LAW ENFORCEMENT BULLETIN

JULY 1980, VOLUME 49, NUMBER 7 Contents

Training 1 "Shoot-Don't Shoot": A Realistic Firearms Course By Dep. Chief Charles F. Hinman and Kathryn Lea Washburn, Police Department, Newport News, Va.

Crime Problems 6 The Firesetter: A Psychological Profile (Part 2) By Anthony Olen Rider, Special Agent, Behavioral Science Unit, FBI Academy, Quantico, Va.

Police-Community 18 "Police and You": A Public Relations Program Relations By Officer Jorune Jonikas, Police Department, Carmel, Calif.

Management 22 Occupational Stress and Compensation in Law Enforcement By John A. Leonard, Research and Planning, Dept. of Public Safety, Meriden, Conn., and G. Patrick Tully, Commanding Officer, Training Section, Division of State Police, Dept. of Public Safety, Meriden, Conn.

The Legal Digest 27 Documentary Search Warrants-A Problem of Particularity By Larry E. Rissler, Special Agent, Legal Counsel Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, D.C.

32 Wanted by the FBI

The Cover: Providing as· Federal Bureau of Investigation Published by the Public Affairs Office, sistance to both young United States Department of Justice Roger S. Young and old. a Jacksonville Inspector in Charge police officer comes to Washington, D.C. 20535 the aid of 8 damsel in Editor-Thomas J. Deakin distress. (Photo courtesy William H. Webster, Director Assistant Editor-Kathryn E. Sulewski of Frank Smith. Florida Art Director-Carl A. Gnam, Jr. Times·Union. Jackson· Writer/ Editor-Karen McCarron The Attorney General has determined that the publICation ville. Fla.) Production Manager- Jeffery L. Summers of thiS periodical is necessary ,n the transaction of the public business required by law 01 the Department of Just,ce. Use 01 lunds lor Printing thiS periodICal has been approved by the Dorector of the Office of Management and Budget through December 28, t 983.

ISSN 0014-5688 USPS 383-310 For 2 days there had been sub• ment, watching the big, broad-shoul• zero temperatures with a heavy snow• dered man shake as his petite wife fall and piercing winds-a rather took aim at him with the shotgun. atypical occurrence in the seacoast The officer's repeated attempts to city of Newport News, Va. Already quell the argument were to no avail. weary from answering numerous calls Finally, because he failed to watch the for police service, an officer is dis• hands of the woman and failed to dem• patched to respond to a domestic dis• onstrate aggressive and safe action, turbance, setting the stage for another the argument ended with the officer Shoot- tragic death of a police officer. receiving two shotgun blasts to his Feeling his pulse rate rising, the chest and face. Once again an officer officer entered a dark, cold building, had become an authority figure-an Don't reacted to cries for help by drawing his intruder-the target for unleashed frus• service revolver, and rushed to the trations as often happens when an second floor to confront the situation. officer intervenes in a domestic argu• Shoot Different from most domestic dis• ment and is turned on by one or both turbances, a wife was holding her hus• parties. band at bay with a sawed-off shotgun. Fortunately, this was a staged situ• A REALISTIC The couple continued to argue and ation-one of many used during the curse, disregarding the presence of the " Shoot-Don't Shoot" program, a part FIREARMS officer who was, with some amuse• of the training given to members of the Newport News Police Department. COURSE

By DEP. CHIEF CHARLES F. HINMAN And KATHRYN LEA WASHBURN Police Department Newport News, Va.

July 1980 / 1 Deputy Chief Hinman Ms. Washburn G. C. Austin Chief of Police

The criteria for the program were With the adoption of this program, and 26 grains of black powder with developed by the members of the the department had a number of fac• styrofoam wadding. The officer partici• Newport News Police Department's tors to consider, including safety pre• pating in the program is armed with a Tactical Team and put into effect with cautions, the use of targets or actual .38-caliber revolver with blank ammuni• the permission of the chief of police in persons, the use of empty weapons or tion. To insure safety, all officers are December 1978, as mandatory training blank ammunition, and type of exer• required to wear protective vests and for all Newport News police officers. cises to be incorporated. After experi• glasses provided by the department. This program received immediate menting with different ideas, it is now The exercises are conducted in an favorable review and was approved by believed that the program offers the abandoned, 2-story building that has the director of the Peninsula Academy realism and maximum stress factors two long corridors with multiple rooms of Criminal Justice, located in Hamp• that are most beneficial in the training along each corridor. This allows differ• ton, Va., to be included in the training and retraining of police officers. ent situations to be staged in each for the basic police and inservice Using members of the tactical room . schools. team as actors in each situation brings The majority of the situations used The " Shoot-Don't Shoot" program the human aspect into the program. As are designed after actual incidents that improves police training by offering the officer enters each exercise, he had occurred in our city. Some have members an opportunity to participate has to react to the voices and body been adjusted to place even more in controlled, high-risk situations. movements of the actor/adversary. If stress on the officer. To discourage These role-playing situations provide he fires, he would be shooting at a participants from discussing the exer• realism, self-awareness, and confi• person, not a metal target. cises with officers who had not yet dence to the recruit. They also serve to For purposes of distraction, two participated, changes in the types of remind the veteran officer how lax he female officers are used, and occa• situations occur at any time during an may have become. sionally, a juvenile partiCipates, with actual exercise. The tactical team the consent of his parents. members would usually try a new idea The tactical team members use on each other before incorporating it .38-caliber revolvers, M-16 rifles, into the program. 12- gage shotguns, and knives in their During basic police school and the portrayal as antagonists during the ex• inservice school, the program begins ercises. The .38 blank ammunition with a briefing. Factors such as safety, consists of its primer only; the M-16 self-preservation, aggressiveness, and blank ammunition has a minimal amount of powder; and the 12-gage blank ammunition consists of primer

2 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin respect for life and property are , stressed. Also pOinted out are the number of police officers killed in the line of duty and why. Participation is voluntary, except for members of the Newport News Police Department. No one is allowed to participate if they are pregnant or suffer from any known heart disease. Officers are not allowed to carry personal weapons or ammuni• tion in the building where the exercises are conducted. Recruit officers are then shown the department's suggest• ed manner in which to display their firearms, conduct searches, disarm suspects, and properly conduct them• selves in any given situation. Once the officers are in the build• ing, they move one-by-one to the sec• ond floor where they are handed a .38• caliber revolver, blank ammunition, protective vest, and safety glasses. Each officer is escorted through the exercise by two or more ranking police officers. When ready, he is informed that he will encounter approximately eight high-risk situations. During his journey down the corri• dor, the officer is rushed from one problem to another, while being con• stantly barraged with questions from his superior officers about any misjudg• ments on his part that may have caused serious injury or death to him• self or an innocent person. The ques• tions are designed to irritate, frustrate, confuse, and anger the officer and generally to test his ability to cope with stressful situations he may encounter on the street. He now begins a trip down "stress lane." As the officer approaches the first door, he can hear someone inside the room . When he opens the door, he observes a man with his hands held high and a partially exposed revolver in the waistband of his trousers. While the two exchange words, the suspect reaches down and draws the revolver. Before the officer can react, he is shot. In evaluating the situation, the officer realizes he should have constantly watched the person's hands. He learns how important reaction time can be, still not believing that if the situation were real, he could have been killed. What happens now may be a preview of his own experience at a later time.

July 1980 / 3 As the officer reaches the fourth door, he encounters the situation de• scribed in the beginning of this article, getting shot yet again. The supervisor then tells the offi• cer that the next door is at his right. As he walks toward the door with his gun drawn, a person meets him in the hall• way. Disregarding him and concentrat• ing on the doorway, the officer does not notice that a revolver is being drawn, and he is shot in the back-he was not expecting the unexpected. In the sixth problem, the officer observes a man to his right, with his hands in the air. In the person's right hand is a pistol and to the left is the entrance to another room. The officer sees the hand of a person holding a gun coming slowly out of the room . As this person enters, the officer fires be• fore he realizes he has shot a fellow police officer in full uniform. At this time, the officer is ques• tioned again. The supervisor may ask how many times the officer has fired his weapon. Very few are able to an• swer correctly. Some cannot even re• member in what direction the cylinder turns. In the seventh problem, the officer encounters a person sitting in the corner of an empty room. It appears that the person, holding a gun to his head, is preparing to commit suicide. The officer and the suspect exchange words. The suspect tells the officer to Realizing this and being constantly re• The trainee moves to door number leave him alone or he will kill him too. minded of his errors, it is not uncom• three. Twice now, he has been " killed" Without additional warning, the person mon for the officer to be extremely and it weighs heavily on his mind. He turns the gun on the officer and then nervous, experience loss of coordina• opens the door slowly, and to the left, on himself. Again, reaction time is im• tion, and become increasingly dissatis• he sees a female with her arms up. In portant. Even though the officer had fied with his own performance, while front of her, on a table, is a sawed-off, the drop on the person, he could not attempting to decide whether to shoot. double-barrel shotgun. A male with his be sure when, or at whom, this person The officer now approaches the back to the officer abruptly turns would fire. second door. What he finds inside is a around. Since the officer remembers As the final door is opened, the small, dark closet with a sink and sev• he has been shot twice, his normal officer feels he is now ready for any• eral shelves. After a few seconds, reaction is to assess quickly the situa• thing. He sees a large man with his there is a loud sound, and again, he is tion. This quick assessment prompts back turned. At first, the man refuses shot-he did not see the person lying him to shoot the unarmed man as he to do anything the officer tells him. on the top shelf. This situation demon• turns around. At the same time, the Finally, he turns and the officer fires. strates that police officers rarely look female reaches for the shotgun and up when searching a room. fires. The officer has now shot an inno• cent person and has been shot with a shotgun at close range. This situation emphasizes the problem of tunnel vi• sion and what additional stress can cause.

4 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin To his amazement, the person had only a can of soda in his hand. With visible relief and disbelief, the officer leaves the building, pondering what he has just been through. As an element of training, the pro• gram allows the officers and supervi• sors insight into areas that need work to improve the overall performance of the police officer. When a police officer takes part in a " Shoot-Don't Shoot" exercise, he comes away with many different thoughts. He cannot believe that he could be so lax that he was shot six times within a 5-minute period. He can• not understand why he looked into someone's eyes instead of looking at his hands. He wonders how he could shoot another police officer in full uni• form or how he could shoot an inno• cent person with only a soft drink in his hands. He cannot comprehend why he was so nervous that he did not know how many rounds he had fired or even if he had fired. It is hard to believe that his knees were shaking so badly that he could not stand still or even load his revolver. The answer is stress. When a police officer comes away from a "Shoot-Don't Shoot" exercise, the results are astounding. The pros• pect of death could become real in the few seconds it takes to shoot. Officers are very pleased with the program and would like more of this type of training. All say that the exer• cise forces them to think, better pre• paring them for situations they may encounter on the street. We have in• cluded dangerous encounters any offi• cer could happen upon during his Members of the "Shoot-Don 't Shoot" tactical career. We believe what the officer team. goes through in the exercise will affect The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin his judgment in hazardous situations. tries to provide an exchange of views Upon completion of the program, the within the law enforcement community. officer will be better equipped to han• Publication of any article should not be dle the responsibilities of his job. considered an endorsement by the There will continue to be sense• FBI. less killings of both police officers and civilians. If this program prevents even one death, it will have been a worth• while effort. lBI

July 1980 I 5

The Firesetter A Psychological Profile (Part 2)

By ANTHONY OLEN RIDER Special Agent Behavioral Science Unit FBI Academy Quantico, Va.

