displayed in Table
4.1. In the second session in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, the novice translators just opened a new window and started translating straightaway.
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It indicates that most of the novice translators did not do the pre-drafting as what they did in translating in the first session.
The time spent on the drafting phase was increased about 14% by novice
A, 1% by D , 15% by novice F, while it was reduced about 19% by novice G, and
14%by novice I while translating the text from BI to EL. In the first session, translating the text from AL to BI, novice A took 73%, novice D took 99%, novice F took 62%, novice G took 98%, and novice I took 95% of time respectively. While in the second session, translating from BI to EL, novice A took 87%, novice D took 100%, novice F took 77%, novice G took 79%, and novice I took 81% of time respectively. From the data compared, it came to the conclusion that there were important individual peferences in the perception in translating mangkobar text either from AL to BI or BI to EL among the novice translators.
In the first session, in which the ST was in AL, most of the novice translators distributed their time almost equal either in pre-drafting phase or in the drafting phase. Meanwhile, in the second session in which the ST was in BI (the translated text in the session one), most of the novice translators did not do the pre-drafting. However, the novice translators distributed longer time in drafting phase and post- drafting phase in translation process. It could be proved with the help of TAPs and retrospective questionnaire.
In the second session, they had time for revisons in the post-drafting.
They used it to make sure that they translated grammatically correct, spelling correction, and confirmed the naturalness of the TT. Only novice translator I distributed the time differently, he had no pre-drafting either in translating session
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1 and 2, and he took longer time in translating from AL to BI than from BI to EL.
If the two graphs are combined, it was summarized in the comparative time distribution for each of phases of translation process in figure 4.17 below.
Figure 4.17 The comparative distribution of time over the phases of translation process
In addition, in time used for the task, a clear correlation was found between novice with more experience and faster performance of the task. Thus, novice with more experience, was showed by novice D who spent on the evarage
17 minutes on the first task (from AL into BI), and 15 minutes on the second task
(from BI into EL). Experience, as expected, correlates with a shorter time to finish the task. The differences are substansial between novice with more experience and novice with less experience. Novice with more experience (10 years) in translating the Angkola text and also as a custom practioner in Angkola culture, therefore he could solve the problems fast, especially related to the cultural terms.
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In drafting phase, mostly he started to translate at clause level based on the context of the text.
In terms of corelation between translation and culture, they are so interrelated that translators can no longer ignore cultural elements in a text. That is why, before analysing some translation theories related to cultural studies, it is very important to establish what culture is and what the problems raised by its passage into a different community are. Every language has its own way to perceive reality, which influences the way in which reality is expressed by the members of a community. When translating, people find out things about others, about a world which is not theirs. If translation did not exist, it would be difficult to communicate with people from other countries, by communication meaning not only the transmission of words and phrases but also the sense of a text, because what translators should translate is messages, senses, and texts. Different translation scholars offer various ways in which translation problems could be solved so that the receiving audience may perceive the culture and the otherness of another world. Finally, to a certain degree and losing a part of the otherness of the source culture, culture can be translated by using some translation methods like the so-called equivalence, according to the functionalist theories.
4.1.4 Distribution of Translation Tasks Over the Phases of the Translation
Process
Camtasia program as screen recording recorded what was going on at each moment on the screen, such as the actions like consulting to the sources, dictionaries, people, search to the internet did not escape from the analysis of this
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research. The time unit chosen for the research was one second, following the recommendations by Jakobsen (1998, p. 3).
4.1.4.1 Novice A
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice A went through the three of translation phases. In pre-drafting phase, he distributed the translation tasks. He distributed two translation tasks, they were processing and technical adjustment. Processing indicates all the pauses during the translation process.
Based on the data from TAPs, he spent 17 seconds in processing in which he did not read the whole of ST, he just scanned and skimmed the ST to get the clue of the topic, and also spent only 3 second in technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down the cursor of the laptop in scanning and skimming the ST.
He continued to the drafting phase in which he spent almost all of his time in the translation process. In this phase, he distributed 394 second in production in which he started to type new text or compose the translation. In processing, he spent 410 seconds in which he took frequent pauses to solve the translation problems in terms of interpreting the ST, finding the appropiate equivalents to be drafted in the TT, and also encoding his understanding of the ST into the TT. It indicates that the distribution of time in line with the processing tasks of translation in translation process where he spent also almost his time in processing. The example that the novice A did the revision can be seen here :
ST : Di ari na saborngin on rap lugut kita nian di bagas ni mora ni mora niba.
First Draft : Pada malam hari ini, kita bersama berkumpul di rumah mora ni mora kami (setara pihak keluarga istri saudara laki–laki istri ) kita.
Final Draft : Pada malam hari ini, kita berkumpul bersama di rumah mora ni
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mora (setara keluarga mertua saudara laki–laki istri) kami.
The revision was found when novice A substituted his first draft of the explanation mora ni mora ‘setara pihak keluarga istri saudara laki–laki istri’ with ‘setara keluarga mertua saudara laki–laki istri’. In this case, finding the appropiate equivalents was the main problems encountered since the text contained a lot of technical terms related to the cultural terms. He also did the revision by subtituting his first draft of ‘bersama berkumpul’ with ‘berkumpul bersama’ which his final draft was more acceptable in TT. He spent 140 seconds in documentation in which he searched for related topic on the internet to get more uderstanding of the ST, looked up the words in the printed dictionary in finding the appropiate equivalents, and also he called someone to ensure him about the context and diction of the TT. He spent 90 seconds in revisions in which he deleted of previously written words or phrases or insertion of new text in the body of translation. Technical revisions was spent 110 seconds by the novice A. It means that he did some corrections, by correcting the typos and spelling the mistakes. When he wrote ‘merutua’, he did the technical revision to be ‘mertua’, and ‘menujui’ was corrected to be ‘menuju’, and etc. 20 seconds in technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down, minimized the windows also opened the new document. 100 seconds was spent in production and revision in which he started to type and simultaneously deleted of previously written words or phrases in translation. He spent 70 seconds in production and technical revision in which he started to type and simultaneously corrected the typo and spelling mistakes.
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In the post-drafting phase, he spent a lot of time in technical revision as long 241 seconds. It means that he did more correcting the typos or spelling mistakes in post-drafting phase than in drafting phase. He spent 55 seconds in processing in which he read the TT to confirm whether the TT had represented the original meaning contained in the ST. The naturalness of the TT was also done in this translation task in order to confirm that the TT had been independent over the
ST style; in other words, the TT did no longer imitate or follow the ST style.
In addition, in post-drafting, he spent 190 seconds in revisions by deleting of previously written words or phrases to confirm that the TT had been written with correct grammar corresponding to the prevailing TL structure. He also spent
15 seconds in technical adjustment to see the TT was produced. To sum up, the detail translation tasks done by novice A emphasized on the important role of doing the processing at the drafting phase because he distributed most his time in processing at drafting phase in translation process. How he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process was summarized in Table
4.6.
Table 4.6 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice A
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 394 0 Processing 17 410 55 Documentation 0 140 0 Revision 0 90 190 Technical Revision 0 110 241 Technical adjustment 3 20 15 Production + revision 0 100 0 Production + technical revision 0 70 0 Total 20 1.334 501
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Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, the novice A did not go through the three of translation phases. He skipped the pre-drafting phase It indicates that he did not distribute the translation tasks at all in this phase.
He only distributed the translation tasks in drafting and post-drafting phase in translation process. In drafting phase, he spent most his time in distributing the processing task in 750 seconds. It indicates that he took long pauses in this task since generally the translation problems encountered by novice A in this phase.
The translation problems encountered by novice A were finding the equivalent of the SL terms in the TL. It also related to whether he kept the ST words or phrases in the TT. Therefore, in this case, he solved such problems by distributing his time in documentation in 386 seconds. In this phase, he used the translation aids, such as visited the Google translate to look for specific equivalent for the ST term required in drafting the TT. Based on the data from TAPs, he frequently visited
Google translate to solve the problem of finding the equivalence. He selected one of the suggested words as the appropiate equivalent by considering the context in which it was used. The example of it can be seen here:
ST : Baiklah mora ni mora kami, maksud pertemuan kita pada malam hari ini adalah mengingat telah terjalinnya kesepakatan antara tulang naposo (setara anak laki–laki dari saudara laki-laki istri) dengan gadis dari mora ni mora yang telah bersatu padu menuju adat pernikahan.
First Draft : The respected mora ni mora of ours, the aimed of our gathering here today is refers to follow up of our tulang naposo (one wife’s brother) with the lady of mora ni mora who have the agreement of become one and decided to get marriage.
Final Draft : The respected mora ni mora of ours, the aimed of our gathering today is the follow up of the agreement of our tulang naposo (son of one wife’s brother) with the lady of mora ni mora who have decided to get married.
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He spent 414 seconds in revisions in which he deleted of previously written words or phrases or insertion of new text in the body of translation. It was found when he deleted his first draft of ‘here today is refers to follow up of our tulang naposo (one wife’s brother)’ and changed into ‘today is the follow up of the agreement of our tulang naposo (son of one wife’s brother)’. He also distributed
300 seconds in production in which he started to type new text or compose the translation. In addition, technical revisions was spent 310 seconds by the novice
A. It means that he did some corrections, by correcting the typos and spelling mistakes. For example, in the first draft of his translation he wrote ‘daughther’, he did the technical revision to be ‘daughter’, ‘sone’ was corrected to be ‘son’,
‘inded’ corrected to be ‘indeed’, and etc. 169 seconds in technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down, minimized the windows also opened the new document when he did the online activities. 180 seconds was spent in production and revision in which he started to type and simultaneously deleted of previously written words or phrases in translation, such as ‘mANG’ to be ‘Mangkobar’. He spent 135 seconds in production and technical revision in which he started to type and simultaneously corrected the typo and spelling mistakes.
In the post-drafting phase, he spent a lot of time in processing in 241 seconds. It means that he read the translation draft of TT to confirm whether the
TT had represented the original meaning contained in the ST. In this phase, he also spent on revisions in 86 seconds to get the naturalness of the TT in order to confirm that the TT had been independent over the STstyle; in other words, the
TT did no longer imitate or follow the ST style. In addition, in post-drafting, he spent 50 seconds in technical revisions to confirm that the TT had been written
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with correct grammar corresponding to the prevailing TL structure. He also spent
75 seconds in technical adjustment to confirm the TT was produced by scrolling up and down the cursor of the laptop.
To sum up, the detail translation tasks done by novice A also emphasized on the important role of doing the processing at the drafting phase because he distributed most his time in processing at drafting phase in translation process. How he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process was summarized in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice A
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 300 0 Processing 0 750 180 Documentation 0 386 0 Revision 0 414 86 Technical Revision 0 310 50 Technical adjustment 0 169 75 Production + revision 0 180 0 Production + technical 0 135 0 revision Total 0 2.644 391
4.1.4.2 Novice D
Based on the TAPs, novice D did not go through all the phases of translation in translating the text from AL to BI . This means that he did not distribute the translation tasks over all the phases of translation process. He started by doing the drafting phase and skipped the pre-drafting. In the drafting phase, he did the processing since he read the ST to get the main idea of the ST. During this processing, he frequently took pauses 215 seconds to solve the translation problems in terms of finding the appropiate equivalents to be drafted in the TT and encoding his understanding of the ST into the TT. In addition, he also had 135
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problems in deciding either to keep the ST term in the TT or to use its almost similar equivalents of some words that did not have the exact equivalent in the
TL.
In drafting phase, novice D spent much his time on all the tasks related to the text production (production, production and revision, production and technical revision) of the translation as long 673 seconds. In this case, he composed the translation simultaneously did the deletion of previously written words or phrases or insertion new text in the body of the translation. It was found when he substituted the word ‘kakek’ in his first draft with ‘ompung’ in his final draft. He also did some revisions in correcting the typos or correcting the spelling mistakes.
It was found when he corrected his first draft of ‘mengucaopkan’ to be
‘mengucapkan’ . This was identified from the TAPs recording that the revisions were done in word level and the other revisions in clause level. This revisions and also technical revisions in this phase were the final revisions that required the final decisions making since there was no more revisions he did in the post-drafting. He also spent 10 seconds in technical adjustment to confirm the TT was produced by scrolling up and down the cursor of the laptop. It can bee seen from this example below :
ST : Santabi sampulu tu tua sahala ni raja dohot na mora diparsidangan on, natobang natoras, tarlobi ompui sian bagas godang.
First Draft : Kami mengucaopkan maaf seribu kali maaf kepada raja yang bersahaja dan yang terhotrmat, orang tua terlebih kepada kakek kami.
Final Draft : Kami mengucapkan maaf seribu kali maaf kepada raja yang bersahaja dan yang terhormat, orang tua terlebih kepada ompung kami.
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In the post-drafting, he did the processing of translation tasks. In this phase, he just read the TT and the STin order to confirm whether the TT had represented the appropiate meaning contained in the ST and also during the reading process, he did not make any changes to the TT. He just spent 2 seconds in technical adjustment. It was summarized in the Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice D
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 389 0 Processing 0 215 13 Documentation 0 0 0 Revision 0 57 0 Technical Revision 0 90 0 Technical adjustment 0 10 2 Production + revision 0 168 0 Production + technical revision 0 116 0 Total 0 1.045 15
Meanwhile in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, novice D only did the translation tasks in the drafting phase in translation process. It indicates that he skipped the pre-drafting and post-drafting in his translation process. He distributed much time on all the task related to the text production
(production, production and revision, production and technical revision) of the translation as what he did in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI. The revision was found when he substituted his first draft of ‘our great parents' souls of our mora’ with ‘sahala (the great parents' souls of our mora)’. He did also the technical revision by correcting the typo his first draft of ‘rexspect’ to be ‘respect’ and ‘sicrnere’ to be ‘sincere’. He spent 629 seconds in this tasks. It was represented by this example:
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ST : Kami hormat tua sahala mora kami, mengikuti kata mora kami, agar sampai dan tulusnya untuk mendirikan upaya mora kami.
First Draft : We rexspect our great parents' souls of our mora, follow the sworn of our mora, for arriving and having sicrnere for our mora attempt to held this ceremony Final Draft : We respect sahala (the great parents' souls of our mora), follow the sworn of our mora, for arriving and having sincere for our mora attempt to hold this ceremony.
Meanwhile, he spent 110 seconds in processing. In this case, he did not find too many problems related to the finding equivalent as he relied much on his cognitive processing to focus on maintaining the meaning equivalence. It means that he did not imitate the ST style or the structure that resulted in more natural of
TT. In addition, he focused on the naturalness of the TT and the TT grammatical accuracy. This naturalness of TT was examined to confirm that the TT did not imitate the the ST style or structure, while the TT grammatical accuracy was examined to confirm that TT had been written in the correct grammar, then the TT was produced.
To sum up, the detail translation tasks done by novice D emphasized on the important role of doing the production of text at the drafting phase because he distributed most his time in production tasks at drafting phase in translation process. How he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process was summarized in Table 4. 9.
Table 4.9 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice D
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 389 0 Processing 0 110 0 Documentation 0 0 0 Revision 0 57 0
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Technical Revision 0 90 0 Technical adjustment 0 10 0 Production + revision 0 144 0 Production + technical revision 0 96 0 Total 0 896 0
4.1.4.3 Novice F
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice F went through all the translation phases. It means he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process. In pre-drafting phase, he distributed three translation tasks, they were processing, documentation and technical adjustment. Processing indicates all the pauses during the translation process. Based on the data from
TAPs, he spent 10 seconds in processing in which he read the ST, he just scanned and skimmed the ST to get the clue of the topic, such as the cultural terms. In this phase, he also did the documentation, he spent 8 seconds for it. In this task, he used the translation aids; in this case, he did the online activities to search for the related topic of the ST. Its purpose is to get more understanding about the topic of the text that would be translated. He also spent 3 seconds in technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down the cursor of the laptop and in searching the information on the internet.
In drafting phase, he spent most of his time in processing for 497 seconds.
In this task, he took long pauses. It means that he started founding the problems about finding the equivalent of the SLterms in the TL. This is also related to if he kept the STwords or phrases in the TT or he transfered into another TL by giving the explanation in the TT.
