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Gendered Roles in Buddhist Religious Practices in Bhutan: a Case Study of Two Nunneries

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Gendered Roles in Buddhist Religious Practices in Bhutan: a Case Study of Two Nunneries GENDERED ROLES IN BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS PRACTICES IN BHUTAN: A CASE STUDY OF TWO NUNNERIES SONAM WANGMO Malaya of FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR University 2017 GENDERED ROLES IN BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS PRACTICES IN BHUTAN: A CASE STUDY OF TWO NUNNERIES SONAM WANGMO Malaya of THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA UniversityKUALA LUMPUR 2017 UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION Name of Candidate: Sonam Wangmo Matric No: AHA 100060 Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: (“Gendered Roles in Buddhist Religious Practices in Bhutan: A Case Study of Two Nunneries”): Field of Study: Gender and Religion I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in theMalaya copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited withoutof the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Candidate’s Signature Date: Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Witness’s Signature Date: Name: Designation: University ii ABSTRACT There is a general consensus amongst Buddhist scholars that institutional Buddhism, which is the monastic institution is highly patriarchal and have systematically subordinated Buddhist nuns for centuries. Such subordination has resulted in the loss of opportunities for Buddhist nuns to follow the spiritual path laid out by the Buddha, who saw no difference between the spiritual capability of men and women. Loss of opportunities translates into a battle for survival of Buddhist nuns who renounced the comforts of the household life in pursuit of enlightenment. Moreover, elision of nuns from literature on Bhutan has produced a gap in literature, further pushing the nuns into the background. This research fills this gap through an ethnographical study of the religious lives of Vajrayāna Buddhist nuns in two nunneries, one each in Western and Eastern Bhutan. The primary objective of this thesis is to gaugeMalaya the level of empowerment of nuns in Bhutan, with particular focus on nuns’ access to monastic education and their role in society. The study explored the traditions, practices,of scriptures, symbolism and theologies of Vajrayāna Buddhism to determine Bhutanese women's place in the secular and religious realm. The relationship between patriarchal structures in Buddhist institutions and specific Buddhist texts was analysed to understand the root of gender discrimination. This study revealed that the roles of nuns in the two study areas are largely gendered in a manner which denies nuns opportunities for personal development, empowerment and subsequently, opportunities to be able to be more socially engaged. Nuns are still denied Universityaccess to systematic monastic education, freely available to monks in Bhutan and have issues with basic needs. The results of this study will be used to highlight to the Bhutanese government and monastic institutions in Bhutan the issues surrounding Bhutanese nuns with a view to invoke policy changes on women and religious practice in the country. iii ABSTRAK Para cendekiawan agama Buddha semasa berpendapat bahawa institusi agama Buddha, iaitu institusi biara sangat berunsurkan patriarki dan sejak berkurun mensubordinatkan biarawati agama tersebut. Tindakan pembawahan biarawati telah mengakibatkan kehilangan peluang di kalangan biarawati yang ingin mengikuti hala tuju rohani sebagaimana yang ditunjuk ajar oleh Buddha yang tidak membezakan antara kebolehan rohaniah lelaki mahupun wanita. Kehilangan peluang tersebut menyebabkan pergelutan kelangsungan kehidupan para biarawati agama Buddha yang meninggalkan kemewahan rumahtangga semata-mata untuk mencari pencerahan kerohanian. Malahan, penggugguran para biarawati daripada kesusasteraan negara Bhutan mewujudkan kekosongan sastera; justeru membelakangi biarawati dengan lebih lanjut. Penyelidikan ini berhasrat mengisi kekosongan tersebut melalui kajianMalaya etnografik yang merangkumi kehidupan keagamaan biarawati agama Vajrayāna Buddha di dua buah biara, satu di sebelah Barat dan Timur Bhutan masing-masing.of Objektif utama tesis ini ialah untuk mengkaji tahap pemerkasaan biarawati di Bhutan, memfokus kepada akses kepada pendidikan keagamaan dan peranan mereka dalam masyarakat. Kajian ini juga meneliti tradisi, amalan, kitab, simbol dan teologi agama Vajrayāna Buddha untuk menentukan peranan wanita di arena duniawi mahupun keagamaan. Hubungkait antara struktur patriarki di institusi agama Buddha dan kesusasteraan Buddha telah dianalisa untuk memahami punca diskriminasi gender. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa peranan biarawati Universitydi kedua-dua kawasan kaji selidik secara keseluruhannya berunsurkan gender lantas menyekat peluang mereka untuk membangun secara keperibadian, keperkasaan dan interaksi sosial. Biarawati masih lagi mempunyai kekangan seperti akses kepada pendidikan keagamaan yang dinikmati oleh biarawan dan kekangan sara hidup. Hasil kajian ini akan dikemukakan kepada kerajaan Bhutan dan institusi biara di negara tersebut supaya polisi terhadap wanita dan amalan agama digubal semula di negara tersebut. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Juli Edo for his supervision and support throughout my study. I am also grateful to the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, the Deputy Dean, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shanthi Thambiah, and all other lecturers including Mr. Kamal Solhaimi Fadzil, Dr. Malini Ratnasingam, Dr. Mohd. Awang Idris, Dr. Lai Suat Yan who have shared their knowledge and sharpened my thinking in academic studies. I also thank the Management and Department staff of both Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences and Department of Anthropology and Sociology. My deep gratitude also goes to all benefactors, especially Mr. Lim Thean Chye and family and Mdm. Leong Nyuk Seng and family, Bhante B. Sri Saranankara Nayaka Maha Thera, Chief High Priest (Judiciary) of MalaysiaMalaya and the contributors to the Maha Karuna Foundation for graciously sponsoring my studies. I am also grateful to Ms. Tay Li Hoon, Tracy Chang Teo, Reverend Singof Kan of Sam Poh Tong, Ms.Elizabeth Zielinska, Mr. Kishokumar Jeyaraj, Mr. Chan Tye Kooi and family, Ms. Ho Yuen Foon, Aunty Tan, Dr. Goh Pik Pin, Mdm. Heather Lee, Mdm. Chee Yin Looi and family, Mdm. Patricia Snider, Mdm. Rosie Chiew, Mr. Wong, Mr. Wuan Thong Lock, Mr. Eddie Lim and Mdm. Chan Jan Tee, Mr. Clement Goh, the late Mr. James Lee and many other well- wishers and friends for their generous support throughout the years. I am especially indebted to my late mother and father, my first teachers for their Universitylove, support and prayers throughout my life. A special thanks to my dharma sister, Dr. Savinder Kaur Gill, who is a true Dharma friend and sister, I humbly extend my sincere gratitude to her and family for their prayers and assistance provided throughout the stages of the most trying times of my study. Last but not least, I dedicate this thesis to all my teachers and to all sentient beings, especially my three cats for all acts of kindness shown towards me, however small. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................. iii Abstrak .................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xii List of Figures............................................................................................................ xiii List of Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................................ xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background: Bhutan—A Kingdom in TransitionMalaya ................................................. 1 1.1.1 Winds of Drastic Change ....................................................................... 6 1.2 Visions of Sustainability—Gross ofNational Happiness and Contemporary Bhutanese Society .............................................................................................. 10 1.3 The Lost Voices—Invisible Nuns of Bhutan .....................................................
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