Chinese Teachers' Perception of How TESOL Differs from Teaching

INDONESIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS Vol. 10 No. 2, September 2020, pp. 562-570

Available online at: https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/28609

https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v10i2.28609

Chinese teachers’ perception of how TESOL differs from teaching EAP

Yulong Li1, and Lixun Wang2* 1 Faculty of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Macau, Macau SAR, China 2 Department of Linguistics and Modern Language Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China

ABSTRACT The last two decades have witnessed a prolific increase in academic activity in the study of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Many teachers who were trained for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) have been required to teach EAP. TESOL and EAP are two different concepts and teachers transitioning from TESOL to teaching EAP may encounter many difficulties. However, little research has been carried out in this area, particularly beyond the context of the UK. Helping teachers to clarify their perceptions of TESOL and EAP is the first step to facilitate this transition. The present study aims to facilitate Chinese university teachers’ pedagogical transitions from TESOL to teaching EAP by clarifying teachers’ own understanding of these two concepts and by outlining how several different factors contribute to their EAP conceptualisation. By using a multiple case study methodology, the current research has revealed that the investigated teachers’ perceptions of EAP comprised eclectic theories, which overlap with some current EAP literature. Facing a somewhat unethical research culture in China, some teachers added moral rubrics into their EAP concepts as reminders to their students. The teachers reported that TESOL and EAP diverged in discourses and commissions: EAP is more student empowering, but TESOL is more humanistic.

Keywords: EAP; EAP teacher development; pedagogical transition; TESOL

First Received: Revised: Accepted: 4 July 2019 4 April 2020 21 July 2020 Final Proof Received: Published: 20 September 2020 30 September 2020

How to cite (in APA style): Li, Y. & Wang, L. (2020). Chinese teachers’ perception of how TESOL differs from teaching EAP. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 562-570. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v10i2.28609

INTRODUCTION the Shanghai Education Bureau in establishing a Academic activity in the study of English for first EAP language policy for local universities (Li Academic Purposes (EAP) has been increasing in & Wang, 2018a). Consequently, Chinese TESOL the last 20 years (Thompson & Diani, 2015). teachers are increasingly being required to transition Consequently, many Teaching English to Speakers to EAP teaching. However, few studies have of Other Languages (TESOL) teachers have become explored these Chinese teachers’ perceptions of EAP teachers of EAP (Ding & Campion, 2016). However, and its differences with TESOL. According to empirical studies of the TESOL teachers’ transition Alexander (2012), teachers transitioning from to EAP are both limited and UK-centric (Ding & TESOL to EAP teaching will benefit from the Bruce, 2017). In Chinese academia, due to the clarifications of their perception of these two increased English proficiency among university different concepts. Nevertheless, studies regarding students, many scholars have advocated teaching EAP practitioners are not many (Ding & Bruce, EAP instead of the original TESOL syllabus in 2017), not to mention teachers who undergo a tertiary institutions (see Cai, 2017; Zhao & Yu, transition from teaching TESOL to EAP. As Ding 2017). These scholars have foregrounded the role of and Campion (2016) stressed EAP teachers are a

* Corresponding Author Email: [email protected] 562 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(2), September 2020

