Scandinavian and Italian Design Aesthetic and cultural similarities and differences regarding product and furniture design

Andrea Cavazza Department of Design NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to analyze and compare the main characteristics of Scandinavian design and Italian design, focusing on aesthetic and cultural values. In addition to an overview on the design history in the 2 geographical areas, a total of 4 iconic pieces of furniture from both Scandinavia and have been used as the starting point for the analysis. Finally, the main similarities and differences and the key characteristics of Scandinavian and Italian design are presented in the respective sections of the article.

KEYWORDS: Scandinavian design, Italian design, furniture design, nationality

1. INTRODUCTION manufacture, mediation and consumption of design. Therefore, it is clear that regionality is Product design means to create a new product crucial in understanding design through a that should be sold by a business to its clients. As geographically embedded historical and cultural a broader concept, it is essentially an efficient and lens (Lees-Maffei & Fallan, 2013). effective idea generation and development process that leads to new products (Morris, 2009). Time is another relevant aspect to consider when analyzing products. Different historical periods As a matter of fact, every designer is influenced by mean different capabilities and technologies, but the place where one works and lives and by his also different needs, values and tastes. Thus, native culture. For this reason, it is possible to talk considering diverse products without considering about different styles from different regions, such when they have been designed, can lead to an as Italian design or Scandinavian design, which incomplete analysis. Nevertheless, in this paper, have different meanings and values. time won’t have a big importance, but instead it Different national design cultures have reached will focus primarily on what the geographical area their zeniths at different times during the 20th and culture of the place have given to the century, becoming temporary beacons for products designed therein. international design. It was France’s turn in the Those 2 design styles are apparently very 1910s and 1920s and Germany’s in the 30s and different, the aim of this paper is to discuss and 40s, and the US and Scandinavia share the 1950s. compare the core features of both Italian and Italy owns most of the 60s and early 70s Scandinavian design to show why they are (Antonelli, 2008). It is possible to determine different and in what way, and to underline the nationality in design by looking at nations or relevance of the designers’ background. regions themselves as sites for design,

Scandinavian and Italian Design 1 1.1 About Scandinavia This article is based on a literature research of academic literature, nonscientific articles, books, Scandinavia is an ensemble of northern European journals, newspapers and blogs. In addition to states that form a unique cultural and regional that, personal experience and reflections were entity that is very distinct from the rest of used to build a cultural context. (Fiell, 2002). It includes Denmark, and In order to understand the peculiar values that which share a linguistic link. and define the two different cultural and aesthetic Iceland are often included in Scandinavia because styles, some representative pieces of furniture of their historical, political and geographical ties; were analyzed. These pieces were selected for the grouping of all these countries has been being iconic and famous examples of furniture named Nordic (Davey, 2014). designed by Scandinavian and Italian designers. While in the distant past there was serious inter- Nordic conflict, those nations now have achieved 2. THEORY a continuous peace with one another for a period of almost two hundred years and, despite some In this chapter, a general overview of the history minor differences, Scandinavian people remain of design will be presented. Then, a specific focus much alike (Fiell, 2002). will be given on the history of modern design in For this reason, this paper will not consider the the Nordics and in Italy. Some iconic design differences between the five countries, but the products will be also analyzed with the aim of area will be considered as one entity. highlighting the core characteristics of each branch. 1.2 About Italy 2.1 Overview of the history of design Italy is a country in the south of Europe, located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea. For many centuries before the birth Due to its central geographic location both in of industrialization, design and manufacturing Europe and in the Mediterranean, Italy has were often done by individual artisans, who historically been home to a great number of determined the shape of a product at the point of different peoples and cultures. its creation, according to their own manual ability, For centuries divided by politics and geography the wishes of their clients, experience gained until its eventual unification in 1861, Italy has through their own experimentation, and developed a unique culture, shaped by a myriad of knowledge passed on to them through training regional customs and local centers of power. or apprenticeship (Noblet, 1993). Italy had a key role in Western culture for The birth of is closely connected centuries and is still recognized in the world for its to the growth of industrialization and cultural traditions and its artistic heritage mechanization that began during the industrial (Killinger, 2005). revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. Italy is also known worldwide for product design, In this context, as a rejection toward industrial fashion, , architecture revolution's deep transformation and as an effort and industrial design. The country is home to to save craft activities and pre-industrial ideas, the some well-known furniture designers and the “Art and Craft” movement took place. It stood for Italian phrases "Bel Disegno" and "Linea traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and Italiana" have entered the terminology of often used old or folk styles of decoration. It had a furniture design (Miller, 2005). strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s and its 1.3 Methods influence continued long afterward (Campbell, 2006).

