Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

“DUCK ON THE ROCK”: THE ORIGINS AND MYSTERIES OF

Kenneth L. Swalgin

The Pennsylvania State University, PA, USA Original scientific paper UDC 796.233(091)

Abstract: "DIE ENTE AUF DEM FELS': URSPRUNG UND GEHEIMNISSE DES The of basketball in the past 110 years has grown to be one of the most exciting and popular in the world. Despite the ’s popularity, I would Zusammenfassung: venture to guess that few coaches, fans, or students of the game have a thorough understanding of the game’s origin, the rationale forits creation, or the genesis of the Die Sportart Basketball ist in den vorigen 110 Jahren concept of tossing a ball through a raised , This ein der aufregendsten und populirsten Spiele in der article will attempt to shed some light on these issues ganzen Welt geworden. Trotz dieser Popularitét wage and trace the game’s development fromits inception in ich behaupten, dass wenige Trainer, Anhinger oder 1891 to ils more modern form in 1939, the year James Spielgelernten ein vollkommenes Verstiindnis tiber den Naismith died, The article will also trace the significant Ursprung dieses Spiels, die Griinde dessen Erfindung equipment and rule changesthat have brought the game oder die Schépfung der Idee, den Ball durch ein into its modern form, and investigate the origins of some erhdhtes Tor einzuwerfen, haben. Diese Arbeit versucht etwas of the games most unique terminology. Through this Licht auf diese Fragen zu werfen und die process of explo-ration into the history of the game, it Entwicklung des Spiels von den Anfingen in 1891 zu well becomeclear that although the game has change seiner moderneren Form in 1939, dem Todesjahre von significantly overthe years, the fundamental structure of , darzustellen, Es werden auch the game has remained intact, a tribute to its inventor bedeutende Anderungen der Ausstattung und der Dr. James Naismith. Regeln beschrieben, die das Spiel zu seiner modernen Whenstudying the history of sport, and ball in Form gefiihrt haben sowie die Wurzeln einiger der particular, there are very few sports whose origins can be einzigartigsten Basketballausdriicke erforscht. Unsere traced with any certainty, Basketball however, is one Untersuchung der Basketballgeschichte zeigte, dass die sport whose origin is known but to many coaches, fans, Grundstruktur des Spieles trotz bedeutender and students of the gameits origins are still shroudedin Umwandlungen im Laufe der Jahre intakt gebliebenist, womit some mystery. It is the purpose of this article to take a seinem Schépfer, Dr. James Naismith einen look back to 1891, the year James Naismith an instructor Tribut auferlegtist. at the Young Men's Christians’ Association (YMCA) International Training School in Springfield, Schliisselwérter: Geschichte des Basketballs, Massachusetts invented the game of “basket ball.” Entwicklung des Spiels, James Naismith The above picture of Dr, James Naismith holding a modern day basketball may at first seem out ofplace. However, the picture is a metaphor representing how little the actual structure of the game has changed since its inception in 1891. This article will trace the origin and development of the game from 1891 to 1939, the year of Naismith’s death. The article will also describe the rationale for the new game,trace the origins of some of the game’s unique terminology, trace the essential rules and equipment changes that brought the game into its modern form, and most importantly, describe the genesis of the game’s most defining characteristic, that of shooting a ball into a raised goal,

Key words:history of basketball, developmentof the game, James Naismith James Naismith