A profile is defined generally as a Psychological profiling appears to The third factor to be considered "concise biographical sketch depicting have legitimate and practical applica• concerns the potential value of the a personality by vivid outlining and tion to selective criminal investigations. profile in aiding law enforcement in its sharp contrast." 48 Its purpose is to Its employment in matters of this na• identification of unknown subjects. If provide a distinctive and narrative por• ture, however, is often predicated on a only vague generalizations can be trait of an individual. need to identify an unknown subject drawn from the crime scene about the A psychological profile, more pre• who has demonstrated some form of subject's behavioral style, then the effi• cisely, is a description of the salient psychopathology in his crime-sadistic cacy of the psychological profile is psychological and behavioral charac• torture in sexual assaults, evisceration considerably diminished. For this tech• teristics of a person. It portrays the and post mortem slashing and cutting nique to be an effective tool, it must individual psychodynamically by identi• in homicides, and motiveless fireset• assist the investigator in focusing his fying personality and behavioral traits ting. The projected profile of the of• investigation. or patterns (trait clusters) that uniquely fender in these instances serves to The purpose of criminal psycho• classify and distinguish him from mem• support the investigative process by logical profiling, then, is to provide the bers of the general population. aiding in the identification and. appre• investigator with a personality compos• Behavioral scientists, including hension of the offender. ite of the unknown subject that will aid psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, The propriety of criminal psycho• in his swift and judicious apprehension. have long used profiling techniques in logical profiling pivots on three critical their diagnostic assessment and em• issues. Profiling the Firesetter pirical study of psychopathology. Pro• First, it must be determiped wheth• David Berkowitz, the confessed files drawn from such studies have er the crime suitably lends itself to "Son of Sam" mass murderer who often aided in the understanding and psychological analysis. Crimes against terrorized New York City during 1976 treatment of mental illness, emotional the person appear to be best suited for and 1977 by killing five young women distress, and personality maladjust• criminal psychological profiling. and a man and wounding seven other ment. Criminologists have also applied Second, psychological profiling young people, also reportedly informed profiling strategies to their study and should be applied only to those cases his attorneys that he set over 2000 classification of known offenders. in which the unknown subject demon• fires and made 137 false alarms in strates some form of mental, emotion• New York City from 1974 through al, or behavioral disturbance in the 1977. On almost every occasion, he crime. Unless there is perceptible psy• reportedly called in the fires to the chopathology present in the crime, a police as the "Phantom of the Bronx." 49 profile cannot be rendered on an un• known subject.

July 1980 / 7 According to a newspaper ac• but much still remains speculative or Race count, Berkowitz claimed that he set only partially substantiated. Conse• According to statistical evidence, these fires in cars, rubbish, brush, and quently, precise answers to the above arrested arsonists are predominately vacant and unoccupied stores. Alleg• questions remain uncertain. More vital caucasian. However, there is no evi• edly, he set 11 of these fires on a and detailed information concerning dence that race is a correlate to arson. single day and two less than a month the psychological and behavioral prior to his last killing just a block away aspects of firesetting must be collected Intelligence from the future murder site. and assessed if we are to classify and A large number of studies have The newspaper further reported profile more accurately the arsonist indicated that firesetters tend to be that " childhood friends of Berkowitz and significantly impact his firesetting. mentally deficient or of below-average recalled .. . that they would frequently Understanding his behavior preceding, intelligence. Yet, it has been suggested 'buff' fires in a car outfitted with a fire during, and after his firesetting experi• that possibly it is the mentally deficient radio and that Berkowitz-who ence will greatly enhance the investi• firesetter or at least the less intelligent dreamed of becoming a fireman• gative process and possibly accelerate one who is most often identified or would sit in the 'navigator's' seat and identification and apprehension. studied. The more intelligent arsonists log the blazes in detail." 50 may avoid detection. Although a large Note pads seized by the authori• Common Characteristics of the Firesetter number of studies have identified intel• ties, allegedly bearing the handprinted lectual difficulties among firesetters, According to Jesse James in his notes of Berkowitz, gave detailed infor• they have not conclusively demonstrat• article, "Psychological Motives for mation on 1411 fires for the years of ed that intellectual impairment or low Arson," 1974, 1975, and 1977, including the basic intelligence is a precursor to fire• " Neither sex, age, education, intel• date and time of the fire, street, bor• setting. ough, weather, number of the fire box, lectual level nor economic status and the fire department code indicating in any way limits the possibility of Academic Performance the type of responding apparatus and any individual to engage in arson. Studies of firesetters have consist• building or property burned. On the other hand, from a study of ently found histories of poor academic The question arises as to whether large samples, it does appear that, achievement, severe scholastic retar• Berkowitz typifies the firesetter. statistically, persons of certain dation, and significant grade failures Are arsonists homicidal? Are they ages and with certain characteris• among arsonists. This may be due not frustrated would-be firemen? Do they tics are more apt to set fires than necessarily to intellectual impairment keep meticulous diaries of their fire• are others." 5 1 but to social and personal maladjust• setting activities? Do they tend to Age ment. Environmental stress, lack of pa• report their fires to the authorities? Studies have conSistently found rental attention, and anxiety may What are the precursory factors of that firesetters tend to be young, with a produce learning difficulties. Whatever incendiarism? What are the primary high rate of incidence around 17 years the reason, firesetting children tend to psychological and behavioral charac• of age. Macdonald reports that the have problems in school. teristics of the firesetter? Are they highest frequency of pathological fire• uniquely different from one another Rearing Environments setters is between ages 15 and 20.52 and from other offenders? Do they According to figures available in the Firesetters appear to come from always leave evidence of their person• FBI Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), ar• disruptive, frustrating, harsh, broken, or ality at the fire scene? unstable home environments. Often These questions certainly have rested arsonists ages 20 and under comprise 65.8 percent of the total their families are large and within the intrigued behavioral scientists and lower socioeconomic level, and it is not arson arrestees and those 13 to 19 investigators for centuries. In fact, the uncommon to find one or both parents psychological and psychiatric literature years of age account for 42.8 percent. 53 frequently absent. Some studies have is replete with clinical case studies and Sex noted that repetitive child firesetters empirical research concerning patho• The overwhelming majority of are often middle children; whereas, logical firesetting. Significant insight known firesetters are male. This has adult arsonists are likely to have been into such behavior has been obtained, been supported in clinical and empiri• the first born, last born, or an only cal research studies of known arsonist child. It has been frequently noted that populations and demonstrated in the firesetting children come from father• statistical incidence of arrests for absent and mother-dominated (over• arsonists. protective, rejecting, or abusive) environments.

8 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Social Relationships Sexual Disturbance Alcoholism Firesetters typically experience Firesetting has been universally Excessive alcohol consumption . difficulties in social relationships, espe• associated with sexual perversion. Re• has been consistently related to adult cially with women. Because their rear• searchers who are psychoanalytically firesetters. In fact, a number of studies ing environments have not fostered oriented have postulated that " fireset• have found that a large portion of ar• normal social development, they gen• ting functions as a sexual substi• sonists are intoxicated at the time of I] erally lack the basic social skills neces• tute.. . ." 54 their firesetting act. Drinking prior to sary for good interpersonal relations. The pyromaniac has even been the act may be an important contribut• They have been generally described as alleged by some investigators to re• ing component in firesetting behavior socially maladjusted and social iso• ceive sexual excitement in setting and in that it may loosen inhibitions. lates. watching his fires. Arsonists as a group have been reported to experience sex• Sadistic-Aggressive Tendencies Marital Ties ual maladjustment and to have an Sadistic and aggressive tenden• Numerous studies have reflected urethral-erotic trait. However, the cies are also thought to be common that firesetters typically experience actual extent of sexual deviance in among firesetters. However, the arson• poor marital adjustment. Few are firesetting is unknown. ist is believed to have difficulty in ex• known, in fact, to have marital ties. pressing or externalizing his This possibly stems from their difficul• Physical Deformities and Defects aggression. When his impulses are ties in developing and maintaining The exact relationship of phYSical thwarted, he has the tendency to react close interpersonal relationships and disabilities to firesetting is unknown, by perpetrating crimes against property being reared in mother-dominated en• although researchers have detected a instead of people. vironments. Many have also expressed high incidence of physical abnormali• a hatred or fear of women, as well as ties or deformities in study samples. Motive sexual inadequacy. Vreeland and Waller speculate that The motives for firesetting are physical abnormalities, " . . .while not multiple, though revenge seems to run Employment History likely to directly predispose an individu• like a thread throughout all malicious Poor occupational adjustment is al to criminal activity, may be a factor in incendiarism. Firesetting has been another common characteristic of the producing a stressful environment found to be the result of impulsive firesetter. His work habits are poor, which sets the occasion for activities behavior, as well as premeditation. and he frequently changes jobs, has such as firesetting." 55 What specifically stimulates the fireset• difficulty with supervisors, and demon• ting act remains unanswered. Rejec• strates little interest in advancement. Enuresis tion, stress, failure, excitement• He is often unemployed or employed in Enuresis is the involuntary emis• seeking, revenge, and sexual inade• an unskilled position. sion of urine, often identified as bed• quacy have been credited as motivat• wetting. According to researchers who ing factors in pathological firesetting. Emotional-Psychiatric Disturbance follow the psychoanalytic viewpoint, However, there is little evidence that Firesetters have been typically enuresis is associated with hate, pa• an urethral-erotic trait activates the de• described as psychiatrically disturbed rental rejection, fantasies of destruc• sire to set fires. Though the act of and emotionally distressed and malad• tion, violent aggression, and sexual firesetting appears to be abnormal and justed. They also appear to lack self• symbolism. Michaels and Steinberg disproportionate to the motive, it may control and self-confidence and experi• have noted that delinquent males who not be from the firesetter's perspec• ence significant stress and tension. demonstrate a history of persistent tive. Typically, it represents his way of Frequently, they manifest psychopathic, enuresis frequently show tendencies coping with rejection and stress. neurotic, and psychotic disorders. toward pyromania. 56 In fact, a number of researchers have found a history of Solitary-Group Firesetting childhood enuresis in firesetters, as A review of the literature consist• well as in delinquents of many types. ently reveals that adult arsonists and children are most frequently solitary firesetters, whereas adolescents often set fires in peer groups or pairs.

July 1980 / 9 Prior Criminal History The Typical Arrested Arsonist Nevertheless, some researchers have Vreeland and Waller have report• In an effort to determine a profile of constructed profiles of firesetters based ed that most of the studies of institu• the average arrested arsonist by age, on common characteristics of selective tionalized (imprisoned and sex, and race, a review of the Uniform populations. These profiles may not hospitalized) arsonists and nonarson• Crime Reports for 1969 through 1978 represent all arsonists, but they do ap• ists as groups show both having exten• (10-year period) was conducted, which pear to illustrate many of those who are sive histories of criminal and antisocial revealed that 89 percent of those arrest• commonly encountered in prisons and on parole. behavior. 57 However, their particular ed for arson were male and approxi• patterns of criminality appear to be mately 76 percent were white. However, A Typical Incarcerated characteristically different. Arsonists as it should be noted that race has not been Adult Male Arsonist a group consistently perpetrate a sig• demonstrated as a significant variable in In 1971, Michael R. Wolford an• nificantly greater number of crimes predicting firesetting. nounced the results of an experimental against property and fewer crimes When arson arrests were examined study involving all known incarcerated against persons than nonarsonists, by age, it was determined that 54.6 though this pattern seems to change percent of arrestees were under 18 male arsonists in three Southeastern after mid-twenties. Lewis and Yarnell years of age. Almost 43 percent were 13 States. The purpose of the study was to report that firesetters under 25 years of through 19 years old, and those 10 and ascertain if there were any Significant age indulge chiefly in property of• under comprised 11 percent of the total differences between incarcerated ar• fenses. After age 25, they appear to arrest population. It was also found that sonists and incarcerated nonarsonists. become more inclined to engage in the percentage of arrests for blacks was The sample population included 68 ar• interpersonal violence. 58 significantly higher for the 18-and-over son offenders and 57 nonarsonists. category than for those under age 18. The study revealed no significant Firesetting Targets The antithesis was found for arrested differences between arsonists and non• There has been little data collect• white arsonists. Seventy-five percent of arsonists in age, race, employment ed on the types of structures which are the total reported arrests for arson were background, marital status, number of generally high-risk targets for fireset• 24 years of age and under. 61 According prior felony arrests, length of military ters. A number of studies on adoles• to this analysis, the typical arrested service, or family stability. However, cent-group firesetters indicate, how• arsonist is a white male in his teens to significant differences were noted for ever, that churches and schools are early twenties. (See Tables 1 through 5 educational level, 10 score, rural-urban frequent targets. Although child, fe• for details.) background, and number of crimes male, and psychotic firesetters tend to Although the UCR provides data on committed against property. The arson• set fires at home, they are also known age, sex, and race of the arrested ists in this study were found to be less to start fires away from their premises. arsonist, it does not describe his person• educated, to have lower 10 scores, to be Hurley and Monahan, for instance, ality characteristics. Therefore, it cannot reared in more rural settings, and to found that psychiatric prisoners had be determined from these figures have committed more property offenses most frequently targeted commercial whether or not the arrested arsonist is than did nonarsonists. They were also property, with dwelling houses sec• representative of the arsonist popula• incarcerated as a group twice as often ond.59 Virkkenun noted that schizo• tion. Since so few arsonists are ever as non arsonists. The study did not find phrenic arsonists were far more likely to identified, arrested, or prosecuted, they any supporting evidence that arsonists set fires in unoccupied structures than may not represent the typical arsonist. are basically sociopathic (psychopathic non schizophrenic arsonists. 60 The re• However, comparison of these arrest or antisocial) in their personality struc• venge firesetter generally targets the statistics with available data from case ture. Instead, it was purported that property of his real or imagined enemy, and empirical studies of known arson• incarcerated arsonists "exhibited per• and although the pyromaniac compul• ists reflects that they are descriptively sonality characteristics more closely as• I sively sets fires, he may be selective in comparable at least by age, sex, and sociated with persons undergoing his choice of property. race. psychic stress.. . . " 63 I There are few studies which have provided a comprehensive profile of the arsonist. In fact, there is some real question as to wh ether a "typical " arsonist actually exists. Rothstein, for instance, contends that individual differ• ences in firesetters preclude the devel• opment of a typical profile. 62