Scandinavian and Italian Design 2 As a contrast to “Art and Craft”, the following Scandinavian design started to be commonly Modernist movement emphasized simplicity and used. clarity of form and rejected decorative motifs in Over the next few years, several international design, preferring to emphasize the materials exhibitions with Scandinavian design in their title used and pure geometrical forms. and exposing products from Scandinavia The word "industrial design" appeared in the US in cemented the term Scandinavian Design into the 1940 and carried on during the 20th century, a design vocabulary (Davey, 2014). period in which production tools weaved with Numerous reporters have commented upon the modern planning philosophies to create objects concept of Scandinavian Design, (sometimes which should be aesthetically appealing but calling it Scandinavian Style), coming into useful, according to a typical rationalist logic existence as a sort of marketing tool to support ("About italian design," 2018). design from the . Designers After the second world war and during the working in the Scandinavian countries, after the economic boom, Pop art was one of the major art Second World War, seemed to share some movements. The movement was characterized by similarities that linked them not just themes drawn from popular mass culture, such as geographically but also thematically in their advertising and comic books. Usually associated design approaches. with the art world, the Pop Art movement quickly The so-called ‘Golden Age’ of the 1950s is often began to influence furniture, graphic design and seen as the top of this design movement, when an products of the time. The designs were bright, incomparable amount of international design vivacious and full of attractiveness. Many new icons emerged from Scandinavia thanks to some materials were also developed during this period, famous designers such as Alvar Aalto, Arne with a marked increase in the use of plastic. Jacobsen, Borge Mogensen, Hans J. Lately a more minimalistic approach took place Wegner, Verner Panton or and the works were stripped down to their most (Nelson, 2004). fundamental features. Throughout their long history, the nations of Opposing to that, the post-modern movement Scandinavia have absorbed foreign cultural became the most popular one from the early 80s. influences and have reinterpreted them into The postmodernist design was characterized by a something uniquely Scandinavian. As a result, deliberate blend of differing styles, egocentric Nordic craft skills and design sensibilities became superficiality, increased ornamentation against dominant international forces in the evolution of the super-functionalism of post-war architecture modern design, but it is the Scandinavian and contemporary cultural or symbolic references designers’ use of organic shapes that has had the without losing the usability and functionality greatest influence on the evolution of Modernism (Collins, n.d.). over the last 60 years (Fiell, 2002).

2.2 Scandinavian modern design history Scandinavian design remains an unclear concept that lacks a clear and univocal structure. As Leary In 1951 the exhibition named Scandinavian Design (2005) states “The concept of Scandinavian design for Living was held at Heal’s Furniture showroom has been the subject of scholarly debate, in (Halen & Wickman, 2005). Even if the exhibitions and marketing agendas since the exhibition was comparatively small in 1950s. Many emphasize the democratic design international exposure, it marked the first time ideals that were a central theme of the movement that the term Scandinavian Design was used to and are reflected in the rhetoric surrounding describe furniture and lighting design from the contemporary Scandinavian and international Nordic countries. Thanks to that, the concept of design. Others, however, have analyzed the Scandinavian design was born and the term reception of Scandinavian design abroad, seeing in it a form of myth-making” (Leary, 2005).