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

A Canadian by birth over the Puritan taboo. He then made the decision to join the team; never missed a To better understand Naismith’s unique game while at McGill, and this decision to contribution to the history of sport, it is play, lead to the career choice that would essential to look back to Naismith’s formative eventually change the course of sport history. years in an attempt to understand the career The turning point that changed Naismi-th’s choice that took him from preparingfor life a life’s work camein a gamein his last in the ministry to preparation to be a physical year at college when one of his teammates educator at the YMCAInternational Training who used profanity during a game, later further back School. It is also useful to look apologized to him for the indiscretion. spirit he to Naismith’s childhood andtheplay Naismith reasoned that his teammate’s to determine theroll this developed as a boy reaction was caused by the control he factor played in leading him to choose the exercised over himself while still playing the most essential structural element in the game gamewith great intensity. He concluded from “new game”. this experience that there could be another Naismith was born in1861, grew-up an way to do-good and to serve his fellow man orphan after his parents died when he was other than preaching. (Naismith, 1941 p.28) eight years old. Naismith was raised by his From the director of the local YMCA, uncle in Almonte, a small town in the Naismith learned of the YMCAInternational northern part of Ontario, Canada. Like the Training School in Springfield, Mass. Its other boys in the town, Naismith worked the mission was to train instructors in physical farm with his uncle, but when it was time for education. He decided that after graduation leisure he would gather with the other boysat he would go to the Training School to a place called Bennie’s Corners to play at all investigate the possibility that through sport mannerof contests. Many of the made-up and physical education, he could have a games werecreated on the spot and soon positive Christian influence on his fellow man. forgotten. However, the creative play instinct Naismith developed as a youth at Bennie’s Corners would serve him well later. One of his most favorite games played with his The Springfield years boyhood friends was called “Duck on the Rock”. “One boy guarded his Zduck’ from the After graduating from McGill, Naismith stones of the others; and the fun began as the spent most of the summervisiting YMCA‘s in boys gathered their stray shots.” (Naismith, the eastern part of the United States, and 1941 p.14) This game would later play an spent a few days at the summerschool in importantrole in the origin of basketball and Springfield. There he had the opportunity to will be describedin detail later. meet and talk to Dr. Luther Gulick, Dean of the Physical Education Department. Dr. Gulick was a young and dynamic man who A turning point, the college years shared with Naismith the doctrine known as Muscular Christianity, a belief that “ proper In 1883 Naismith left Almonte to study for cultivation of the body could further, rather the ministry at McGill University in Montreal. than hinder, proper mental and spiritual One evening, Naismith, was watching the growth”. (Young, 1996 p.30) football (rugby) team scrimmage and was At this point Naismith decided to enrol and recruited to join the team when one of the study to becomeaninstructor. After a year of players was injured. Due to the Puritan instruction, Dr. Gulick offered Naismith a influence of the time (a medieval Christian position on thefaculty at the Training School. doctrine of hatred of the flesh, high religious purity, and a work ethic that prohibited any form of play or dance), the ethos created a Rationale for the new game moral conflict for Naismith as football was thought to be the devil’s tool. However, his play instincts, developed as a boy won out In the late 1870's and 80's sport and

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK’... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

athletics (track) began to flourish as college 1887 primarily by women. Because the sports became popular. The former college earliest version basketball was played without graduates who wouldlater become the leaders the use of the dribble, this made the game of communities in which they settled, much moreplayable for women, whose formal remembered thethrills of playing games like Victorian dress made it easier to play a game football and in college and became that only allowed ball movementvia theair. increasingly dissatisfied with mass and squad Basketball never caught on with English men gymnastics as a means of exercise which were due to the overwhelming popularity of rugby, offered in the winter monthsat local YMCAs. soccer, and a climate that allowed This public dissatisfaction threatened the rugby and to be played in whole concept of physical training in YMCA’s. the winter months. was another Realizing the great need for a new indoor game adapted from basketball. The game was game that would satisfy the public’s desire for developed as a co-ed version of basketball and a more exciting activity between the football wasfirst played in Amsterdam in 1901. The and baseball seasons, Gulick brought his game required men to match-up and women faculty together in the fall of 1891to discuss to match-up within zones that divided the the matter. court. This structure allowed interaction During the meeting, Dr. Gulick Stated, between men and women withoutdirect “there is nothing new under the sun. AIso- contact. It is interesting to note that the called new things are simply re-combinations modern version of these games is played of the factors of things that are now in without a backboard, as was the case in the existence.” Naismith’s reply to the statement original form of basketball. was, “if this is so, we can invent a new game Anotherball and raised goal game which that will meet our needs. All that we have to one author claims may have influenced do is to take the factors of our known games, Naismith’s thinking was a game played by the recombine them, and we will have the game Maya, and precededbasketball by a thousand we are looking for.” (Naismith, 1941 p.33) years. Theritual ball game called Pok-ta-pok At this point it may be useful to identify was played by attempting to propel a large the games knownto Naismith at the time, solid rubber ball with only the use of the determine which games may have influenced shoulders, thighs, and hips through a stone Naismith’s structural scheme, and also ring mountedvertically on a stonewall 25 feet discount a numberofball and raised goal high. For a more complete description of the games whoseorigins or discovery would seem game, see (Sharer, 1996, p. 126). Brash 1970, to discount any claim of influence on states, “ It was possible Naismith was Naismith’s new game. In 1891, the games influenced by the ancient game. As a student most familiar to Naismith were the games he of religion, he must have been aware of the had played, or games that he had been ritual game”. This however, would not seem exposed to due to his Canadian heritage. likely, as the great ball court at Chichen Itza Rugby football, , located in the Yucatan of Mesoamerica was association football (soccer), baseball, ice not excavated until 1900, nine years after , and were the games Naismith Naismith invented the game. new best. With the exception of baseball, all In the winter of 1891, Naismith was the gameshadasimilar objective, to move the assigned to teach a class of secretaries (adult ball or puck overa goal line or into a goal, Ice students training to become administrators), hockey, soccer and lacrosse, games that don’t who were not very interested in formal have a scrimmageline but have a free flow of gymnastics as the medium for physical both player and ball movement would appear training. Naismith came to the conclusion to be the games he drew upon most. that this class could only be motivated with a ‘Twoother ball and raised goal games had new form of indoor activity that was as their origins around the time Naismith exciting as many of the outdoorsports. He invented basketball. Both however, would concluded that this indoor activity must meet appearto be adaptations of the Naismith the need for physical training and due to limited game. was first played in England in indoor space would not emphasize

