INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 35

Mood Changes Associated with lyengar Yoga Practices: A Pilot Study David Shapiro, Ph.D., and Karen Cline, B.A.

Abstract Introduction The main objectives of this study were 1) to examine It is almost universal for people to take part in indi- changes in self-reported moods and emotional states vidual and organized activities for purposes of exercise, from before to after lyengar Yoga classes and how they physical conditioning, recreation, social contact, remedi- are affected by the practice of different types of Yoga ation of physical and mental problems, or general self poses and (2) to determine whether observed changes in improvement and health. The World Health Organization mood depend on one's personality traits. The partici- estimates that 65-80% of the world's population rely on pants were 11 healthy Yoga students in a nine-session traditional or alternative forms of health care. A recent Yoga course in which three different types of Yoga poses survey reported on their increased use for back pain and were compared: back bends, forward bends, and stand- musculo-skeletal problems, headache, insomnia, stress/ ing poses. Each 90-minute class focused on one of the anxiety, cardiovascular problems, and other ailments.' three types of poses with three repetitions of each type of Yoga, Tai Chi, and Pilates have become increasingly class. Self-ratings of 15 moods dealing with positive, popular activities in the United States in recent years negative, and energy-related emotional states were with estimates of 10 to 15 million people participating in obtained before and after each class. Personality traits Yoga classes (see Time Magazine cover story, April 23, of depression, anxiety, and hostility were assessed at an 2001). In a recent informal survey of students enrolling initial orientation. Independently of the specific pose, in lyengar Yoga classes, the most common health prob- positive moods increased, negative moods decreased, lems reported were lower back pain, allergies, neck, and energy-related moods increased from before to after shoulder, knee, and ankle/foot problems, depression, classes with most changes lasting for two hours. Specific headache, and anxiety (personal communication, lyen- poses resulted in differences in how moods were affected, gar Yoga National Association of the United States). with back bends associated with greater increases in As emotional disorders are major health problems, positive moods. Some mood changes were dependent on and as Yoga is relatively inexpensive and readily avail- one's characteristic personality traits. The positive mood able, evidence about emotional processes in Yoga merits effects of back bends were greater for participants who further attention. Yoga practices have features consid- were relatively hostile or depressed. The specific and ered by sport psychologists to be associated with stress nonspecific effects of different bodily postures and move- reduction. Although Yoga is generally not aerobic, it is ments on psychological processes in Yoga and other typically noncompetitive, predictable, and rhythmical.^ forms of physical activity deserve further study. As there are links between physical movements and pos- Yoga practices should be investigated for their potential tures on the one hand and emotional states and traits on clinical application in mood disorders and depression. the other, we hypothesized that specific Yoga practices 36 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) may have consequences for emo- lyengar classes are structured and well-being. Psychological and physi- tional states.^ In this exploratory involve sequences of poses and ological benefits of participating in study, the main objectives were to actions designed to facilitate learn- programs involving physical activity examine mood changes associated ing how to master the poses as well and exercise training are well docu- with participation in Yoga classes as overcome strains that may be mented." To control for nonspecific and to determine whether certain brought about by the process. factors, the effects of back bends Yoga practices differed from one Instructions given by teachers are were compared with the effects of another in their effects on mood. detailed and continuous during two other typical Yoga practices classes with a focus on awareness of (forward bends and standing poses). Although Yoga is gen- the activity of muscles and joints and In this way, we could determine erally not aerobic^ it is their coordination in conjunction whether the expected changes in with appropriate breathing pattems. moods would be more pronounced typically noncompeti- Yoga involves maintaining postures in or specific to the practice of back tive^ predictable^ and for minutes at a time. Over time the bends. Examples of each pose type rhythmical. training appears to result in in- are as follows: back bends—camel, creased muscle strength and flexibil- upward bow, upward dog; forward Yoga instruction is usually ity and a greater awareness of one's bends—downward dog, head on organized around the teaching and movements and posture. knees, intense west stretch; standing