heterogeneous community with various background, the academic world, a world that EAP students a study of EAP teachers in China as the current aspire to enter, or which they are already trying to research will make contribution to the EAP navigate their way through. However, it needs to be community. Bruce (2017, p.6) welcomes the emphasised that the focus of EAP is not just on language as the linguistic trace of a discourse broadest possible input from different knowledge process, but rather it is the whole discourse process, communities, when EAP becomes a continually including the language, that is under consideration fast-growing field, just as he says: in EAP courses. This discourse process will include EAP is now over 40 years old, and it is crucial that such influences on language use as context-related its practitioner knowledge base continues to develop practices and expectations (including ideology), and that it remains relevant through an ongoing disciplinary epistemology and the forms of the process of critique, renewal and the exploration of conventionalised genres used for public new ideas, with the broadest possible community communication, both through writing and speaking. engagement in this process. In contrast to TESOL, EAP aims to develop The relationship between TESOL and EAP students’ discursive competence (Bhatia, 2004) in Deriving from a same umbrella term of English academia, particularly reading and writing (Ding & Language Teaching (ELT), TESOL (Canagarajah, Bruce, 2017). Therefore, TESOL’s and EAP’s 2006) and EAP (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) dichotomy generally resides in their unique gradually developed into two independent fields, in pedagogical goals and commitments (Ding & Bruce, which their practitioners stipulated their code of 2017). practices and teacher competencies, as follows: the Despite the differences, the concepts of Competency Framework for Teachers of English for TESOL and EAP also overlap. Canagarajah (2006) Academic Purposes (CFTEAP) for EAP, and the even categorised EAP as an approach in TESOL. TESOL Guideline for Developing EFL Professional Some essential methods in EAP, such as contrastive Teaching Standards that was issued by TESOL rhetoric and genre analysis, were ascribed by International Association. Specialised journals were Canagarajah (2016) as TESOL’s literacy methods. also established for their respective fields, such as Even in TESOL, the voice of the practitioners the Journal of English for Academic Purposes, and should understand that disciplinary language and TESOL Quarterly. This division epitomised the meaning-making is still emerging (Dafouz et al., differences between the two fields. 2018), which is also a call of knowing disciplinary Although the meaning of TESOL is self- specificity in EAP (Hyland, 2006). What is evident, the subject has been influenced and noteworthy is that there was almost no fixed reoriented by different paradigms and pedagogical standard entering the EAP teaching industry, those trajectories (Canagarajah, 2006, 2016) and this has holding degrees and those holding certificates in made TESOL more inclusive, rendering any TESOL were both allowed to teach EAP (Ding & attempts to define it reductive (Ding & Bruce, 2017). Campion, 2016). Generally speaking, TESOL aims to improve the students’ English communicative competence, Lack of studies regarding teachers’ transitioning particularly in their listening, speaking, reading, and from TESOL to EAP teaching writing proficiency (Bruce, 2017; Ding & Bruce, Despite the possible similarities and differences, 2017). EAP, once deemed as a sub-branch of ESP some teachers with TESOL background faced (English for Special Purposes), is now outgrowing challenges in transitioning to EAP teaching. its origin, both in scale and significance Alexander (2012, 2013) and her colleagues from (Basturkmen & Wette, 2016). Similar to TESOL, Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh were asked to EAP draws from various theories (Hyland & Shaw, switch from communicative language teaching 2016), including register analysis, genre analysis, (CLT), a method in the field of TESOL, to teaching systematic functional linguistics, corpus linguistics, EAP, without prior teacher training. By using semi- writing in disciplines, critical theories, academic structured interviews and online questionnaires, literacies, and new literacies (de Chazal, 2014; Ding Alexander (2012) found that many teachers felt & Bruce, 2017; Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001). resistant to change due to their feeling of being Scholars in EAP have constantly updated the term: deprived of the accumulated expertise and “most definitions of EAP tend to…involving confidence in teaching Oral-English as in CLT. (involve) reformulations of earlier descriptions of In contrast, Campion ( 2016) reported that CLT the field and the range of knowledge that it was facilitated the TESOL teachers in their transition. At thought to include during different periods of its the University of Nottingham, Campion (2016) used developments” (Bruce, 2017, p. 1). Based on the semi-structured interviews inquiring into six EAP predecessors’ theories, Bruce (2017, p.2) teachers’ transitions; five of them were TESOL conceptualised EAP as follows: teachers before starting to teach EAP. The study showed that the teachers’ TESOL background, EAP, therefore, is concerned with language as it is particularly their experiences in using CLT, embedded in the practices, discourses and texts of facilitated their transition from TESOL to EAP Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN: 2502-6747, p-ISSN: 2301-9468