Swalgin, K:“(DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

physical contact. Naismith then set upon the games that used a ball and extracted the task of instituting his and Dr. Gulick’s characteristics that fit the needs of his new philosophy that there is nothing new under game. Oneofthe first considerations was the the sun, and all apparently new things were type of ball to be used. Here, it was important merely combinations, modifications and that the ball be large enough so that it could adaptations of elements already present that not be concealed during play. The need for a could be recombined to create a new form of larger ball limited the choices between a rugby play. ball that was oval in shape and designed to be carried, and a soccerball that was round. The For the purpose of historical accuracy, an soccer ball was chosen because carrying the indoor gamehad beenplayedas early as 1887. ball as in Rugby would causé tackling, making The game wascalled indoor baseball and was the game too rough for indoor play. It then developed for the same reasonsas basketball, followed that if tackling was not permitted, to provide a healthy non-contact activity running with the ball which lead to tackling between the end of football season and the would also be eliminated. The inability to run start of baseball season. The Chicago game with the ball led to the concept of passing or (named after the city where it was invented) the ball in any direction in an was played with a large soft ball originally attempt to position the ball to achieve the crafted from a boxing glove with a scoring objective. circumference of sixteen inches. Theballis sometimes referred to as a “mush”ball. The Passing the ball in any direction was a size and softness of the ball limited the range radical change from the rules of rugby and the ball could be struck and therefore the American football that allowed the ball to be game could be played in large halls or passed laterally and backward, but not armories. The game later moved outdoors forward. The forward pass was notlegal in and became knownassoftball. (Dickson, American football until 1906. It waslittle 1994, p. 46) used partially because until 1910 it had to be thrown from five yards behind the line of scrimmage andfive yards to either side of Fundamental elements of the new where the ball was put in play. Fields were game ruled off in checkerboard patterns to aid officials. The pattern looked like a gridiron, A set of fundamental elements, the thus the origin of the term gridiron which generaliz-ed structure Naismith used to became synonymous for American football. develop his new game werelisted by John (Flexner, 1982, p. 246) Bunn,later the basketball The next and most important structural coach (1946-56) who had played for “Phog” element needed for the new game was an Allen the great coach objective of play. Existing games of the time who succeeded Naismith. The following list all had some form of goal as the objective of was published in 1949 in the Preface to The scoring. The problem wasthat all the goals Rules ofBasketball, 1894. were at groundlevel, i.e., the goal line in football, the soccer goal, the lacrosse goal, etc. Twoteams. All these goals Naismith concluded would A ball to implementplay. makeit difficult to avoid rough play. The A play area. breakthrough to eliminate the problem of Movementofthe ball to the goal, or rough play would come from a game Naismith some implementunder limited offensive play conditions. played as a child back at Bennie’s Corners. 7 Provisions to attempt to prevent the other team from reaching its objective. Penalties for violation of the rules. " A plan for scoring. Duck on the Rock