10 / FBI law Enforcement Bulletin The mean age of Wolford's incar- cerated arsonist was 28, which is signifi- Table 1 cantly older than the typical arrested Total Arson Arrests by Age Group 1969-1978* arsonist according to UCR. In addition, only 47 percent of his arsonist popula- Total tion were white, as compared to 76 Arson Percent percent represented in UCR statistics. Arrests of Total Coupled with this is the fact that Wol- Age Groups 1969-1978 Arrests ford's imprisoned arsonist had approxi- 1 mately two prior felony arrests and a Grand Total All Ages 125,513 100.0 mean number of four previous incarcer- ations. In light of these facts, it appears Total Under 18 Years of Age 68,507 54.6 that his arsonist sample population re- flected the recidivist and not the typical 10 and under 13,766 11.0 arson offender. 11-12 11,323 9.0 ' 13-14 18,950 15.1 A Typical Paroled Adult Arsonist 15 9,849 7.8 James A. Inciardi in his study of 138 16 8,009 6.4 convicted adult arsonists released on 17 6,610 5.3 parole from New York State prisons from 1961 through 1966 found that his Total 18 Years of Age and Over 57,006 45.4 sample population fit into six behavioral categories based on their motivational 18 5,549 4.4 patterns, namely, revenge firesetters, 19 4,712 3.8 excitement firesetters, institutionalized 20 3,871 3.1 firesetters, insurance­claim firesetters, 21 3,345 2.7 vandalism firesetters, and firesetters 22 2,972 2.4 who use arson to cover up another 23 2,833 2.3 crime. 24 2,572 2.0 The median age of the paroled 25-29 9,375 7.5 arsonist in Inciardi's study is compara- 30-34 6,483 5.2 ble to the age of Wolford's incarcerat- 35-39 4,700 3.7 ed fireseUer, but again is much older 40-44 3,665 2.9 than the typical arrested arsonist. The 45-49 2,718 2.2 profiles depicted by Wolford and In- 50-54 1,848 1.5 ciardi also appear comparable in IQ 55-59 1,098 0.9 level, rearing environments, marital 60-64 600 0.5 status, and criminal histories. However, 65 and over 581 0.5 Inciardi's study does not provide ade- Unknown Age 84 (2) quate criminological data on which to 1 Percentages do not add to 100.0 percent, due to rounding. base a definite conclusion about the 2 Less than one·tenth of one percent. personalities of his subjects. ·Source: U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, The Adult Revenge Firesetter Annual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969-1978. Revenge appears to be one of the more significant motivational factors in arson. Some researchers believe that it is the undertone in most, if not in all , destructive firesetting. Inciardi found that the revenge motive was represent- ed in 58 percent of his sample popula- tion. However, Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell in their study of 1145 pathological male arsonists deter- mined that only approximately 15 per- cent of their sample expressed revenge as a primary motive for fireset- ting.

July 1980 / 11 Although the Inciardi and Lewis The Volunteer Fireman Some researchers have postulat• and Yarnell studies vary on the age Solitary Firesetter ed that this behavior is the release of factor, their revenge offenders are sig• This category also represents an sexual tension. Gold agrees that sexual nificantly comparable in many aspects. inadequate, attention-seeking male. tension may be a motivational factor in In brief, they are characteristically Lewis and Yarnell identified 51 cases some incendiarism but rejects it as a male; white; of below-average intelli• (4 percent) fitting this description within major causative factor, 69 and Lewis and gence; unmarried; personally, socially, their adult male sample population. Al• Yarnell found only a very small percent• and sexually maladjusted; of pathologi• though this group appears to be rela• age who claimed to have received cal rearing backgrounds; alcoholic; no• tively small in number, it has the some sort of sexual gratification from madic; unskilled laborers; and have a propensity for serious destructiveness. their firesetting .70 hostile and assaultive outlook on life. Their fires are set against persons The Fire "Buff" Firesetter The Excitement Firesetter whom they believe have offended The fire "buff," like the police According to J. H. Magee, the ex• them or whom they imagine have " buff," is an enthusiastic " hanger-on." cited firesetter is allegedly prompted to abused them. He generally represents a frustrated set fires because of a craving for ex• would-be fireman or would-be police• citement. His satisfaction comes not The Jealousy Motivated Adult man. Although many buffs are civic• from seeing the flames but from min• Male Firesetter minded and constructive in their asso• gling in the crowd which has gathered " Immediate retribution is the goal ciations with the police and fire service, at the scene of the fire. 71 According to of firesetters incited by wounded vanity others are characteristically immature, Inciardi, however, the incentive induc• and jealous rage." 64 Jealousy is cen• inadequate, and ul)derachievers. The ing this type of firesetter is the need to tral to this type firesetting, and Lewis fire buff who sets fires is seeking atten• experience the fire and to watch the and Yarnell found this category to rep• tion and attempting in a pathological operations of the firemen and their fire resent approximately 8 percent of their way to win praise and social recogni• equipment. Some authorities have in• adult male sample. tion for his alertness and heroism in terpreted Inciardi's "excitement fireset• reporting fires and giving assistance in ter" to closely resemble that of the The Would-Be Hero fighting them. pyromaniac; however, because of in• (Attention-Seeking) sufficient descriptive data on Inciardi's Male Arsonist The Pyromaniac sample, a definite conclusion cannot This type of arsonist resorts to The pyromaniac differs character• be supported. firesetting to attract attention to him• istically from the other arsonists in that self. Lewis and Yarnell describe them he lacks conscious motivation for his A Typical Female Firesetter as " the men with grandiose social am• firesetting. In fact, he is considered by The female arsonist appears to bitions whose natural equipment many to be motiveless. Pyromaniacs direct most of her firesetting against dooms them to insignificance. " 6S Ex• have been described as: her own property, possessions, or amples have included watchmen, fire " . . . offenders who said they set premises and rarely against her em• and police " buffs," volunteer firemen , their fires for no practical reason ployer or neighbor. Her motives are and an occasional policeman. " Police• and received no material profit similar to that of the male's, with the men, or men who want to become from the act, their only motive exception that she seems to have policemen, will set fires so that they being to obtain some sort of more self-destructive tendencies. can demonstrate how clever they sensual satisfaction." 67 Lewis and Yarnell studied 201 fe• are...." 66 They found this type Lewis and Yarnell in their study male firesetters. This figure represent• arsonist (excluding volunteer firemen found that the pyromaniac represented ed only 15 percent of the total adult and fire " buffs") to represent approxi• 60 percent of their sample population. sample population. The majority were mately 6 percent of their adult male Of this number, 241 expressed receiv• found to be mentally defective and sample. ing some sort of satisfaction from the approximately 32 percent demonstrat• fire. The remaining 447 offenders ed evidence of psychosis, primarily "offered no special reason or persist• schizophrenic reactions. They were de• ent interest beyond the fact that some• scribed generally as older women who thing within them forced them to set were lonely, unhappy, and in despair. fires." 68 This urge to set fires has been referred to as the " irresistible im• pulse." However, authorities should be cautioned on accepting this explana• tion.

12 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin The Child Firesetter Authorities on firesetting behavior Table 2 Table 3 believe that repetitive or chronic fire• Total Arson Arrests by Sex* Total Arson Arrests by Race* setting by children represents a severe Total Arrests Percent Total Arrests Percent behavioral symptom and an observ• Sex 1969-1978 Distribution Race 1969-1978 Distribution able symptom of psychological disturb• ance. For the disturbed child, Male 112,052 89.3 White 90,555 75.8 firesetting becomes an instrument or outlet for vengeful-hostile reaction, re• Female 13,461 10.7 Black 26,978 22.6 sentment, and defiance of authority. Other 1,923 1.6 Yarnell in her study of 60 cases of Total 125,513 100.0 child firesetters determined that 60 Total 119,456 100.0 percent were between 6 and 8 years of The Adolescent Firesetter age. This group demonstrated the fol• There have been extensive stud• lowing characteristics: ies on youthful or adolescent fireset• Table 4 1) They set fires with associated ting. In 1951 , Lewis and Yarnell studied Total Arson Arrests by Race fantasies to burn some member of the a large population of adolescent male Under Age 18* family who had withheld love or was a firesetters. This study demonstrated Total Arrests Percent serious rival for parental attention .. that home-centered firesetting increas• Sex 1969-1978 Distribution 2) Most fires were started in the ingly diminished with the age of the home or within the immediate vicinity. firesetter. As he got older, his fireset• White 51,929 80.0 3) The fires, usually symbolic, ting shifted from the home to schools, caused generally little damage and churches, factories, and homes of Black 12,072 18.6 were often extinguished by the child. strangers. These targets were fre• 4) Prior to the firesetting, the child quently selected by youths 12 through Other 921 1.4 often had terrible dreams and fantasies 16 years of age. The highest incidence of the devil and ghosts. of firesetting at schools involved the Total 64,922 100.0 5) They suffered acute anxiety 12-14 age group. Fires directed at over these dreams and fantasies, as schools were generally associated with well as their sexual preoccupations. school problems and motivated by re• Table 5 6) All experienced sexual conflicts. venge. This type of firesetting was of• Total Arson Arrests by Race Most actively engaged in masturbation ten preceded by theft, vandalism, and 18 and Over* and some participated in mutual mas• harassment of the teacher. Defective turbation, sodomy, and fellatio. intelligence was not found to be a Total Arrests Percent 7) Boys who were enuretic also factor in adolescent firesetting until the Race 1969-1978 Distribution frequently demonstrated passive traits. youth reached age 16. After age 16, White 37,513 70.8 8) Many experienced learning the evidence of fires set by mentally disabilities. defective youths showed a marked Black 14,492 27.3 9) Some had physical handicaps. increase. 73 10) They also demonstrated other Common characteristics of the Other 993 1.9 forms of asocial behavior in addition to adolescent firesetter include: A history firesetting, i.e., truancy, stealing, run• of delinquency, disruptive rearing envi• Total 52,998 100.0 ning away, hyperkinesis, and aggres• ronment, pathological personality sive behavior. development, sexual immaturity, ag• ·Source: U.S. Federal Bureau of Inves• 11) Some were orphans and insti• gressive or destructive behavior, poor tigation, Crime in the United States, tutionalized children. social adjustment and emotional dis• Annual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov• 12) Their rearing environments turbance, and poor academic achieve• ernment Printing Office, 1969-1978. were pathological or broken. It was not ment. uncommon for them to come from fa• (Continued on page 16) ther-absent or ineffective-father homes. 13) They also lacked a sense of security, love, and attention. 72

July 1980 / 13 A PROFILE OF THE TYPICAL PYROMANIAC (Lewis and Yarnell)