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teaching, while the challenge that they faced came 100). from the students’ disciplinary specificities As an echo of the newly introduced EAP (Campion, 2016). policy, in 26 universities, teachers who used to teach Martin’s (2014) found that the teachers’ TESOL were asked to transition to EAP teaching TESOL qualification was less useful than academic (Cheng, 2016). Like many others, Cheng (2016) qualifications. Martin’s colleagues taught EAP at the expressed concern that the TESOL teachers lacked London campus of the University of East Anglia. To the necessary professionalism to teach EAP. examine how his colleagues overcame any However, Li and Wang (2018a) reported four uncertainties about becoming EAP teachers, and university TESOL teachers who had successfully their beliefs regarding the TESOL and EAP courses, transitioned to EAP teaching, claimed that they had Martin (2014) conducted a narrative enquiry. realised the necessity to teach EAP even before the Similar to Campion’s findings ( 2016), the teachers’ policy stipulation was issued. Subsequently, Li and experienced a smooth transition from TESOL to Wang (2018b) demonstrated how some of these EAP teaching, and they reported the relevance and TESOL teachers integrated project-based learning usefulness of their TESOL knowledge and (PBL) pedagogy into EAP teaching. Similarly, Yao experience in teaching EAP because it is (somewhat) and Wang (forthcoming) reported another an extension of EFL (TESOL). Furthermore, the successful case of replacing TESOL with English research participants referred to their academic for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) course. experiences more frequently when transitioning to However, these studies did not examine the TESOL EAP teaching: “EAP teachers drawing more on their teachers’ perceptions of EAP academic qualifications rather than their TEFL One of the most frequent challenges for qualifications” (Martin, 2014, p. 309). However, TESOL teachers in teaching EAP has been shown to after teaching EAP, the respondents had “a more be “understanding what EAP involves and how it is negative view of the EFL (TESOL) teachers’ role, different from general ELT” (Alexander, 2010, p. 4). describing it as vague and having ill-defined targets” These teachers often refer to their pre-service (Martin, 2014, p. 310). knowledge and experience (Thompson, 1992), and These three studies were all conducted in the their TESOL knowledge and experience in the UK. Therefore, there is a need for more studies in present context, even when they were asked to teach this topic in other contexts to deepen our EAP. Just as the teachers in Alexander’s (2012, p. understanding of the transition from TESOL to EAP 108) research, their belief about CLT performed teaching and to guide EAP teachers in a similar “potential barriers to [the] successful delivery of situation and also to add knowledge input to the EAP materials”. Therefore, helping teachers to EAP field from a heterogeneous community like clarify their perceptions of TESOL and EAP, from Bruce (2017) mentions, which, thus, formulates a Alexander’s (2012) perspective, is the first step to rationale for the present study. facilitate the TESOL teachers’ transition. With these concerns in mind, the present study Teachers under TESOL-EAP pedagogical aimed to facilitate Chinese university TESOL transition in China teachers’ pedagogical transition to EAP teaching by In 2013, the Shanghai Education Bureau published clarifying their understandings of EAP and TESOL. the first regional language policy for the Therefore, the following research questions were introduction of EAP at Chinese tertiary institutes, designed to achieve the research aim: which aimed to replace the original TESOL-oriented 1. How do the participant teachers define compulsory English with a new EAP course for EAP? non-English major undergraduate students (Cai, 2. What are the factors contributing to the 2017). By 2018, 26 universities in Shanghai (or two- formation of the teachers’ definition of thirds of the total tertiary institutions in Shanghai) EAP? 3. How do the teachers perceive the had implemented the new policy (Wang, 2018). difference between TESOL and EAP? Interestingly, this means not every institute chose to follow it. Because the policy was not announced by the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE), METHOD universities can choose whether or not to follow the The current study is a multiple case study that uses EAP policy issued by the Shanghai Education semi-structured interviews and classroom Bureau. The MOE required non-English major observations to explore the four teachers of EAP undergraduate students to attend a compulsory (the pseudonyms of the teachers are: F, L, B, and R) English-language course in the first two years of from three different universities in China and who their study. The course was humanistic and generic, used to be TESOL teachers. The interviews and covering topics such as “campus life, personal observations were intermittently conducted growth, politeness, appreciation of music, health consecutively over two months. In the first three and hygiene, friendship and human emotions, paths rounds of the semi-structured interviews, the to success, and cultural values” (Cheng, 2016, p. researchers prepared interview questions and sent