With this set of fundamental elements for a The breakthrough concept or idea for the new game in mind, Naismith analysed the objective of the new game(to shoot ball into

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

a raised goal), came from the game “Duck on other sports for guidance. Rugby used a the Rock” which was played by Naismith as a method of putting the ball back in play by child at Bennie’s Corners next to the having an official toss the ball high above two blacksmith shop. Here, a large rock or bolder, opposing lines of players, the line-out. From shaped like a washtub stood about knee high this concept he derived the jumpball. Again, and was the centre of play. Naismith 1941, because of the need tocurtail rough play, he recalled the gameas follows: decided to restrict the jumpball to one opposing player from each team. Each of us would get a “duck”, a stone as large as two fists. About twenty feet from the Naismith now hadall the major elements rock we would draw a baseline, and then in of his new game. All he needed were two various manners we would choose one of the wooden boxes about eighteen inches square group to be guard,or Zit’. To start the game, for the goals. He asked the superintendent of the guard placed his duck on the rock, and we the building, a man namedStebbins, to find behind the baseline, attempted to knockit off him two boxes. Stebbins, stated that he did by throwing our ducks. More often than not, not have any boxes at the time, but he did when wethrew our ducks we missed, andif we have two old peach baskets in the store room, went to retrieve them, the guard tagged us; “if they will do you any good”. (Naismith, then oneof us had to change places with him. 1941 p. 53) The game of basketball was born, If, however, someone knocked the guard’s born fromthe creative genius duck off the rock, of a man, the he had toreplace it before play be could tag anyone. spirit of a boy, and a set of happy coincidences, a peach basket instead of a box, It camedistinctly to my mind that some of and most importantly a balcony surrounding the boys threw their ducks as hard as they the playing floor which made it possible to could; when missed, the ducks were far from hang the two peach baskets at the height of the base. When they wentto retrieve them ten feet. The game has actually lived and they had farther to run and had more chance grown to its present proportions on that of being tagged. On the other hand,if the one elementalone. (Bunn, 1949 p. 5) duck was tossed in an are,it did not go so far. If the guard's duck was hit, it fell on the far side of the rock, whereas the one that was Thefirst game thrown (tossed) bounced nearer the base and was easily caught-up before the guard Naismith states replaced his. When the duck was thrown in that in his own mind he was sure an arc, accuracy was moreeffective than the new game would be successful. force. ( pp. 49-50) However, the real test would take place when he presented the new gameto his class and With this boyhood gamein mind, Naismith they acceptedit. (Naismith, 1941 p. 55) He envisioned a game where players would toss a divided his class of eighteen men into two ball in the shapeofan arc into a goal. teams ofnine players. Naismith positioned each team by dividing Naismith’s next thought wasto place a box the players into three forwards who played at each endofthe floor and eachtimethe ball near their own goal, three centers who played entered the box it would count as a goal. He the middle section of the court, later recognized a major flaw in the concept. and three backs who defended the opponent’s goal. Naismith chose If the defensive players gathered around the two of the centers to jump and threw box, it would be difficult or impossible to the ball between them to start score a goal. To solve this problem he came the first game of “basket ball” on December up with the idea of placing the goal above the 21, 1891. player’s heads. This would force the The nameof the gameactually came from defenders to move away from the goal in an one of the players, Frank Mahan. Mahan attempt to get the ball before the offensive suggested at first to call the game Naismith team had a chanceto shootforthe goal. Ball. Naismith’s response was to laugh and say “that name would kill Naismith now had nearly all the major the game”. Mahan’s next suggestion was, elements of his new game. He needed a “why notcallit basketball, we have a basket meansto start the game and again looked at and ball, and it seems to me that would be a good namefor

a

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

it”. Naismith agreed and the name of the new 8. A goal shall be made when the ballis game became “basket ball”. (Naismith, 1941 thrown or batted from the grounds into the p. 60) basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edge and the opponent movesthe basket, it shall count as a Theoriginal thirteen rules goal.