principles of a particular tradition or The best studies of mood poses—extended triangle, extended master teacher (). The present changes associated with Yoga were angle, warrior I. study derives from the teaching and done by Berger and Owen. In a form The study utilized a within-sub- writings of B. K. S. lyengar." The of Yoga that has a strong exercise ject experimental design. By com- lyengar organization is international dimension (Hatha-Yoga) involving paring the effects of the different and claims that about 30% of all stretching, balancing, and breathing class types within the same subjects, Yoga participants follow that tradi- routines, after classes subjects we could determine whether changes tion. The classes typically involve reported being less anxious, tense, in self-reported moods from before the practice of floor, , and angry, fatigued, and confused.^ In a to after a session would vary as a standing poses, inversions (head- second study,' Yoga and swimming function of the specific focus on a stand, shoulder stand), breathing showed comparable effects on given Yoga practice. It was hypothe- exercises (prandydma), and medita- moods, and the authors concluded sized that back-bend classes would tion. Stretches, twists, and exten- that aerobic exercise may not be nec- be associated with greater increases sions or expansions of parts of the essary for mood alteration or stress in positive moods and greater body are common features. The reduction. No pubhshed data are decreases in negative moods from practice of meditation is considered available on changes in mood as before to after class as compared appropriate mainly for advanced related to the practice of specific with forward bends or standing lyengar Yoga students and practi- poses or on whether mood changes poses. A second aim was to test the tioners. A unique feature of lyengar associated with Yoga differ as a hypothesis that mood changes asso- Yoga is the highly developed use of function of personality traits. ciated with the different Yoga prac- props (mats, blocks, blankets, straps, The main objective of the pres- tices would be related to personality ropes, chairs, benches) as aids in ent study was to test the hypothesis traits. For this purpose, individual doing the poses, a method that derived from lyengar Yoga teaching differences in anxiety, depression, allows gradual achievement of the and theory that the practice of back and hostihty were examined. These desired practice and that is consistent bends results in increases in positive traits are related to emotional behav- with the principle of successive emotional states (feeling happy or ior and experience and may predict approximation in the psychology of elated) and decreases in negative how a person's mood changes with learning. emotional states (feeling sad or the practice of the different poses. Typically, lyengar teachers take depressed).'' In designing the study, No specific predictions were made intensive three-year educational we had to consider that mere partici- about the direction of the associa- and training programs for certifica- pation in any type of self-help pro- tions. A third aim was to examine the tion by the organization and attend gram may affect moods and lead to a changes in mood occurring inde- workshops for continuing education. sense of personal achievement and pendently of the specific Yoga prac- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14(2004) 37 tice engaged in. Based on prior programs. In an initial orientation attend the nine Yoga classes free of research, we expected increases in session, the procedures were charge. The nine classes contained positive moods and decreases in explained, and subjects filled out the the same kinds of practices of a typical negative moods. We also determined introductory course, whether these changes were related It was hypothesized organized in different sequences. to the personality traits. that back-bend classes Participants were asked to make would be associated every effort to attend every session; Methods attendance rate for all classes and with greater increases participants combined was 89% (11 The participants were 8 women in positive moods and missed classes out of 99). All partici- and 3 men, 23 to 59 years old, greater decreases in pants completed the course. recruited mainly from beginning negative moods. Nine Yoga classes were held on Yoga classes. Years of education weekdays, during early evening ranged from 12 to 20. They reported personality questionnaires, which hours, two evenings a week, each being in good health and free of took 30 minutes. Mood scales (see class about 90 minutes in duration, problems that would limit participa- below) took one minute for each set as part of a regular introductory tion, and they stated that they regu- of ratings. All together, little time Yoga course. Each class focused on larly exercised from 0 to 14 hours a (less than an hour in total) was one of the three types of poses: week (median = 4). Six participants required of the participants. In standing poses, forward bends or had taken part in other health-related exchange, participants were able to back bends. These were rotated in