Scandinavian and Italian Design 3

2.3 Analysis of a piece of Scandinavian design

Figure 1: Paimio Chair, Alvar Aalto Figure 2: Artichoke Lamp, Poul Henningsen

The Paimio chair designed by the Finnish architect Another emblematic example of a Scandinavian Alvar Aalto has been chosen as an example of a piece of design is the PH Artichoke lamp designed masterpiece of Scandinavian Design. It is named in 1958 by the Danish designer Poul Henningsen. after the Paimio tuberculosis sanatorium in It belongs to a series of lamps, designed by southwest Finland, which he also designed, and Henningsen from 1926 onwards, called PH, with everything about it proclaims modernist the feature of eliminating the visual glare by only principles. At the time, the main therapy for emitting reflected light and obscuring the light tuberculosis was sunlight and the hospital wings source. are angled to maximize exposure to the sun. As Poul Henningsen's lamps are made of separate patients followed the sun through the day, going elements, designed and assembled in such a way out on to the terrace or sitting in large windowed that the components cover the light source and areas, they needed a chair that was light enough direct the light down without the rays being to be moved around easily. It was important that reflected more than once. Additionally, they the materials could be cleaned easily and comfort provide a general and uniform light in the entire was a key factor, this common-room chair looks as space so that the contrast between the relaxing and comfortable as any overstuffed illumination of the different areas in the space is lounge chair. In keeping with the key modernist not too sharp. Within the lamp shade itself, the idea of truth to materials with nothing hidden, the light is distributed so as to minimize the intensity construction of the Paimio chair is easy to see. towards the outer edge of each separate Aalto used his signature bentwood material, component. In this way, Henningsen has avoided originally beech stripped and molded into the the sudden transition from light to darkness ("Poul cantilevered shape. The seat with its curved Henningsen,"). headrest was birch-ply, material that soon This lamp, like all the others belonging to the PH replaced the original beech for the frame so that series, demonstrates a direct reference from the materials for the chair could be 100 percent nature (the artichoke, in particular, is clearly manufactured in Finland. inspired by pine cones and artichokes, as the Summarizing, the chair is a perfect example of name suggests) combined with a functionalist Scandinavian modern design, with the emphasis understanding of how to disperse light (Fiell, on functionalism, inspiration from nature and 2002). natural and local material (Jolly, 2014) (Harrison, It’s a good example of Scandinavian design: the 2017). elegance and smoothness of the lines do not

Scandinavian and Italian Design 4 prevent the lamp from performing its function It is used of course in the making of furniture, but exactly as it was designed to do (Eyþórsdóttir, also in decorative objects, sculptures, accessories 2011). and tableware. Henningsen himself admitted that the idea behind Another key feature in Scandinavian design is the PH lamps is to create lamps for the home and color. The Scandinavian color palette is the people in it. “His aim is to beautify the home minimalist, with white being the favored color for and the who that live there, to make the evenings interiors. White has the advantage of reflecting restful and relaxing” ("Poul Henningsen,"). light, which is particularly useful during the winter, while black offers a visual balance. Other 2.4 Scandinavian design characteristics colors are then injected to brighten things up, with pastel shades being most popular in recent years. Scandinavian design is rooted in a particular set of Patterns have also an important role, mostly in ideals: the desire to create beautiful, everyday textile design. They are geometric or inspired, objects that are practical, affordable and suitable again, by nature (Nykänen Andersson, 2018). for mass production, all devoted to improve the quality of everyday life. It implies accessible 2.5 Italian modern design history products inspired by nature, as well as an emphasis on taking pleasure in the domestic After the , officially declared on environment. March 17th 1861, despite an emerging This philosophy can be easily understood amalgamation of the cotton industry with considering the geography and climate of this part factories, there was not a real industrialization of of the world. The weather can be often extreme: Italy prior to 1870-80. it can be exceptionally cold, the days are short in At first, in the early twentieth century, Italian the winter and there is little light. Scandinavians, furniture designers struggled to reach a balance therefore, tend to center their focus on their between classical elegance and modern creativity. homes, which can provide them with comfort and Outstanding figures, such as designer Vittorio a sense of wellbeing (Lucano, 2016). Ducrot and architect , led a Scandinavian design, then, is a marvelous mixture revolution in Palermo (’s capital) in the wake of function and aesthetic and it is defined by ideals of . that are common to all the Nordic countries: a Later, Italy’s interior design in the 1910s and practical outlook, social conscience, respect for 1920s was still vastly influenced by the French Art the environment and aesthetic sensitivity. As Deco, an imitation of various styles including such, it aims to improve the quality of life through exotic materials, such as ebony and ivory, and the use of natural products and materials. good craftsmanship. Being environmentally conscious, Scandinavian The architect and designer , together design involves the use of natural renewable with architect Emilio Lancia, was inspired by the resources that are available locally, and so wood new artistic current of the time and designed is a very common material (and it also provides interior decors, called Domus Nova (1928-29), for the feeling of warmth and wellbeing). ’s glamorous department store, La Designers frequently draw their inspirations from Rinascente. nature: forms are curved, the motifs found in Thanks to that, Milan became the highest center textiles derived from flora and fauna, though of Italy’s design, reaching its zenith in the period these are often presented in a simplified or after World War II. The Polytechnic University of abstract way (Lucano, 2016). Milan, since its foundation in 1863, has been As previously mentioned, wood is a key material playing an essential role in teaching design to in Scandinavian design. It is used in all its forms: generations of designers and became a center of untreated or polished, painted, light or dark, with experimentation and research. teak, pine or birch being the most popular choice.