Based on the data from TAPs, to help him in solving the translation problems, he did the documentation for 183 seconds. He also used the translation 139
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aids which was offline activities, printed dictionary in finding the specific equivalent of the ST terms which was required in drafting the TT. In this phase, he also called someone to make sure about the diction of the TT. While drafting the
ST, he also did revison and technical revision. He spent 45 seconds in revision in which he deleted the previously written words or phrases and spent 50 seconds in technical revision. He also did the production for 125 seconds in which he composed the translation. While he composed the translation, he simultaneously did the revision which is called production and revision that he spent 50 seconds for it. He also spent 65 seconds in doing the production and technical revision in which he did corrections for the typos and spelling the mistakes. In this phase, the revisions was done at the clause level that possibly resulted in lack of the
STcohesiveness. The technical adjustment is increased in this phase, he spent 10 seconds in scrolling up and down the cursor of the laptop while drafting the ST. It can be seen from this example :
ST : Hujujung do tua sahala ni morangku, mangihutkon hata ni mora, anso saut dohot tulus na pajong- jong siulaon ni mora, na patidahon godang ni roha taradop parumaen nami dohot anak na giot langka matobang.
First Draft : Mrenjunjung tuinggi martabat tua sahala mora kami menyertai segala penyampaian mora, agar tercapai maksud dan tujuan mora kami yaitu menunjukkan rasa besar hati terhadap parumaen dan anak kami yang akan melangsungkan perkawinan.
Final Draft : Menjunjung tinggi martabat tua sahala mora kami menyertai segala penyampaian mora, agar tercapai maksud dan tujuan mora kami yaitu menunjukkan rasa besar hati terhadap parumaen (menantu perempuan) dan anak kami yang akan melangsungkan perkawinan.
After drafting the TT, he came to the post-drafting phase. At this phase, he spent much his time in doing the technical revision; it was 343 seconds. In this
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task, he did much on correcting the typos and spelling mistakes that has done in drafting the TT. It was found when he corrected his frist draft of ‘mrenjunjung’ to be ‘menjunjung’. He also spent 220 seconds in revisions, he deleted the words or phrases that considered to have been incorrectly used in the TT. It was found when he substituted his first draft of ‘parumaen’ with ‘parumaen (menantu perempuan)’. In doing the technical adjustment was spent 14 seconds to scroll up and down while doing the revisions and technical revision. Processing task was decreased in this phase, he only spent 55 seconds in taking the pauses to read the translation draft. It was summarized in Table 4.10.
Table 4.10 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice F
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 125 0 Processing 10 497 55 Documentation 8 183 0 Revision 0 45 220 Technical Revision 0 50 343 Technical adjustment 3 10 14 Production + revision 0 50 0 Production + technical 0 65 0 revision Total 21 1.025 632
Meanwhile, in translating the text from BI to EL, all the translation tasks were increased. It means the novice F spent more time to distribute the translation tasks in translating the text from BI to EL. In this session, he did not go through all the phases. He went through the drafting phase and post- drafting phase and skipped the pre-drafting phase. He skipped the pre-drafting because he still kept the memories of the TT previously produced strongly in his mind.
In drafting phase, he spent 190 seconds in production to type the translation. He spent most of documentation 350 seconds to search for 141
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information on the internet. Based on the data from the TAPs, he frequently visited Google translate to solve the translation problems in finding the equivalent of the words from the ST into TT. This was resonable since Google translate provided several possible TL words for the equivalent of the words in the ST.
Then, he selected the most appropiate words of the suggested words in Google translate by considering the context in which it was used. In the processing he spent 331 seconds. In this tasks, he used his cognitive processing to interpret the
ST where he did not do it in pre-drafting. He did the technical adjustment for 64 seconds to scroll up and down, minimizing the windows, and opening the new document while he did the documentation.
While drafting the TT, he did simultaneously on revisions, whether the revision or technical revision. It was found when he substituted his first draft of
‘sahala (great grand parents) with ‘sahala (ancestors of our mora)’ in his final draft. He had a problem to decide the appropiate equivalent of the technical term of ‘sahala’. He spent 100 seconds on revision and 160 seconds on technical revision. The production and revision was spent 146 seconds. He did it at clause level to focus on maintaining the meaning equivalence. He drafted the TT simultaneously did the technical revision for 110 seconds in which he corrected the typos and spelling mistakes.
Doing revision and technical revision at the post-drafting phase would cover the weakness of translation draft that needed to be improved. In this phase, he spent 95 seconds on revision and 152 on technical revision. In other words, revisions at the post-drafting phase should do by the translator. It means that the translator should distribute the translation tasks on this phase. In addition, he
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revised the draft to confirm if the TT clauses had been grammatically accepted to
TL grammatical rules as it was found in below example which he substituted his first draft of ‘all his speech’ with ‘all his speeches’, and substituted ‘is to show’ with ‘and to show’. This grammatical accuracy indicates the proficiency of the translator of the TL structure. He also focused on naturalness of TT to confirm the
TT had been independent over the ST style. It was presented by the example below:
ST : Menjunjung tinggi martabat tua sahala mora kami menyertai segala penyampaian mora, agar tercapai maksud dan tujuan mora kami yaitu menunjukkan rasa besar hati terhadap parumaen (menantu perempuan) dan anak kami yang melangsungkan perkawinan.
First Draft : We respect to sahala (great grand parents) and all his speech to get the intention of our mora is to show the gratitude to parumaen (daughter in law) and our son taht hold the wedding ceremony.
Final Draft : We respect to sahala (ancestors of our mora) and all his speeches to get the intention of our mora and to show the gratitude to parumaen (daughter in law) and our son that hold the wedding ceremony.
He spent 155 seconds on processing in which he read the translation draft.
It was indicated by taking the pauses and simultaneously did the technical adjustment for 60 seconds to scroll up and down the cursor of the laptop. The translation tasks was summarized in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice F
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 190 0 Processing 0 331 155 Documentation 0 350 0 Revision 0 100 95 Technical Revision 0 160 152 Technical adjustment 0 64 60 Production + revision 0 146 0 143
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Production + technical revision 0 110 0 Total 0 1.451 462
4.1.4.4 Novice G
Based on the data from TAPs, novice G did not go through all the phases of translation. He only did the translation tasks at the pre-drafting phase and drafting phase in translating the text from AL to BI. In the pre-drafting phase, he read the ST. It was indicated by the processing, and it was spent 6 seconds.
Actually he did not read the whole of the ST but he scanned and skimmed it to get the clue of the topic. He also used the translation aids which was online activities to search the news related to the topic, and spent 8 seconds for it. The purpose of the two activities was to get understanding of the ST. In this case, he also did the technical adjustment for 4 seconds in scrolling up and down and also opening the new documents in searching on the internet.
In drafting phase, he did the production task in which he typed new text or composed the translation after or before taking pauses. He spent most of his time for it 180 seconds. While in taking pauses for processing, he did nothing. In other words, he did not typed anything on the log. It was recorded by the Translog-II program. In this phase, he spent 142 seconds, and he continued reading the ST to get more understanding while thinking how to solve the problems. While drafting the ST, he did the revisions at the same time he drafted the TT. It was indicated that he spent 85 seconds on revision and 129 seconds on technical revision. The revision was found when he substituted his first draft of ‘dan’ with ‘serta’ which both coordinative conjunction in the TL. It means he preferred to use ‘serta’
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rather than ‘dan’ when doing revisions the translation in the TT. He also did the revision in the arrangement of the sentence by substituting his first draft ‘pada kesempatan kali ini telah kaum tetuua adat dan terutama kepada tetua dari bagas godang’ with ‘tetua adat dan terutama kepada tetua dari bagas godang pada kesempatan kali ini. In this phase, he focused on the maintaining the meaning equivalence adn keeping the original meaning of ST in the TT. In other words, he did not imitate the style and structure of ST that resulted more natural of TT.
It was presented by this example:
ST : Santabi sampulu tu tua sahala ni raja dohot na mora diparsidangan on, natobang natoras, tarlobi ompui sian bagas godang.
First Draft : Salam hormat kami untuk kaum raja dan mora, pada kesempatan kali ini telah kaum tetuua adat dan terutama kepada tetua dari bagas godang.
Final Draft : Salam hormat kami untuk kaum raja serta mora, tetua adat dan terutama kepada tetua dari bagas godang pada kesempatan kali ini.
He also did the technical revision to get the grammatical accuracy by correcting the typos, spelling mistakes. He spent 30 seconds on the technical adjustment while he did the revisions to see the incorrect words or phrases.
In addition, he did the documentation for 50 seconds by consulting with his scholar to get the more information about the cultural terms. In this phase, he also did much on the production and revision in which he did the production simultaneously the revision, it was spent 110 seconds. While he spent 87 seconds on production and technical revision in which he did production at the same time with the technical adjustment. It was indicated that he applied his complex cognitive process. He also read his translation draft in this phase. He did not go
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through the post drafting for reading the translation draft since he did not distribute the specific time for this. It was summarized in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice G
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 180 0 Processing 6 142 0 Documentation 8 50 0 Revision 0 85 0 Technical Revision 0 129 0 Technical adjustment 4 30 0 Production + revision 0 110 0 Production + technical 0 87 0 revision Total 18 813 0
Meanwhile, when he translated the mangkobar text from BI to EL, he followed all the phases of translation in the translation process. It means that he distributed all the translation tasks over the phases of translation process.
Starting the pre-drafting, he distributed his time in reading the ST. It was indicated by spending 68 seconds in processing. It was long enough to read the
ST. He did it since he tried to read again the whole text to get more understanding and relied much on his cultural background. While doing the processing, he spent
10 seconds on technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down the text while reading the ST. The TAPs also revealed that he did not use any translation aids to help him in understanding the ST.
In drafting phase, he spent 142 seconds on processing in which he still tried to interpret the TT that done previously by him since the TT was the ST in translating the text from BI to EL. He also read the ST and tried to find the main topic in the text in order to get the more understanding of the ST. He frequently 146
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did the technical adjustment; it was 30 seconds when he did the processing to scroll up and down the cursor of the laptop. He did the production and spent 94 seconds for it in which he composed the translation. Based on the data from the
TAPs, he did not use any translation aids to help him solve the translation problems. In this case, he relied on his cognitive processing and his background of knowledge whether in pre-drafting or in drafting phase in translation process.
While doing the drafting, he also spent 99 seconds for revision, and 142 seconds for technical revision. Translation problems are encountered by him, such as finding the equivalent of the SL terms in the TL and encoding his understanding of the ST in the TT to get meaning equivalence and more acceptable in TT. It was found when he substituted his first draft of ‘our regard’ with ‘honourable’. He also did the revision in the arrangement of the sentence by substituting his first draft ‘as we are coming here for discussing our son and your daughter who have marriage’ with ‘the reason for our coming here is discussing our son and your daughter marriage. To solve these problems as what stated previously he relied on his cognitive processing. That’s why he spent 90 seconds on production and revision, and 80 seconds on production and technical revision in which he did production simultaneously did the revision and technical revision to select the appropiate equivalence and get the meaning equivalence while drafting the TT. It was presented by this example:
ST : Kepada mora serta kerabatnya. Adapun yang menjadi tujuan pertemuan kita malam ini adalah tentang anak lelaki kami dengan anak gadis dari rumah ini yang telah sepakat untuk berumah tangga.
First Draft : Our regard our mora and relatives, as we are coming here for discussing our son and your daughter who have marriage.
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Final Draft : Honourable our mora and relatives, the reason for our coming here is discussing our son and your daughter marriage.
Finishing the drafting the TT, he went through the post- drafting. At this phase, he read the translation draft as he spent 33 seconds for processing. He spent
17 seconds on the technical adjustment in which he scrolled up and down the cursor of the laptop while reading the translation draft. He also did the revision and spent 60 seconds, and spent 32 seconds for technical revision. These activities mainly related to the cultural terms whether to keep the original of the STor change to the TL (TL), confirm the naturalness of the TT, and the accuracy of the
TT grammar by doing correcting the typos and spelling mistakes during the translation process. Table 4.13 presented how he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process.
Table 4.13 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice G
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 94 0 Processing 68 142 33 Documentation 0 0 0 Revision 0 99 60 Technical Revision 0 142 32 Technical adjustment 10 30 17 Production + revision 0 90 0 Production + technical revision 0 80 0 Total 78 677 142
4.1.4.5 Novice I
Novice I did not go through all the phases of translation, it could be seen from the data of the TAPs. He did the translation tasks at the pre-drafting phase and drafting phase in translating the text from AL to BI. Meanwhile, the post- drafting phase was skipped by him. In the pre-drafting phase, he read the whole of
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ST. It was indicated by the processing, and it was spent 50 seconds. He also used the translation aids which was online activities to search the news related to the articles, and spent 33 seconds for it. The purpose of the two activities was to get understanding of the ST. In this case, he also did the technical adjustment for 17 seconds in scrolling up and down and also opening the new documents in searching on the internet.
Meanwhile, in drafting phase, he did the production task in which he typed new text or composed the translation after or before taking pauses. He spent most of his time for it 220 seconds. While in taking pauses for processing, he tried to be relax to avoid the stress in doing the translation. In other words, he typed nothing on the log. It was recorded by the Translog-II program. While drafting the ST, he did the revisions at the same time he drafted the TT. It was indicated that he spent
150 seconds on revision and 90 seconds on technical revision. It was found from the example below, when he substituted his first draft of ‘kami’ with ‘saya’ which was meant different. He preferred to use it because he thought it was contextually more accepted in the TT. In this phase, he focused on the maintaining the meaning equivalence adn keeping the original meaning of ST in the TT. In other words, he did not imitate the style and structure of ST that resulted more natural of TT. He also did the technical revision to get the grammatical accuracy by correcting the typos, spelling mistakes.
ST : Di ari na saborngin on rap lugut kita nian di bagas ni mora ni mora niba.
First Draft : Pada malam hari ini kita berkumpul di rumah mora dari mora kami (mora: pemberi gadis/pihak perempuan; mora ni mora : generasi pertama dari orang tua ibu pengantin).
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Final Draft : Pada malam hari ini kita berkumpul di rumah mora dari mora saya tua dari ibu pengantin).
He spent 97 seconds on the technical adjustment while he did the revisions to see the incorrect words or phrases. In addition, he frequently used the translation aids which was opened the printed dictionary and called someone to get more information about the cultural terms, and this was found when he substituted his first draft of the explanation mora ni mora ‘generasi pertama dari orang tua ibu pengantin’ with ‘orang tua dari ibu pengantin’. He did it in order to make the readers will easier to understand the TT. It also means that he did the documentation and spent 123 seconds for it. In this phase, he also did much on the production and revision in which he did the production simultaneously the revision, it was spent 160 seconds. While he spent 135 seconds on production and technical revision in which he did production at the same time with the technical revision. He also read his translation draft in this phase. He did not go through the post drafting for reading the translation draft since he did not distribute the specific time for this. Table 4.14 presented how he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of the translation process in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI.
Table 4.14 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (AL-BI) by novice I
Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 190 0 Processing 50 220 0 Documentation 33 123 0 Revision 0 150 0 Technical Revision 0 90 0 Technical adjustment 17 97 0 Production + revision 0 160 0 Production + technical 0 135 0 150
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revision Total 100 1.165 0
Meanwhile, the novice I went through all the phases of translation process in translating the text from BI to EL. It means that he distributed the translation tasks over the phases of translation process. In the pre-drafting phase, he read the
ST to get the understanding. It was spent 35 seconds on processing and followed by 10 seconds on the technical adjustment. Based on the data from the TAPs, in the three phases of translation process, he did not use any translation aids to help him to solve the translation problems, that was indicated there was no documentation at all over the phases of translation process. It means he really relied on his cognitive processing and his background of knowledge, and also he was confident enough.
He spent most of his time on processing in drafting phase. He spent 450 seconds on this task. Based on the data from the TAPs, he tried to be relax to avoid the stress in doing the translation. In other words, he typed nothing on the keylogging tools. He spent 190 seconds on production in which he typed the new text of the TT. During the drafting phase, he also did the revision and spent 125 seconds. In this phase, he deleted some of the previously written words or phrases since he found unequivalent words or phrases, and decided use the almost similar meaning in equivalence of some words that had no the exact equivalent in TL.
While in technical revision, he spent 158 seconds, in terms of checking whether there were the typos and spelling mistakes in the TT. It was found when he substituted his first draft of ‘wll’ with ‘well’ in his final draft. He also substituted
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the word ‘hold’ with ‘held’ and ‘some event’ with ‘some events’ due to the grammatical of TT and to justify the tenses in TT.
In terms of doing the revision and technical revision, he also did the technical adjustment, and spent 145 seconds. In this phase, he also did the production and revision, in which he typed the new text and simultaneously deleted the words or phrases. It was spent 140 seconds. While, he spent 120 seconds on production and technical revision in which he typed the new text and simultaneously corrected the typos and spelling mistakes of the drafting that has been done by him. It was presented by this example:
ST : Benar, bahwa adapun pertemuan kita malam hari ini adalah untuk membicarakan acara pernikahan anak dari abang ipar saya (keponakan) dengan tunangannya yang telah sepakat akan menjalankan adat pernikahan.