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the interview guide to the participant teachers via international journals during her study at Avon email or the social media app -WeChat. The initial University. interviews were carried out to collect information Professor B, female, holds a Master’s degree in about the teachers’ TESOL background, engaging TESOL. She was innovative in implementing her them to reflect on their existing belief in TESOL TESOL pedagogy. Since teaching at Nail University and their perception of EAP. However, sometimes (pseudonym), all of her attention was given to what the research participants say may not represent improving her students’ motivation in learning what they act (Cohen et al., 2010). Therefore, the English. She constantly changed her TESOL researchers used classroom observations to verify pedagogy in line with her students’ needs and new the participants’ claims and to discover what they developments in education. After B studied in failed to cover. The researchers spent approximately Peninsula University (pseudonym) in the United two months observing EAP classes taught by each States, she returned with a new idea of teaching of the four teachers, except for R, who quit the multiple literacies to her students. She later research after the first three interviews due to her developed an EAP pedagogy centred on multiple pregnancy. When the researchers observed some literacies and establishing the students’ academic teaching behaviors that did not match the identities. Many other teachers had adopted her participants’ claimed EAP perception, as identified mode of EAP pedagogy. through the preliminary interviews, the researchers Lecturer R, female, held a BA in media and asked the research participants about these cases in communication, and an MA in English literature. the follow-up interviews. This enabled the teachers She had been reading extensively in the field of to reflect on and refine their perception of EAP. English literature and philosophy. She was initially a TESOL teacher at Countryside University Sampling and case specifications (pseudonym) before transitioning to EAP teaching. The researchers’ sampling of the participants She integrated what she had learnt from English followed the norms of purposive and snowball literature and philosophy into EAP teaching to sampling because they tried to recruit teachers who improve the students’ critical thinking skills. She claimed to be able to teach EAP successfully and was proud of establishing a very close relationship who may have a clear binary concept between with the students. R was the champion of an EAP TESOL and EAP. By that time, both researchers teaching competition in Shanghai in 2015. were outsiders to the Shanghai EAP community, relying on personal contacts to recommend the Data analysis and ethical issues participants. Teachers F and L were recommended The interview data were voice recorded by the by their faculty director to the researchers, while researchers upon the consent of the participants. The teachers L and R were commended by their interviews were conducted and transcribed in university colleagues. Chinese, which was selectively translated into Lecturer F, male, was a pioneer EAP teacher. English by the two bilingual researchers. The reason He was the EAP course coordinator in Commercial Chinese is used in the interviews is because that the University (pseudonym). Before teaching EAP, he fieldwork researcher and the research participants had ten years TESOL experience. He completed his are Chinese as first language speakers, and using Master’s and Bachelor’s degrees in top-tier Chinese can obtain more information and in-depth universities in China. After graduation, he joined mutual understanding in conversations. Both authors Commercial University. During the time of the are also proficient in English, so they can translate present research, F was completing his part-time Chinese interviews into English accurately. PhD. He helped to design PBL EAP pedagogy in Classroom observations were recorded through field Commercial University. His faculty director highly notes. The data attained from both methods were valued his teaching, and he was recommended by open coded, thematised, and streamlined under the the officials of the Shanghai Education Bureau to three research questions. All of the participants were demonstrate EAP teaching to other teachers from given the right to participate and withdraw from the different institutions. study at any time, and this was why R chose to Professor L, female, studied English literature withdraw after the third interview. The possible and philosophy as an undergraduate and focused on benefits of participating in this study were also applied linguistics when studying for her Master’s informed to the teachers; in particular, they could degree. She commenced her TESOL career in improve their self-awareness of the EAP theories Commercial University 15 years ago. L went to and pedagogies through reflecting on their EAP Avon University (pseudonym) in the UK to study teaching practices. All of the names of the people corpus linguistics as a visiting scholar for a year and institutions were coded. The data were stored on before joining the EAP reform at Commercial the researchers’ password protected hard disks and University. When L returned to China, she joined were not given to anyone else. the PBL EAP team as a senior member. L had to overcome adversities in publishing in peer-reviewed