Age: Heaviest concentration be- Marital Adjustment: Although some have a need to be recognized and tween ages 16-28; highest frequency pyromaniacs married, their marital have a sense of worth. They have a at age 17. relationships were poorly adjusted. craving for power and prestige. They Sex: Male. Sexual Adjustment: Sexually fail to express remorse or to accept Race: Predominately white. maladjusted and inadequate; limited responsibility for their firesetting Intelligence: Ranged from mentally contact with women. activities. defective to genius (approximately 22 Occupation/Employment History: Criminal History: Many had histories percent of those with no explanation Most frequently unskilled laborers, if of delinquency and criminal behavior for their firesetting were low­grade employed. They accepted subservient to include: Runaway, burglary, theft, defectives) . positions and became resentful when and other property offenses. Physical Defects: Found to be they realized that their work was Use of Alcohol: Alcohol was frequently present. degrading. frequently used as a method of escape Enuresis: Present in some. Personality: The pyromaniac has and to remove social inhibitions, but they did not set fires because they Mental Disorders: Psychopathy, as been described as a hopeless misfit drank. Of the 447 who offered no well as psychotic disorders, were and feeble person, a physical coward explanation for their firesetting except identified within this category; the with feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, an " irresistible impulse," 70 were compulsive urge also appears to inSUfficiency, and self­consciousness. alcoholic (approximately 16 percent). reflect a neurotic obsessive They are introverted, seclusive, aloof, compulsive pattern of behavior. frustrated, and lonely people. They Suicide: Some attempted suicide after have unconscious fears of being arrest and incarceration. Academic Adjustment: Poor unwanted and unloved and suffer from educational adjustment although some Motives: The exact motivation in each a wounded self­esteem and a lack of pyromaniacs were intellectually bright. case was unknown; however, the pride and prestige. They often project Their academic performance was following motives were identified: an image of calmness and indifference marginal or scholastically retarded- 1) Desire to be a hero and center of (anxiety and tension are present underachievers. attention (craving for excitement and nonetheless). They have vague prestige). Play detective at the fire; Rearing Environment: Pathological, feelings, however, that their defenses render first­aid; help rescue victims; broken, and harsh rearing environment will fail them and that these repressed assist firemen. with inconsistent discipline and impulses will emerge. ,They tend to be parental neglect. Pyromaniacs noted defensive and obstinate in attitude and 2) Desire to show themselves an unhappy home life. ambivalent toward authority. Although sufficiently clever to cause the Social Class Structure: Some they have an inner­dependency on "experts" (the firemen and detectives) pyromaniacs emerged from middle or authority, they also have contempt for problems and to render them helpless. even upper socioeconomic levels, authority. In fact, they have repressed They have grandiose ambitions to be while others were products of lower their rage and hatred toward society the executive who directs the class environments. and authority figures. They lack firefighting activity and puts the firemen Social Adjustment: Socially ambition and aggressiveness. Some into action. maladjusted; severe problems in stated that they did not want to really developing and maintaining hurt anyone. They are apologetic but interpersonal relationships. ashamed for being apologetic. They seek expression through excitement. Some pyromaniacs have been found to be quite intelligent, neat, and methodical in their behavior. They

14 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 3) Enjoy destruction of property Number of Fires: Frequently they Emotional State and Behavior After (vagrants exhibiting pyromania receive started numerous fires, sometimes Setting the Fire: Pyromaniacs sadistic pleasure in watching the hundreds, until they were caught. expressed a sense of relief and even destruction of buildings). False Alarms: They were also known exaltation. After setting fires their 4) Irresistible impulse (could not offer to set false alarms. tension subsided. Few expressed an explanation except driven by Time of Day: Their fires were often sexual satisfaction in setting fires. They unexplainable force or impulse to set nocturnal. often stayed at or near the fire as a fires). Regard For Life: There was no regard spectator, or to assist the responding 5) Revenge, although not consciously for life. (Fires were frequently set in firemen by rendering first­aid or present, was also considered to be a and around occupied buildings) rescuing victims from the fire. Some possible factor. enjoyed playing detective at the fire Type of Firesetter: Solitary (An scene. Some pyromaniacs, after 6) Sexual satisfaction (this was noted insignificant number set fires in groups setting their fires and insuring that the in only 40 cases.) or with a partner). Irresistible Impulse: No single firemen would respond, went home to Emotional State and Behavior Just a restful sleep. precipitating factor produced this Prior to Firesetting: Pyromaniacs Arrest: Some pyromaniacs insured impulse. It was believed to be the frequently expressed the following that they would be identified and result of an accumulation of problems symptoms preceding their firesetting: arrested; some even turned which caused stress, frustration, and Mounting tension and anxiety; themselves in to the police. Many tension. Examples included: restlessness­an urge for motion; continued to set fires till apprehended. Thwarted sexual desires; loss of conversion symptoms, such as The arrest seemed to release the employment; refusal of employment; headaches, pressure in the head, magical hold the irresistible impulse death of parent or loved one; threats to dizziness, ringing in the ears and had on them. It was a relief for them to personal security and masculinity; palpitations; a sense that the be stopped from setting fires. explosive protest over imagined personality was merging into a state of immorality or promiscuousness of unreality; and an uncontrollable urge or Confession: Pyromaniacs often mother or spouse; fear of impo- irresistible impulse to set fires. readily confessed or admitted guilt, tency, etc. though they expressed no remorse or Emotional State and Behavior regret for their behavior; neither did Firesetting Experience: During Firesetting: While setting the they generally accept responsibility for Type of Fires: Their fires were fire, pyromaniacs felt that the act was their firesetting activity. They were generally made in haste and in a so little their own; they described the most often quiet and cooperative disorganized fashion; often set in emergence of a sort of dissociative under arrest. rubbish, basements, and in and around state (a transient sensation of being inhabited dwellings, office buildings, controlled by an external force­a Selection of Target: Firesetting schools, hotels and other structures in feeling of being automated). They targets were often randomly selected thickly populated sections of cities. recognized that the firesetting was for no apparent reason. Frequently, they were made in rapid senseless but they did not have the Recidivism: 28­percent recidivistic succession. Matches, newspapers, control to prevent it. To a casual rate in the study. and other available materials were observer, they would appear normal used in starting the fires. and controlled.

July 1980 / 15 Moll, as well as Lewis and Yarnell, Though the psychotic appeared 5) Academically retarded, has purported that adolescent fireset• distinctive in that his firesetting was 6) Slightly below-average intelli• ting is generally committed for excite• suicidal and delusional, he was found gence, ment rather than for destructive to fall naturally within other firesetter 7) Emotionally and psychologically reasons. 14 categories, i.e., revenge firesetters and disturbed, Yet, whatever the specific motive, pyromaniacs. Consequently, Lewis and 8) Socially and sexually vandalism fires appear to represent 80 Yarnell included the majority of psy• maladjusted, percent of juvenile firesetting.75 The chotic firesetters in other subgroups 9) Unmarried, adolescent fire setter generally works in rather than devising a special classifi• 10) Psychologically inadequate pairs or groups, since this provides cation for them. Eight percent of these and insecure, and support for his behavior and encour• psychotics were classified as pyroma• 11) Cowardly. ages the act. These pairs or groups niacs, and approximately 90 percent of Their firesetting is often immediately generally consist of one boy who as• the male psychotics were diagnosed preceded by a precipitating stressful sumes a dominant role and others who as schizophrenics.80 situation or experience. accept a submissive role. 76 Virkkunen's study of 30 schizo• Although pathological firesetters phrenic and nonschizophrenic fireset• share many common characteristics, a The Schizophrenic Male Firesetter ters revealed that both groups were "typical " firesetter just does not exist. Psychosis is generally defined as characteristically motivated by hate. Each appears to be unique and moti• a severe form of personality decom• The schizophrenic subjects typically vated by a multiplicity of factors. pensation characterized by marked im• set fires against outsiders or the com• These types of arsonists do not pairment of contact with reality and munity in general. Their target selec• appear to be representative of those personal and social functioning. Delu• tion was often an unoccupied engaged in arson-for-profit schemes, sions, hallucinations, emotional blunt• structure. The nonschizophrenics tend• although they cannot be totally elimi• ing, and bizarre behavior may also be ed to direct their firesetting against nated in all cases. present in varying degrees. relatives or acquaintances and set fires In preparing a psychological pro• The most serious of all psychotic to residential houses. The nonschiz• file of a firesetter, the following varia• disorders is schizophrenia, which has ophrenics were likely to be under the bles should also be analyzed: been defined as "a group of psychotic influence of alcohol when setting fires, 1) The structure (type of structure disorders characterized by gross dis• whereas the schizophrenics tended to burned, location, fire history, owner• tortions of reality, withdrawal from so• set fires as a result of delusions and ship, and recent structure history); cial interaction, and disorganization hallucinations. 81 2) Time factors (date and time of and fragmentation of perception, fire); thought and emotion." 77 According to A Review 3) Identity of reporting person the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual The section on " Profiling the Fire• (resident, neighbor, unknown caller, of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), schizo• setter" briefly discussed many of the law enforcement officer, etc.); phrenia includes several specific sub• common and salient characteristics as• 4) Use or lack of devices or types, each of which has specific sociated with pathological firesetting. accelerants; symptomatology which uniquely char• In addition, reference was made to a 5) Type of devices and acceler• acterizes and distinguishes it from oth• number of specific firesetter profiles in ants; er forms. an effort to provide the reader with a 6) Style of fire (hastily or methodi• Lewis and Yarnell in their study of better understanding of the various cally set); 1145 male firesetters found that 154 of types of arsonists and their etiological, 7) Occupancy factors (occupied or I them could be diagnostically classified psychological, and sociological bases, unoccupied at time of fire and descrip• I as psychotic. This represented 13.4 as well as their distinguishing charac• tion of occupants-elderly, women, percent of their total sample popula• teristics. mental patients, etc.); tion- a small fraction of the total inci• It is interesting to note that patho• 8) Burn pattern and points of ori• dence of male firesetters.78 logical arsonists frequently manifest gin, (number of points of origin, exact In describing the psychotic fireset• the following cluster characteristics: location of points of origin, and burn ter, Lewis and Yarnell noted that "they 1) Under 25 years of age, pattern); seemed distinctive, in that their fires 2) Victims of pathological and dis• 9) Modus operandi; were set for suicidal purposes, their tressed rearing environments, 10) Evidence of forced entry; motives were apparently delusional in 3) Come from father-absent 11) Evidence of preparation of character or they manifested bizarre homes, structure for burning; behavior either during or immediately 4) Mother-dominated, 12) Presence of other crimes; and after the firesetting." 79 13) Evidence of similar fires in the community (structures,. time variance, and similarities and differences in those fires)

16 / FBI Law Enforcement t3ulletin In next month's issue of the Law .. Nolan D. C. Lewis, " Pathological Firesetting and " Michael R. Wolford, supra., p. 8 . Sexual Motivation," in Sexual Behavior and the Law, Ralph " Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, supra, p. 46. Enforcement Bulletin, arson­for­profit, Siovenico, ed. (SpringfJeld, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1965), " Ibid., p. 228. the hired­torch, and his conspirators p. 627. " Ibid., p. 240. .. Robert G. Vreeland and Marcus B. Waller, The " Ibid., pp. 228­ 242. will be explored. Hopefully, the profiles Psychology ofFireselling: A Review andAppraisal (Wash· " Ibid., p. 86. provided in this and the next section ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979), p. 26. ..Louis H. Gold, " PsychIatric Profile of the Firesetter," M Joseph J. Michaels and A. Steinberg, " Persistent Journal ofForensic Science, vol. 7, No. 4, October 1962, will assist the investigator in effectively Enuresis and Juvenile Delinquency," British Journal of p. 407. targeting arson in his community. It Delinquency, vol. 3, 1952, pp. 114­120; Sheldon Glueck " Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, supra., p. 118. and Eleanor T. Glueck, Unraveling Juvenile DelinqlJ8ncy 10 J. H. Magee, " Pathological Arson," Scientific must be remembered, however, that (New YorI< : Commonwealth Fund, 19SO). Monthly, vol. 37, 1933, p. 361. .. Robert G. Vreeland and Marcus B. Waller, supra, p. " Helen Yarnell, " Firesetting in Children," American the profile serves as a tool for narrow- 23; Michael R. Wolford, " Some Attitudinal, Psychological Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol. 10, 1940, pp. 262­286. ing fhe investigative process. It is not a and Sociological Characteristics of Incarcerated Arson· " Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, supra., pp. ists, " presented at the 17th Annual Arson Detection and 286­287, 311 ­ 345. magical answer to either the preven- Investigation Seminar, Sarasota, Fla., August 4, 1971 , p. 1. " Kendall D. Moll, Arson, Vandalism and Violence: tion or solution to incendiarism. I'BI SI Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, Pathological Law Enforcement Problems Affecting Fire Departments Fireselling (pyromania), Nervous and Mental Disease (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Monographs, No. 82 (New York: Coolidge Foundation, Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law 1951), p. 42. Footnotes Enforcement Assistance Administration, 1974), p. 13; " W. Hurley and T. Monahan, " Arson: The Criminal Nolan D. C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, supra., pp. 311­345. and the Crime," British Journal of Criminology, vol. 9, .. Webster's Third New Intemational Dictionary, " John G. Boudreau et aI., Arson andArson Investiga· 1969, pp. 4­21 . unabridged (Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company, tion: Survey and Assessment (Washington, D.C.: U.S. 1971) s.v. " profile." ..M. Virkkenun, " On Arson Committed by Schizo- Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 92. phrenics," ACTA Psychiatrica Scandinavia. vol. SO, 1974, ..Robert Lane and Martin Gottlieb, " He Bares Himself ,. Bernard Levin, " Psychological Characteristics of pp. 152­ 160. as Pyro Champ," Nassau Suffolk Daily News, final ed. May Firesetters," Fire Journal, vol. 70, No. 2, March 1976, p. 9, 1978, p. 3:2. " U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of 37. Investigation, Cnme in the United States, 1969-1978. " Ibid. " James C. Coleman et aI., Abnormal Psychology ..R. Rothstein, " Explorations of Ego Structures of " Jesse James, " Psychological Motives for Arson," and Modem Life, 6th ed. (Glenview, III.: Scott, Foresman Firesetting Children," Archives of General Psychiatry, Popular Government, March 1965, p. 24. and Co., 1980), p. 395. 1963, p. 247. " John M. Macdonald, " Many Motivations are Behind .. Nolan D.C. Lewis and Helen Yarnell, supra., p. 428. Acts of the Arsonist," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, vol. " Ibid., p. 376. 29, No. 7, July 1960, p. 4. .. Ibid., pp. 377, 428. .. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of I. Virkkunen. supra . Investigation, Crime in the United States, annual. (Wash. ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969­1978).