Table 1 Table 2

Mood Ratings Pre- and Post-Yoga Classes Changes inI Mood Ratings (Post-Pre) in Different Yoga Practices Mood Pre Post Post 1 Post 2 pb

Positive Positive Confident 3.29 3.73 3.64 3.60 0.25 0.04 Confident 0.24 0.55 0.53 0.05 Content 3.15 3.60 3.70 3.60 0.02 0.01 Content 0.41 0.39 0.53 0.75 Happy 3.43 3.68 3.76 3.70 0.05 0.02 Happy 0.12 0.15 0.46 0.09 Optimistic 3.26 3.80 3.70 3.60 0.01 0.01 Optimistic 0.46 0.50 0.67 0.28 Relaxed 2.56 3.46 3.56 3.52 0.05 0.02 Relaxed 0.71 0.80 1.18 0.30

Energy Energy" Fatigued 2.33 1.71 1.73 1.96 0.04 0.01 Fatigued -0.50 :0.59 -0.77 0.49 Tired 2.51 1.97 2.28 2.80 0.02 0.04 Tired -0.52 -0.67 -0.44 0.72

Note: P = Probability of test of differences between all four mood ratings. 'Probability of test of differences between mood ratings. P = Probability of test of differences between Pre and Post. 'Negative value for energy means a decrease for fatigued and tired. 3 8 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)

FIRST SERIES SECOND SERIES

MENSTRUAL MENSTRUAL REGULAR VARIATION REGULAR VARIATION

Standing Poses Standing Poses Tadasana Parsh vakonasana Vrikshasana Vtrabhadrisana II Trikonisana Parshvakonasana Tadasana Vfrasana Parshvakonasana in chair Setubandha Tadasana Tidasana Forward Bends Baddhakonasana Adhomukha-shvanasana Urdhva-prasarita-padasana Supta-baddhakonasana Trikonasana Classic Sarvangasana Setubandha Parshvottinasana Prasarita-padottanasana Forward Bends Vtrasana Baddhakonasana Triang-muksikapada- Upavishtakonasana pascimotttinasana Pascimotttanasana Janu- Upavishta twist Pascimotttanasana Supta-baddhakonasana Supta-padangusthasana Against wall to side Back Bends Bharadvijisana on bolster Adhomukha-shvanasana Bharadvajasana on chair to side Trikonasana Bharadvajasana on chair Vtrabhadrisana I with bolster Urdhva-mukha-shvanisana— with feet on chair hands on chair seat Ushtrisana Back Bends Urdhva-— Back bend over a chair Rope I (10 times twice) blocks okay Rope II Adhomukha-svanasana Rope III Chair bharadvajasana to side Urdhva-mukha-shvanasana— Chair hands on chair seat Sarvangasana on chair Setubandha Dvi-pada-vipartta-dandasana on chair - half blanket on upper back - roll catching shoulder blades - half roll at lumbar moving down Urdhva-dhanurasana Adhomukha-shvanasana Sarvangasana on chair INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14(2004) 39