Scandinavian and Italian Design 5 The development of design in Italy was helped by design studio founded in in 1966, some specialized magazines, like Domus (1928) theorized to get away from tradition, by and La Casa Bella (1928, then renamed Casabella abolishing conventions and elevating everything since ’33), and important exhibition facilities. kitsch as a statement of aesthetic and ideological From the 20s to the 40s, Architettura razionale challenge. On the contrary, Superstudio, an (Rational Architecture) presented a middle architecture group based in Florence in the same ground between the so called Novecento Italian year, imagined a new architecture and design to classicism and the industrially inspired Futurist be based on refusing the dictates of production in architecture and design movement. Following the favor of figurative, dreamy ideals, which can Futurist’s manifesto, written in 1926, a group of ideologically fit into an extensive landscape. seven young architects like Luigi Figini, Guido In the second half of the 70’s, the post-modern Frette, Sebastiano Larco, Giuseppe Pagano, Gino became the most significant movement in Italy. Pollini, Carlo Enrico Rava, Giuseppe Terragni and This revolutionary style emerged thanks to the so Ubaldo Castagnoli founded the so-called Gruppo called Alchymia group, established in 1976 by 7, based in Milan and Como. Alessandro Guerriero, who theorized how to get Rationalists first created refined objects that to the core of the objects, designer and object anticipated the real industrial design style. Pietro must be clear to each other, so again honesty and Chiesa designed, in collaboration with Gio Ponti, clarity were again the basis. the "Luminator" (1936), Italy’s first indirect light In the early 80’s the experience, extremely lamp, that is to say a lamp created by upwards provocative and kitsch with objects that did not reflection. belong to any tendency, of the , In 1948, a new movement was founded in Milan founded by , represented the last by Atanasio Soldati, Gillo Dorfles, Bruno Munari episode of greatest experimental freedom of and Gianni Monnet, it was called the Movimento Italian and Milanese twentieth-century design. d'arte concreta (MAC, Art Concrete Movement). Nowadays, the new generation of Italian Their totally abstract and geometric art was designers and architects, with their innovative completely cerebral and independent from the projects, has introduced the concept of exterior and strongly influenced the shapes of the sustainability into the traditional Italian design new products created later on. system ("About italian design," 2018; Lees-Maffei The Italian design enthusiasm and & Fallan, 2013; Vercelloni, 2014; Viale, 2017). experimentation reached its highpoint in the 60’s. Milan’s Salone Internazionale del Mobile 2.6 Analysis of a piece of Italian design (international Furniture Fair in Milan) was held for the first time in 1961, originally focusing on Italian furniture, but soon turned into the largest trade fair exhibiting of the latest products of furniture and design from all around the world. During those years, a great number of objects were produced and people usually bought them more for their names and brands than for their real worth. Those years witnessed the introduction of new materials on the industrial furniture design, such as polyurethane. These new materials made it possible to move from the production of furniture in the shop to the serial rhythms of the factory. In the late 60s, Radical Design split up in two Figure 3: Superleggera Chair, Gio Ponti opposite tendencies. Archizoom Associati, a