First Draft : Wll, our meeting to this evening is about my nephew's wedding that will be hold with some traditional event.
Final Draft : Well, our meeting this evening is about my nephew's wedding that will be held with some traditional events.
In post-drafting phase, he took pauses in processing and spent 120 seconds to read his translation draft to see some mistakes or something needed correction.
In this case, he did the revision; it was spent 73 seconds. And also he did the technical revision 90 seconds to correct the translation draft to be the TT. In line with these activities, he did the technical adjustment that spent 80 seconds to scrolled up and down the cursor in searching that needed to be corrected. All these translation tasks over the phases of translation process was summarized in Table
4.15.
Table 4.15 Distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (BI-EL) by novice I
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Translation Phase (sec) Translation Tasks Pre-drafting Drafting Post-drafting Production 0 190 0 Processing 35 450 120 Documentation 0 0 0 Revision 0 125 73 Technical Revision 0 158 90 Technical adjustment 10 145 80 Production + revision 0 140 0 Production + technical 0 120 0 revision Total 45 1328 363
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CHAPTER V
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
In chapter V presents the findings and discussions of the research based on the data analysis that has been done in chapter 4. They are discussed orderly (i) dominant types of translation process (ii) distribution of time over the phases of translation process (iii) distribution of translation tasks over the phases of translation process (iv) the use of translation aids in translation process.
5.1 Findings
5.1.1 Types of Translation Process
Based on the data analysis, it was found that the social affective was the type of translation process dominantly used by novice translators in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI. Meanwile, in translating the mangkobar text from
BI to EL, novice translators applied cognitive process as the dominant process.
Four out of the five novice translators applied the social affective process in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI. They applied it in finishing their works of translation. This findings is a logic as they followed the phases of translation starting from pre-drafting in which they read the ST before starting to produce the translation. Some translators prefered to systematically read the whole
ST before they started to translate, some translators scanned and skimmed the text very briefly, and some translators just read the first couple of phrases or sentences before starting to type, or they simply went straight ahead with TT production with hardly any preliminary ST reading. Only one novice translator applied the cognitive process where the novice translator relied much on his background of 154
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knowledge in finishing his work of translation. It means that he did not use any kinds of translation aids in helping him do the translation work in the translation process.
After spending few seconds even minutes in pre-drafting, they went through the phase in which the actual translation is drafted. In this phase, they began writing the translation in the translation draft. It was found that they showed traces of different kinds of behavior during drafting phase. It was related to the translation tasks that they distributed over the phases of translation process.
The data provide evidence for an overall preference for one of the two kinds of planning ahead (small context or large context planning) as well as a preference with respect to looking back at previously translated source text words.
At the end, they were in the post-drafting in which they reviewed the translation draft and refined translation choices. Furthermore, the cognitive process related to linear and inline method in which they did the translation orderly; from one clause to another clause or first paragraph to the other paragraph.
Another finding is novice translators with social affective process related to how translators controled their emotions and feelings while interacting with other people in translation process. This learning style demonstrated to be very thoughtful and exhaustive during the process, which characterize the reflective style; and very methodical and rational, which illustrate the theoretical style. It also identified novice translators with the reflective style that tended to be more linear and methodical in the translation process. They invested a lot of time reading the source text and searching and confirming terms. They were very careful and cautious during the translation process. Some of them can work best
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when they interacted with other people. In this case, the novice translators are allowed to interact with other people during the translation process or interact with other people through internet services by reading some articles on news or blogs that they published in websites.
Based on the data analysis, it was found that novice A, novice F, novice G and novice I can work best when they interacted with other people to ask, get or confirm the information, especially some cultural terms in the source text and also interacted by internet. They visited some websites to find the idea in solving the translation problem and make the decision in translation process.
Translator as a learner, in particular knowing their learning style, serves to understand their choices and identify their skills. Related to that statement, it was found that the learning style refers to the fact that individuals use their own method or strategy for learning. Even though these strategies would change depending on the learning context, the fact is that each subject tends to develop certain preferences or trends that define their style of learning.
The finding related to the dominant type of translation process was novice translators with a predisposition for the cultural terms were very fast, practical and went straight to the point, without giving importance to details. They were very confident about themselves and their knowledge. That is the reason why they did not invest a lot of time searching for equivalents or simply took the first equivalent they found. As it was done by the novice D. It was shown when he did the translation and also how he spent the time either in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL. In translating from AL to BI, novice D only spent a little time to do the pre-drafting in which he only scanned and skimmed the
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source text. He did not read the whole source text to get the comprehension. In addition, he did not do the pre-drafting when he did translation from BI to EL. He directly started to do drafting of target text, and also did not spend his time on post-drafting in which many translators did revisions in this phase as he simply took the first equivalent he found while drafting.
5.1.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process
Based on the data analysis, it was found that the novice translators were not so familiar with the translation aids, especially the online resources in translation process. In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, mostly used the printed dictionary as the translation aids while doing the translation, and it was done mostly in drafting phase to find the equivalent of some cultural terms. The printed dictionary provides several possible words to one which the word in the source text can be correctly transferred in drafting phase. While two of them visited websites related to the blogs and news. They spent their time for reading the online sources related to the topic of the source text in the pre-drafting phase.
They did not use it in all the phases of translation process.
It was found that they used the translation aids which is Google search to search the related the topic of source text in pre-drafting. Furthermore, it was used to get an overview and understanding of the source text and did not use it to help them in finishing or completing their works of translation. In post-drafting phase, they did not use any translation aids as it can be seen from Camtasia recorded.
Based on the screen recorded in this phase, they focused to the target text grammatically, typos, spelling mistakes, and also the naturalness of the target text.
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Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, the two novice translators used the translation aids in translation process. In this case, they visited the online resources which was Google Translate that always allow anybody to improve the translated text by giving the choice of words or diction. In
English, they have similar meaning but different context. So, they have to choose the appropiate one to the target text and based on the context of the target text in order to give the understanding of the translated text to the readers. In this case, they did not rely on the Google Translate completely in completing their translation work. As Kamalie (2011, p. 71) stated that the incapability of Google
Translate in providing good collocation or idiom and language style in the target language. His conclusion was until today Google Translate has not been successful to translate a number of words and phrases perfectly.
In addition, it was found that the novice translators used the Google
Translate mostly in doing the revisions in drafting phase in translation process.
It was intended to solve their problems in terminology, vocabulary, structure and social acceptability based on the context of the text. Google Translate is also used to translate the terminology from source language to target language by the novice translators. However, they still faced several difficulties in finding the equivalent of the target text in English. It was relied on their translated text in Bahasa
Indonesia. Since it has different language simultaneously different culture, and the differences of it was so far. The finding related to the used of translation aids during the translation process was summarized in the Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1 Translation aids used over the phases of translation process
Translation Aids Used during the Translation Process
Novice AL- BI BI- EL No. Translator Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Drafting Drafting drafting drafting drafting drafting
search Google 1. Novice A - - - - Printed translate
dictionary
2. Novice D ------
Google Printed Google 3. Novice F - - - search dictionary translate
Google 4. Novice G - - - - - search
Google Printed 5. Novice I - - - - search dictionary
As Toury (1978, p. 200) notes that translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions. As this statement implies, translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in a source text and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language. These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or more) languages concerned (Nida 1969, p.130).
Morever, using the Google Translate to solve the problem was not efffective since
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it did not provide the cultural implication. They just mostly used it to solve the problems related to the vocabulary, diction, structure. An important aspect was to determine how much missing background information should be provided by the novice translators.
In addition, the novice translators visited the Google search to find several articles related to the target language to make sure whether the terminology, the vocabulary, and the structure used in their translation are socially acceptable.
Since the acceptability is important to the quality of the translation product and it leads to readibility of the text. In this case, the novice translators read some
Indonesian articles which are blogs and news found through the Google search.
The Translogs provided readily available, time coded lists of all the websites the novice translators had accessed during the translation process. Solely on the basis of the internet histories, the websites the novice translators had visited while looking for resources could be listed along with a partial collection of the queries they had performed. In this case, the category dictionary includes naturally only printed dictionary, as online ones were not available.
Another findings found that in translating the mangkobar text from BI to
EL took longer of total pauses than translate the mangkobar text from AL to BI as seen in Figure 5.2. Translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI took 43% pauses, while translating the mangkobar text fromBI to EL took 57% pauses. It indicates that the novice translators relied more highly on the translation aids in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, even though there were only two novice translators used the translation aids, especially Google translate.
Meanwhile, even though the percentage of translation aids used in translating the
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mangkobar text from AL to BI was less than translating from BI to EL, but most of novice translators used the translation aids. In this case, there were four novice translators used it but with the less frequency of time. The translation aids that they used were printed dictionary and Google search. This means that the novice translators less used the translation aids in this translation process as the text is cultural text they much relied on their background of knowledge.
Figure 5.1 The percentage of total pauses used translation aids during translation process
As Enriquez Raido (2014, p. 173) stated that the subjects that had more professional experience used a wider range of online resources than the student subjects. In addition, based on the research reviewed, the novice translators usually cross-check information with more than one resources. Referring to the data from the retrospective questionnaire, the novice translators admitted that the translation aids are helpful to help them in working the translation. The translation aids helps them in revising several terminologies and unfamiliar words in the
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target text that will be easily translated to the target language through the assistance of printed dictionary, Google search, and Google translate.
On the other hand, this findings was found that the novice translators revert back to the more basic strategies of looking for the information when they faced with unfimiliar topic. They too relied on the resources most familiar to them, whether it is for topical or linguistic information. This suggests that the novice translators mainly stay within their so called comfort zone when translating. It was also found out whether novice translators could or would rely on online resources when translating. It means that these depended on the translator’s usual work environment and on the type of commisions they normally accept, which in turn, affected their information seeking background and the success of the online queries they performed.
5.1.3 Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process
Based on the data analysis, it was found that the distribution of time in phases of translation process was different when translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to EL. In translating the mangkobar text from AL to
BI, most of the novice translators distributed their time either in pre-drafting phase and in the drafting phase. Meanwhile, in translasting the mangkobar text from BI to EL, most of the novice translators missed the pre-drafting phase, they did drafting and post- drafting phase.
In addition, this research also found that in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL took longer time than translated from AL to BI by novice translators. In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice translators
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were very confident about themselves and their knowledge about it. They did not spend a lot of time searching for equivalents or simply took the first equivalent they found. Meanwhile in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, they found more difficulty since they found problems in searching for the equivalents in the target text in English as it is foreign language to them so it is quite different from the culture. In this case, that’s one of the reason for novice translator spent longer time in translating the second task which was translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL.
Either translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to EL, both of them distributed longer time in drafting phase in translation process.
Some translators planned their translation before entering it on the screen, and made little online revisions while others translated and revised almost simultaneously. This finding was supported by the findings of Jaaskelainen’s in
1999 research that showed that semi professionals (novice translators) spent more time on processing than both professionals and non professionals. This might be the result of becoming sensitised to new problems without automatizing the problem solving strategies.
In terms of time distribution, a significant difference in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI and from BI to EL. It was found that each of novice translators showed how they distributed their time to go through over the phases of translation process. It was found that they distributed different time for the pre- drafting phase, drafting phase, and post-drafting phase. It can be seen in figure 5.1.
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Figure 5.2 The Distribution of time over the phases of translation process
Based on the data analysis, it was found that novice translator spent most of their time in drafting phase in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL.
In other words, they focused on how to draft in translation process and did some revisions simultaneously. While they did less in post-drafting phase. In post- drafting, they read the translation draft and revised the grammatically of target text.
Meanwhile, in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, they also spent most of their time in drafting phase and pre-drafting phase. In other words, they still focused on how to draft in translation process followed by did revisions simultaneously. In pre-drafting phase, most of them read the source text and searched the articles related to the topic of the text to obtain the information in order to get more comprehension. In drafting phase, they started to write first letter or word of target text. It was a title or text immediately following the title.
Novice D skipped the pre-drafting that recorded by the TAPs while doing translation from AL to BI, and almost did all the revisions in the drafting phase, indeed he spent only 14 seconds in the post-drafting phase. Interestingly, it was 164
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just like Englund-Dimitova (2005) has similar observation of two senior translators who revised almost exclusively in the drafting phase. He tentatively interpreted the merging of text generation and revisions components ino one single phase as a sign of superior planning and therefore expertise (2005, p. 231f).
However, it did not mean that he did not go through the post-drafting phase at all.
In addition, this research found that the novice translators distributed their time unproperly. Most of them skipped the pre-drafting and post-drafting while translating both of the two sessions. They did the revisions simultaneously with the drafting. It has weakness when they translated the text. As translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 1978, p. 200). As this statement implies, translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in a source text and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language. These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or more) languages concerned (Nida 1969, p. 130). As the text which translated by them was cultural text, an important aspect is to determine how much missing background information should be provided by the translators. In this case, language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both aspects must be considered for translation. When considering the translation of cultural words and notions, Newmark proposes two opposing methods: transference and componential analysis (Newmark, 1988, p. 96). As Newmark mentions, transference gives ‘local colour’, keeping cultural names and concepts as what the novice did in their translation in the translation process, moreover in
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translating from AL to BI, such as mora, mora ni mora, tua sahala. Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated readers, he claims this method may cause problems for the general readership and limit the comprehension of certain aspects. The importance of the translation process in communication leads Newmark to propose componential analysis which he describes as being ‘the most accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the message’ (Newmark, 1988, p. 96).
5.1.4Distribution of Translation Tasks over the Phases of Translation Process
Based on the data analysis, it was found that the novice translators distributed the time differently on translation tasks during the translation process either in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL. If it was combined the graphs from each novice translators, it was produced the comparative time distribution for translations of the mangkobar text (AL to BI) as presented in Figure 5.2 below. It was found that while translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice D spent longer time on production, processing, production and revision; novice F spent longer time on processing, technical revision, and revision; novice A spent longer time on processing, production, and technical revision; novice G spent longer time on production, processing, and technical revision; novice I spent longer time on processing, production, production and revision. It was concluded that the novice translators spent longer time on processing. In other words, they distributed longer time on processing in which it was included one of the translation tasks.
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Figure 5.3 The distribution of time on translation tasks (AL-BI)
Meanwhile in Figure 5.3 presented that novice G spent longer time on production and technical revision, processing, technical revision; novice D spent longer time on production, production and revision,and processing; novice
I spent longer time on processing, technical revision, and technical adjustment; novice A spent longer time on processing, revision, and documentation; novice F spent longer time on processing, documentation, technical revision. It was also concluded that the novice translators spent longer time on processing during translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL. In other words, they distributed longer time on processing as what they did in the previous translation work.
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Figure 5.4 The distribution of time on translation tasks (BI-EL)
The finding presented in Figure 5.4 shows that processing was distributed longer time (25%) than production (19%), technical revision (16%), revision
(13%), production and revision (9%), documentation (8%), production and technical revision (7%), technical adjustment (3%) during translating the mangkobar text fromAL to BI. Meanwhile during translating the mangkobar BI to
EL, processing was also distributed longer time (28%) than production and technical revision (17%), revision (15%), production (14%), revision (14%), documentation (9%), production and revision (8%), technical adjustment (8%).
This findings indicate that processing took an important role in translation process, the time distribution on processing increased on the second session. It was showed that novice translators had more percentage of time distribution of processing (28%) during translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL since they needed more time in interpreting the source text, in terms of choosing the most appropiate equivalence into target text. They were not provided with the specific
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cultural terms in English since English is their foreign language that totally different in terms of culture.
Meanwhile, the percentage of time distribution of processing was 25% from AL to BI. In other words, the novice translators distributed a lot of processing; in this case, they spent longer time in reading the source text or at least scanning and skimming the source text in order to get more understanding of the source text. As it was emphasized by Maley (2010) stated that reading is the most readily available form of comprehensible input, especially in places where there is hardly any contact with the target language. Furthermore, understanding the source text was an important role in translation process since it was impossible to produce a good translation without having knowledge on the source text.
However, it does not mean that understanding could only be achieved after reading the source text in pre- drafting phase as stated by Rosa, 2017. The novice translators also gain their understanding of the source text while doing the revision. In revision that they did, they also have to read the source text to be compared to the target text darft. Understanding would become better since the information that was read already provided in both languages; the source language and target language.
Related to the reading, scanning and skimming activities, it was found that the novice translators also did the documentation. They distributed the documentation mostly in the pre-drafting phase in translation process, meaning that they distributed the time on documentation for searching the information related to the source text topic in which would help them in the whole translation
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process. Time spent on documentation was not increased significantly from 8% to
9%.