sequence three times. The classes were taught by two experienced Iyengar Yoga teachers who alter- THIRD SERIES nated from class to class. Each class was preplanned, and the particular sequence of postures of each class MENSTRUAL type varied from session to session. REGULAR VARIATION Other poses not falling into a given pose type (e.g., shoulder stand, Standing Poses corpse pose) were included in all Ardhacandrasana Trikonisana classes, but the main focus of a Adhomukha-shvanasana given class was one of the three Trikonasana pose types. The teachers focused Parshvottinasana on the poses and did not discuss Parivritta-pidottinisana potential emotional or other psycho- Classic Sarvingisana Setubandha logical changes associated with the practices. See the sidebar for a Forward Bends list of the sequence of poses used in Adhomukha-shvanasana each class. Adhomukha-shvanisana At the beginning (PRE) and end (POST) of each class, subjects rated Jinu-shfrshisana—working their moods using 5-point numerical jinu-sh?rshisana—supported scales (none to very much). They Pascimotttinisana—supported also were given two additional rating Pavana-muktasana sheets and asked to rate the same Vipartta-karant-mudri Supta-baddhakonisana moods one hour (POSTl) and two Shavisana— hours (P0ST2) after class and to bolster under the knees return these two sets of ratings at the Back Bends next class. Mood terms were se- Adhomukha-shvanisana lected to tap positive and negative Adhomukha-vrikshisana Adhomuka-shvanisana emotional states plus energy level Adhomukha-shvanisana (moods shown in Table 1). In previ- Adhomukha-vrikshisana ous research, these three dimensions of mood were found to be independ- Rope I (10 times) ent of one another as determined by Urdhva-dhanuirsana— Back bend over a chair hands turned out on roll a principal components analysis.'" Ordhva-dhanurisana— Back bend over a chair The following personality tests bands on blocks were administered at the itiitial ori- Ordhva-dhanurisana— Back bend over a chair entation. The Cook-Medley Hostility hands on floor Scale (HOS) is a measure of indirect Adhomukha-shvanisana hostility, a cynical and mistrust- Pasasana at wall ing attitude toward others." The Bharadvijisana at wall Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory Setubandha (ANX) measures the general dispo- Adhomukha-svastikisana sition to experience anxiety fre- quently.'^ The Center for Epidetni- ological Studies of Depression Scale (DEP) measures a disposition to experience depressed affect." This scale is designed for use in the general population. 40 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)