The rules were first published in The 9. Whenthe ball goes out of bounds, it shall Triangle, the school newspaper in January of be thrown into the field and played by the 1892 under the heading, “A New Game”. person first touching it. In case of a dispute, After reading the original rules, it is clear that the umpire shall throw it straight into the despite the many changes in the game over field. The throw-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer it shall go to the opponent. the years, the original rules of basketball have If any side persists in delaying the game, the not fundamentally changed with the exception umpire shall call a foul on them. of the dribble rule that was instituted formally in 1889, All other expansions have been the 10. The umpire shall be the judge of the man result of refinements, clarifications, and and shall note the fouls and notify the referee explanations necessitated through problems whenthree consecutive fouls have been made. and perfections in play due to coaching He shall have power to disqualify men emphasis (Bunn, 1949 p. 6). according to Rule 5. The ball to be an ordinary Association 11. The referee shall be the judge of the ball football (soccerball). and shall decide when the ball is in play, in 1. The ball may be thrown in any direction bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall with one or both hands. keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made, and keep accounts of the 2. The ball may be batted in any direction goals, with any other duties that are usually with one or both hands(never with the fist). performedbya referee.

3. A player cannot run with the ball. The 12. The time shall be two fifteen minute player must throw it from the spot he catches halves, with five minutes rest between. it; allowances to be made for a man who catches the ball when running at a good 13. The side making the most goals in that speed. time shall be declared the winner. In case of a draw, the game may, by agreementof the 4, The ball must be held in or between the captains, be continued until another goal is hands; the armsor body mustnot be used for made. holding the ball.

5. No shouldering, holding, pushing,tripping, Evolution of the game or striking in anyway the person of an opponent shall be allowed; the first As wasstated above, the only fundame-ntal infringement of this rule by any personshall rule change to the game was the addition of count as a foul, the second shall disqualify the dribble rule. The origin of the dribble him until the next goal is made,or, if there is came about as a meansof creating space when evident intent to injure the person, for the players were closely guarded. Because players whole of the game, no substitute allowed. were not allowed to run with the ball, as a tactic to create space to pass, shoot or 6. A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, maintain possession of the ball, players would violation of Rules 3, 4 and such as described either roll or bounce the ball away from their in Rule5. opponentin such a way to recoverit again. As 7. If either side makes three consecutive is often the case in the development of any fouls, it shall count a goal for the opponent. sport, especially those without governing (Consecutive means without the opponent the bodies, the rules were often adapted in meantime making a foul.) relationship to innovations of both players

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

Figure 1: Basketball Print — Springfield YMCA in the January edition ofThe Triangle

and coaches. By 1896, Yale University was basket was scored. The rule also stipulated employing the dribble as a standard means of that a point was given to the opposing team if attack. The dribble wasofficially adopted in three consecutive fouls were committed. The 1898. For seven seasons, 1901 - 1908, the disqualification rule had little effect due to dribbler was not allowed to shoot. In 1915 the large numberof players, nine-a-side. The this restriction was permanently removed. three consecutive foul-rule, however, was a (Isaacs, 1975, p. 24) very serious penalty as this violation gave the One of the most important objectives of Opposing team a goal, and goals in the early Naismith’s new game was the elimination of days of the game weredifficult to achieve due rough play. Because possession of the ball to the large numberofplayers playing at one then, as it is today, is one of the most time andlackof skill associated with shooting important aspects of successful play, the out- the ball as opposed to throwing the ball at or. of-bounds rule had to be changed. The into a goal. In many games no more than two original out-of-bounds rule gave possession of or three goals would be scored between the the ball to the player who touchedit first once two teams. Dueto theseverity of this penalty, the ball went out-of-bounds. This created the value of a field goal was increased to three rough and sometimes dangerous play due to points and the three consecutive foul-rule the lack of room between the court and wall continued to count as one point. We can see and other obstacles. In 1913 that the rule was here that the concept of the three point shot changedto reflect its current status of giving hasits roots early in the game’s development. the ball to the team not touchingit last before The next major change allowed the fouled the ball touched out-of-bounds. team to make a try from line twenty feet Another interesting adaptation of the away and was worth the same as a goal. You personal foul and disqualification rule was may recall that in Naismith’s description of changed early on in the game’s development. the “Duck on the Rock” gamethe original The original rule disqualified a player safe line was twenty feet away from the target temporarily after two fouls until the next as well. In 1895 the free throw line was