According to the FBI's Uniform robbery, and aggravated assault, and Crime Crime Reports' preliminary annual sta- the property crimes of burglary, lar- tistiCS, the upswing in crime continued ceny­theft, and motor vehicle theft. Increase as Crime Index offenses soared 8 per- The greatest increase for the year cent during 1979. All city and county was experienced in cities outside met- Continues population groups, areas, and regions ropolitan areas where crime climbed of the United States shared in the 11 percent. Cities over 50,000 in popu- increase. lation registered an 8­percent upturn, Director William H. Webster noted while in both the suburban and rural that there has not been such a dra- areas crime increased 9 percent. matic increase since the 1974 crime Violent crimes rose 11 percent, surge of 18 percent, followed by the 10- with forcible rape and robbery each percent increase in 1975. increasing 12 percent and murder and "The 1979 increase clearly indi- aggravated assault each rising 9 cates that crime remains one of our percent. The only reported decrease Nation's most serious problems," was a 2­percent decline in murder in stated Mr. Webster. " I am, of course, rural areas. troubled by this trend. Every American Property crimes rose 8 percent as should be troubled. Crime, after all, a whole, with gains in motor vehicle diminishes freedom; it casts an intimi- theft of 10 percent, in larceny­theft of 9 dating shadow across our free society. percent, and in burglary of 6 percent. All of us­not just law enforcement- Geographically, all regions all of us should do what we can to showed increases over 1978 figures. reduce crime." The South, the most populous region, The crime figures are based on experienced the greatest increase, 10 the Crime Index offenses reported by percent. The Northeast, West, and law enforcement agencies around the North Central regions followed with country and include statistics on the rises of 9, 8, and 7 percent, respectively. violent crimes of murder, forcible rape, I'BI

July 1980 I 17 ~M©@o@g)TIi1iJlli]).'@.lIDii~;w ill@ll.~~i©~

A defendant awaits the jury's decision.

" Your Honor, we find the defend• ant guilty." The verdict, delivered in a decisive, clear voice by the jury fore• Police and You man, is not unlike those handed down since the inception of the trial-by-jury A PUBLIC RELATIONS system hundreds of years ago. This trial, however, will never be immortal• PROGRAM ized in case books, nor will its tran• scripts be filed away in the courthouse archives to gather dust. And while the proceedings could be considered un• By OFFICER JORUNE JONIKAS conventional by being held in an empty Police Department courthouse at night, the participants Carmel, Calif. are even more so-girls and boys, 8 to 13 years of age, who attend the ele• mentary and junior high schools on California's Monterey Peninsula.

18 / FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin An "arraignment" of a case is part of the court• room procedure explained to the participants.

The trial revolves around an imagi• The most visible representative of It simplifies matters, of course, if a nary crime and fabricated evidence criminal justice is the police officer. department is based in the courthouse and is the culmination of a 5-hour intro• However, with the apprehension and or if it has offices there, but even if this duction to the California Criminal Jus• bewilderment often generated by the is not the case, then a courthouse tice System presented by members of criminal justice system, the officer session and tour on site could be elimi• the Carmel, Calif., Police Department. emerges, time and time again, as a nated. Instead, community relations of• If many adults look upon the crimi• symbol of distrust in law enforcement. ficers conducting the tour of the police nal justice system as sophisticated, These premises prompted three department could set aside an hour or complex, and often puzzling, consider employees of the Carmel Police De• so and present the courtroom portion how the system would appear to a partment to initiate a " Police and You" of the presentation at the department, child. Yet, it is the best means our program designed to make children using little more than some tables and society has found to maintain peace, aware that police officers are not unap• chairs and a bit of imagination. protect life and property, and assure proachable entities and the courts are justice. A system that touches each not of a world apart. The program, and every citizen should not be a myth• which has been presented three times ical beast surrounded by apprehension during the past year, is divided into two and bewilderment. sessions, each a week apart. The first is held at the police department; the second at the county courthouse.

July 1980 / 19 With 10 to 16 students participat• Before ending the session at the ing in each session, the children are police department, a crime was staged, divided into smaller groups of 4 or 5 for using one student as the "criminal," their initial introduction to the police another as the "victim, " and a third as department. The three "instructors" for a designated witness. The aggressor the program are police officers and was "arrested" and the " trial" was take on the responsibility of explaining scheduled for the following week's the various functions of the police de• session at the courthouse. partment, its officers, and its support Officers of the municipal court personnel. made the courthouse available, and One instructor's responsibility in• Monterey County Sheriff's Office per• volves explaining emergency tele• sonnel graciously made their facilities phone procedures, radio dispatching at the courthouse substation accessi• techniques, emergency teletype oper• ble to the groups. ations, and recordkeeping. Another in• The public entrance to the court• structs the participants on the training house was ignored in favor of the less functions of a department. Special at• familiar prisoner's door, in order that tention is given to descriptions of the children could follow the path a weapons and explosives, with empha• custodial prisoner takes from a holding sis being placed on the danger they cell to the courtroom. They were es• Officer Jonikas represent to children and adults alike. corted through the booking room and This was considered important not only holding cells and into the prisoner ele• because all children are fascinated by vator. the unusual and unknown but more so Before entering the courtroom, because there is a large military instal• however, there was some deviation in lation nearby. The children also wit• that the students were allowed to do nessed a display of firearms what prisoners are not, that is, briefly marksmanship when they visited the tour the building to familiarize them• range. selves with the locations and purposes Patrol cars and police equipment of the various offices. are another instructor's specialty. He Once back on the first floor, the also relates the process that a prisoner group was led through a back corridor, must go through once an arrest is past judges' chambers, and into the made. The children are fingerprinted, courtroom where everyone was seated booked, and spend a few minutes in a in the prisoner's block. cell, while being told the necessity for Following a brief explanation of

# - each step. the function of the court and the duties What members of one group of its various officers, " arraignments" found most exciting, however, was the were held, charging each student de• actual arrest made while they were fendant with a "crime" to which they could relate, such as taking another's William H. Ellis learning about the process. They, of Chief of Police course, were kept out of sight of the lunchbox, riding someone's bike with• prisoner, but found the activity intrigu• out permission, or pushing a classmate ing nevertheless. in the hall. Rotating each group among the three officers allowed all the partici• pants to see and hear everything with• out crowding and confusion and gave them the opportunity to ask questions, many of which were of an intelligent and perceptive nature.

20 I FBI law Enforcement Bulletin Once the children were introduced to pleas, bail, and court and jury trials through the arraignment procedure, each was assigned a role to play in the upcoming trial. Although everyone wanted to act as attorney, defendant, or witness, some had to be content with a role as juror. However, there was usually enough time to hold a second shorter trial, in which more ac• tive roles were assigned to former members of the jury. Parent escorts, too, were welcome to sit on the jury and they always enthusiastically fell into the spirit of the trial. The trial of the student defendant, arrested the week before, began with a statement of charges, after which the student prosecutor and defense attor• ney, assisted by one of the instructors, presented their cases, questioned wit• nesses, raised objections, and finally summed up their arguments to the jury. After the jury listened intently to the judge's instructions, the bailiff es• corted the members to the jury room for deliberation. Following a brief, but usually heated debate, the jurors re- The ')"ury" in deliberation. turned with a verdict. Both guilty and not guilty verdicts have been handed down, and in one case, the defense attorney insisted on pOlling the jury because he was unhappy with the decision. Roleplaying took on a very serious and important tone, and the children became so much a part of the pro• ceedings that they continued to argue the merits and deficiencies of each "case" long after it was over. One of the most gratifying re• sponses was that of the parents who found it intriguing and surprising to de• bate in the jury room with their fifth• graders, who took their duty seriously and showed a remarkable understand• ing of their role. It is extremely satisfying to realize that in the enjoyment of playacting, there was learning. Through this learn• ing process, the criminal justice system became less of a strange beast and more of a comfortable acquaintance. But most gratifying of all is to be greet• ed as a friend by a child who a short time ago was a stranger. FBI

July 1980 / 21 Occupational Stress and Compensation in Law Enforcement

By JOHN A. lEONARD The importance of improving the of compensating law enforcement health and safety conditions of em• personnel as a result of the vari• Research and Planning ployees has increasingly received the ous stresses associated with the Dept. of Public Safety attention of government agencies, occupation. Meriden, Conn. business organizations, and labor unions. Not only are the physical and Compensation And G. PATRICK TUllY emotional well-being of workers an Compensation may be defined as Commanding Officer issue of humanitarian concern, but a payment, indemnity, or benefit given Training Section they also have a significant legal and to an employee for a service or loss. It Division of State Police economic impact upon the employer. may be provided in the form of a Dept. of Public Safety Adverse working conditions can have a monetary settlement, which includes Meriden, Conn. detrimental effect upon employee mo• salary or wages, as well as financial rale, job satisfaction, attendance, and remuneration, after an injury or loss. attrition. Ultimately, productivity can be An example of the latter are the work• affected. When this occurs, it becomes men's compensation plans that offer costly to the organization. pecuniary settlements to an employee As a consequence, administrators who has suffered a job-related injury. within both the public and private However, compensation does not sectors are committing personnel and necessarily have to be in a monetary resources to the development of pro• form-there are several other ways grams designed to prevent or reduce in which an employee can be compen• the adverse effects of physical and sated for his work. psychological stress. Nowhere is this Another method of compensation effort more evident than within the field is provided through early retirement. of law enforcement. Innovative pro• This frequently occurs when an em• grams of physical fitness and psycho• ployee suffers a disability that prevents logical services have been established him from continuing to perform his as a response to these concerns. Po• duties. lice administrators have begun to recognize their responsibility to pre• serve and maintain a healthy, stable, and productive work force by providing necessary services. This article will alert the reader to the necessity