The main data consisted of pendent factors, a significant 2-way ences between PRE and POST as a mood ratings obtained before and interaction means that the change in function of pose style were shown after classes, with repeated measures mood from pre- to post-class varied for confident (p = .05) and happy (p over the nine sessions. As initial as a function of both pose style and = .09). The increase from PRE to analyses of the data indicated that personality trait. Again, correlations POST in the mood confident was pre-post class mood differences did were used to show the nature of the greater for forward bends and back not change significantly over the interaction. Given the exploratory bends than for standing poses. These three repetitions within each pose nature of the study and the relatively differences were unrelated to PRE type, mood ratings were averaged small sample, all effects with p val- values, which did not differ between over the three repetitions. The data ues less than .10 are discussed. poses for any of the moods. Inspec- were analyzed with repeated meas- tion of the pattern of differences ures analysis of variance (SYSTAT Results between poses in Table 2 indicates that in four out of the five positive The moods related to Independently of pose type, did moods, the increase from PRE to energy level tended to moods change over the course of the POST was greatest for back bends, four ratings, averaging over ses- and in the case of confident back increase from before to sions? The means are shown in Table bends vied for first place with for- after classes. 1. The pattern of change was consis- ward bends. The likelihood that four tent with the hypothesis, an increase of five positive moods would show 9, General Linear Models). WiUcs' in positive moods and a decrease in the largest increase from PRE to Lambda was used to test effects with negative moods from PRE to POST POST for back bends is p = .02 more than two repeated measures. that generally continued for the fol- (binomial test). Thus, the data in Initial analysis focused on the lowing two hours (POSTl, P0ST2) Table 2 suggest a relatively consis- changes in mood ratings over the with a tendency to revert to PRE val- tent tendency for back bends to four repeated rating occasions (PRE, ues over time. The moods related to enhance positive moods, as hypothe- POST, POSTl, P0ST2) independent energy level tended to increase from sized. However, no support was of pose style. Subsequent analyses before to after classes. Changes over obtained for the hypothesized focused on the change in mood rat- the four ratings were significant for 9 greater reduction in negative moods ings from PRE to POST, first inde- out of the 15 moods at p < .05 with for back bends. pendently of pose type and then decreases in anxious, frustrated, As individuals may vary from comparing the three pose types. The stressed, fatigued, and tired, and one another in their usage of particu- latter analyses were then repeated increases in content, happy, opti- lar mood terms within each of the adding in each personality measure mistic, and relaxed. Three other three mood dimensions, change as an independent factor. In the case moods (depressed, irritated, and pes- scores were computed for all moods of a significant interaction between simistic) had p values less than .10. averaged together within each di- mood change and personality test Table 1 also gives the findings for mension (negative, positive, energy) score, independent of the specific PRE/POST differences, significant and the PRE/POST differences pose, Pearson r correlations were at p < .05 for all moods except sad, between average mood change used to show the nature of the inter- consistent with the pattern of an scores for each of the three dimen- action. These correlations are based increase in positive and a decrease in sions compared by t-test. The on the difference for a given mood negative moods and an increase in increase in average positive mood (POST minus PRE) vs. scores on the energy level. Subsequent analyses from PRE to POST was significantly given personality scale, ordered focused on the differences between greater for back bends than for from low to high. Thus, a positive PRE and POST. standing poses (p < .05) or for for- correlation means that the higher the Were the three dsana styles ward bends (p < .04). No other com- personality test score the greater the associated with different patterns of parison was significant. increase in the particular mood from mood change from PRE to POST? In Independently of pose type, PRE to POST and a negative correla- this analysis, the difference between were the changes in moods from tion means the opposite. For the the PRE and POST ratings for each PRE to POST related to personality analyses involving both pose style mood was averaged separately for traits? HOS effects were not signifi- and personality test scores as inde- each class type (see Table 2). Differ- cant. DEP was related to changes in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 41 frustrated (p = .08) and irritated (p = tended to report being more confi- ancy between the findings for posi- .08). The more depressed the subject dent and less fatigued. For ANX, tive vs. negative moods may seem the greater the decrease in these mood effects related to dsana style counterintuitive, positive and nega- moods from PRE to POST. The cor- were not significant. tive emotional states are not polar relations were -.55 and -.56. ANX opposites but rather are independent Discussion of one another.'" Results of the latter The more hostile the study would also suggest that by subject the more confi- This study tested the hypothesis enhancing positive emotions the that practicing Yoga back bends consequences of negative emotions dent the subject felt results in increases in positive moods may be counteracted. Thus, we spec- after doing back bends. and decreases in negative moods. ulate that the practice of back bends Compared to two control poses, for- may have the potential of helping an was related to changes in frustrated ward bends and standing poses, sub- individual cope with depressed (p = .03), irritated (p = .07), and pes- jects reported a greater increase in affect. This possibility should be simistic (p = .07). The higher the the five positive moods averaged explored in further research and in anxiety scale score the greater the together as compared to the changes clinical populations. decrease in these moods with corre- for either other pose. In the case of In this regard, evidence has been lations of-.65, -.57, and -.56, respectively. single moods, the effect was clearest published on the potential benefits of Comparing the three dsana for confident and happy. The effects Yoga for depression in studies utiliz- styles, were the changes in mood for negative moods and for self- ing random assignment to Yoga and from PRE to POST related to per- reports of energy level did not show control conditions. Sudarshan Kriya sonality traits? HOS was associated any real advantage for any one of the Yoga (SKY) was compared with with ratings of confident with greater three pose types. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and increases for back bends than for for- The apparent benefits of back drug treatment (imipramine) in ward bends or standing poses (p = bends were further supported when patients with melancholia. The rate .05). The respective correlations we considered the role of personality of remission for Yoga was 67%, were .53, .35, and .07. The more hos- characteristics, particularly hostility comparable to imipramine (73%) tile the subject the greater the and depression. The more hostile the and less than ECT (93%).'" In a com- increase in this positive mood after subject the more confident the sub- parison of full and partial SKY Yoga, back bends. HOS was also related to ject felt after doing back bends, com- both were found to decrease anxiety ratings of irritated with a greater pared to the other poses. Similarly, and depression scale scores in decrease in standing poses than in subjects who scored higher on the patients with major depressive disorder.'' forward bends and no effect for back depression scale were more likely to Another study compared a Yoga bends (p = .08). The respective cor- report feeling more confident and method of relaxation typically done relations were -.64, -.30, and .02. less fatigued after doing back bends at the end of a class (shavdsana/corpse. Standing poses reduced the feeUng than after the other poses. Although pose) with a control condition in of irritation in the more hostile sub- the personality effects were not women students with severe depres- jects. DEP was related to ratings of strong, the direction of effects sug- sion. "S/iava^ana was found to be an confident with a greater increase in gests the potential benefit of Yoga in effective technique for alleviating back bends than forward bends and improving mood in those individuals depression. We should note that the little change in standing poses (p = who are relatively hostile or depressed. present study involved healthy sub- .10). The respective correlations The failure to find support for jects. Whether the findings generaUze were .39, .18, and .08. DEP was also the effects on negative moods spe- to persons who are clinically depressed related to ratings of fatigued with the cific to back bends suggests that the or anxious remains to be determined. greatest decrease after back bends unique benefits of back bends are Moreover, although study of the effects than after forward bends and little mainly to enhance positive rather of Yoga on mood changes over the change in standing poses (p = .08). than diminish negative emotions. If course of the nine classes was not an The respective correlations were an effect on negative moods unique aim of this study, an analysis of the -.52, -.32, and .00. Thus, after doing to back bends is to be found it may levels of mood as reported at the back bends, subjects who scored take a longer period of Yoga prac- beginning of each class showed no higher on the depression scale tice. Although the apparent discrep- significant trends over time. 42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)