11

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK’... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

movedto fifteen feet. The following year the One of the most significant and points were changed to twofor a field goal disappointing rule changes in Naismith’s eyes and onefora free throw or foul goal. was a rule that in his view changed the character and flow of the game for the worst. Theoriginal rules had norestriction on the This was the elimination of the center jump numberof players on side or the size of the after free throws in 1936, and thenfield goals playing area. Because dribbling was not part in 1937. Naismith, was opposedto this change of the original game, the game could be as he felt the centre jump gave each team an played outdoorsas well as in. Naismith writes equal chanceto get the tip. He wrote, “there in 1894 when describing the conditions for the was never any objection to a team that had an new game, “that if a very large group wishes exceptional jumper and could secure the tip two balls may to play at the same time, then every time; but today there is an objection to be used. (Naismith & Gulick, 1894 p. 3) In the team that gains this same advantage by the 1893 it was agreed that when the game was use of a very tall man.” (Naismith, 1941 p. 85) played for recreation, any number could Naismith, felt that the center jump is to participate. In fact, at Cornell University, an basketball what the kick-off is to football, attempt to play the game with 50 on a side both thrilling parts of the game. It would took place. For match games however, a seem however, that although thrilling, the definite number should be limited to each kick-off after a score in football is principally side. For small gymnasiumsfive-a-side, and the same as giving your opponent the ball for large gymnasiums nine-a-side was after scoring in basketball. At the age of 75, recommended. By 1895, the number had Baker (1996 p. xvi) suggests that Naismith’s beenfixed to five. (Naismith, 1941 p. 73) objection to this rule change that brought the Diagrams 1 & 2 illustrate the original game into its more modern form wasa sign drawings for the positioning of players for that the game had passed him by. both the nine-man gameandthe five-man game. The drawings were first published in Basketball, 1894, Spalding Athletic Library. The women’s game The diagram for the nine-man gameas wewill see later had a profound effect on the Thereis a long, interesting, and complex developmentof the women’s game. history of the women’s gamethat is not within

oO Enemies’ Goal f= Home L. Forward R, Forward © Forwards oO

Center Center L. Center R. Center

Oo Backs oO L. Back R. Back Goal Keeper cy oO Homeor Goat

Diagram 1:Diagram ofBasketball with Nine Diagram 2: Diagram ofBasketball with Five Men Positions ofPlayers Men Positions ofPlayers

Swalgin, K: “DUCK ON THE ROCK”.., Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19

the scope of this article. The intent hereis Theball, rim, backboard and court only to touch on the origins of the women’s game and how it developed its own unique Theoriginal description of the gamecalled identity. for an ordinary Association (soccer) football. Soon after the game was introduced and By 1894, a larger ball was adoptedas the was being played on regularbasis, a group of official ball and was produced by Overman young women grade school teachers passing Wheel Company of Chicopee Falls, by the Springfield YMCA gym were drawn Massachusetts. The specifications for the new inside to investigate a loud commotion. From ball were listed in the 1894 rules as being no the balcony they watched the new game with less than 30 inches or more than 32 inches in great enthusiasm and after a few weeks circumference. decided to ask Naismith if they could try the a By 1898the weightofthe ball was specified new game. Naismith agreed, and after their at a minimum of 18 ounces and a maximum first try at the new game in which the women of 20 ounces. The manufacturers complained showedlittle skill but great enthusiasm, they that the weight was too light to produce a practiced on a regular basis. Later other lasting ball and in 1909 the weight was teachers were brought in to play and two increased between 20 and 22 ounces. The teams were formed. A game was played and current circumference for the from that point men’s ball is the women’s game grew between 29.25 rapidly, and 30.0 inches. For the women’s ball it’s between 28.5 and 29.0 The first college women’s game wasplayed inches. The men’s ball now weighs between between teams made-upof freshman and 20.0 and 22.0 ounces and the women’s ball sophomore girls at Smith College in 1893. weighs between 18.0 and 20.0 ounces. The game was reported the next day in the Theoriginal rule that required the ball to Springfield Republican. The report stated stay in the peach basketto countas a goal and that no male spectators were allowed at the saved the game from being called “box ball” gameas the girls wore bloomers to compete. also initiated a series of changesin the basket. The dress for men in those days were long The first change was precipitated by the trousers, so it would appear that the women problem of how to retrieve the ball after each were the first to wear a form of shorts to play goal was scored. In courts where balconies the game. In public however, more formal were unavailable to attach goals, attire was the standard for allowing manyyears to spectators to come. retrieve the ball, a ladder was brought out to retrieve the ball. To solve this In the evolution of the women’s game, a inconvenience, a hole was drilled in the critical event took place in 1895. . Clara Baer, bottom of each basket and a pole was used to of Newcomb College in Louisiana pop it out. The peach basket used was larger misinterpreted a published diagram (see at the top than at the bottom. Whennailed to diagram 1) in which dotted lines appeared to a flat surface, this caused the baskettotilt separate the court into three zones. Thelines downward. To address this problem, a were meant to describe the positions of the cylindrical basket was soon developed made playersat the start of the game. She modified of heavy woven wire. This may be why the the boy’s gamebyrestricting the girls within basketis still often referred to as the cylinder. what appeared to be three zones. This The term bucket, as in “score the bucket” restriction was later modified to two zones the Originated from the use of wood or metal front and backcourts. The restriction buckets that were often used as baskets in the continued until 1972 when the NCAA lifted first ten years of the game. (Flexner, 1982, p. the restriction allowing players to play a full 50) court game. (B. Jaynes, 2000, personal In 1893, the Narragansett Machine communication, March 17, 2000)! Company of Providence, R.I., constructed a metal ring with a net that was closed at the bottom. A system, which fastened a chain to the bottom of the net, then passing over a pulley on the brace that was fastened to the