The novice translators did more documentation during translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL since the novice translators frequent pauses to solve the translation problems in terms of finding the appropiate equivalents to be drafted in the target text and encoding their understanding of the source text into the target text since the source text contained a lot of terminology related to cultural terms, so they frequent to visited the Google translate.
Meanwhile, translating mangkobar text from AL to BI had less time on documentation since they had their pre-existing background of knowledge of the source text, however they used several translation aids such as printed dictionary,
Google search, and also interaction with another people to expanding their background of knowledge of the topic in the source text to be translated in the pre- drafting with a short time. In addition, it also to solve the translation problems that faced in drafting phase. As stated by Mossop (2001) documentation is another way of economizing on time; would perhap it is viewed less time consuming that thinking over various renderings.
This reasearch also found the decreasing on the production, production + revision, and production + technical revision while translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL. It was found that the novice translators relied on their background of knowledge to type the translation draft and they had tendency to follow the language style of the source text. It was different while translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, they composed more on the translation draft since they found more difficulty in deciding either to keep the source text terms in the target text or
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to use its almost similar equivalents as some of the words had no the exact equivalent in the target language and also the naturalness, language style and structure of the target text, in terms of there were many choices of the target text.
It was also found that the time spent on all the tasks related to the revisions
(revision, and technical revision) was decreased in percentage either from AL to
BI or from BI to EL. In this case, it was spent a little bit longer of time during translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI since the novice translators are the native speaker of AL and BI. This was found that they had more background of knowledge of the source language, had more understanding about the structure and style of source language made them to be quite careful of looking the appropiate diction for the appropiate context of the target text. In line with the context in translation, Melby and Foster (2010, p. 2) say that it is impossible to ignore context in translating a text as it is related to the specifications from which the translator works. Surprisingly, the other finding found that the percentage of time distribution on technical adjustments was increased from 3% to 8% (AL to
BI and BI to EL) as a result of the tiring condition and higher stress level in translation process.
Figure 5.5 The comparison of distribution of time on translation tasks (AL-BI and BI-EL) 171
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5.2 Discussions 5.2.1 Types of Translation Process Identifying the research parameters which motivate the different models of translation is the main step toward clarification, However, building models without a common set of concepts has led to the fracturing of translation studies.
Therefore, it is necessary to explain the models together with its set of concepts.
Related to the model of translation as proposed by Neubert and Shreve (1992, p.
18-29), this research uses the psycholinguistic model which is concerned with describing the cognitive aspects of the translation process that the main question is about what happens in the mind of the translators when they translate. It is in line with internal process which is mental activity that proposed by Schubert (2009, p.
18). It involved in carrying out the translation work with all its steps and decisions which are not open to direct observation. Due to this, mental process, as th term used by Gopferich (2008, p.1) are often referred to as the translator’s black box, metaphorically referring to the translator’s mind. Related to that idea, this research wanted to know what happens in the mind of novice translators when they translated mangkobar text.
In translating mangkobar text from AL to BI, most of novice translators dominantly used the social affective process, but it does not mean that this type of process is the best process to produce the best of translated texts quality.
As Robinson (1997) points out, translation and language learning are highly interrelated, so he believes that translation is actually a language learning process and the translator is always a language learner. In this way, many factors that affect language learning can affect translation learning, such as gender, culture, and learning style. In this case, learning styles refer to an individual’s natural
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habitual and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, retaining new information and skills in translation process. This differ in the way they proceed in order to produce a translation, and they proceed differently according to the types of translation process. This finding also supports Felder and Spurlin’s (2005, p. 104) statement that learning style, essentially constitutes characteristic psychological behaviours, including cognitive and affective ones and serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment.
Basically, translating is a mental process that happened in human brain.
This process include two parts; they are mental process that is happening while understanding the source text (reading comprehension) and mental process that is happening while producing the target text. In the first process, the novice translators used all of their linguistic knowledge including the socio cultural knowledge of source text. In the second process, they used all of their linguistic knowledge including the socio cultural of target text to produce the acceptable text in target language, and the meanings were conveyed well to the readers. It is in line with the work of Oxford (1990) stating that ognitive strategies usually involve the identification, attention, storage, or retrieval of words, phrases, and other elements of the target language (e.g., using prior knowledge to comprehend new language material, applying grammar rules to a new context, or classifying voabulary according to the topic).
In translation process, pauses are seen as indicators of cognitive processing, the center discussion of translation process research (Alves, 2006;
Jakobsen, 2002). In other words, pauses are a great value in the identification of
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processes, and especially process boundaries as Krings stated (2001, p. 304). In translating mangkobar text from BI to EL, the cognitive process was dominantly used since novice translators work more effectively alone at their own pace. It means they did not rely on the translation aids to help them to gain the better quality. Even though one or two of novice translator used the translation aids, it was indicated that they just used it as a choice to choose the appropiate equivalence. However, they did not write it solely in their target text. They used in mostly in pre-drafting and drafting, not in post-drafting at all. Many authors who study the mental processes of the translator agree that translation is a special type of cognitive behavior.
In the late 1960s there was a growing interest in the knowledge of the mental process of the translator and in 1980s, with the study by
Dechert and Sandrock (1986), the empirical investigation of the translation process began. From this early work, there were other studies focused on psycholinguistic or cognitive process of translation, which all focus upon the methodology used in collecting and analyzing data in introspective verbal protocols (Gerloff, 1987; Königs, 1987; Krings, 1986; Lorscher, 1996). The cognitive sciences seek to understand phenomena such as perceiving, thinking, remembering, solving problems, understanding the use of language, learning, etc., which are of great interest to understand the translation process.
In addition to the protocols, there have been new data collection tools such as computer programs like Translog and questionnaires, interviews, among others. Despite the difficulty in "accessing" the mental activities of the translator, the results obtained from empirical studies suggest trends on how to translate, the approach to translation problems and decision-making by the translator.
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Taking different kinds of process in translating caused different kinds of behaviour while translating. Taking cognitive process of translation, the interaction of individuals towards existential realities such as learning is a concern whose origins began in ancient times. Therefore, knowing the translator as a learner, in particular knowing their learning style, serves to understand their choices and identify their skills. The learning style refers to the fact that individuals use their own method or strategy for learning. Even though these strategies would change depending on the learning context, the fact is that each subject tends to develop certain preferences or trends that define their style of learning.
As Keefe in 1988 stated that the learning style is composed of cognitive traits, affective and physiological characteristics that serve as indicators of how individuals structure content, elaborate concepts, interpret information, solve problems and respond to the learning environment. The characteristics of translators may help them present more acceptable translations than others in a way that the role of proficiency is faded. These characteristics - mentioned by some experts such as Felder (2006) and Robinson (1997) refer to being patient, careful, practical and paying attention to facts and details.
In addition related to social affective process, based on the data obatined from the TAPs, they applied self-talk to reduce anxiety by talking positive to oneself. This finding was supported by Paul Kussmaul et Sonja Tirkkonen-
Condit (1995) stated that another phenomenon typical of semi-professionals was strange fear of interferences. Even if formally identical or similar words such as
German "Desillusionierung" for English "disillusionment" could properly be used
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in a text, the subjects did not venture to do so, because they seemed to fear that such translations might result in severe blunders. As far as attitudinal factors are concerned, the semi-professionals' ambivalent attitude toward paraphrasing and their fear of false friends can be interpretedas a lack of self-confidence. As the educators should do everything to strengthen their self-confidence.
According to Cohen, Weaver, and Li (1996, p. 3) the translation processes are derived from two separated strategies. Social strategies include the actions that learners select for interacting with other learners, a teacher, or with native speakers , for example asking questions for clarifications, helping fellow student to complete a task, or cooperating with others, creating cultural awareness can be used concerning these strategies (Oxford, 1990, pp. 18-21). Meanwhile, affective strategies are learning strategies concerned with managing and controlling the motivation, emotions and attitudes towards learning. Techniques such as developing a positive attitude towards language learning, writing down or sharing feelings experienced in language learning, taking risks, doing relaxation-oriented activities can be used concerning these strategies (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990, pp. 3-4). Brown (1987, pp. 93-4) says that as to the socio-affective strategies, it can stated that they are related with social mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socio affective strategies. According PACTE (2003, p. 59) social-affective is predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation resources and information and communication technologies applied to translation (dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic
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corpora, search enginess, etc). Based on the findings these strategies were applied by novice A, novice F, novice G, and novice I in the translation process.
By this strategy, it is indicated that novice translators can work well in translation process if accompanied by other people for assistance in which they interact with others, such as family and their friends, and also did the procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation resources and information and communication technologies, such as printed dictionary, google search and google translate. They used it dominantly in translating the mangkobar text from BI to
EL. It is supported by Lubis (2013, p. 20) said that when the two languages are not related like Bahasa Indonesia, the national language of the Republic of
Indonesia, a language that belongs to Austronesian family and English, one that belongs to Indoeuropean family, the problems may become more serious and complicated, therefore they needed to use the translation aids.
A review of the learning style concept and of the different types or models of learning styles was carried out by Kolb in 1984. It is important to know the diversity of learning styles in order to identify the learning style of the translators and design appropriate strategies to make learning more meaningful and complete. Once the literature review was completed, it was concluded that the learning styles identified by Kolb (1984), Alonso, Gallego and Honey (1994) and Jensen (1995) come from the same principles, although far apart in time and designated with different names. Learning style is the way in which our minds and bodies gather information from everything around us. When we are trying to learn it helps us know how our brains work. Similarly, the awareness of learning style helps us recognize our strength and maximize it so as to have better life in our work and our leisure time (Brown, 2007, pp. 118-150). The learning style refers to the fact that individuals use their own method or strategy for learning. Even though these strategies will change depending on
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the learning context, the fact is that each subject tends to develop certain preferences or trends that define their style of learning. The learning style is composed of cognitive traits, affective and physiological characteristics that serve as indicators of how individuals structure content, elaborate concepts, interpret information, solve problems and respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1987). Different language experts introduced different learning-style classifications, for instance Felder and Soloman. They believe people are divided into eight groups according to their learning styles, namely reflective, active, sensing, intuitive, visual, verbal, global, and sequential. They test these styles on people who learn different subjects of science and arts, such as learning languages, physics, or mathematics but they did not apply it to people who learn how to translate accurately. Translation is a vast area that includes different aspects. A translator should consider many different factors when he is trying to translate. These factors are text type, the writer, the reader, source language, target language (Munday, 2008).
The individuals with an active, accommodation or global context learning style, observe the whole and do not focus on the detail. They work on many issues at the same time and follow their intuition more than logic. Then, the subjects with a reflective, diverging or sequential learning style prefer to maintain control over their learning by doing one thing at a time and following the process step by step. This type of learner is characterized by being meticulous, linear and data collector. Next, the subjects with a predisposition to a theoretical, assimilation or conceptual learning style prefer theory to practice. These learners prefer talking and thinking than doing. They are methodical, logical and
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objective. They feel lost without instructions. Learners with a pragmatic, converging or concrete learning style prefer to learn by doing. These individuals are confident about themselves and very determined. They also like to apply what they have learned (Alonso et al, 1994).
Byram and Risager, who have published widely on intercultural competence in language education, suggest that the competence learners need for successful intercultural communication is one which enables them to bring the two cultures and cultural identities present in the interaction into a relationship of communication. The foreign - speaker must be able to perceive and understand the culture(s) of the native-speaker to reflect on his/her own culture(s) as seen from the foreign perspective, and to relate to one to the other, explain each in terms of the other, accepting that conflicting perceptions are not always reconcible
(1999, p. 65). Culture in this discussion should be seen in a broad sense, as an anthropological studies. Culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind as reflected in the arts ,but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life. In practical wordings, Goodenough
(1964, p. 36) puts: “as I see it, a society’s culture consist of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves.
Culture is being what people have to learn as distinct from their biological heritage, must consist of the end product of learning: knowledge, in a most general, if relative, sense of the term. By definition it should note that culture is not material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of things that
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people have in mind, their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances. To one who knows their culture, these things and events are also signs signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material representation. In brief, theoretically the degree of probability for perfect translation depends on how far the source language text is embedded in its culture and the greater the distance between the culture between source language text and target language text, the higher is the degree of impossibility.
5.2.2 Translation Aids Used in Translation Process
According to Britta Nord (1997), translation aids is a reference tools, external representations of knowledge used by a translator to complement his internal or implicit knowledge. However, nowadays, language learners, be it translators, are more than likely to have contact with the target language in translation process, such as surfing the Web. Thus, what they need to be provided with is a set of language tools that would help them make the meaning out if they desperately need it. For that purpose, one of many online translation services can be used, which take the message typed in, connect to an online dictionary site and produce a translated version.
It was in line with Krajka statement in 2004 said that what learners must be made aware of is that such online machine translators will not produce a perfectly accurate text, but rather come up with a piece of language that will allow a translator to make out the meaning on their own. Thus, they cannot serve as models for translation work or as suitable translation aids, and must be subject to human polishing in order to produce a text of satisfactory quality. Based on the finding, the novice translators were not so familiar with the translation aids,
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especially the online resources. It could be seen whether when translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL.
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, the novice translators mostly used the printed dictionary in drafting phase since the google search did not provide satisfactory in solving the problems in the terms of terminology, vocabulary, and etc. Since cultural terms are considered to be culturally bound, the task of finding appropriate equivalence becomes more difficult. It is in line with Saif (2011) said that it brings the researcher to the task of understanding how far the nuances of a culture have been retained by the translation equivalent and to what extent and how compensation of restitution can be attempted.
Therefore, they did not get the exactly comprehension and equivalent of the source text.
In translating a culturally-bound item that may not be understood by the
TL reader, the translator can substitute one word for another in his own culture.
The problem emerges when the cultural point is as important as the message or is part and parcel of it. The second difficulty is that rarely do two languages share the language (basic character) and parole (social varieties).They must have lexical, grammatical andsound system differences. Usually, the closer the language, the closer the translation may be to the original, that is, the less loss of meaning and spirit resulting from translation.
Meanwhile in translating the mangkobar text from BI-EL, mostly they used the google translate in drafting phase for revisions. Today, translators need something more than stylistic and linguistic knowledge. Translation is no longer a word for word substitution; instead, it is considered as a cultural product that
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aims at reproduction of meaning and communication. Different languages and cultures and the significance of communication in life have caused translation to be an influential factor in exchanging cultural differences. Therefore, it seems that the relationship between translation and culture is significant to consider.
When the source language and the target language are as substantially different as BI and EL, a machine translated text may produce the output which is barely comprehensible, with problems of inflections, multiple meanings, idioms and multi-word constructions. On the other hand, such rough output can be useful to give translators practice in editing, correcting, deciding on appropriate lexis use or inflections choice.
The main purpose of translation aids is to give the translators the idea of the possibilities and limitations of machine translation, to make them notice similarities and differences between the mother tongue and the target language.
Finally, to encourage them to use language editing and polishing to improve the quality of their messages. This is as Naimushin (2002) claims, is culminated with the moment when learners realize there will always be words and expressions they do not know but this cannot be an obstacle to successful communication, and that translation is not about word-by-word rendering of the original message in the target language but is communication-oriented, and with the equivalence of the entire message supreme to the equivalence of its segments (O’Brien, 2006, 2008;
Alves & Liparini Campos, 2009; Christensen, 2011; Radulescu, 2015).
Furthermore, the translator’s physical environment and the changing nature of working patterns, which also largely depend on the available technology, also play an important role in placing the translation process in a wider socio-technical
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context. Therefore, the shift from the ‘black box’ to the ‘tool box’’ emphasizes the need for process research to move further beyond cognition and beyond technology alone into the realms of techno-cognition. In the context of the use of resources for translation purposes, the ‘black box’/’tool box’ dichotomy also needs to be revisited to encompass the cognitive implications of the technology.
The novice translators revert back to the more basic strategies of looking for the information when they faced with unfimiliar topic. The act of translation, even in its most rudimentary requires knowledge about the source and target language. A translator may have all the knowledge he needs to translate simple, general texts and those that are within his scope of familiarity, but more often than not he will also require information that is not readily available as existing knowledge in his head. This creates a need for external information which can be fulfilled in several different ways, most common of which used to be consulting a dictionary.
As Wills (2004, p.3) stated that a translator is supposed to be a bridge between linguistic and cultural. But translator’s work process has changed drastically over the last three decades, at least in regard of technology. Although there still are a few translators who mostly use pen and paper as their translation tools, nowadays most translators use computers and electronic resource material rather than paper dictionaries and encyclopedias.