The positive effects of practicing provide the basis for how we inter- in the present study is uncertain. The back bends came about even though pret the reactions and motives of oth- only negative mood showing an in these beginning classes such ers. Whether and how any one part apparent benefit unique to back effects were not discussed. Conceiv- of an emotional complex by itself, bends was the mood sad, but the ably, such effects may be accounted such as body movement and posi- effect was not significant. for by prior expectations of partici- tion, can elicit the totality of emo- One of the other dsana styles tion, including inner feelings and showed an effect on moods for sub- Standing poses may be cognitions, remains a topic of con- jects who scored higher on hostility. more somatically acti- tinuing discussion and debate in psy- After doing standing poses these chology. A bodily position that is subjects reported being more confi- vating than the other typically associated with a given dent and less irritated. How these poses^ which may af- emotional complex may serve as a effects depend on the specific bodily fect emotional states. cue and elicit the other responses positions or other aspects of standing associated with the complex. poses requires further study. Stand- pants in Yoga, an issue that needs The back-bend pose is a posture ing poses may be more somatically further exploration. However, such in which the chest is open and activating than the other poses, demand characteristics of Yoga expanded, which is a social expres- which may affect emotional states. would likely apply to all pose types. sion in our culture often associated Although we have emphasized The difficulty and effort involved in with confidence and positive asser- mood differences related to specific the different types of poses is also a tion. Furthermore, the open position poses, it is clear that subjects felt factor needing further attention. of the chest is opposite to the tumed- good after taking a Yoga class what- Back bends are considered a diffi- in and downward bodily position ever the pose may have been that cult pose for beginning students, so and attitude usually associated with day. Positive moods increased, nega- it is not likely that pose diffi- sadness and depression. We may tive moods decreased, and subjects culty accounted for the positive mood speculate further that expansion of felt less fatigued and tired immedi- effects of back bends. We were con- the chest in back bends may facili- ately after class and in most cases for cerned that three sessions might be tate deeper breathing and possibly the two succeeding hours. How these insufficient and that it would take associated changes in autonomic general effects of Yoga may depend more training and experience to get nervous system activity such as on the general physical activities of effects. In fact, the mood effects increased vagal tone and slower Yoga cannot be determined from were more or less immediate in all heart rate, which may enhance posi- these data, as no comparison group the classes, regardless of the pose. tive emotion. Whether change in was studied to evaluate the overall Presumably larger and more consis- muscular tension in the chest is a effects. Although lyengar Yoga teach- tent effects may occur with contin- factor remains to be determined. In ers do not consider Yoga as an ued practice. The immediacy of the following up the present findings, exercise per se, it does involve effects observed in this study is con- physiological changes in the differ- coordinated movements, stretching, sistent with the observations of ent postures should be recorded. muscular exertion, and sustained Berger and Owen." The effects of back-bend prac- effort. It would take a group The processes whereby posture, tice on emotional states may be involved in some other form of phys- physical activity, and other expres- compared to those reported for re- ical activity to determine what over- sions involved in back bends may laxation, biofeedback training, and all benefits may be unique to Yoga translate into positive emotional other methods focused directly on and the source of the benefits. The changes need further investigation. muscular quieting and decreases in observed changes in mood may Emotion involves a complex of sub- physiological arousal in various bod- accompany other activities in which jective feelings and cognitions, eye ily systems." However, these meth- one is doing something that is pre- movements, facial expressions, vo- ods are thought to reduce stress and sumably beneficial for one's health calizations, muscular tension or negative emotional states and allevi- and well-being. As Berger and relaxation, overt behaviors, and ate conditions such as anxiety and Owen^" have shown, other kinds of physiological changes.'* Emotions pain. Why associated reductions in physical activity result in mood are communicated to others by overt negative emotions were generally changes comparable to those associ- as well as subtler expressions that not observed specific to back bends ated with Yoga practice. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 43