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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS after class, L gave another of her perspective on How do the participant teachers define EAP? EAP, which she had not covered in earlier The current study to some extent helped the teachers interviews: to understand their teaching better. In the first This [the information the video clips conveyed] is interview with F, when he was asked how he what people failed to see in EAP, and it is what defined EAP, the definition he gave to the the policymakers of Shanghai EAP reform failed researchers was as follows: “EAP is a teaching to see. They merely focused on how to improve students’ academic writing, but if we dig deeper pedagogy, a curriculum, focusing on using English into the concept, there is a profound meaning for in a particular discourse, a context. Because it is students to learn EAP as an indirect incentive of English for academic purposes, it is used more research for the society. (L follow-up interview 2) frequently in academia and higher education”, (F interview 1). However, during the classroom Meanwhile, B told the researchers of her observation, the researchers found that F was not conceived EAP definition: “EAP is an educational merely teaching students the specifics of English concept, consisting of language learning, thinking academic writing but he also guided the students to skills training and students’ learning behaviour search for literature, to design questionnaires, and to management. My students are fresh undergraduates carry out social research projects as tasks in PBL. in the university, so EAP should aim at correcting The instruction and aim of using PBL in EAP their previous learning behaviours, as they used to teaching seemed more focused on students learn just for exams”, (B interview 1). experiencing research procedures rather than just In the second interview, in which B narrated teachers teaching English in an academic context, as her TESOL and publication experience, she mentioned in F’s first definition of EAP. Therefore, expressed her disappointment with some scholars in in a follow-up interview, the researchers raised their China: “they are not academics, they are politicians.” concerns and sought explanations from F, who Thus, she claimed that the EAP course she had been reported that: “EAP is based on English teaching, teaching possessed an academic spirit: “Trustworthy, aiming to transfer students’ awareness and identity knowledge-seeking, truth-pursuing, willing to share!” as academics, helping them to act as a member of (B interview 2). Ingraining such spirit into her the academic community to solve problems in students, as B believed, is the primary task of EAP reality”, (F follow-up interview 1). teaching: F mentioned that he used to have a feeling that Establishing a scholarly identity among students the PBL EAP that he had been teaching was related is the everlasting mission of EAP teaching; if to forging students into new identities but he had they consider themselves as academics and are failed to merge it as a part of his EAP definition proud of such an identity, my EAP teaching is until the researchers’ follow-up interview. In the successful. An identity is permanent, and they interview with L, she said: “EAP is a kind of logic, may be motivated to learn to strengthen such an identity further. (B interview 2) at a lower level, it is about critical thinking, while at a higher level it is about the logic researchers use to As for R, after sharing her opinions about EAP do research”, (L interview 1). She also emphasised in three interviews, she decided to withdraw from that “How to create a research aim, how to the research due to her pregnancy. In one of the experiment with the aim, and how to analyze it all interviews, she stated: “When teaching EAP, I depended on such logic”, (ibid.). believe the most critical issue is to teach a kind of However, L failed to theorise the part she used thinking; another aspect is to engage students with to teach her students genres and registers in academic language simultaneously,” (R interview 3). academic English because the researchers found that

L gave her students samples of different registers in Factors contributing to the formation of the English, leading students to deduct differences from teachers’ definition of EAP the samples and letting students write their From the collected data, the researchers observed compositions accordingly. Therefore, in a follow-up that the TESOL teachers’ EAP knowledge was not interview, when the researchers reminded L of her entirely acquired from academic journals or books missing an essential part of the EAP definition in nor did it originate from EAP teacher training terms of teaching academic genre and register, she because there was not much formal training: “No jokingly replied that EAP is also teaching students guideline or document was telling us how we should to disguise their daily use of English, putting on “the teach EAP”, (F interview 1). The investigated patterns used in published work”, or, in her words, teachers’ knowledge of EAP was from their own “pretending to write as an academic” (L follow-up experience of academic research, judgement of their interview 1). As the study proceeded, in the last students’ needs, and teachers’ education theories. session of the classroom observation, L showed a Regarding the experiences of academic video clip to her students which discussed the goals research in influencing the TESOL teachers’ EAP of academic research and its contribution to definition formation, when F was told that he would humankind and society. In a follow-up interview be teaching EAP, he reported that the first thing that