5.2.3 Distribution of Time over the Phases of Translation Process
Traditionally, time in translation has not been regarded as one of defining factors, a supposition based on the idea that while oral interpreters normally work at speech delivery speed. Translators generally have hours, days, or even weeks to 183
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complete the operations (Gile, 1995: 111). This means that they have time to consult with experts, colleagues, and search databases and dictionaries to solve individual problems. However, the actual situation professional translators often find themselves in a quite different from this idealized description, which is perhaps best suited to the lerning environment. Many of them, even those not working with news and other particularly perishable texts, have to work to very tight deadlines, a fact recognized by many scholars. Most freelancers agree that if you can not work fast, you can not earn enough money to pay the bills, as in many countries of the world translators work is not extremely well paid. This is the situation described by Gouadec in his book with the telling title Translation as a profession, where he describes the standard practices of translators.
For the translator, this can mean having to be prepared to work fifteen or sixteen hours a day for days on end to meet the deadline on a major contract, and then facing several nail-biting days, or even weeks, with little or no work
(Gouadec, 2007, p. 215). In terms of distribution of time, it also indicated how the novice translators manage their time in finishing their translation works over the phases of translation process. In other words, they distributed different time duration for the pre-drafting, drafting, and post-drafting.
Going back to the classification of phases and tasks during translation process devised by Mossop (2000), it was created a very illustrative and useful description by Chandler (1993) adopted by Mossop for translating. Chandler
(1993) said that translators have different styles, and use different strategies in their work. Based on the findings, whether in translating the mangkobar text from
AL to BI or from BI to EL, most of novice translators spent most of their time in
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drafting phase; in other words, they spent longer time to focus on how they draft the target text and producing the translation performing various actions, such as they produce the text of the translation, consult dictionaries, and correct their translation or do the revisions on the draft of translation. In this study, the performance of novice translators are alike with student translators. So, it was in line with Carl, Dragsted, and Jakobsen (2011) findings that student translators have a systematic initial orientation, they prefer large context planning during drafting and often skip the revision phase or post-drafting phase. It was also in line to the findings in which novice translators G and I skipped the post-drafting phase or revision in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI. In this process, it does not mean that the novice translators missed the revision in their work, they did the revision but it was done simultaneously while drafting.
Every translators have the freedom to do the revision any time which was stated previously above, however did the revision simultaneously while drafting has its weaknesses. In this case, the weakness of it was lack of consideration to the whole meaning of the ST which was in line with Rosa’s research in 2017. As it was stated that such kind of correction might lead to the interference of the ST structure and style to the TT they produced and the ST interference woud become clearer when the translators did not provide enough time to do the revisions at the post-drafting phase. In addition, it was also emphasized by Brunette (2000, p.
173) about the importance of providing the specific time for revision. He said that the revision is a stage in the translation process in which the entire translated text and the original are carefully compared to ensure that the translation complies
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with previously defined methodological, theoretical, linguistic, textual, and contextual criteria.
Translation is a complex process, and especially some of its aspects needs to be highlighted at the moment. Meaning is paramount, and the translation should accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Moreover, it is the form which should also correspond, of course, often it needs to be translated as well. The register and style are to be retained, with the translator not influencing the meaning by often unintentional choice of language structures. What is more, the influence of the source language, especially in the area of translating idioms and collocations, has to be controlled and limited. In translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL took longer time than translated from AL to BI. Since AL is the novice translators’ mother tongue and BI is their first language make them easier to comprehend the text, even though they still face problems to the acceptance in the target text. In this study, as stated previously that the translator is as a learner.
It was in line with Deller (2003) who states that mother tongue should be used as a resource to notice differences and similarities between the two languages; to let learners develop and produce their own materials, including their own tests; to encourage spontaneity and fluency; to have a beneficial effect on group dynamics and to receive ongoing and meaningful feedback from learners.
In addition, Duff (1989) added that translation helps to better understand the influence of one language on the other, it is natural for people to translate in real life, translation activities invite speculation, discussion and evaluation of answers
(of which there are rarely 'right' and 'wrong' ones), finally, help develop accuracy, clarity and flexibility of expression in the language. Within the Grammar
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Translation Method, the mother tongue played an extremely prominent role, and very often translators learned about the target language in the source language, with translation being the most important language learning activity.
In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, novice translators were very confident about themselves and their knowledge about it. That is the reason why they did not spend a lot of time searching for equivalents or simply took the first equivalent they found. While in translating the mangkobar text from BI to
EL, they found more difficulty since they found problems in searching for the equivalents in the target text in English as it is foreign language to them so it is quite different from the culture. It makes them spent longer time in translating the text. It was supported by the research of Jensen that the stress level would be higher after completion of the first task and could influence the following task. In this case, that’s one of the reason for novice translator spent longer time in translating the second task which was translating the mangkobar text from BI to
EL.
In addition, to support this reason, Naimushin (2003) said that it is useful to increase learner awareness, not only of grammar but also of the pragmatic and stylistic devices and their effects. In this way, learners are empowered with a fuller understanding of what the L2 is capable of, in what ways it is similar to, or different from, their own language. Rather than an obstacle to real language use, translation might be viewed as a way of fine-tuning the language to be used in given situations and conditions.
Translators used different strategies. Based on the findings found that the novice translators distributed their time unproperly whether in translating the
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mangkobar text from AL-BI or BI-EL over the three phases of translation process: pre-drafting, drafting and post-drafting. In translating the mangkobar text from
AL-BI, most of the novices did the pre-drafting and drafting phase, and skipped the post-drafting phase. It was in line with the approachment that correspond to Mossop’s (2000, p. 3) said that some translators planned their translation before entering it on the screen. It indicated that some do considerable preparation before beginning sentence by sentence drafting of the translation. In other words, before doing the translation they planned to comprehend the ST first. It could be done by reading the ST through entirely or at any rate in some detail, and they may do a considerable amount of conceptual or terminological research. Others just take a quick glance or searching the sources related to the ST and analyzing it for problems and then start drafting the translation.
Drafting process in this study was in line with Mossop (2001) that during drafting, sentence by sentence, some translators tried to solve almost all problems as they go, while others ‘steamroll’ through the text: if a passage is difficult, they leave a blank, or make a guess preceded by a question mark, or write down alternative translations separated by a slash. It was contradictive with this research, that if a passage is difficult, the novices thought of the solving problems indicated by taking several pauses in the translation process. It was done whether in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL. They never leave a blank, or make a guess preceded by a question mark, or write down alternative translations separated by a slash. Some of them used translation aids, such as printed dictionary, and google translate to help them solve the translation problems, especially cultural terms into TT.
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Based on the findings of this research, the novice translators took longer time to complete the drafting phase while translating the second task, which was from BI to EL. Finally, as regards post-drafting phase or revision phase, some translators do much of this during sentence by sentence drafting, such as they select one wording, then change it, then change it again, or they may stop to revisit an earlier passage and correct it. It was in line with the Mossop (2001). But once the draft was done by the novice translators, few further changes were made.
Other novice translators worked quite differently, they left almost all self-revision work until after the draft has been completed or made little online revision; others translated and revised almost simultaneously.
Almost all translators took longer to make a translation into L2 and it showed greater segmentation. In addition to Jakobsen, Alves’s findings (2009) was also in line with this research that the distribution of time was affected by the fact that the research started with 10 minute translation with almost no start-up time, which could mean that the stress level would be higher after the completion of the first task and could influence the following tasks. The way the novice translators did the translation work in both tasks was constrast to Jakobsen (2002) in which on average, professional translators dedicated more time to pre-drafting and less to drafting than non-professionals did. In this case, novice translators dedicated more time to drafting than pre-drafting either in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL.
As for the time, the novice translator who spent the most time made the best revision, and it was logical. However, a fact discovered that the novice translator who spent the most time turned out to make the worst revised versions.
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This shows that spending most time in translation process does not necessarily produce a high quality of translation and it was in line with Kunzli (2007).
Meanwhile, Iida (2008) conducted a research on the impact of experience on translation quality and the result revealed that those participants with more experience in speaking English and living in an English-speaking country performed better translations because they used more natural words and meanings in the production of translation as what novice D did. Iida (2008) believes that experience is one of the most important factors in translation processes and translation products.
In line with the Lehtinen and Palonen (2011, p. 27) concluded that the main characteristic which sets experts apart from novices is their ability to focus on and to choose the essential information. They also state that formal training can only create a basis on which expertise can be developed (2011, p. 34), as it takes at least 10.000 hours of methodical practice to become an expert (Ericson et al, cited in Lehtinen and Palonen, 2011). This may explain the differences between the novice translators in this research, as they had different amounts of work history and some only translated part-time. As it requires thousand of hours to reach the level of expertise, its development takes longer in terms of years if one translates only part-time.
5.2.4 Distribution of Translation Tasks over the Phases of Translation Process
Logged keystroke data from translation typing events make it possible to clearly identify three phases in the typing process, a pre-drafting phase, drafting phase, and post-drafting phase (see Krings 2001, and Mossop, 2001).
The distribution of translation tasks such as production, processing, 190
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documentation, and revision over the phases also differed significantly either in translating mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL. It was in line with
Breedveld (2002, p. 99) points out that not only will the individuals differ in the way they proceed in order to produce a translation, but they may also proceed differently according to the translation tasks they are confronted with, there is some evidences demonstrating that there is no correlation between the subjects cognitive rhythms and the type of target text rendered by them (Alves, 2006, p. 6).
Some left most documentation and revision work until the post-drafting phase, while others just monitored the translation during the last phase, but did not introduced any major changes.
Pauses are time delay taken by novice translators during text production in translation process correlates with cognitive processing. In this research, pauses indicates processing, documentation, and technical adjustment in translation activity. The pre-drafting phase is frequently longer than pauses found later between text production segments. It is dominated with the comprehension.
Some cognitive preparation of target text production could be involved.
This indicates that the kind of text processing which takes place at the outset is often of a different kind from that reflected by the shorter pauses found later in the drafting phase. It was in line with Hansen’s (1999) statement that cognitiv activity in the pre-drafting is an important prelimenary to the text processing that takes place in the drafting phase proper (Hansen, 1999). The novice translators spent longer time on processing whether in translating the mangkobar text from
AL to BI or BI to EL. Reading the source text in the pre-drafting was the
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indication of processing done by the novice translators. Processing spent longer time in the drafting phase.
The pre-drafting phase, is the time delay between the appearance of the source text on the screen and the typing of the first text production key.
The technical adjustment that can occur here are mouse clicks to scroll the source text and to resize the source text window. Text scrolling is necessary if the translator wishes to read more of the source text than is displayed in the source text window initially.
Data from this phase indicates how much of the source text the translator looked at before starting on the translation, and how much time was spent in doing so which is the indication of processing. It is supported by Hansen (2002) that the pre-drafting phase is dominated by comprehension. In translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, the novice translators did the documentation in the pre-drafting, in other words, they searched the information related to the topic of the source text to get comprehension. In this case, the text is cultural text
(mangkobar) in which the cultural development is expected to guide nations having national identity in order to create a conducive climate and harmony among communities. Therefore, the local cultural values are able to positively and productively respond to modernization in parallel with nation values (Sinar, 2011, p. 5). Since traditionally, transferring an author’s meaning, translators should recognize the text style.
When translators analyze the text style, they need examining linguistic and paralinguistic choices such as sentence structure, diction, and tone which are connected with meaning. It is in line with Babaee et al (2014) said that indeed,
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familiarity with these aspects of style makes it feasible for translators to have a better understanding of the text. Meanwhile, when translated the text from BI to
EL, they did it in drafting phase. In this phase, they did the documentation to help them in solving the translation problems. It was in line with Krings (1986) findings that documentation is an important part of translation strategies.
Generally, the end of the drafting phase can be identified unambiguously and is visualised clearly in the representation of the data, since the typing of the final punctuation mark is typically followed by a great deal of cursor movement
(by means of arrow keys, mouse clicks, etc.) indicating that the target text is being monitored and reworked. In the drafting phase, all types of keystroke can appear: text production keystrokes (characters, including spaces, and Enter to create a new line), text elimination keystrokes (delete, backspace, etc.), cursor navigation keys, mouse clicks, and cut, copy, or paste operations. In the drafting phase, text is typed, but generally not very evenly. Changes are made, typing errors are corrected, existing text is deleted and replaced by new text, all of these are a part of revision and technical revision. Sometimes the flow of production is momentarily halted while various resources (dictionaries or the Internet) are searched for information, all of which creates the "cognitive rhythm" characteristic of text production (see Schilperoord 1996, p. 5). Drafting, therefore, is not just text production but includes a lot of text revision, which was proposed to call "online" revision because it is revision undertaken while the first full drafting of the target text has not yet been completed.
Based on the findings of this research, screen recording Camtasia Studio 8 showed that the novice translators spent their time to prepare the new document
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and choose the layout they preferred when translated the mangkobar text from AL to BI. Meanwhile, in the second task, they just opened a new window and started translating straightaway. Therefore, in this task, they did not get through the pre- drafting. However, in a pedagocical situation the translator is advised to read the source text before starting to translate it (Gile, 2009).
The novice translators spent longer time on processing whether in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL. It was supported by the findings of Jääskeläinen’s 1999 study, which showed that semi-professional translators spent more time on processing than both professionals and non professionals. This could be the result of becoming sensitised to new problems without automatizing the problem-solving strategies. Generally, ten or more years of experience are seen as a requisite to become a reviser (see Gouadec, 2007).
This implies that revision skills are not that different from translation skills, and also that revision competence develops in response to experience, and not only to trainning. At the same time, almost any translator has to do some self-revision, which seems to be not an easy task.
The novice translators who relied on their background of knowledge to type the translation draft and they had tendency to follow the language style of the source text, in terms of decreasing the technical revision in the second task (BI-
EL). It is because of the familiarity with the source text. It is in line with
Khalzanova (2008, p. 30) said that the familiarity with the ST is important factor if it is compared self-revision with unilingual other revisions (revision, and technical revision). The second task leads to higher stress levels which caused
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more processing, technical adjustment, more typos and spelling mistakes, which are corrected on the spot which is in line with Khalzanova (2008, p. 57).
Knowledge of successful processes is valuable in translator training and in any efforts aimed at reforming existing professional practices. Successful translators also have relatively articulate subjective theories of translation which guide their performance. By virtue of their strategic touch they focus their attention, their conscious decision-making and their use of translation aids so that their investment in effort results in sufficient communicational gains.
Translation has been studied from different perspectives: as a textual operation, as an act of communication and also as a cognitive activity carried out by the translator. Aspects such as the translation process, the learning styles and documentation are connected because they are part of the translator's professional life and reflect strategic behavior.
Translation process studies focus on the translator and the process of translation. This study has been gradually mapping the cognitive and psycholinguistic elements of the translation process to uncover more about how translators work, how they distribute the time, translation tasks, how they use the translation aids. All of these elements are correlated one into another.
Novice translators are faced with the problems of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in a source text and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language.
The similarity of the two processes done by novice translators are either translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI or BI to EL, both of them distributed the longer time in drafting phase in which they did the translation and
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simultaneously did the revision. In addition, both of them also distributed longer time on processing task in drafting phase in which they took pauses for reading the ST, interpreting the TT that done previously, finding the main topic in the text in order to get the more understanding of the ST. In terms of using translation aids, both of them used them to help the novice translators finish the translation work.
Meanwhile, the difference of the two processes done by novice translators are in translating the mangkobar text from AL to BI, the novice translators tie up emotionally since involve AL as their mother tongue and BI as their first language. In another words, it is carried out by translators who know both the SL and the TL and has translation experience in the relevant domain. It implies that they spend shorter time while translating the mangkobar text and it is logic because of the above reason. Meanwhile, there is a great interest in which they use translation aids while translating from AL to BI.
The great interest is how they use and manage the translation aids. In this case, they use many kinds of translation aids even though they are native speakers of both languages in contrast with the above reason. It implies that there is not a guarantee for the native speakers understand deeply about the topic, especially the cultural terms that have specific meanings so they use many kinds of translation aids, such as ask their scholar, friend, family, use the printed dictionary, and search by the google search even though in shorter time to confirm the equivalence, and acceptability of the cultural terms. It also implies that they are tend to apply social-affective process in terms of using the translation aids.
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By contrast, in translating the mangkobar text from BI to EL, the novice translators spend longer time since EL is their second language. It indicates that
BI and EL have both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and the
TL. It concludes that differences between cultures cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structures as Nida stated (1964, p. 130). It is further explained that parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation. Thus, when translating, it is important to consider not only the lexical impact on the TL reader, but also the manner in which cultural aspects may be perceived and make translating decision accordingly. By this reason, they use only one translation aid, in this case only google translate since they just focus on the TT. It is also because there is not another sources to help them in finding the best equivalent meaning especially which related to the cultural terms so it implies that they apply cognitive process in doing translation.