In Iyengar Yoga, an attentional orating effect on mental and physical The Yoga classes and the study were focus and emphasis is on increasing energy as well as elevating mood. conducted at and under the auspices awareness through movements and Finally, the small sample size of Yoga Garden Studios in Santa the activities of muscles and joints and relatively short period of Yoga Monica, California, headed by Ida and their coordination. The classes training limited the power of this Unger, whom we thank for her sup- usually involve intense and highly study to reveal strong effects within port, assistance, and cooperation. focused concentration, which has classes or over the nine classes. Firm Special thanks to Sherry Gould and been described as a form of medita- conclusions about the nature of the Moma Watson who taught the Yoga tion and that may facilitate emo- effects cannot be drawn from this classes, Beth Stemlieb who helped tional and energy changes. A study pilot study. The intent of the study sequence the poses, and Dmitry by Harte and Eifert^' provides sup- was to probe more systematically Davydov for his comments. We are portive evidence. They compared the into the processes involved in Yoga very grateful to Manouso Manos, effects of running in advanced run- in general and specifically to Senior Advanced Iyengar Yoga ners with the effects of meditation develop methods of comparing dif- Teacher, for his wise counsel on the (chanting, breathing exercises, and ferent kinds of Yoga poses. The Yoga aspects of the study and to B. concentration) in highly experienced methods and prehminary findings K. S. Iyengar without whose teach- practitioners and found that both are worthy of further investigation. ings and writings this study would running and meditation led to not have been possible. increased levels of corticotropin- Conclusion releasing hormone (CRH) associated Endnotes with positive mood changes. They The practice of Yoga appears to concluded that physical exercise is result in increases in positive moods, 1. Long, L., A, Huntley, and E. Ernst. not an essential requirement for decreases in negative moods, and Which complementary and alternative CRH release. therapies benefit which conditions? A sur- increases in energy level regardless vey of the opinions of 223 professional Personality traits also seem rele- of the dsana practiced. Despite the organizations. Complementary Therapies vant to the extent one experiences effort and sustained physical exer- in Medicine, 2000, 9:178-185. mood changes after any Yoga class. tion in Yoga, psychological well- 2. Berger, B. G., and D. R. Owen. Stress In the present study, the overall being is enhanced after a Yoga class, reduction and mood enhancement in four reductions in negative mood, in par- which no doubt reinforces further exercise modes: Swimming, body condi- ticular the moods frustrated, irri- participation. These effects tend to tioning, , and fencing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and tated, and pessimistic, were cor- last at least for a few hours after a Sport, 1988,59:148-159. related with the traits of depression class. The specific poses also appear 3. Ekman, P., and R. J. Davidson, eds. The and anxiety. In this regard, the more to result in differences in how moods Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Ques- depressed and the more anxious sub- are affected, although these results tions. New York: Guilford Press, 1994. jects in this sample showed a greater need to be replicated in a larger sam- 4. Iyengar, B. K. S. . New benefit than those who scored lower ple. The topic of social, psychologi- York: Schocken Books, 1996. on these traits. Such individuals may cal, and physiological mechanisms 5. Berger, B. G., and D. R. Owen. Mood find that Yoga practice has important of movements is worthy of further alteration with yoga and swimming: Aero- psychological benefits. attention. Moreover, the fact that bic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1992,75: 1331-1343. Aside from the enhancement of mood changes may be in part dependent on one's characteristic 6. Arent, S. M., D. M. Landers, and J. L. positive mood and decreases in neg- Etnier. The effects of exercise in older ative mood, we observed increases coping styles deserves further inves- adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal in energy level for all three poses. tigation. Back bends appear to be of Aging and Physical Activity, 2000, This finding is consistent with the effective in increasing positive 6:407-430. results of a study by Wood^^ who moods in general and in individu- 7. Blumenthal, J. A., C. F. Emery, D. J. compared mood changes and per- als who are relatively hostile or Madden, L. K. George, R. E. Coleman, M. depressed. Yoga should be investi- W. Riddle, D. C. McKee, J. Reasoner, and ceptions of vitality in Yoga, relax- R. S. Williams. Cardiovascular and be- ation, and visualization. Wood gated for its potential clinical apph- havioral effects of aerobic exercise train- concluded that a 30-minute program cation in mood disorders and ing in healthy older men and women. of yogic stretching and breathing depression and in the management Journal of Gerontology, 1989, 44:147-157. exercises can have a markedly invig- of hostiUty. 8. Harte, J. L., and G. H. Eifert. The 44 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)