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sprang into his mind was to refer to his own warm-up her students to think critically in her EAP postgraduate learning experience. L shared her lessons. Consequently, R’s definition of EAP experience of studying in Birmingham as a visiting included the following concept: “When teaching scholar where she had submitted her papers to some EAP, I believe the most important issue is to teach a academic journals, but they were rejected by the kind of thinking”, (R interview 3). journal editors many times due to her ignorance of academic English conventions. Later, she finally How do the EAP teachers in pedagogic succeeded after improving her submission by transitioning define the differences between consulting some mature researchers’ work. L TESOL and EAP? concluded that the experience of publications gave Some teachers mentioned that the difference her opportunities to “learn the patterns used in between TESOL and EAP resided in their discursive published work”, letting her have a perception that features. As F argued: students learning EAP is actually “pretending to be The distinction in their literal meaning, from my academic” (L interview 1). She added: “I feel many point of the review, is the most direct distinction. teachers nowadays, including some of my EAP stresses some different linguistic features, colleagues in our department, may not have a deep perhaps from the perspective of systematic functional linguistics. They are discursively understanding of those academic conventions, different. (F interview 1) unless they have some publication experience”, (L interview 1). L’s comment also revealed this difference: Academic research experience means so much to L. EAP means teaching students to disguise their In contrast, the academic experience of B was related to her research being snatched and published everyday English, by using “the patterns used in by her supervisor without her permission, which published work” (L follow-up interview 1). The caused her to suspect the academic spirits of many teachers also reported that EAP is more macro than scholars. This incident influenced B’s EAP TESOL regarding the missions. For example, B definition: the EAP core spirit is “Trustworthy, described the difference between TESOL and EAP knowledge-seeking, truth-pursuing, willing to share!” as a shift from general language proficiency training and establishing a scholarly identity among students to enhancing students’ academic capabilities (B is the critical mission of EAP teaching (B interview interview 2) because her goal of teaching EAP is to 2). nurture students’ scholarly identity.

Another example is from F and R, in which F F commented on how the Chinese culture of claimed that “When I design a TESOL course, I learning misled his EAP students and how he stress the linguistic training, but in EAP I am more expected his students to progress through learning or less taking the role as their research method EAP: teacher”, (F interview 1). Moreover, R argued that I want them to become proactive learners rather than only accepting whatever the authority offers, “In the first year of my TESOL career, I spent much like what they used to do in their foundation time teaching language, sometimes a little about the education years, which is a residue of the habit of culture, but I never taught beyond them,” (R education in China. In China, students were made interview 1). Thanks to L’s background in English passive learners; they also considered themselves literature and philosophy, she believed that in as receivers, accustomed to being treated as comparison with more functional EAP, TESOL is containers of knowledge. (F interview 2) real education because it contains English literature classics, which, to her, help to immerse students in Based on this reflection, in the PBL EAP humanity: “I used to read English novels with pedagogy which F designed, he meant to involve his students in TESOL courses, and now I do not think I students in research, to give them self-initiative and can do it in EAP. Teaching classics to students is the let them feel more of an academic. This became an real education, which is missing in EAP,” (L attribute to F’s definition of EAP: “EAP is based on interview 1). To L, merging contents shrined with English teaching, aiming to transfer students’ literature and humanity into the EAP teaching is identity [as a researcher], helping them to act as a ideal, so she did her best to select materials to member of the academic community to solve inspire the students. problems in reality”, (F interview 2). R also oriented Based on the data, the participant teachers did her EAP perception by her students’ needs: “I not receive formal training to obtain the knowledge remembered a professor who once said that students of EAP. Meanwhile, their formation of EAP in China were not skillful in thinking, so I hope I concepts was influenced by their experience of can deal with this in the EAP course”, (R interview research, education backgrounds and their 3). judgement of students’ needs. In other words, their Meanwhile, R claimed that she used EAP knowledge was eclectic. Here, the word masterpieces of great thinkers such as Bertrand “eclectic” derives from the word eclecticism, Russell as teaching materials for her EAP students meaning choosing the most appropriate “theories, and she adopted a Socratic questioning method to styles, and ideas in order to gain a thorough insight