Scandinavian and Italian Design 6 In his earlier professional life, Gio Ponti was an adept of the Novecento, a counter-movement to the interwar European Rationalism. He liked to revive and promote the Italian classical styles, being unwilling to reject this cultural heritage for the sake of bare modernity. Later on, some of his projects helped integrate crafts with industrial productions. While substantially function- oriented, yet constantly refining his unique blend of elegant and slender proportion with a delicate and skillful use of materials, Ponti disregarded Figure 4: Tube Chair, Joe Colombo conventional boundaries and explored and used Another relevant product from Italy is the Tube various fields of art and design. chair designed in 1969 by Joe Colombo. His Superleggera (Super- lightweight), designed in It is one of the first and most famous experiments 1951 and produced in 1957, is apparently a strictly of modularity and flexibility applied to furniture functional chair, but a closer analysis reveals its and one of the most important objects of stylishness and structural complexity. Its stylistic industrial design of the sixties and Italian design. roots are located in Chiavari (), where the The chair was born in a period of strong change cabinetmaker Giuseppe Gaetano Descalzi (1767- and revolution in the history of design and fully 1855) created the Chiavari chairs, known as embodies the creative spirit, free and Chiavarine. Descalzi redesigned some French unscrupulous of the sixties in Italy. Empire chairs by simplifying the decorative The unconventional philosophy of Joe Colombo, elements and lightening the structural elements. self-described as "anti-designer", is completely The special weightlessness of the chair is embodied in this piece of furniture; the seat accomplished by structural sections: each concept is completely unstructured: the back and component is designed according to the specific seat have the same shape and each element is stresses it will carry. interchangeable at the discretion of the user. The The Superleggera was made of light stable ash seat therefore completely distances itself with the wood and had a caned seat or, to keep the price Italian rationalist design of the previous years and low, made of woven colored cellophane. It was yet fully embraces a new current of thought that was another result of the Chiavarina optimization, but exploding in this very country in the Bel Paese: this time Ponti designed an ergonomic bend in the radical design. backrest area and tapered the front and back legs. It is made out of a tube of semi rigid plastic 50 cm The legs have an unusual cut and the stretchers in diameter and 60 cm in length, covered with became thinner. The classic design line remains plastic foam and colored fabric, connected with tangible; the chair’s weight reaches a minimum similar tubes of smaller diameter by special joints never to be surpassed by a wooden chair. The of rubber and metal (Favata, 1988). composition is well-balanced, well-proportioned The modular components of the chair can be and pleasing, the chair is light and remains arranged in different combinations to suit the timelessly functional (Cionca, Muscu, Bartha, & users and they can even be nested together one Raycheva). inside the other.

The chair is entirely made in synthetic materials, The Superleggera may be considered a showing an increased interest in man-made remarkable link between past and present in modern materials used in domestic environments, terms of joining the artisanal tradition to the that became more popular in this period modern world of industrial design. (Ambasz, 1972).

Scandinavian and Italian Design 7 It is a clear example of the use of new modern bravado in design and execution that is a real materials available thanks to the collaboration hallmark, and not quite as pronounced in other between designers and industries. types of design such as in Scandinavian designs (Wang, 2015). 2.7 Italian design characteristics What characterizes Italian design, and one of the Italian design is really broad and implies many reasons of its success, was the principle of mutual different styles and aesthetic values. autonomy between design culture and the Historically, Italian design dates back to the entrepreneurial word of industry. Strong Renaissance era of the 15th century in Florence. collaboration, but also reciprocal independence This period was dominated by the use of between the two cultures that worked together architectural stone combined with baroque décor. even though their premises were based on Upon entering today's Italian-style homes, it will concept and rationale (Branzi, 2004). be found similarly inspired styles that blend It is possible to say that the Italian style, or called Modern Italian with the old ornate Italian designs. also “” happened thanks to unusual The Italian tradition of understanding beauty, art, and unrepeatable circumstances: post war and good life can be found in almost every aspect reconstruction, the classical culture of the of the home. Italian-style homes aren't just designers, the cultural sensibility and ambition of luxurious, they offer top-quality detail and the the entrepreneurs, Italy’s artistic and artisanal finest craftsmanship from the walls, to the floors, traditions, the presence of important design and furniture. It’s about timeless design in all references (Martino, 2004). things. Marble, terra cotta, and stoneware of all types 3. COMPARISON play an important role in defining the look of the Traditional Italian-style interior design. In this chapter, a summary of the core Not only are the colors carefully chosen, but they characteristics of both Nordic and Italian design are also intricately placed to create a look that is will be presented and compared with the aim of elaborate, yet elegant. finding similarities and differences. Even in modern time, the tradition of Italian Again, it will be important to remember that design did not end. different historical times have a different impact Italian designers have continued to be revered for on the aesthetic features of any products, but they their attention to detail and innovative style have never been in contrast with the ground choices. values and ideas typical of both styles. Therefore, Designs can also be bold and stand out for the use the analysis will try to overcome the features that of bright colors and innovative and uncommon have been brought by the time period by focusing shapes. Occasionally they include many types of on what has always been considered the furniture items and borders on the impractical. fundament of both Scandinavian and Italian style. However, the goal is to reflect an individualistic and sometimes quirky take on everyday objects 3.1 Similarities that can be used to make a home interesting and unique. Design is always driven by the users and so To keep in line with tradition, minimalist furniture designers have always had in mind their needs, with clean lines and sexy curves are still welcome, this is really clear in both Scandinavian and Italian but normally there is always something that tradition. Everything made by the designers from reflects the traditional boldness and richness the Nordics is functional and meet the needs of (Travis, 2018). the Scandinavian population who looks for cozy What draws all Italian design together is an and peaceful environments. Italian designers too inimitable sense of drama. There's a certain have the users in mind, but the cultural values are