! BettyJanes, Executive Director of The Women’s Basketball Coaches Association. (WBCA) 13

Swalgin, K; “DUCK ON THE ROCK”... Kinesiology 33(2001) 1:5-19 ring and then to the basket support was The original free throw lane wasonly six devised to retrieve the ball. A referee could feet wide. The lines of the lane connected simply pull a handle attached to the chain and with the jumpcircle giving the appearance of the ball would roll out. Shortly after the net a “key hole”. This area on the court has that was enclosed at the bottom was historically been referred to as the key. Ina introduced, impatient players cut a hole in the moveto prevent “big men” from dominating bottom of the net to speed-up the flow of the the lane area, the width of the lane was game. The open bottom net basket became expanded to 12 feet, its current width in 1955. the only one allowed in the rules by 1912. In the early years of the game, one of the The use of the backstop or backboard came perceived negative aspects of the game being into existence quite by accident. As the played at YMCA’s wasthat it monopolized popularity of the game grew, spectators often the entire gym floor for only 10 players. This watched from galleries or balconies where monopoly of the floor in the days when few baskets were attached. Overzealous spec- gymnasiums existed caused the Philadelphia tators, eager to see their team win, would YMCAAssociation to drop the activity in often reach over and guide the ball to enter or 1897. This caused many members to miss the basket. To protect the game from withdraw and form their own teams, finding the spectators, in 1895 a rule wasinstituted space in warehouses and even dance halls. stating that there should be a backstop made Dueto spectators crowding the floor, many of screen or other solid material. The size teams constructed “cages” made of wire or should be six feet by four feet. (Current nets to protect the ball from going out-of- dimensions 6 x 4 or 6 x 3.5 for college) In bounds. Basketball players who played in courts with a balcony, a heavy metal screen these cages were referred to as cagers, a term was used so that spectators could see shots- sometimesstill used to describe players. on-goal which presented a problem with the use of wooden backboards. In 1909, plate glass backboards were introduced allowing spectators behindthe goals to see. Spread of the game For the first two years of play, the court had only can imaginary boundary line. In The early spread of basketball can largely 1894, the rules specified that there must be a be attributed to its association with the well-defined line around the playing area at YMCA. This came aboutin two ways. First, least three feet from any wall or fence. through the school’s newspaper The Triangle, Because the boundary lines could follow the which printed a description of the game and contours of the gym,this led to irregular court the rules in January of 1892. The Triangle was sizes that often created a disadvantage for one the primary publication of the YMCA and team or the other. In 1903, the rule was was distributed to branches throughout the changed to makethe lines straight and the country. A second meansby which the game court a rectangle. was spread was through the graduates of the school, both domestically and internationally. After the five-man game became standard A number of foreign countries were in 1896, the maximum size of the court was introduced to the game early on due to the later set to 90 feet by 55 feet in 1909. In 1915 international character of the school. the width was cut to 50 feet. At the time, the goal was set at the end line. This created It is interesting to note that colleges and difficulties for officials in determining universities were slow to adopt the game. The whether a player was in or out-of-bounds game became an important part of the when shooting. To solve this problem, E.C. college sport program around 1900. This was Quigly, the dean of basketball officials came due to the lack of familiarity of the new sport up with the idea to create a two-foot end zone by coaches and physical educators at most in which players would be free to shoot. university. The game became more widely accepted once boys who learned the gameat By 1933, these end zones were recognized YMCA’s and high schools started to enter as part of the court and the maximum length colleges. Once established however, much of became 94 feet as it is today. (Naismith, 1941 the game’s growth in relationship to skill, p. 98) 14