8. Harte, J. L., and G. H. Eifert. The maiah, B. N. Gangadhar, and A. effects of running and meditation on beta- Vedamurthachar. A comparative study of endorphin, corticotropin-releasing hor- full and partial Sudarshan Kriya Yoga mone and cortisol in plasma, and on (SKY) in major depressive disorder. mood. Biological Psychology, 1995, NIMHANS Journal, 2000, 18: 53-57. 40:251-265. 16. Khumar, S. S., P. Kaur, and S. Kaur. 9. Rehor, P. R., T. Dunnagan, S. Craig, Effectiveness of Shavasana on depression and D. Coolley. Alteration of mood states among university students. Indian Journal after a single bout of noncompetitive and of Clinical Psychology, 1993, 20:82-87. competitive exercise programs. Percep- 17. Berger and Owen, 1988, op. cit. tual and Motor Skills, 2001, 93:249-256. 18. Ekman and Davidson, op. cit. 10. Shapiro, D., L. D. Jamner, I. B. Gold- stein, and R. J. Delfino. Striking a chord: 19. Lehrer, P. M., and R. L. Woolfolk. Moods, blood pressure, and heart rate in Principles and Practice of Stress Man- everyday life. Psychophysiology, 2001, agement. New York: Guilford, 1993. 38:197-204. 20. Berger and Owen, 1992, op.cit. 11. Cook, W. W., and D. M. Medley. Pro- 21. Harte and Eifert, op. cit. posed hostility and pharisaic-virtue scales 22. Wood, C. Mood change and percep- for the MMPI. Journal of Applied Psy- tions of vitality: A comparison of the chology, 1954, 38:414-418. effects of relaxation, visualization and 12. Spielberger, C. D., R. L. Gorsuch, and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of R. E. Lushene. STAI Manual. Palo Alto, Medicine, 1993, 5:254-258. Calif.: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970. 13. Radloff, L. S. The CES-D Scale: A © David Shapiro and Karen Cline 2(X)4 self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psy- David Shapiro chological Measurement, 1977, 1: Tel.: 310-825-0252 385-401. Email: [email protected] 14. Janakiramaiah, N., B. N. Gangadhar, P. J. Murthy, M. G. Harish, D. K. Sub- bakrishna, and A. Vedamurthachar. Anti- Karen Cline depressant efficacy of Sudarshan Kriya Tel: 310-839-9080 Yoga (SKY) in melancholia: A random- Email: [email protected] ized comparison with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and imipramine. Journal of Affective Disorders, 2000, 57:255-259. 15. Rohini, V., R. S. Pandey, N. Janakira-