22 / FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Often overlooked as compensa• These examples illustrate the many The incentive pay schedules em• tion are transfers to less stressful or and varied forms of compensation ployed by the military are based upon less sensitive assignments that are made available in other occupations. hazardous duty assignments. While it provided when it becomes obvious that may appear that compensation is the employee should no longer func• Compensation in Law Enforcement awarded for stressful work, it must be tion in his original capacity. The Numerous studies have demon• noted that stress and danger are not employer may also grant a leave of strated that there is an inordinate synonymous. Dangerous or hazardous absence to an individual who suffers amount of stress associated with law duty may contribute to stress, but from a medical or emotional malady. enforcement. It can also be docu• should not be considered the equiva• Preventive or remedial services mented that the effects of stress can lent of stress. In law enforcement, can be provided by the employer as a have an adverse impact upon the man• incentive pay for dangerous assign• form of compensation. Private industry ner in which police officers perform ments can impair the proper selection and public service agencies alike have their duties. 1 Beyond affecting a per• of personnel. Individuals may volunteer established programs addressing both son 's mental and physical health, for potentially hazardous assignments, physical and mental health. Among stress can influence individual and col• such as tactical units or bomb squads, these programs are scheduled periods lective productivity, as well as the qual• enticed by the additional financial when employees may engage in orga• ity of work. Due to the critical nature of remuneration. As a consequence, the nized recreation. Some industries, police work, it is imperative that law officer essentially becomes a merce• most notably chemical and textile man• enforcement personnel be emotionally nary. In such critical assignments, ufacturers, periodically evaluate the stable. individuals should be selected for their medical health of their employees in Since stress is directly attributable abilities, not their willingness to expose order to detect symptoms of diseases to the work environment and the themselves to danger for financial that may be the result of conditions in effects of stress can influence the reward. the work environment. performance and behavior of law en• Compensating personnel for These diverse forms of compen• forcement personnel, provisions must stress is further complicated because sation have been applied to a variety of be made to compensate the police of the different stress levels of law occupations. The Federal Government employee. Compensation may not only enforcement functions. For example, has mandated that certain hazardous benefit the individual officer but will undercover narcotics work is generally occupations in the military service re• also indirectly benefit the organization, considered to be a highly stressful as• ceive higher remuneration or incentive and ultimately, the community it signment. The combination of irregular pay. For example, incentive pay is serves. shifts, constant exposure to danger, granted for military personnel assigned and the daily requirement to assume to submarines or self-propelled sub• Monetary Compensation different identities, in addition to the mersible vessels used for undersea ex• Since occupational stress is an normal organizational causes, can pro• ploration and research. Personnel also intangible factor, monetary compensa• duce a higher degree of stress than the receive special pay when participating tion is unrealistic. The causes of stress more traditional law enforcement role. in the following: vary in intensity and effect among indi• Not only is there a variation in the 1) Frequent and regular aerial viduals. While they can be identified, extent of stress associated with differ• flight; these stressors defy quantification. ent assignments, but subtle organiza• 2) Parachute jumping and Since stress cannot be measured em• tional variations can also induce deep sea diving; pirically, a standard payment schedule varying degrees of stress. It is reason• 3) Demolition of explosives; and is difficult, if not impossible, to estab• able to conclude that stress will vary 4) Specified research projects as lish. according to the nature of the patrol experimental subjects. assignment. Factors such as motor• The Federal workmen's compen• ized or foot patrol, one-man or two• sation program permits air-traffic con• man vehicle patrol, area of assign• trollers with psychological disabilities ment, and shift assignment can all in• to retire at 75 percent of their salary, fluence the degree of physical and provided they have been employed for psychological stress. Since patrol 5 years and their condition has been strategies must respond to community sufficiently documented. Iron workers, needs, these factors are constantly painters, roofers, window washers, and changing, and therefore, preclude the other tradesmen whose work entail an provision of a standard compensation element of danger, such as working at schedule. precarious heights, often receive more pay than their counterparts who are not exposed to comparable danger.

July 1980 / 23 It has been established that ad• If law enforcement personnel are Provision of Services ministrative positions are as stressful offered monetary compensation for The most appropriate form of as patrol positions. Again, it would be their exposure to stress, the human compensation is through the IJrovision most difficult, if not impossible, to as• dimension of the problem is ignored. of services. Specifically, these services sign an appropriate scale of compen• By failing to recognize unique individual address the prevention and treatment sation based upon rank and responses to stress, the employer fails of occupational stress. The strategy responsibility. For example, a captain to demonstrate concern for the individ• most effective in aiding the employee who commands a headquarters divi• ual employee. If all of the variables is also the most suitable method for I sion may have a more or less stressful contributing to occupational stress the organization and the community. job than a captain who commands a were static, it would be convenient to The police department has wide lati• patrol division. Undoubtedly, both indi• assign them monetary values. Howev• tude in the development and imple• viduals would have strong feelings er, the causes of stress are dynamic. mentation of a psychological services about the relative pressures of their Therefore, monetary compensation for program. Generally, options can be individual assignments. However, since occupational stress is neither realistic grouped under two major head• I stress cannot be measured, any differ• nor responsible. ings-"professional" and " in-house" ences between the two positions will programing. remain a matter of conjecture. While the degree of occupational "It can ... be Professional Programing stress may vary with rank and function, documented that the A professional program format it must also be noted that individuals effects of stress can might include hiring a psychologist to possess different tolerance levels for design and implement a program, con• ' stress. Some individuals are more sus• have an adverse tracting for services, or using voluntary ceptible to the physical and emotional impact upon the professionals. The larger metropolitan disorders that result from stress. Be• manner in which police police departments have made the cause individual tolerances may vary officers perform their most progressive achievements to• with time and experience, this further ward preventing and treating occupa• prohibits the development of a stand• duties." tional stress in law enforcement. 2 ard compensation schedule. Several agencies, including those in Recent arbitration has noted the Removal from the Work Force Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, distinction between work-related inju• To remove an employee from the Seattle, Dallas, and San Jose, have ries and illnesses. An Illinois police work environment through premature established exemplary programs of officer, employed for 3 years in the retirement is also a negative response psychological services. These depart• narcotics division, claimed that he suf• to the problem. In fact, such action can ments vary in size from 800 employees fered from "anxiety and depressive hardly be considered a response, since to more than 23,000 officers. Yet de• neurosis" as a result of his assign• it fails to address the needs of the spite numerous departmental vari• ment. While the city concurred that his individual worker. While a leave of ab• ations, the consensus is that the most work could have contributed to the sence or a transfer for medical or psy• effective method of delivering psycho• debilitating illness, his claim was de• chological reasons may be considered logical services is through the use of a nied because there was no indication a form of treatment, they are equally full-time clinical psychologist. There is that it was the exclusive cause. A Con• unresponsive if not accompanied by general agreement that when person•

necticut police officer experienced psy• adequate remedial services. nel are referred to professionals out• ! chological distress after he shot and It has become increasingly expen• side the agency, there is no continuity , killed the assailant who stabbed him sive in terms of time and money to in the treatment of police-related is• and his partner. Yet, because the re• recruit, select, train, and equip law en• sues. Although any competent psy• sultant symptoms of anxiety and fear• forcement personnel. To release an chologist could be of assistance in fulness did not manifest themselves employee who is suffering from the dealing with ordinary personal prob• until several months after the incident, effects of occupational stress is costly lems, police-related problems require the city denied his claim for compensa• and wasteful. Manpower, our most pre• the psychologist to recognize the oper• tion. The first case exemplifies the cu• cious resource, should be sustained ational character of the department ' mulative effect of stress, while the and guarded. The community that sup• and to be aware of the complexities of latter illustrates the effect of a single ports the police department expects the police function. significant episode. The fact that both the maintenance and development of claims were rejected clearly indicates its resources. As a public service agen• the difficulty in prescribing monetary cy, the law enforcement organization is compensation for stress. obligated to protect the investment of the community and to insure the wel• fare of the employee.

24 I FB I Law Enforcement Bulletin The employment of a full­time psy• If it is determined that services In-House Programing chologist allows the counselor to be• could be most appropriately provided Strategies are available to police come a specialist in the unique through a consultant, the agency has departments that wish to develop in• I problems associated with law enforce• the option of hiring one person, a clini• house capabilities to respond to the ment and the specific needs of the cal group, or several professionals. problem of occupational stress. Peer agency. His relationship with the de• Once again, this decision must be counseling is one such strategy. A I partment also increases both his credi• based upon the specific need for number of police departments have bility and his acceptance by the service, the department's size, the deSignated employees as peer coun• personnel he serves. Employing a full• geographic distribution of agency selors and have provided them with time psychologist insures the availabil• personnel, and financial consider• the necessary training to offer assist• ity of assistance during critical inci• ations. ance to personnel within the agency. dents, and finally, he can establish Another alternative available to an Perhaps the best known program of alliances with administrators to facili• agency that chooses to use the serv• this type is located within the Boston tate the treatment of personnel. ices of a professional is to establish a police department. The director and Clinical psychologists are general• method of soliciting the voluntary as• the counselors-all veteran patrol• ly preferred to psychiatrists as police men-include divorcees and recov• counselors. Although psychiatrists are "Since occupational ered alcoholics. The program is based licensed physicians and are qualified to on the premise that a person who has prescribe medication, police personnel stress is an intangible experienced the problems associated do not normally require that type of factor, monetary with the job makes a more credible treatment. Should the necessity for compensation is counselor. This type of program also prescribed medication arise, a compe• unrealistic." satisfies the contention that policemen tent psychologist would recognize the are inherently suspicious of "outsid• exception and make the appropriate sistance of medical professionals. ers" and will not confide in a mental referral. Furthermore, since psycholo• Many people within the community health professional. gists are usually more research orient• have distinguished themselves through A potential problem with using lay ed, the agency would benefit from the their willingness to devote their time, counselors is that they may not be continuing evaluation of personnel and energy, and expertise to public service. qualified to handle every case. While a the development of anCillary programs. By using these resources, a depart• peer counselor is generally capable of These additional programs frequently ment can not only expedite the devel• an initial assessment, subsequent include the following: opment of a counseling program but treatment might require professional 1) Psychological screening of ap• can also cultivate a lasting union with intervention. Such a system only plicants; an important segment of the private serves to create an additional barrier 2) Spouse orientation; sector. However, when considering the between the employee and the profes• 3) Recruit training; use of volunteers, the agency must sional, without offering any measurable 4) Inservice training; remember that the volunteer's primary benefits. 5) Suicide intervention; commitment is to his occupation. If the Another problem encountered 6) Investigative hypnosis; and availability of the volunteer does not with a peer counselor program involves 7) Hostage negotiation. conform to the organization's needs, guaranteeing the client's anonymity Finally, since the most practical con• consideration must then be given to and the confidentiality of his problem. sideration for any department is mone• supplementing his services or offering The psychologist or psychiatrist is tary, it should be noted that psycholo• another type of program. bound by law and professional ethics gists are substantially less expensive to maintain the confidentiality of his to employ than psychiatrists. consultations. There is no such assur• If it is deemed infeasible or unnec• ance of confidentiality when dealing essary to hire a full-time psychologist, with a lay intermediary. The reassign• the agency may obtain the same serv• ment or promotion of a peer counselor ices on a part-time basis through a could produce serious questions re• contractual agreement. While a part• garding the confidentiality of the sys• time consultant would not offer all of tem. Furthermore, it is doubtful that a the ancillary services available through supervisory officer would confide in a a full-time counselor, the agency may subordinate. Therefore, since police find that the former is more cost effec• administrators are not immune to the tive. A major consideration in weighing effects of occupational stress, the sys• the choice between a full-time psychol• tem would effectively eliminate a por• ogist and a part-time consultant is the tion of the service's potential clientele. size of the department or the number of potential clients.