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technique andstrategy can be attributedto its Style of play, both offence development and in college. (Naismith, 1941, p. defence have developed to unimaginable 109) heights. Emphasis has changed from defence Naismith wasespecially pleased that the to offence. Scoring is the thing. Specific phases game was taken up andspread by theological of rules have undergone many changes. In colleges around 1905, Promoting Christian many cases, the changes have been cyclic. values through sport But with it all, was always the the fundamental basis underlying vision of the game has for the new game. Students remained impregnable, from those colleges a living would help fulfil that monument and testimonial vision. to its originator, the kindly Christian doctor, minister and physical educator, James N. Naismith, and ‘instructor’ at Springfield College. (p. 6) Immortalized his name As was statedearlier, the game of basketball is one of the few gamesin which The purpose of the article its was to re- origin can be traced. Dr. James Naismith acquaint the readerto the origin of the an game, instructor in the International Y.M.C.A. its development and unique terminology, Training School, but a minister by training, significant equipment and rule changes, and saw thevalue in athletics and sport as a means most importantly the genesis of the game’s to promote the goodin mankind. Solving the mostsignificant structural element, shooting a problem of developing a new indoor game put ball through a raised hoop. By following the forth by Dr. Luther Gulick, illustrated game’s growth, it was also possible to observe Naismith’s logical approach to solving the Naismith’s intellectual creativity and to see problem based on sound theory how importanthis religious and play spirits (reformulating the best of the old into the were to the developmentof the game. new), then applying the constructs to fit the John Bunn 1949, the former Stanford and need, and finally drawing upon his creative Springfield college coach spiritualises play spirit developed as a boy to invent the Naismith’s contribution to the game when he game that immortalized his name. wrote the following:

_ References 1. Baker, W.J. (1996). Introduction in Naismith, I.LN., Basketball, sts origin and development. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press (Originally published: Association Press, 1941). 2. Brasch, R. (1970). How did sports begin?A look at the origins ofmanatplauy. David Mckay. New York:

3. Bunn, J. W. (1949), Preface, a background for the rulesofbasketball. And, Naismith, & Gulick, J. N. LH, (1894). Basket ball. (Spalding Athletic Library) New York: American Publishing, 2(17), 1-6. Sports

4. Dickson,P. (1994). Softball, New York: Fact On Line. 5. Flexner, S.B. (1982). Listening to America. New York: Simon and Schuster. 6. Isaacs, N. J. (1974) Ad the moves, a history ofcollege basketball. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 7. Naismith, J. N. (1892). Basketball. In: The Triangle, (pp. 144-47). Springfield: Triangle 15

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Publishing.

8. Naismith, J. N. (1941). Basketball, its origin and development. New York: Association Press.

9, Naismith, J. N., L.H. Gulick, (1894) Basket-ball. (Spalding Athletic Library) New York: American Sports Publishing, 2(17), 1-10.

10. Sharer, R.J. (1996). Daily Life in Maya Civilization. Westport, Conn. and London: Greenwood Press.

11. Young, D.C. (1996). The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Pres

Received: February 12, 2001

Accepted: April 16, 2001

Correspondence to:

Kenneth L. Swalgin Penn State York 1031 Edgecomb Avenue York, PA 17403-3398 USA Tel: (717) 771-4037 Fax:(717) 771-4062 e-mail:[email protected]

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