Novice translators need to be aware that a strong focus on the foreign culture also means that they are only rarely confronted with their own culture in translation tasks. So they must also be familiar with the source language culture terminology as well as the target language culture terminology.
Considering that an important aspect of intercultural competence is the ability to explain one‟s own culture in terms of the other (introduction), the use of source text which deal with the novice translators ‟own rather than the foreign culture may be beneficial.
Most surprisingly, the novice translators seemed to lack familiarity with some of their native culture concepts and, consequently, had difficulty
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rendering them for Target Language readers. As it seemed, at least some of the novice translators did not partake in certain discourses within their culture and hence lacked familiarity with related concepts, which especially from the perspective of the a cultural outsider-belong to their national cultural inventory. It implies that they should learn more deeply about their own culture to help them translate the mangkobar text or other cultural texts well. By taking the translation, it is one of the ways to maintain and conserve our cultural heritage especially local language. As what Indonesian government stated that prioritize the Bahasa
Indonesia, conserve the local language, and master the foreign language. In addition, it has to be kept in mind that translation has different layers, and depending on the language level of translators can work either on decoding the meaning of individual words or structures, mastering the language by finding synonyms, trying to paraphrase or explain concepts descriptively, or, perhaps, getting deeper into the essence of whole sentences and paragraphs.
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CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
Through the data collected from this research, it was concluded that the learning styles of most of the novice translators changed from task to task (AL-BI and BI-EL). Furthermore, each novice translators revealed learning styles in the translation tasks performed. The findings of this research showed that the social affective process is dominantly used in translating Mangkobar text from AL to BI by the novice translators. Based on the Camtasia recorded, they used translation aids in which they interacted with other people through the Google search in searching writings published from the internet websites to help them in completing the translation work. In addition, they consulted with their scholar or friend that knows better about Angkola culture to get the information about the equivalent of some cultural terms.
Meanwhile cognitive process is the dominatly process used in translating
Mangkobar text from BI to EL. During the translation works, they revealed that they do not think sequentially, opting to deal with many issues at the same time and oscillating between the different steps of the translation process. Some novice translators with the cognitive learning style demonstrated to be very thoughtful and exhaustive during the process. It is important therefore to know the translator as a learner, their learning strategies and their style, among other things, in order to understand their choices and identify their skills. This opened up a new path for
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experimental research, which promotes a better understanding of translation and of the translation process and contributes a great deal to the training of translators.
Novice translators took longer time in translating Mangkobar text from BI to EL than from AL to BI. In line with this, they also distributed most of their time in drafting phase in translation process whether in translating the Mangkobar text from AL to BI or from BI to EL. In drafting phase, they tended to do drafting simultaneously do the revisions. In translating the Mangkobar text from AL to BI, they did not distribute specific time duration to do revisions in post-drafting phase. They tended to do the revisions at clause level which applying linear and inline method of linearity in the process. While in translating the Mangkobar text from BI to EL, they often skipped the pre-drafting in translation process.
They distributed the specific time duration to do revisions that indicated they tended to do the revisions at text level which applying non linear method of linearity in the process.
The novice translators took longer time in translating Mangkobar text from BI to EL than translating from AL to BI accounted for by the stress and tiring of the novice translators, which led them spend more time to do the translation. It was in line with when they distributed the translation tasks, they also distributed more time on processing in drafting phase. They distributed less time in some parts of translation tasks, such as in production, technical revision, production + revision, and production + technical revision.
The conclusion to be drawn from this is that translation pedagogy should pay more attention to translation briefs and marking. There should be more variety and realism in both. The participant should be given an opportunity to develop a
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wide variety of strategies applicable to different translation briefs. Less successful processes, especially those of novices tend to be governed by local decision- making; they are thus linear by nature and proceed problem by problem, word by word or sentence by sentence. This often means a wasteful use of resources, since decision-making effort is not prioritized and strategically invested. Good translators in turn are more prepared to use their background knowledge and their own inferences about text and text type as a basis for their decisions.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the conclusions drawn above, the researcher would suggest that :
1) The current research involved five participants who are novice translators,
so, the sample was not very big and the findings cannot be generalized to
all other novice translators. So for bigger sample it can include more
novice translators included more profile and criteria to make some
generalizations.
2) In this study a cultural text was used to analyze the translation process
from some aspects to achieve, so the other researcher may use another
genre of texts. It can give another useful findings in the future.
3) Another result of this research is relatively in translating first language
(BI) to second language (EL) spent longer time. It was spent most in
drafting phase. That was unexpected turn of this research, which focused
primarily on the process and not the product. Nevertheless, it make us
believe that there is more to learn about this distribution of time, so the
notion of quality will be introduced in the future research by another
researcher. 201
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4) The participants should get translators training to become more
professional translators or to be professional translators, and that in their
translation courses such pragmatic matters as purpose of translation, target
readership, type of medium in which the translation should appear.
5) It is important to note that the translation process is not limited only to
these phenomena but also includes other that have emerged with the
arrival of new technologies supporting translation, which modify the
course of the proceedings, and consequently, the skills of the translator.
These developments have opened up a new path for experimental research,
which promotes a better understanding of translation and of the translation
process and contributes a great deal to the training of translators.
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APPENDIX 2
NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ PROFILE
Test of Bahasa Angkola TOEFL No. Name Indonesia Language Test Score Rank Score
1 Novice A Very good 578 Unggul 537
2 Novice B Very good NA NA 525
3 Novice C Good 419 Madya 500
4 Novice D Very good 602 Unggul 550 5 Novice E Good 420 Madya 475
6 Novice F Very good 618 Unggul 503
7 Novice G Very good 601 Unggul 517
8 Novice H Good 502 Madya NA
9 Novice I Very good 590 Unggul 550
10 Novice J Very good NA NA NA
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APPENDIX 3
PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF AL CONFIRMED BY PENASEHAT ADAT IN ANGKOLA, PADANG SIDIMPUAN
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PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF NO. PARTICIPANT ANGKOLA LANGUAGE
1. Novice A Very good
2. Novice B Very good
3. Novice C Good
4. Novice D Very good
5. Novice E Good
6. Novice F Very good
7. Novice G Very good
8. Novice H Good
9. Novice I Very good
10. Novice J Very good
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APPENDIX 4
THE CERTIFICATE OF PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF BI BY UKBI TEST
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APPENDIX 5
THE CERTIFICATE OF PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF EL BY TOEFL TEST
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APPENDIX 6
LINEAR REPRESENTATION OF THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’
TRANSLATION (AL-BI)
Novice A
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice D
[Start]•••[▼][▲]••••••••••...... ••••••Pda••◄◄ada•malam•ini•kita•berkumpul•[•10. 125]di•rumah•mora•dari•mora••••kami.•••••kami•••mengucao◄pkan•maa•f•serib u•kali•maaf••••••••••kepa••da•••••••••••raja•yg•bersahaja••••dan•••yang•b•••◄terh ot◄rmat•••,•••orang•tua••,•••••terlebih••kepada••••••kakek•[•32.593]◄◄◄◄◄ ◄••ompung•kami.••••••Kepada••••mora•kami••••yg•bersau•dara•••••begitu•juga•• •anak•boru••nya,••••lerbih•lagi•••kepada•seluruh•mora••••••yang•telah•bersatu•••• •••untuk•menjalani•adat••••untuk•berumah•tangga.•[•36.813]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••◄••••dan••anau◄k•boru•nya.• ••[Return]••••••••Baik•lah•••kepada•mora••••••nya•mora,•[•10.500]dimana•kita•da pat•bertemu••••di•malam•hari•ini.•••••••teus••kami•ingta••••••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄te ringa•t•pada••••kesimpulan•••••musyawarah••••••tulang•m◄na•poso•••••••••kami •••dengan••••••gadis•••dari•mora••••••di•mora•••••yang•sudah•sepakat•[•26.235]m en•jalani•adat••••untuk•berumah•tangga.•••••••Sebagaimana•telah•di•niatkan•oleh •••mora•kami••,•juga•••••••••yang•direahkan•••oleh•kahan•ggi•[•41.110]←←← ←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←→→••→••◄s••↓↓•→••r••→ →→→→→→→→→→→[•25.438]→→→→→→→[•11.969],•[•29.688]kedatan gan•kami•••••←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←→iya••→→→→→→→ →→→→→→→•[•10.906]→•◄◄◄◄◄◄•••••••••••mereka•memohon••••••••• harapan•kepada•mora••••di•mora••••••untuk•menjalani••••proses•adat••.•••••Kami •hormat•tuah•sahala•••mora•kami••,•••mengi••kuti•kata••••mora•kami,••••••agar•• ••sampe•dan•tulus•••••••nya•untuk•mendid••◄rk••◄ikan•••••••upaya•••mora•ka mi,•••••••untuk•me••mperlihatkan••••rasa••senang•kami••kepada•menantu•perem puan••••kmai•◄◄◄◄ami••••••dengan•anak••yang•akan•berkeluarga.[•19.094][ Return]••Klau••kami•dari•anak•boru•,••••••••••kami•sudah•siap•mengha•••dapi••p anas•••••••••••◄,•dan•tida•◄•ak•mengelakkan•hujan.••••••Because••◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄••Karena•disini•masih•ada•mora•di•mora••,••••••maka•kami•harap••••••uc apakan•kami•disampaikan••,•••••agar•••mej•◄nj••a•di.•••••••••[▼][▲]◄◄◄◄, •saya•tutup•dengan•sala,..[Return]•Wassalamu••alikum•wr•wb.•••••[▼][▲][▼][ ▲]•[▼][▲]◄◄•m[•13.578][Stop]
18
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice F
[Start][•20.812]Mangkobar••••d[•22.500]alam•pesta•pernikahan•••••••Batak•Ang kola••dari•pihak•anak•boru•••.[Return][•14.578][▼][▲]Assalamualaikum wr wb. Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. ••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••◄•[Return]•Assalamu•• ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄lhamdu••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••••••Assalamualaikum•wrw◄•wb•.[ Return]•Alhamdulillah•wa•syukurillah•,•wassolatu•wassalam••u••'ala•rosu•lillah• so•llall••o••hu•'alaihi•wa•sallam•.•Pada•malam•hari•ini••••,•bersama– sama•kita•berkum••pul••••••••di•rumah••••mora•ni•ora◄◄◄mora•kita••.••••Sala m•hormat•••kepada••••••[•01:52.750][▼][▲]•→••••••◄◄•••dari•◄→•••••••→ →→→→→→→→••→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•••••••••Pe•rta,a◄◄ma•sekali•••••••meny ampaikan•••permohonan•maaf•••kepada•[•25.328]raja•••yang•bersahaja••••••d••a n•yang•ter•hormat[•11.734]•orang•tua•••terlebih••kepada•ompung•kita•••••••dar•• •i•[•59.500]rumah•adat•.••••[•29.906]Dan•ju◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄,•dan•juga•••••••k e[◄•pada•••mora•kami•beserta••anak•borunya[•14.781],•terutama•sekali•kepada• •••mora••ni•mota•◄◄ra••••beserta•pula•anak•borunya.[•17.859][Return]••DEmi kianlah••←←←←←←←←←◄e••••[▼][▲]kami•[•14.532]←←←←←kiranya ••→→→→••••sampaikan•kepada•••mora•ni•mora•kami[•26.641].•Adapun•••tuju an•••dari••pertemuan•••kita•pada•••malam•ini••,•yaitu••berkenan◄an•••dengan•[• 15.594]pertemuan•hati••putra••s◄dari•mora•saya••••dengan•anak••••gadis•dari• mora•kami.••••Sepasang•sejoli•ini••rupanya••••telah••menjalin•janji•untuk•mene mpuh••••••••••hidup•baru••.••••Seg◄bagaimana••yang•telah•dipaparkan•••oleh•m ora••kami•tadi••dan•akan•dipertegas•••oleh•kahangginya•••bahwa••••kedatab◄•n gan•kami•ini••••yaitu••untuk•menjalani•••tangga•◄– tangga•adat•••yang•sudah•diadatkan•.[•11.297]•[•25.875]Mr◄enjunjung•tu◄ing gi••••martabat•[•31.937]tua•sahala•••••••mora[•10.140]•kami[•26.719]menyertai•• •←←←←←←←←←←←→•••[▼][▲]◄•••segala•penyampaian•••mora,•••agar •tercapai•••maksud•dan•tujuan•••mora•kami•••yaitu•menunjukkan•••rasa•besar•ha ti•••terhadap•parumaen••dan•anak•kami•••yang•melangsungkan••per••ka•winan.[• 11.485][Return]ja◄◄La◄◄Kalau•••d◄kami•dari•pihak•anak•boru•••••,•telah•s iap•mendukung•••••••dan•mengemban•segala•tgas•←←←←→u→→→••••••••◄ ,•kami•tidak•taj◄k••ut••••••kena•panas••dan•tidak•mengelak••••ken•◄◄◄◄◄ •ditimpa•hujan•••••••demi•tercapainya•••cita– cita•mora•kami•••,•yan••••••g••••akan•mengadakan••pesta•[•14.078]perkawinan•• ••.[•13.297]••••••••••Dan•masih•ada•lagi••••di•sini•moa•◄◄ora••••dari•mora•ka mi•••,•kiranya••••diperkuat•••dan•disempurnakan••••••pembicaraan•kami•ini•••ag ar•semakin•sempurna•••••.•••Demikinala•◄◄◄◄•anlah••••.•••[Return]•Assala• mualaikum•wr•wb.••••••••[▼][▲]→◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄r••••kawinan[•01:11.094] [▼][▲]◄◄◄ami[•24.422][▼][▲]◄◄dar••i•••••[▼][▲]◄◄◄ami[•11.844][ ▼][▲]•→◄◄◄◄◄•••••berumah•tangga[•24.016][▼][▲]••(bes••◄◄◄mena ntu•perempuan•)[•12.782][▼][▲]◄◄•[•02:01.500][Stop]
19
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice G
[Start][•18.062]m••◄••a•◄a◄m•••••m•◄◄MAKKOBAR•••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•a kkobar•••dalam••••acara•pesta•batak•angkola••••dari••••pihak•anak•boru••[Return ]•••••••••[▼][▲]•Assalamualaikum wr wb. [•13.016][▼][▲]••[▼][▲][Return]Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. ••••Di••••••◄malam•hari•ini••••,•kita•semua••berkumpul•di••••rumah•••••••mora• kita•ini••••••••••dan•[•17.437]salam•hormat•••kami•untuk•••kaum•••raja•dan•••◄ ◄◄◄serta•mora•••pada•kesempatan•kali•ini[•11.094][▼][▲]telah••••[▼][▲] ◄.••→→→→◄◄◄◄•→◄S[•17.718][▼][▲]•••••,••••kaum••••••••tetuua◄◄ ◄◄◄•◄◄◄◄◄◄tetua•adat•••••••••dan••••terutama•••kepad••◄a•[•25.953]t etua•dari••bagas•godang.••→••→◄◄◄••••••••p••[▼][▲].••••••••••••Kepada••• mora•••serta••••••••••kerabt◄atnya•••••••••yang••••◄◄◄◄◄••••.•[•29.375]Ada punn•◄•yang•menjadi••••••tujuan•pertemuan•••kita•malam•ini•adalah•••••••tenta ng•••••••••anak•••••lelaki•kami•dengan•anak•gaids•◄◄◄◄dis•dari•rumah•ini••• •yang•telah•sepakat•untuk••berumah•tangga.[•14.328]•Seperti•yang••••telah••••• mora•kami•sampaikan•••••••••••beserta•kerabat••sebelumnya•••••••,••••kedatanga a•◄n•kami••••ini•adalah•untuk•menyambunn◄g••adat.[•16.531]◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄laksanakan•••••••••••••••adat••••••••••••••••yang•menunjukkan• bahwa•••••kami••bahagia•dengan•kedatnag◄◄◄angan[•10.250]•••a••••••••◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•pernikahan•••••[•31.156]a•nak•lelaki•kami•dan•anak•ga dis•dari••••••rumah•ini.[•13.407][Return]••••••••Kami••telah••siap•••••••••[•11.67 2]untuk•pelaksanaa••nnya•dan••••••••kami•serahkan•••••sepenuhnya•untuk•••••••• ba•◄◄selanjutnya•[•17.938]hal••ini•terlaksana•kepada•mora•kami.••••sekian•da ri•kami••dan•saya•akhiri•dengan•salam.••••[▼][▲][▼][▲]•[▼][▲]•••••••••[▼][ ▲][Return]•Assalamualaikum wr wb. ••••••••[Stop]