July 1980 / 25 Another in­house service may be Spouse orientation is another Footnotes strategy that will heighten the employ• provided through training. A graduated , For a full discussion of the causes and effects of program of continuing education could ee's tolerance to stress. The primary occupational stress in law enforcement see: William H Kroes. Society's Victim: The Policeman, (Spring. be implemented through recruit, in• function of this program, which should field, III.: Charles W. Thomas, 1976.) William H. Kroes: Margolis, Bruce L.: and Hurrell. Joseph service, and supervisory training. A be conducted concurrently with recruit J., Jr. " Job Stress in Policemen." Journal of Police SCience and Administration, No. 2. 1974. pp. 145-55. specific training curriculum pertaining training, is to identify the causes and William H. Kroes. and Hurrell, Joseph J., eds .• Job Stress and the Police Officer. (Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Depart• to the causes and effects of occupa• effects of occupational stress upon the ment of Health, Education and Welfare), 1975. I Martin Reiser. " Some Organizational Stresseson Poltce~ tional stress in law enforcement is employee and his family. The National men." Journal of Police Science and Administration, most effective if implemented as a Advisory Commission on Criminal Jus• No. 2. 1974, pp. 156-59. Martin Reiser, "Stress, Distress, and Adaptation in Police component of a counseling program. tice Standards and Goals has ob• ~~~;. ' The Police Chief. vol. 43, January 1976, pp. However, training by itself can be suc• served the importance of stabilizing John G. Stratton, " Police Stress: An Overview." The PolicE Chief. vol. 45. April 1978, pp. 58-62. cessful in inoculating the employee police marriages through spouse orien• ' For a descripton of services available through these programs see: against the adverse effects of stress. tation. "Policemen's wives have an SA Somodevilla, " The Psychologist's Role in the Police Recruit training is one of the most enormous effect not only on their hus• Department." The PollC9 Chief. vol. 45, April 1978, pp. 21-23. I important elements of stress preven• band's efficiency on the job but also on John G. Stratton, " The Department Psychologist: Is There Any Value? The Police Chief. vol. 44, May 1977, pp. tion. Reiser has noted that "officers their general well-being. Adequate ori• 70-74. Marcia Wagner, " Action and Reaction: The Establishment can be taught to anticipate stressful entation and ongoing group counseling of a Counseling Service In the Chicago Police Depart• ment." The Police Chief. vol. 43, January 1976, pp. situations, to become knowledgeable programs help new policemen's wives 20- 23. • M. Reiser. "Mental Health in Police Work and Train· about the internal and environmental adapt to the requirements of their hus• ing," The Police Chief. vol. 41, August 1974, p. 52 . factors affecting decision making under band's occupation." 4 • President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report, The Police stress, and to cope more effectively (Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 276. with difficult situations in the field." 3 By Conclusion identifying the sources and the results Law enforcement administrators of job stress, a department can effec• must recognize their responsiblity to tively defuse the "John Wayne syn• maintain a healthy, stable, and produc• drome" among its novice officers. If it tive work force. Considerable time and is available, it is also critically important effort have been expended to establish that recruits be informed of the psy• standards of physical fitness, intelli• chological counseling service. If an of• gence, character, and emotional stabil• ficer is assured of the integrity of the ity as necessary prerequisites for counseling program upon his initiation employment. Efforts to recruit the most into the agency, he will be less reluc• desirable candidates is the primary tant to use the service if the need concern of most law enforcement ex• arises. ecutives. Having established these Inservice and supervisory training standards, it follows that they should should reinforce the coping mecha• be maintained throughout an employ• nisms introduced during recruit train• ee's career. By offering the employee ing. More importantly, inservice training compensation through the provision of provides the means to introduce tech• psychological services, the law en• niques available to reduce stress. Pro• forcement administrator will insure the cedures such as regular physical maturation of the community's initial exercise, proper nutrition, and relax• investment. rBI ation techniques offer the employee a means to increase his tolerance to stress. Supervisors should be exposed to the techniques of psychological counseling, not trained as therapists, but sensitized to the signs of mental disorganization. Once trained to iden• tify the symptoms of stress, they can then direct their subordinates to the available treatment programs.

26 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Documentary The increase in white­collar crime Several methods are available to in recent years has been dramatic. Ex• officers faced with the task of develop• perts estimate that its annual cost in ing documentary evidence. First, a re• Search this country alone exceeds $40 billion. 1 quest for production can be made to Its victims are diverse and not only the custodian of the documents. The Warrants include large businesses but individual response, however, may be a refusal, consumers. especially if the custodian is a suspect. The suggestion has been made Second, a subpena duces tecum can A that investigation into white-collar be sought directing production of the crime has been neglected and that documents. But subpenas are subject prosecutive accomplishments have to motions to quash or make definite Problem of been something less than a total suc• and certain, both time-consuming proc• cess.2 Obviously, there are many rea• esses. The weakness of either method Particularity sons for this, but one significant factor is obvious-a delay may occur. And must be the difficulty of obtaining evi• once a suspect is alerted to the Gov• dence of guilt. Unlike traditional per• ernment's efforts to obtain possible in• By LARRY E. RISSLER sonal and property crimes where the criminating documents from him, he Special Agent criminal instrumentalities are appar• has a motive to alter or destroy the Legal Counsel Division ent-the " smoking gun" or crowbar evidence. Because, documents are Federal Bureau of Investigation left at the scene-evidence necessary easily destructible, the loss of evidence Washington, D.C. to convict in a complex business when either of these methods is used scheme is not so apparent. The Gov• is quite probable. This would seem ernment's proof often requires the re• especially true when data are stored in construction of activities conducted computers. 7 Law enforcement officers of other over several years and almost as• An effective solution to this prob• than Federal jurisdiction who are suredly depends on the gathering of lem of disappearing evidence is the interested in any legal issue discussed documentary evidence. This article will search warrant. Because only Govern• in this article should consult their legal examine the legal problems of applying ment personnel are present when war• adviser. Some police procedures ruled a traditional law enforcement tool, the rants are issued, and because no permissible under Federal search warrant, to the task of collect• advance notice is required prior to ex• constitutional law are of questionable ing evidence of modern, sophisticated ecution, 8the element of surprise neces• legality under State law or are not white-collar crime.3 sary to prevent destruction is present. permitted at all. Within the past 4 years, the Supreme Advantages of a Search Warrant Court has upheld the use of search It is now apparent that investiga• warrants for seizures of documents tors may seize any evidence which both from the premises of defendants 9 they have cause to believe will be in• and third parties not suspected of criminating.4 This includes documen• criminal complicity. 10 tary evidence.5 As stated by the U.S. Another advantageous feature of Supreme Court nearly 60 years ago: the search warrant should be identi• "There is no special sanctity in fied. It is now clearly established that papers, as distinguished from oth• the fifth amendment prohibition against er forms of property, to render compulsory self-incrimination is not them immune from search and violated when officers seize docu• seizure. " 6 ments under the authority of a search warrant. This is true even if the seized documents had been prepared by the defendant himself. As noted by the

July 1980 / 27 "The degree of specificity required varies with the circumstances and nature of the property sought and the right which is protected."

Supreme Court in a recent case involv• Search warrants for personal doc• be satisfied. The following discussion ing the seizure, under a warrant, of uments and business records are sub• outlines some of the approaches to documents from the law office of a ject to the same legal requirements this problem which have met with ap• fraud suspect: imposed on other search warrants. proval in the courts. "'(T)he constitutional privilege Discussed below is one of those re• Many times, investigators will b against self-incrimination . . . is quirements which takes on special sig• aware of specific documents being designed to prevent the use of nificance when the object of the sought. This is often the case when the legal process to force from the lips warrant is documentary evidence. described items are stolen papers. For of the accused individual the evi• example, in a case entitled In Re dence necessary to convict him or Particularity of Description Search Warrant, 17 Federal agents ob• to force him to produce and au• The fourth amendment to the U.S. tained a warrant to search for docu• thenticate any personal docu• Constitution requires that search war• ments stolen from the U.S. ments or effects that might rants particularly describe the "things Government. The warrant described incriminate him.' " 11 to be seized." This is to make the many of the items as individual docu• When documents are seized under the search as precise as possible and ments, designating them by type authority of a warrant, the suspect him• avoid unnecessary rummaging. Spe• (memo, report, etc.), date, subject, au• self is not compelled to do anything. cifically describing the objects of the thor, and addressee. This language He is not required to help locate the search permits the judge issuing the was quite sufficient to pass the consti documents nor is he compelled to pro• warrant to make the determination of tutional test of specificity. Officers ap c;luce or authenticate them. The offi• what items should be taken. If the plying for documentary search cers themselves locate and remove warrant fails to describe narrowly the warrants should consider using simila the evidence. And without some ele• property, the decision to seize be• descriptive terms whenever possible. ment of compulsion, the privilege comes an administrative one made by But often the task is not that sim• against self-incrimination is not the searching officer, and the warrant ple. "Where the search is for business violated. will be condemned as a "general war• records generally, as opposed to a By contrast, fifth amendment val• rant." specific record, a general description is ues may be implicated when officers The degree of specificity required often all that is possible due to the use a subpena to obtain records. In the varies with the circumstances and na• general nature of the documentary evi• language of the Supreme Court, "the ture of the property sought 14 and the dence sought." 18 In that event, the Fifth Amendment may protect an indi• right which is protected. For example, searching officer can only "be expect• vidual from complying with a subpoena a higher standard is imposed on war• ed to describe the generic class of for the production of his personal rec• rants for items which involve first items he is seeking." 19 ords in his possession because the amendment considerations. IS By con• In some instances, generic de• very act of production may constitute a trast, when the property sought is con• scriptions (descriptions by class or compulsory authentication of incrimi• traband, general descriptions often group) alone may be sufficient. 20 But nating information ...." 12 (This limita• suffice. This is because contraband is usually a general description of docu• tion has application only to documents illegal to possess. And when the items ments must be qualified by a standard held by a sole proprietor or private named offend the law, there is no dan• to enable the executing officers to sep• individual. It has long been recognized ger a suspect will be deprived of any arate the papers to be seized from the that collective entities, such as corpo• lawful property.16 Some stolen items general class of documents described. rations and some partnerships, cannot can be adequately described by physi• This standard is called a limiting assert the fifth amendment, even if the cal description and serial number, or phrase. subpenaed documents would incrimi• perhaps model number, brand name, nate one of the organization's offi• and quantity. But describing business cers.) 13 documents presents unique problems. Serial numbers and brand names are unavailable. Yet, the fourth amend• ment's mandate of particularity must

28 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin There are many possibilities for cluded that this limiting phrase restrict• Using the benefit of hindsight, it is rafting limiting phrases. One is to limit ed the search to documents related possible to reconstruct a description of he generic descriptions by referring to only to the stolen furs. The warrant the documents sought in Roche as smaller identifiable category within was thus adequately particularized. follows: he class. For example, in a recent Several courts have been critical " Books, records, account journals, regon case, 21 a defendant was con• of limiting phrases which limit the invoices, etc. . . (listing all known icted of disseminating obscene mate• search merely by reference to a broad classes of documents), covering ial. During their investigation, officers criminal statute. For example, United the period 1/1/78-1/1/79, per• ad obtained a search warrant for the States v. Roche 24 was a case involv• taining to motor vehicle liability ovie house where the allegedly ob• ing an investigation into an extensive and collision insurance, which cene films were shown. Their purpose automobile insurance fraud scheme. A documents constitute evidence of as to establish documentary proof of warrant was issued which authorized a violation of T. 18, U.S. Code, he defendant's ownership and pos• seizure of a wide range of documents Section 1341 (Mail Fraud)." ession of the theater. The warrant described in generic terms (books, rec• Note that this description begins ontained the generic description ords, account journals, invoices, etc.). with a reference to the broad generic 'business records," followed by the A limiting phrase was also included class of items sought (books, records, imiting phrase " pertaining to the own• which restricted the generic description etc.) and then through the use of limit• rship of the Star Theatre located to " evidence . . . of the violation of ing phrases, narrows the general class t. ..." The court noted that the ge• Title 18, United States Code, Section by time period (1/1/78-1/1/79), cate• eric term " business records" was im• 1341 ." gory (liability and collision insurance), ermissibly general standing alone. The court of appeals held that this and type of offense (mail fraud.) The ut the use of the limiting phrase gave description made the search impermis• result is language specific enough to 'judicial direction to the officer as to sibly broad. It reasoned that section enable an officer executing the warrant hat among the general class of 'busi• 1341 (the Mail Fraud statute) makes to distinguish between innocent ess records' (was) to be seized and illegal all frauds that use the mails, and documents and those which constitute hat (was) to be left." 22 The warrant the warrant would have authorized a evidence. as upheld. general search for evidence of any In most instances, the limiting Another possibility is to limit by type of mail fraud. Because the affida• phrase will appear in the warrant itself. eference to a specific crime or event. vit only established probable cause to This is because it is the warrant that is n example appears in United States believe records of a motor vehicle in• the object of the fourth amendment's . Scharfman. 23 Officers obtained a surance fraud were on the premises, specificity requirement. But under arrant to search a store for stolen searches conducted pursuant to the some circumstances limiting language urs. To enable them to search for warrant were invalid. The court strong• may appear in the affidavit, which is ocumentary evidence of the defend• ly suggested that the warrant would the supporting document containing nt's involvement in the sale of the have been valid had it limited seizure the statement of probable cause. It is tolen furs, the descriptive phrase to records relating to automobile insur• frequently advantageous to the pros• 'books and records" was added to the ance. The description would have ecution to be allowed to refer to the arrant. Standing alone, this phrase been even more insulated from attack affidavit for descriptive language, learly would be condemned as being had it further narrowed the documents because the affidavit usually contains a 00 broad. It would have authorized to be seized by reference to category very comprehensive account of the eizure of every document in the store, (liability, collision policies, etc.), specif• criminal activity and the items sought. hether or not related to the stolen ic time periods, and known victims of urs. However, following " books and the fraud. ecords," the warrant contained the imiting phrase " as are being used as eans and instrumentalities of the theft of fur articles)." The court con•

July 1980 / 29 "Search warrants for personal documents and business records are subject to the same legal requirements imposed on other search warrants."