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about the subject and draws upon different theories to either become proactive researchers or research in different cases” (Alizadeh & Hashim, 2016, p. for human well-being. 12). Although an eclectic approach in TESOL has The teachers held some unique views of EAP. already been encouraged to meet the ever-changing For example, B integrated a moral segment into her needs of the classroom context (Bax, 2003), EAP definition by raising a slogan: “Trustworthy, teachers use an eclectic approach to conceptualise knowledge-seeking, truth-pursuing, and willing to and to teach EAP was less heard. Hyland and Shaw share.” At first glance, this may appear to be (2016, p. 3) explained eclecticism as one of the key redundant because this slogan represents the attributes to EAP and argued that EAP employed academic capital that every academic is supposed to “an eclectic range of theories and methods”. know. However, this is not straightforward as it may The EAP definitions produced by the seem to be. In an editorial in Science, Shi and Rao respective investigated teachers, although inferred (2010) seriously criticised the unethical academic from their own experience and ideology, somewhat behaviours in China, saying that scholars become overlapped with the definitions in the mainstream bureaucrats, and they spend more time pulling literature of EAP. For example, F, L, and R all strings than training young researchers. They even stressed the importance of teaching academic commented on the research culture in China: “It English and skills to the students, reflecting a wastes resources, corrupts the spirits, and stymies popular skill-based EAP strand (Dudley-Evan & St innovations” (Shi & Rao, 2010, p. 1128). Hamp- John, 1998). F and B engaged students in academic Lyon (2011, p. 2) advised that prevention is an activities and helped them to become a member of effective treatment of academic misconduct: research communities, which is similar to the “prevent is far better than cleaning up the mess”. In disciplinary socialisation EAP strand (Hyland, 2006). this context, B’s moral slogan in EAP seemed to be Furthermore, F’s and L’s reflection on the function a precautionary reminder to her Chinese students of EAP was to socialise students and to let them who may one day become academics. F’s use of devote themselves to human well-being. This echoes EAP to improve the students’ academic identities Chun’s (2015) critical EAP approach, who expected and L’s idea of using EAP to improve the students’ his EAP students not to be passive recipients of sense of the social meaning of research are also knowledge but instead to connect with broader moral practicum to some extent. Including morals in social realities through meaning-making. R’s EAP concepts is unique in the Chinese context. understanding of EAP, except for the session of However, it is of equal importance to the teaching writing, merely looked at critical thinking. international EAP community, as Bruce (2017) None of the participants produced a holistic welcomes the broadest possible EAP communities’ definition of EAP, and instead, they demonstrated a contribution. fragmented understanding of the jargon. What is noteworthy is that the teachers in the current research were pioneer EAP teachers in their contexts. CONCLUSION In this vein, the current study partially supported This multiple case study adopted semi-structured Gao and Bartlett’s (2014) report that Chinese EAP interviews and classroom observations to probe four teachers are nebulous about EAP knowledge. Chinese university TESOL teachers’ perceptions of The teachers in the present study found that the EAP in their pedagogical transitioning from TESOL differences between TESOL and EAP are their to EAP teaching, as set out under the policies of the distinctive forms of language. For example, L said Shanghai Education Bureau. By answering the three that TESOL stresses social discourse, while EAP research questions—1. How do the participant stresses academic discourse, which is consistent teachers define EAP? 2. What are the factors with Martin’s (2014) division of EAP and TESOL contributing to the formation of the teachers’ with the former focusing on academic genre while definition of EAP? 3. How do the teachers perceive the latter on a generic genre. The teachers also the difference between TESOL and EAP? —the reported the different commitments of TESOL and current research has revealed that the teachers’ EAP. For example, F claimed that EAP was suitable perceptions of EAP included eclectic theories and for students to communicate in higher education and experiences of research, personal education theories, academia. This result is similar to Ding and Bruce’s and judgements of students’ needs. However, their (2017) summary of the differences between TESOL eclectic knowledge of EAP to some extent and EAP, about which TESOL is for daily overlapped with some current EAP theories, despite conversation and EAP for academic being not holistic. When facing an unethical communications. Another difference was discovered research culture in China, many of the teachers by R, who criticised EAP’s functional feature, added their moral rubrics into their EAP concepts saying that TESOL is more educational because it and teaching. The teachers reported that TESOL and imbued with classic humanistic readings. From a EAP diverged in discourses and commissions—EAP different perspective, for F and L, EAP seemed to be is more student-empowering, but TESOL is more more educational because it empowered the students humanistic. It is hoped that this study will help to