Scandinavian and Italian Design 8 different, therefore they made objects able to reason, Italian design has always been strongly communicate a certain cultural or economic influenced by the cultural and artistic movements, status. it has always been “up to date” and even The craftsmanship heritage is strong in both nowadays, the most famous objects and cultures and it is reflected in the high quality of the masterpieces can be clearly identified as objects products and in the meticulous attention on from a specific time with specific cultural and details. aesthetic values. have a much less Simplicity can be seen as another similar value in cohesive sense of design than, for example, the both Scandinavian and Italian design, but it has a Scandinavians do (Wang, 2015). different meaning for the two styles. In the On the contrary, Scandinavian objects seem to be Scandinavian perspective, simplicity means simple timeless and less influenced by the time when linear shapes and no useless ornaments, while in they were designed. the Italian, it means more usability and clarity of purpose. In the Scandinavian idea, the object must 4. CONCLUSION be simple, in the Italian the meaning is simple. In recognizing the global, hybrid nature of design 3.2 Differences and designers, it is important not to lose sight of national and regional influences that effect in As the history of Italian design shows, Italian numerous subtle but important ways the things designers have always been strongly connected to and processes that people design, and the way in the companies that produced their pieces. It is which they do it (Lees-Maffei & Fallan, 2013). impossible to talk about Italian design without As stated by Skou and Munch “Scandinavian mentioning those companies which provided the Design is authentic as opposed to superficial technological innovations and the new materials (honest functionality), it transcends the and, in a way, have challenged the designers to fluctuations of fashion (enduring aesthetics) and utilize always something new. represents a subtle modernization that has Clearly, also Scandinavian designers are closely preserved traditions and values of craftsmanship, linked with companies, as the topic of Industrial as opposed to a more radical modernist Design implies industrial production, but the celebration of industrial design” which can be origin of the Scandinavian products is not the seen in other styles, like in the Italian design (Skou innovative know how of the producers, but the & Munch, 2016). initial inspiration is the natural world. Thus, it Scandinavian design today continues to comes that the shapes are profoundly different. perpetuate the attributes of durability, economy, Scandinavian design is recognizable for organic honesty, affordability and functional clarity and natural curved lines with the aim of creating a though democratic and socially responsible domestic environment that reflects the natural product solutions. It is guided by the conviction environment, nothing is designed to stand out and that well designed products can improve the overcome other pieces, but everything must be quality of life through their practical beauty (Fiell, coherent with all the other objects and everything 2002). has to blend together in a natural way. Therefore, The DNA of Italian design, instead, survives in a Scandinavian shapes are honest and simple and, sort of highly evolved and increasingly refined for example, Scandinavian lights are soft and laboratory of research. It works in harmony with shaded as the natural light. On the other hand, globalization and with new customs and lifestyles, Italian design is bold and reflects the opulence interpreting them, of course, through its unique typical of the culture and . Products and still distinctively Italian approach: giving form must be comfortable and user friendly, but they to objects and meaning to their use (Bosoni, must also stand out and communicate wealth, 2008). modernity or a certain cultural vision. For this

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