In order to limit a warrant's broad It is noteworthy that in several The defendant conceded that the description by referring to the specific other recent document search cases, generic descriptions and the limiting language in the affidavit, the affidavit reviewing courts have suggested that phrase were models of particularity, must accompany the warrant, and the the generality of the warrants could but contended that the quoted catch• warrant must contain words of refer• have been saved by the specificity of all language rendered the warrant fa• ence incorporating the affidavit. 25 It is the affidavits, if the affidavits had been tally general because it authorized the also advisable to physically attach the served with and incorporated into the search for evidence of other " un• affidavit to the warrant. Then by leav• warrants. 28 Investigators contemplating known" crimes for which no probable ing a copy of both at the search loca• the preparation and service of docu• cause had been established. The tion, the purposes of the fourth mentary search warrants for the Court disagreed and held that the chal• amendment's specificity requirement detailed examination of voluminous lenged phrase was not a separate sen• are satisfied (limit the discretion of the records should consider the use of this tence, but rather appeared at the end executing officers and give notice to procedure. of a lengthy sentence which included the party searched). the generic descriptions and limiting A good example of the use of this Catch-All Phrases phrase noted above. Thus the word technique is the case of In Re Search Nowhere is the tension between "crime" in the catch-all language did Warrant, 26 discussed earlier. The the fourth amendment's particularity not refer to other unrelated offenses, search warrant contained a lengthy requirement and an officer's desire to but only to the crime described in the description of specific documents, seize business records more notice• sentence in which it appeared (fraud followed by the following general able than in those cases in which a related to lot 13T). As such, it did not language: warrant's description includes a broad authorize a general search for evi• " Any and all fruits, instrumental• "catch-all" phrase (general reference dence of other crimes. ities, and evidence (at this time to unknown documents). Such phrase• In reaching its decision the Court unknown) of the crimes of conspir• ology was the subject of recent Su• appeared to acknowledge that in some acy, obstruction of justice and preme Court scrutiny in Andresen v. cases officers will not know the precise theft of government porperty (sic) Maryland. 29 nature of all the documents needed to . . . which facts recited in the ac• Andresen involved an investiga• prove their case.31 Probable cause companying affidavit make out." 27 tion of fraudulent real estate activities may exist to believe that relevant docu• The defense contended this lan• in Maryland. In the course of the inves• mentary evidence is present, but a par• guage granted the investigators tigation, officers obtained a search ticular description is impossible. A authority to search for and seize any warrant for the defendant's law offices. catch-all description may " be the very evidence of conspiracies to steal Gov• The warrant's description named ap• best they can provide." 32 This would ernment property and obstruct justice proximately 20 specific generic classes seem especially true in complex cases, and amounted to a general warrant. of documents which were limited by such as antitrust investigations or real The court of appeals rejected this con• the phrase "pertaining to sale, pur• estate schemes, "whose existence tention and ruled that the italicized chase, settlement and conveyance of (can) be proved only by piecing togeth• phrase in the description incorporated lot 13, block T. ..." It also included the er many bits of evidence." 33 into the warrant the attached 33-page following "catch-all " phrase: " [tJogeth• affidavit. Because the affidavit went er with other fruits, instrumentalities into great particularity regarding the and evidence of crime at this time offenses that the documents sought unknown." 30 were designed to prove, precise limits were placed on the searching agents. They were only authorized to seize evidence of the conspiracies described in the "accompanying affidavit."

30 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin A word of caution should be stated To be sure, there is no "litmus '·Zurcherv. Sianford Daily, 436 U.S. 547 (1978). Officers should be aware that a number of legislatures here. Prudent officers would be wise paper" test for determining whether a have restricted, or are considering restricting, the use of not to include broad catch­all phrases search warrants directed at the premises of innocent third warrant's descriptive language meets parties. For example, bills now pending in Congress would as standard "boiler plate" language in the standard mandated by the fourth require the use of subpenas, rather than search warrants, unless the Federal agents could show reason to believe all warrants for documentary evidence. amendment. Many subtle factors are the use of subpenas would result in the destruction of The few cases which have approved considered by reviewing courts when evidence. See S. 1790, 96th Cong., 1st sess. (1979); H.R. 3486, 96th Cong .. 1 st sess. (1979). The legislatures of the use of such phrases involved war- examining a warrant for constitutional California and Montana have already enacted similar stat- rants in which the challenged language sufficiency. Nevertheless, it may be utes. And recently, the Minnesota Supreme Court held that a search warrant for documents in possession of a third• followed "a lengthy list of specified and helpful to officers engaged in the diffi- party attorney violated State law unless the attorney was also involved in the wrongdoing. The court indicated a particular items," 34 limited by refer- cult task of drafting documentary preference for a less intrusive method, such as a subpena ence to a specific crime. Because "the search warrants to ask themselves this duces tecum directed to the lawyer. See O'Connor v. Johnson, 287 N.W. 2d 400 (Minn. 1979). law is still largely unformed in this diffi- simple question. "What documents "Andresen, supra note 9, at 475 (1976), quoting cult area," 35 it would be wise to restrict would this warrant authorize me to Vniled Siaies v. While, 322 U.S. 694, 698 (1944). "Andresen, supra note 9, at 473, 474 (emphasis the use of catch­all phrases to cases in seize"? If the answer is, "only those added). which similar conditions exist. which I have established probable "See Wi/sony. VniledSlales, 221 U.S. 361 (1911) (corporation); 8eflisv. VniledSlales, 417 U.S. 85 (1974) Conclusion cause to believe are evidence of the (dissolved law partnership). crime under investigation," the warrant .. See La Fave, Search and Seizure; Course of Ihe The task of obtaining documentary True Law, 1966 U. III. L. Rev. 255, 268. most likely will be upheld. However, if " See Sianfordv. Texas, supra note 3. evidence in white­collar crime investi- IiA good example is the Prohibition Era case of the answer is, "read literally, this war- gations poses special problems. Be- Sleele v. Vniled Siales, 267 U.S. 498 (1925), in which the rant would permit the seizure of docu- Supreme Court upheld the descriptive phrase "cases of cause documents are easily ments other than those for which whiskey." destructible, the use of search war- "572 F. 2d 321 (D.C. Cir. 1977), cart. denied, 435 probable cause has been established," U.S. 925 (1978). rants is often advantageous. To be "Slale V. Tidyman, 568 P. 2d 666, 671 (Or. App. the warrant may be overly broad and 1977). lawful, search warrants must satisfy shouJd be redrafted. fBI "Jamesv. VniledSlales, 416 F. 2d 467, 473 (5th Cir. the particularity requirement of the 1969), cert. denied, 397 U.S. 907 (1970). ..Some courts have approved broad generic descrip- fourth amendment which requires a Footnotes tions when the evidence sought is very similar to other 'Chamber of Commerce of the United States, While innocuous items and " for all practical purposes the collec- specific description of the documents Collar Crime (Washington, D.C.: Chamber of Commerce of tion (can) not be precisely described for the purpose of to be seized. But many times the pre- the United States, t974), p. 6. limiting the scope of the seizure." Vniled Siales, v. Cor• 2 A. Bequai, While-Collar Crime: A 20Ih Cenlury Crisis, leflesso, 601 F. 2d 28, 32 (1 st Cir. 1979). In those cases cise nature of the records sought is not at 5 (1978). the supporting affidavit must show that a large collection of known in advance. To resolve this di- ' It should be emphasized that this article only dis- similar items are present and explain how the officers will cusses the seizure of business records and stolen docu- distinguish the suspected items from the innocent ones. lemma, several courts have indicated ments. It does not address the special first amendment And when the property sought is contraband, generic that generic descriptions of the docu- problems raised in obscenity cases when warrants author- descriptions are usually sufficient. See note 16, supra. (Of ize seizure of magazines or "books, and the basis for their course, documents are hardly ever characterized as con• ments (descriptions by class or catego- seizure is the ideas which they contain." Sianford v. traband.) Texas, 379 U.S. 476, 485 (1965). "Slale V. Tidyman, 568 P. 2d 666 (Or. App. 1977). ry) are permissible if followed by • Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294 (1967) (abolishing " Id. at 672. limiting language enabling the execut- "mere evidence" rule). "448 F. 2d 1352 (2d Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 'See Abelv. Vniled Siales, 362 U.S. 217 (1960) 919 (1972). ing officers to separate the papers to (personal papers seized during search of accused's hotel "614 F. 2d 6 (1st Cir. 1980). be seized from the general class of room); Marron v. Vniled Siales, 275 U.S. 192 (1927) " See VniledSlalesv. Johnson, 541 F. 2d 1311,1315 (business records seized in search of accused's business). (8th Cir. 1976); Moore V. Vniled Siales, 461 F. 2d 1236 documents described. Limiting phrases 'Gouledv. VniledSlales, 255 U.S. 298, 309 (1921). (D.C. Cir. 1972); Frey V. Siale, 3 Md. App. 38, 237 A. 2d may narrow the general class of docu- 'For a discussion of a case involving wholesale alter- 774 (1966). ation and erasure of computer tapes, see T. Whiteside, "572 F. 2d 321 (D.C. Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 435 ments by reference to time periods, Compuler Cepers, at 17 (1978) (discussion of the Equity U.S. 925 (1978). category, type of offense involved, or Funding fraud.) " fd. at 323 (emphasis added). • Of course, officers contemplating forcible entries to "Seo United Siaies V. Roche, 614 F. 2d 6 (1st Gir. specific events or individuals. premises must comply with their respective announcement 1980); Applicalion of LaFayeffe Academy, Inc., 610 F 2d 1 statutes. See Sabbalh v. Vniled Siales, 391 U.S. 585 (1 st Cir. 1979). In some instances, broad catch­all (1968). "427 U.S. 463 (1976). language may be used if included in a 'Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463 (1976). "Id. at 479. "Id. at 482 n. 11 . description which contains a lengthy "Vniled Siaies V. Abrams, 615 F.2d 541, 548 (1st Cir. list of specified documents, limited by 1980) (Campbell, J., concurring). "Andresen, supra note 9, at 480 n. 10. reference to specific crimes. "Id. at 480; See also In Re Search Warranl, supra note 26, at 326­327. os Vniled Siaies V. Abrams, supra note 32, at 549.

July 1980 I 31 RBY THE iii E­4 •~

Photographs taken 1976.

Ronald Dwane Brook Description Caution Ronald Dwane Brook, also known Age ...... 27, born December Brook should be considereq as Chino Brook and Ronald D. Brook. 26, 1952, armed, dangerous, and an escape risk] San Francisco, Wanted For: Calif. Notify the FBI Interstate Flight­Escape. Height...... 6'1" to 6'3". Any person having informati01 Weight ...... 175 pounds. which might assist in locating this fugi1 The Crime Build ...... Medium. tive is requested to notify immediatel~ Brook, who is being sought as a Hair ...... Dark brown. the Director of the Federal Bureau 01 prison escapee, was serving at the Eyes ...... Blue. Investigation, U.S. Department of Jus- time of his escape a life sentence for Complexion ...... Medium. tice, Washington, D.C. 20535, or th~ sexually assaulting a young woman Race ...... White. Special Agent in Charge of the nearest and then brutally murdering her by Nationality ...... American. FBI field office, the telephone number shooting her in the back with a .44- Occupations ...... Television and of which appears on the first page of magnum revolver. radio repairman, most local directories. A Federal warrant was issued for ranch hand. his arrest on May 25, 1978, at Monte- Scars and Classification Data: rey, Calif. Marks ...... Scars on both NCIC Classification: palms and POP114P019P11213P116. Criminal Record right elbow. Fingerprint Classification: Brook has been convicted of mur- Social Security 14 0 29 W 100 19 der and burglary. No. used ...... 551­82­4377. FBI No...... 866745 H. I 18 U 001

Right little fingerprint.

us. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ' 1980 0­320­287 32 I FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Change of Address Not an order form

Complete this form and return to: Name

Director Title Federal Bureau of

Investigation Address Washington, D.C. 20535

City State Zip ...... Oyster Shuc·king Knife

Officers should be aware of the potential misuse of this "oyster shuck• ing knife." The blade is retractable, but when locked in an open position, this device could be used as both a knife and brass knuckles, as the Starkville, Miss., Police Department discovered.

The unusual weapon featured on the inside back cover of the May 1980 issue was submiffed by the Newark, New Jersey, Police Department. Official Business Postage and Fees Paid U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation Federal Bureau of Investigation Penalty for Private Use $300 Address Correction Requested JUS­432

Controlled Circulation Rate

Washington, D. C. 20535

Interesting Pattern

This pattern is classified as a cen- tral pocket whorl with an inner tracing. However, a reference search would be conducted as a radial loop if from the right hand and an ulnar loop if from the left hand, with 14 ridge counts.