20
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice I
[Start]••[▼][▲][•11.625][▼][▲]Assalamualaikum wr wb.[•27.640][▼][▲][Return]Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘alarosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam•.•••pada•◄◄◄◄◄••••••Pada••malam•hari•ini•kita•berkumpul•••di•ruma h[•23.516]••••mora••dari•mora•kami•(mora•:•pemeber\◄◄◄◄◄n◄beri••a••◄ •gadis••/pihak•perempua•n•••;•mora•ni•mora••••:•[•22.171]genereasi•pertama•dar •••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄rasi•perta••◄◄◄[•27.093]rta••ma[• 24.766]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄orang•tua•dari••••••ibu•pengantin•[ •12.907]◄)[•49.000].••••u••◄••Ucapan•hormat•kami•ham◄[•17.907]nturkan•ke pada[•11.469]•[•01:04.000]raja•••••dan[•01:26.562]•para•bangsawan•pada•per•••• •••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄yang•hadir•dalam••••forum•ini•••,•para•penatua••,•khusu•s nya•[•01:53.781][▼][▲][•01:53.438][▼][▲]••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄.•••• •••••Ucapan•hormat•juga•[•11.969][▼][▲]◄◄◄◄saya••••[▼][▲]◄◄◄◄sa ya••••••••[▼][▲][▼][▲]dan•••juga•••[▼][▲]saya•hanturkan•kepada•••••••••••m eru•◄tua•saya••••••••da[•10.969]◄••◄•••••◄•,•••saudara•mertua•saya•kakak•be radik.•••••••◄.••◄◄,•khususnya•••••kepada••••••bar◄◄◄mora••◄◄••◄◄pi hak•mertua•dari•mertua•saya•••••◄,••••tidak•lupa••••••••pihak•••◄◄◄◄•◄[•1 7.266]juga•kepada••••••••sau•dara•perempuan••dari•pihak•merua•◄◄◄tua•say• a.•••[Return][•28.141][Return]••••••me•◄◄Benar,•mertua••••◄◄◄◄◄◄••••• bahwa•adapun•pertemuan•kita•malam•hari•ini••••adalah[•01:34.578]•untuk•mem bicarakan•acara•pernikahan•[•01:41.297]naka◄◄◄◄anak•dari••••••abang•ipar• saya•••••••••()••←keponakan••→.••••••••••◄◄•dengan•••••tunangannya•yang•tel ah•sepakat•akan•menjalankan•adat•••••pernih◄kahan.•••••••••••Seoerti•yang•tela h•disampaikan•oleh•mer••tua•saa◄ya[•19.125],•juga•oleh••saudara••••••kakak•be ras◄dik••d◄mertua•saya[•13.000],•kedatangan•saya•m[•45.891]◄•adalah••••••• ••untuk•••••••menjalankan••••••••••ptoses◄◄◄◄•••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄sebagai•salah•satu•••prosesi•adat.[•15.297]•Kunjunjunng •◄◄•◄•◄◄◄◄◄◄•••◄◄Martabat•mertuaku•ku••junjung•tinggi[•11.906],• [•10.328]seturut•dengban•◄◄◄◄an•permintaan•mertua••••bahwa[•18.250]◄ ◄◄◄◄agar•••••terlaksana••••acara•adat•yang•dikehendaki•mertua•s•aya.••◄,•• sebga◄◄agai•••bentuk•peng•••hormatan••dan••••••sukacita•••menyambut••••••• mena••ntu.[•01:10.313]◄•••••dan•anak••kami•yang•akam◄n•memulai•hidup•bar u•.••[Return]••[Return]Kami•sebagai•••anak•boru••(menantu••••/suami•dari•anak• per◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•••••◄pihak•perempuan•••••)••• •••,•••••kami•sipa◄◄ap••••••••t••••erkena•panas••••••dan•siao◄p•ditimpa•hujan• •.•••Berhubung••••,•mertua•dari•meryua•kami•juga•di•s•ini••,•kami•mohon•••unt uk•••menimpali••apa•yang•telah•kami•sampaikan•••.••Demikian•saya•sudaha◄i• dengan•salam.••[Return]•[Return]•••••••[▼][▲]Assalamualaikum wr wb.[•12.640][Stop]
21
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
APPENDIX 7
LINEAR REPRESENTATION OF THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’
TRANSLATION (BI - EL)
Novice A
[Start]••[▼][▲]••••••mANG◄◄◄◄•••Man••gkobar••in••Ba•tak•Angkola•••We dding•Ceremon••y••by••••••••A•nak•Boru•Si•de•••[Return][Return]••••••assalamu •••←←←←←←←←◄A•→→•→→→→→••Alaikum•wr•wb.••••••◄•••[Retur n][Return]•••Alhamdulillah••wa••syukurillah••,•wassolatu•wassalamu••'ala••••ros ulillahi•solla•lohu•alaihi••wa•salla•m•••.•••••••I••n•this•evening,•••••we•••◄◄••e •[•16.907]gather••here•••◄◄◄◄in•thi••s••••house•••◄◄◄◄••••••••use•of•o•• ur•mora[•13.188][▼][▲]••are••→•to•→→◄e••••••[▼][▲]•••[▼][▲]•••••◄•••• [•47.672][▼][▲]•••••ni•mora[•12.015]•(••••••parralel•[•13.750]title•to••••••w••ife 's••b•◄◄◄•••◄◄◄◄◄•••••••••father•••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄parent••••••in•law•of ••••••one's•wif••e•••bor••◄◄rother•)•••••••••[▼][▲]◄◄•e•••••[▼][▲]••••••◄• ••.•••••••Let•••us•••••express•our•[•01:49.641]deference••••to•••••••••the•[•01:04.3 29]t•itled•[•26.422]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•••title•d•man•ithis•[•31.407]◄◄◄◄◄•n•t his•houe••,◄◄••use,••◄◄◄◄◄◄•use,••••••••••noble•••man••••••←←←←← ←←←←te•◄he••→→→→→→→→→•,•••••and•[•28.875]especially•to•the••Ki ng•[•12.984]in•this•[•29.750][▼]••[▲][▼][▲]village•.••••••••••To••••our•mora•• •([•12.172]paralel••t••itle•to•••••••••••parent•••in•law••••••••••of•a•man)[•17.984], •especially•••to••••our•mora•ni•more•and•••••family,◄.••[Return][Return][•17.45 3]Dear◄◄◄◄••The•re•spected•mora•ni•mora•••of•••••••••ours•.•◄,••••••the••• •••aimed•of••our•••gathering•here••••◄◄◄◄•today•is•[•18.047]◄◄◄••refer•s •to•[•57.765]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄[•16.812]is•the•cont•i[•11.188]◄◄◄◄◄f ollu◄ow••••up[•35.453]•of•[•59.875]our•tulang•naposo•(••••••••one's••wif•◄◄ ◄••wife•[•16.406]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••sone•of••••••on••e•••wof◄◄•f•• ◄ife's•brothe◄er••)••••[▼][▲]◄••[▼][▲][•11.094]•with••••••••the•lady•of•••• mora•ni•mora•••••who[•18.781][▼][▲]••the•ag•reemen•t•of•••[▼][▲]••••••••hav e•••become•••••one•••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•••◄◄◄◄dcided•◄◄◄◄◄◄ediced•t o•get•marriage••.•[•13.078]As•••••◄◄•Like•our••••mora••has•[•11.516]reveled•• •◄◄◄aled••,•••[•17.063]alike••◄◄◄◄◄••••••••••◄◄••and••kahanggi•had•• ◄◄◄as•either••••••••[▼][▲][•14.359][▼]•[▲][▼][▲][•14.516][▼][▲]•(••••• •parr•alel•title•[•22.453]to•••••••••uncle••••••••from••◄◄◄◄[•18.063]or••cousi n••••o•f•father••••'s•side)••→→→→→→→→→→→[•11.109],•that•••••our•••pre sence••here•is••••to•••show•••••our•[•17.578][▼][▲]◄◄◄their•→→→→→→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→••••←←←←←←←←←← ←←←◄◄◄◄•••••the•ho••use••of•mora•ni•mora•→→→→→→→→→→→ →→→→◄◄◄their[•38.625][▼][▲][•20.047]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••◄•[ •19.843]obey•the•••s••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄line•the•steps•that••••••••custom• has•[•47.859]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄the•local•custon•has•set.•••••••••••we•◄
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
◄We•[•26.141]uphold•the•intention•of••••our•mora••••,••foll•••••ow•the•[•01:26. 687]directive•of•mor••a•.•◄,•••••••••••in•order•that•••this•[•01:13.515]vc•◄◄ce lebration•••••run••s•well•••••••[▼][▲]••••[▼][▲][•10.391],•[•40.062]for•••th••is •is•a••garitude•••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••n•expression•to•the•marrige•••••••[ ▼][▲]••••of•gratitude••→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→•of•[•12.313]our•pa remaen••••◄◄◄◄◄umaen•([•20.469]daugh••t•◄•••ther•••◄◄◄◄er•in•law• )•••••••••••and•our•[•13.187]sone•◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄to•our•son••••.••[R eturn]•[Return]•••We•••••,◄•as•anakboru•••••(•••pa•rrale•tile•◄◄◄•tle••••••to•[ •11.625]one'••s•••••sister•family•••••••••••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄and•her•••◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄[•17.985]hus••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•sister••'s•••••h us••band••family)•••••••[▼][▲]l••••[▼][▲]•••••[▼][▲]•◄◄•••and•her••[▼][ ▲]••••••••◄,•••who••••••◄◄◄◄•••are•ready••for•[•24.594]this•celebration••◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄to•succee•d•this•celebt•◄ration••• even•••••••••◄◄◄◄•••••and•will•not•give•up••••even•••in•a••ho••◄◄•••••◄ ◄•an•ext•◄◄•◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••in•extremely•hot•day•••or••rainy•••one•••.•Sin ce•[•12.563]here•••,•••••••we•have••••••••••our•mora•••••[▼][▲]→◄◄◄◄◄ ◄••[▼][▲]here,•please•••[•30.891]fullfill••••our•speech•••••to•make•it••perfect• •••.••••••••••This••is•the•end•of•my••speech•••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•Inded•◄ee◄d,•I•end•my•speech••with•a••s alam••••••(islamic•greeting)••.•[Return][Return]•Assalamu•Alaikum•wr•wb••.[•02 :02.125][▼][▲]•in[•12.547][▼][▲]◄m[•01:09.828][Stop]
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice D
[Start]•••••••Tonight•••we••••are•••here••••••←←←←←←←←←←←←←←← ←←←←←←←←←••••Ma•rkobar•dalam••◄◄◄◄◄in•••••Ethnic•batak•ang kola••••••custom••from•••••Anak•Boru••part•(•son•in••law)•[Return]•••→→→→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→•••••••in•••our•mora•••of•mora••(••parents•in •law•••)••←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←•◄◄•••ni•••• →→→→→••→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→•house••.••••We••expre ss•our••••••••◄◄◄◄•••our•apology••◄ize••••••◄◄•••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•apoogize••••to•our•headm•an••••w•ho•••◄◄◄••who•is•i n•hu•mble••••and•••respected••,••our•parents,•••our••••grandparents•••.•To•our••• mora•••••••wh•o•are•in•brothers•••••a◄,•also•to•our••••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄••also•to•their••••anak•boru••(sons•in•law)•••••••••therefore•to••the ir•mora••••ni•mora•(••gr••eat•grand•parents)••••••.[Return]•••[Return]•••Right•our •mora•ni•mora•••(great••ga◄rand•pat◄rents•of•our•••••father•in•law)••,•we•••••• meet•tonight•••,•••••we••••go•to•the•••conclusions•of•our•meeting••••for•our•••br other•••in•law••••••with•••sisters••••••in•this•mora••ni•mora•••••who••have•agree d•to••••••••get•married.••••••As•our•mora•has•••stated•that•••••••already•given•to• ••our••••••••◄◄◄◄•b••◄•our•tribe•s•◄ide,••••••••it•was•to•••••••••hope•••the• •••◄◄◄◄of•our•mora•••ni•mora•••to•••enact••a••••••costumary•••••tradition•pr ocession•of•wedding•••.•••We••rex◄sp••ect••our•••great•parents••••◄'•souls•••of •••••←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←◄◄◄•••the•• →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→••our•mora•◄,•follow •••the•sworn•of•our•mora••,•for•••••arriving•and•••having•sicre•••◄◄◄ncre•••• ◄◄◄•cere••••••••••for•our•mora•ttempt•••to←←←←←←←←←a•→→→→ →→→→→•hel•••◄d•this•ceremony.•••••To•show•our•••••fairth••••••to•our•mor a•••••◄◄◄◄•◄◄◄◄◄••••••dougther•in•law•[•19.640][▼][▲]•[▼][▲]◄a• ••[▼]•[▲][▼][▲]•←←←•••and•the•son•of•our•mora•we•support•this•event.[•0 1:23.328][▼][▲]••←,[•28.422][▼][▲]•s[•15.500][▼][▲]•••sahala••(•→→→→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→•[ ▼][▲] [Return]waalaikumsalam•wr•wb•••.••••••[Stop]
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice F
[Start]••[▼][▲]Mangkobar•••in•Batak•Angko•la•wedding•ceremony•••from•ana k•boru•sides.••••◄••←←←←←•(son••in•law)••→→→→→.[Return]•••Assalam ualaikum•••wr•eb••◄◄wb••.[Return]••Alhamdulillah••wa•syukut◄rillah•••,•was solatu•s◄wa•ssalamu••'ala•rosulillah•sollall•ohu••'alaihi••wa•sallam••.••Tonight,• •we•gather••••••••here•in•mora••••ni•mora•◄'s•house[•17.531]••••(parent•s•in•la w)••.•[•10.171]First•of•all••,•we•do••◄◄apalogize••••to•[•16.125]our•humble••• •and•respected•••••headman[•17.360],•••parents••••••••,•and••••our•grandparents•• •••in•[•11.656][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Int erface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][I nterface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface ][•13.906][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interfac e][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interf ace][Interface][Interface][•01:03.906]custom••••home.[•11.313]◄,•and•also•••to• ••our•mora•[•01:04.281](••woma•n•••'s•side•)•••••••with•[•12.000]anak•boru[•14. 437],•especially•••to•mora•ni•mora•••with•his•anak•boru[•40.813],◄.••[Return][• 34.031]To•our•mora•••••ni•mora•••••••••••••••,••••••••••our•purpose•••of•this•meet ing•••••••tonight•is••••••••related•to••••the•agreement••••••••••a•man••from•my•m ora•with••a•woman••from••our•moraa••◄•.•[•14.969][▼][▲]••••between•→→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→◄◄◄◄◄and•→→→ →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→••••This•couple•••has•been•••••◄ ◄◄◄◄[•40.657]made•••an•agreement•••to•get•married.•••As•••stated•••by••ou r•••mora••••••••,•it•will••••be•[•12.687]reinforced••••by•his•kahanggi••([•38.016]t he•same•clan)••••••taht••◄◄◄•◄•••[Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][I nterface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface ][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interfa ce][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Inter face][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Int erface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][I nterface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface ][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interface][Interfa ce][Interface]•hat•[•12.984]our•coming•here•••is•to•[•27.812]go•through•••••••••t he•customary•••••procession••.•[•26.438]We•respect•[•10.360]to•sahala[•10.484]• (great••••parents[•18.016]←←←←←←←grand••••••◄◄◄•◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ••[▼][▲]•◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄[•20.719]ancestors[•18.797]•of•our•mora)[•25.609] na•◄◄•and•all•his•[•12.453]speec••h••••toget•←←←•→→→•••the•[•23.968]int ention•••••••••of•our•mora••••••••is••••to•show••••••••the•gratitude•to••••[▼][▲]• pa◄•◄••[▼][▲]•parumaen•(•••••daughter•in•law)••••••••and•our•son•••taht◄◄ ◄hat•••••••••hold•[•25.719]the•wedding•ceremony/◄.••[Return][•27.906]Fr•o••• ◄◄◄We•are•from•anak•boru•••••has•been•ready•••to•support••and•do•all•the•t hings••••••about•it•••••••••••••in•order•to••••••••••get••o••ur•mora's•[•19.625]◄• ◄◄←←←←←←←←what••→→→→→→→→••••intent•••◄•••ded••••••is•to •hold•••the••wedding•ceremony•••.•••••••[▼][▲]We•hope••••••••••[▼][▲]•We•• •hope••••••••our•mora•••••••••••from•mora•••can•••••complete•and•[•26.375]confi rmed[•14.922]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄•reinforced••••[•15.188]◄◄[•11.078]•••••••a ll•••the•speech••es••••to•get•••much•better•••••••.••••[•23.656][Return]•Assalamu
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
alaikum•wr•wb.[•56.813][▼][▲]••arried•.•••••[▼][▲]◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄•◄◄••→•[•11.391][▼][▲][•16.985]•of•wedding••••••••[▼][▲]the•••• •••[▼][▲]es[•13.593][▼][▲]◄◄•and[•14.047][▼][▲]•w◄[•20.485][▼][▲]
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
Novice G
[Start][•01:18.110][▼][▲]••••••mAKKOBAR•◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••Makkobar ••in•••Batak•Angkola•Wd•◄edding•••from•••Anak•Boru•Side[Return]•••••••••[▼ ][▲]•Assalamualaikum wr wb••[Return]••••••••••[▼][▲]• Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam•[▼][▲][▼][▲][▼][▲]•◄••[▼][▲]•[Return][•12.532]T••◄•••tonight•,• •←←←←←←←◄T•→→→→→→→•we•have•g◄◄◄◄◄◄are•gathering•• •••here•in•our•mora's•house[•15.609]•and••we•want•to•[•23.312]s•••◄◄•respect •◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄••••our••••honourav◄ble•••••king ••••••••◄••••''•◄;s••◄◄◄s•relatives•and•••mora•••••••••••in•t•••his•occasion.[•1 3.422]•Our•regard••••••our•mora•and••relatives[•12.422][▼][▲]◄◄◄◄◄◄ ◄◄•◄◄◄Honourable••••[▼][▲]•••••••••,•as•we•are•coming•here••••••••[▼][ ▲]the•reason••for••••[▼][▲]◄◄◄◄◄•••[▼][▲]◄◄◄◄•••[▼][▲]◄◄our ••[▼][▲]••••••••is•••discussing•our••••son•and•your•dau••ghter••••••••who•have• ••••••◄◄◄••◄•••◄◄◄•o•have•[•19.188]◄◄◄◄••••◄◄◄◄◄marriage.•• •As•••••y•◄all•of•you••have•mentioned•before••••,•our•[•11.735]◄◄◄◄we•w ant•to••••pursue•the•••c•◄••••culture•••••••which•reflect•our•happiness[•10.688]• toward••••our•children•••••••◄•n's•we•dding◄◄◄◄◄◄◄marrigae◄◄◄age •••.•We•have•••p••◄◄◄◄◄◄are•welcome••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄ready•for•the•• ••◄••••••◄◄◄◄••••••••t•◄◄•celebrating••••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄the•••• celeb•ra••tion•and•we•will••••consider••◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄listen•to•your•conside ration[•11.360][▼][▲]•••••Finally,••→→•←◄w•••••••[▼][▲]••••••••••◄◄◄ ◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄◄decision•••••.•That's•all•from•••me••◄◄us•and••••••I••e nd•••wit◄◄◄•this••◄◄◄◄by•••sa•ying[•12.203][▼][▲]•••[▼][▲]this••••[ ▼][▲]••••••[▼][▲] Assalamualaikum wr wb. [•11.594][▼][▲][•01:22.719][Stop]
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
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APPENDIX 9
THE SOURCE TEXT IN ANGKOLA LANGUAGE
Mangkobar di Siriaon Parnikahon Angkola Lidung ni Anak Boru.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Di ari na saborngin on rap lugut kita nian di bagas ni mora ni mora niba. Santabi sampulu tu tua sahala ni raja dohot na mora diparsidangan on, natobang natoras, tarlobi ompui sian bagas godang. Santabi sampulu Maradopkon morangku marangka maranggi boti anak boruna, sumurung lobi on di barisan mora ni mora maradu anak boruna.