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deepen our understanding of teachers transitioning epistemological and sociological from TESOL to EAP teaching in the context of dimensions? BALEAP ResTes Knowledge and China and will help the participant teachers to see the EAP Practitioner: A Symposium. The their established perceptions of EAP and TESOL, University of Leeds. which will facilitate their transition. Nonetheless, Cai, J. G. (2017). Debates around the orientation of this study has some limitations, as the participants TEFL in Chinese tertiary education. In H. may not represent a broader population. Still, it is Reinder, D. Nunan, & B. Zou hoped that this study can provide some useful (Eds.), Innovation in Language Learning and references for future studies in this area. Teaching the Case of China (pp. 115-153). Palgrave Macmillan. Campion, G. C. (2016). ‘The learning never ends’: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Exploring teachers’ views on the transition This study is adapted from the first author’s PhD from General English to EAP. Journal of dissertation under the supervision of the English for Academic Purposes, 23, 59-70. corresponding author. The PhD dissertation has now https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2016.06.003 been published as a monograph titled with Canagarajah, S. (2006). Changing communicative Educational Change Amongst English Language needs, revised assessment objectives: Testing College Teachers in China: Transitioning from english as an international language. Language Teaching for General to Academic Purposes. The Assessment Quarterly, 3(3), 228-242. monograph is an Open Access publication licensed https://doi.org/10.1207/s15434311laq0303_1 under the terms of the Creative Commons Canagarajah, S. (2016). TESOL as a professional Attribution 4.0 International License community: A half‐century of pedagogy, (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). research, and theory. TESOL Quarterly, 50(1), 7-41. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.275 Cheng, A. (2016). EAP at the tertiary level in China: REFERENCES Challenges and possibilities. In K. Hyland, & P. Alexander, O. (2010). The leap into TEAP: The role Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of of the BALEAP competency framework in the English for Academic Purposes (pp. 97-108). professional development of new EAP teachers. Routledge. In Professional and Academic English. Journal Chun, C. W. (2015). Power and meaning making in of the IATEFL English for Specific Purposes an EAP classroom: Engaging with the Special Interest Group (Vol. 42/2). Garnet everyday. Multilingual Matters. Education. Bilken University. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2010). Alexander, O. (2012). Exploring teacher beliefs in Research methods in education. Routledge. teaching EAP at low proficiency levels. Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2018). New Journal of English for Academic Purposes, Contexts, New Challenges for TESOL: 11(2), 99-111. Understanding Disciplinary Reasoning in Oral https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.12.001 Interactions in English‐Medium Instruction. Alexander, O. (2013). Uncovering teacher beliefs in TESOL Quarterly, 52(3), 540-563. EAP. In L. Blaj-Ward, & S. Brewer (Eds.), https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.459 Snapshots of EAP Research Journeys (pp. 11- de Chazal, E. (2014). English for Academic 14). BALEAP. Purposes. Oxford University Press. Alizadeh, F., & Hashim, M.N. (2016). Eclecticism Ding, A., & Campion, G. (2016). EAP teacher in Drama. Create Space Independent development. In K. Hyland, & P. Shaw (Eds.), Publishing Platform. Amazon Createspace The Routledge handbook of English for Independent Publishing. Academic Purposes (pp. 547-559). Routledge. Basturkmen, H., & Wette, R. (2016). English for Ding, A., & Bruce, I. (2017). The EAP practitioner: academic purposes. In G, Hall (Eds), The Operating on the edge of the academia. Routledge Handbook of English Language Palgrave. Teaching (pp. 182-194). Routledge. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Bax, S. (2003). The end of CLT: A context approach Developments in English for Specific Purposes. to language teaching. ELT Journal, 57(3), 278- Cambridge University Press. 287. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/57.3.278 Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (2001). Issues in Bhatia, V. K. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A EAP: A preliminary perspective. In J. Genre-Based View. Continuum. Flowerdew & M. Peacock (Eds.), Research Bruce, I. (2017). What knowledge do practitioners perspectives on English for Academic need to master to inform and direct not only Purposes (pp. 8-24). Cambridge University. their teaching but also, more broadly, their Gao, Y., & Bartlett, B. (2014). Opportunities and professional activities including challenges for negotiating appropriate EAP in understandings of academia in both its China. In I. Liyanage, & T. Walker (Eds.),

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