Olo da tutu mora ni mora, dia on dalan-dalan ni parsuoanta di ari na saborngin on, i ma martaringot di parsarimpunan ni tahi ni tulang naposo ni ba dohot gadis ni mora ni mora na dung marsati marpadan mamolus adat matua bulung. Songondia na dung niataon ni mora niba, muse niudurkon kahanggina, ia diaroro ni ibana manyuruk pamispisan ni mora ni mora i ma nangkan on mandalankon tangga-tangga ni paradatan. Hujujung do tua sahala ni morangku, mangihutkon hata ni mora, anso saut dohot tulus na pajong- jong siulaon ni mora, na patidahon godang ni roha taradop parumaen nami dohot anak na giot langka matobang.
Anggo hami anak boru, nadung siap do nada mabiar marlas ni ari, nada mangelak di tinggang udan. Baen dison dope mora ni mora, di dondoni hobar nami on, anso mur tupa. Botima usudahi ma dohot salam.
Assalamualaikum wr wb
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APPENDIX 10
THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ TRANSLATED TEXT
(BAHASA INDONESIA)
Novice A
Mangkobar dalam Upacara Pernikahan Batak Angkola oleh Pihak Anak
Boru
Assalamu Alakiikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu 'alarosulillah sollalohu 'alaihi wasallam. Pada malam hari ini, kita berkumpul bersama di rumah mora ni mora (setara keluarga mertua saudara laki–laki istri) kami. Mohon izin kami kepada barisan raja di majelis ini, para tetua adat, dan terlebih lagi kepada raja di kampung ini. Terhadap mora (setara mertua dari pihak istri dan jajarannya) kami, lebih-lebih kepada mora ni mora dan jajarannya.
Baiklah mora ni mora kami, maksud pertemuan kita pada malam hari ini adalah mengingat telah terjalinnya kesepakatan antara tulang naposo (setara anak laki–laki dari saudara laki-laki istri) dengan gadis dari mora ni mora yang telah bersatu padu menuju adat pernikahan. Seperti yang telah disampaikan mora kami, begitu pun kahanggi (setara paman dari pihak ayah atau saudara lelaki), bahwa kedatangan mereka ke rumah mora ni mora adalah untuk menjalani tangga– tangga yang telah diatur oleh adat. Kami menjunjung niatan mora kami, mengikut pesan mora, agar berkat dan tulus kiranya jalannya hajatan mora ini, yang menunjukkan rasa besar hati terhadap parumaen (setara menantu perempuan) dan anak kami yang akan menikah.
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Kami sebagai anak boru (setara keluarga saudara perempuan), telah siap untuk dan tidak gentar oleh panas matahari, tidak mengelak ditimpa hujan. Sebab di sini masih ada mora ni mora, lengkapilah sambutan kami ini, agar lebih sempurna. Demikian saya sudahi dengan salam.
Assaalamu Alaaikum wr.wb.
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Novice D
Mangkobar dalam upacara adat batak Angkola dari pihak anak boru.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Pada malam ini kita berkumpul di rumah mora dari mora kami. Kami mengucapkan maaf seribu kali maaf kepada raja yang bersahaja dan yang terhormat, orang tua terlebih kepada ompung kami. Kepada mora kami yang bersaudara begitu juga anak borunya. Lebih lagi kepada seluruh mora dan anak borunya.
Baiklah kepada mora nya mora, kita dapat bertemu di malam hari ini, terus kami teringat pada kesimpulan musyawarah tulang naposo kami dengan gadis dari mora di mora yang sudah sepakat menjalani adat untuk berumah tangga. Sebagaimana telah diniatkan oleh mora kami juga yang diserahkan oleh kahanggi. Iya kedatangan mereka memohon harapan kepada mora di mora untuk menjalani proses adat. Kami hormat tua sahala mora kami, mengikuti kata mora kami, agar sampai dan tulusnya untuk mendirikan upaya mora kami. Untuk memperlihatkan rasa senang kami kepada menantu perempuan kami dengan anak yang akan berkeluarga.
Kalau kami dari anak boru, kami sudah siap menghadapi panas, dan tidak mengelakkan hujan. Karena di sini masih ada mora di mora . Maka kami harap ucapkan kami disampaikan. Agar menjadi, saya tutup dengan salam.
Wassalamualaikum wr wb.
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Novice F
Mangkobar dalam pesta pernikahan Batak Angkola dari pihak anak boru.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Pada malam hari ini, bersama sama kita berkumpul dirumah mora ni mora kita. Pertama sekali menyampaikan permohonan maaf kepada raja yang bersahaja dan yang terhormat orang tua terlebih kepada ompung kami dari rumah adat, dan juga kepada mora kami beserta anak borunya, terutama sekali kepada mora ni mora beserta pula anak borunya.
Demikianlah kiranya kami sampaikan kepada mora ni mora kami. Adapun tujuan dari pertemuan kami pada malam ini, yaitu berkenaan dengan pertemuan hati putra dari mora saya dengan anak gadis dari mora kami. Sepasang sejoli ini rupanya telah menjalin janji untuk menempuh hidup berumah tangga.
Sebagaimana yang telah dipaparkan oleh mora kami tadi dan akan dipertegas oleh kahangginya bahwa kedatangan kami ini yaitu untuk menjalani tangga–tangga adat yang sudah diadatkan. Menjunjung tinggi martabat tua sahala mora kami menyertai segala penyampaian mora, agar tercapai maksud dan tujuan mora kami yaitu menunjukkan rasa besar hati terhadap parumaen (menantu perempuan) dan anak kami yang melangsungkan perkawinan.
Kalau kami dari pihak anak boru, telah siap mendukung dan mengemban segala tugas ,kami tidak takut kena panas dan tidak mengelak ditimpa hujan demi tercapainya cita–cita mora kami, yang akan mengadakan pesta perkawinan.
Dan
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Dan masih ada lagi di sini mora dari mora kami, kiranya diperkuat dan disempurnakan pembicaraan kami ini agar semakin sempurna. Demikinlah.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
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Novice G
Makkobar dalam acara pesta batak angkola dari pihak anak boru
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Dimalam hari ini, kita semua telah berkumpul di rumah mora kita ini. Salam hormat kami untuk kaum raja serta mora, tetua adat dan terutama kepada tetua dari bagas godang pada kesempatan kali ini. Kepada mora serta kerabatnya. Adapun yang menjadi tujuan pertemuan kita malam ini adalah tentang anak lelaki kami dengan anak gadis dari rumah ini yang telah sepakat untuk berumah tangga. Seperti yang telah mora kami sampaikan beserta kerabat sebelumnya, kedatangan kami ini adalah untuk melaksanakan adat yang menunjukkan bahwa kami bahagia dengan pernikahan anak lelaki kami dan anak gadis dari rumah ini.
Kami telah siap untuk pelaksanaannya dan kami serahkan sepenuhnya untuk selanjutnya hal ini terlaksana kepada mora kami. Sekian dari kami dan saya akhiri dengan salam.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
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Novice I
Mangkobar dalam upacara adat perkawinan Batak Angkola dari pihak anak boru
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Pada malam hari ini kita berkumpul di rumah mora dari mora saya (mora: pemberi gadis/pihak perempuan; mora ni mora : orang tua dari ibu pengantin). Ucapan hormat saya haturkan kepada raja dan para bangsawan yang hadir dalam forum ini, dan juga para penatua. Ucapan hormat juga saya hanturkan kepada mertua saya, saudara mertua saya kakak beradik, khususnya kepada pihak mertua dari mertua saya, tidak lupa juga kepada saudara perempuan dari pihak mertua saya.
Benar, bahwa adapun pertemuan kita malam hari ini adalah untuk membicarakan acara pernikahan anak dari abang ipar saya (keponakan) dengan tunangannya yang telah sepakat akan menjalankan adat pernikahan. Seperti yang telah disampaikan oleh mertua saya, juga oleh saudara kakak beradik mertua saya, kedatangan saya adalah sebagai salah satu prosesi adat. Martabat mertuaku ku junjung tinggi, seturut dengan permintaan mertua agar terlaksana acara adat yang dikehendaki mertua saya, sebagai bentuk penghormatan dan sukacita menyambut menantu dan anak kami yang akan memulai hidup baru.
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Kami sebagai anak boru (menantu/pihak perempuan), kami siap terkena panas dan siap ditimpa hujan. Berhubung, mertua dari mertua kami juga di sini, kami mohon untuk menimpali apa yang telah kami sampaikan. Demikian saya sudahi dengan salam.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
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APPENDIX 11
THE NOVICE TRANSLATORS’ TRANSLATED TEXT (ENGLISH)
Novice A Mangkobar in Batak Angkola Wedding Ceremony by Anak Boru Side
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah wassolatu wassalamu 'alarosulillahi sollalohu alaihi wasallam. In this evening, we are together in the house of our mora ni mora (parralel title to parent in law of one’s wife brother). Let us express our deference to the titled man in this house, the noble man , and especially to the
King in this village. To our mora ni mora and family.
The respected mora ni mora of ours, the aimed of our gathering today is the follow up of the agreement of our tulang naposo (son of one wife’s brother) with the lady of mora ni mora who have decided to get marriage. Like our mora has revealed and kahanggi (parralel title to uncle or cousin of father’s side) has either, that their presence in the house of mora ni mora is to line the steps that the local custom has set. We uphold the intention of our mora , follow the directive of mora, in order that this celebration runs well, for this is an expression of gratitude to the marriage of our parumaen (daughter in law) to our son.
We are as anak boru (parralel title to sister and her husband family), are ready to succeed this celebration and will not give up even in extremely hot day or rainy one. Since we have our mora here, please fulfill our speech to make it perfect. Indeed, i end my speech with a salam ( islamic greeting).
Assalamu Alaikum wr wb
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Novice D Markobar in Ethnic batak angkola custom from Anak Boru part (son in law)
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Tonight we are here in our mora ni mora (parents in law ) house. We apologize to our headman who is in humble and respected, our parents, our grandparents. To our mora who are in brothers also to their anak boru
(sons in law) therefore to their mora ni mora (great grand parents).
Right, our mora ni mora (great grand parents of our father in law), we meet tonight , we go to the conclusions of our meeting for our brother in law with sisters in this mora ni mora who have agreed to get married. As our mora has stated that already given to our tribe side, it was to hope of our mora ni mora to enact a costumary tradition procession of wedding. We respect sahala (the great parents' souls of our mora), follow the sworn of our mora, for arriving and having sincere for our mora attempt to hold this ceremony. To show our faith to daugther in law and the son of our mora we support this event.
Assalamualaikumsalam wr wb.
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Novice F Mangkobar in Batak Angkola wedding ceremony from anak boru sides. (son in law)
Assalamualaikum wr wb
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah wassolatu wassalamu 'ala rosulillah sollallohu 'alaihi wa sallam. Tonight, we gather here in mora ni mora's house
(parents in law). First of all we apalogize to our humble and respected headman, parents and our grandparents in custom home, and also to our mora (woman's side) with anak boru, especially to mora ni mora with his anak boru.
To our mora ni mora, our purpose of this meeting tonight is related to the agreement between a man from my mora and a woman from our mora. This couple has been made an agreement to get married. As stated by our mora, it will be reinforced by his kahanggi (the same clan) that our coming here is to go through the customary procession of the wedding. We respect to sahala (ancestors of our mora) and all his speeches to get the intention of our mora and to show the gratitude to parumaen (daughter in law) and our son that hold the wedding ceremony.
We are from anak boru has been ready to support and do all the things about it in order to get what our mora intended is to hold the wedding ceremony.
We hope our mora from mora can complete and reinforce all the speeches to get much better.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
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Novice G Makkobar in Batak Angkola wedding from anak boru side.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam.Tonight, we are gathering here in our mora’s house and our honourable king’s relatives and mora in this occasion. Honourable our mora and relatives, the reason for our coming here is discussing our son and your daughter marriage. As all of you mentioned before, we want to pursue the culture which reflect our happiness toward our children’s marriage.
Finally, we are ready for the celebration and we will listen to your decision. That’s all from us, and i end this by saying assalamualaikum wr wb.
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Novice I Mangkobar in Batak Angkola wedding ceremony from anak boru sides.
Assalamualaikum wr wb
Alhamdulillah wa syukurillah, wassolatu wassalamu ‘ala rosulillah sollallohu ‘alaihi wa sallam. Tonight we are gathering in the house of my parents in law. I revently salute the king, the nobels and the elders of this forum. My honorable parents in law, brothers and sisters of my in laws, and also the family of my in law's daugthers.
Well, our meeting this evening is about my nephew's wedding that will be held with some traditional events. As it has been told by my parents in law, also by their brothers and sisters, My standing here is as one of the custom procession.
I uphold the dignity of my in laws, that according to their will, this wedding ceremony must be held very well as a form of reverence to the bride and bridegroom who will begin their new life.
We, as sons and daughters in law, are ready exposed to the sun and hit by rain. Since in laws of my in law are here, we ask tou to add some words or things to this forum. I think that's all. Thank you.
Assalamualaikum wr wb.
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