INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDWATER AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE AREAS IN DISTRICT (M. S.)

A REPORT OF MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT

File No. No. 23-360/07 Date: - 15/04/2008 SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION,

WESTERN REGIONAL OFFICE,

GANESHKHIND, PUNE - 411007.

BY

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR MR. SUNIL C. GORANE ASSISTANT PROFESSOR P.G. DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY S. P. D. M. ARTS, S. B. B. & S. H. D. COMMERCE AND S. M. A. COLLEGE, SHIRPUR, DIST. DHULE (M. S.) PIN-425405 2013 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my great pleasure to express sincere thanks to The Deputy Secretary, University Grants Commission, Western Regional Office, Pune and the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for giving me an opportunity to work on Minor Research Project. I am highly obliged to Hon’ble. Tusharji Randhe, President, Kisan Vidya Prasarak Sanstha, Shirpur and Dr. S. N. Patel, Principal, S.P.D.M. Arts, S. B. B. and S. H. D. Commerce and S. M. A. Science College, Shirpur, Dist. Dhule for providing facilities and reliving me time to time to complete this work. I am highly indebted to Prin. Dr. Y. V. Patil, Head, Department of Geography, Kisan College, Parola Dist. for his inspiring and persistent guidance.

I am thankful to Librarians of S.P.D.M. College, Shirpur, Kisan Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parola, Z. B. Patil College Dhule, Jaikar Library, University of Pune; Water and Land Management Institute, Aurangabad, Ground Water survey and Development Agency Pune, Rajasthan University, Jaipur, S.S.V.P.S.’s Late Dr. P. R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, and College of Agriculture, Dhule who have permitted to use their valuable libraries.

I express my thanks to the Senior Geologist, Yogesh Pacchapurkar (Jr. Geologist) Ground Water survey and Development Agency, Dhule and Director, Ground Water survey and Development Agency, Pune for allowing me to study books, maps, data etc. related to the study region. I must remember various officers of Departments of Irrigation, Departments of Agriculture, M. S. E. D. Co. and Zilla Parishd, Dhule who have provided me data regarding medium and minor irrigation projects with valuable guidance.

I am thankful to Hon’ble. Suresh Khanapurkar (Retd. Sr. Geologist), Hon’ble. Chaitram Pawar and Hon’ble. Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar has shown me different approaches towards water conservation.

I am grateful to Vikram Agone and Yogesh Mahajan who have prepared the maps using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Prof. Shrikant Mahajan and Prof. B. P. Patil have helped me to complete tedious job of typing and setting. I express my gratitude to Prof. Manisha Patil, , Dr. B. D. Patil, Dr. Shivaji Patil, Dr. R. J. Borase, Dr. Mrs. P. P. Jangale, Prof. R. M. Wadile, Dr. P. Y. Magare and Prof. B. N. Girase for their kind cooperation at various stages of the research. I am thankful to Prof. M. B. Chavan (Chairman, BOS NMU, Jalgaon) for his expert advice.

I am also thankful to Prof. S. N. Shelar and Prof. V. M. Patil for careful proof reading of manuscript. Prof. Dinesh B. Patil co-operated me to analyze data with the help of statistical techniques. I am grateful to Mr. Prakash Pawar and his family for their moral support in Dhule city.

My special thanks to Daksha Printers and Mr. Dhanraj Jamadar, Mumbai for printing colorful maps.

I am highly indebted to my father Late C. D. Gorane and mother Smt. Latabai C. Gorane for their kind blessings. I must mention here my special thanks to my wife Archana, lovely daughters Shreya and Janhavi, son Madhav who stood with me in my times of need and in the absence of whose co-operation this work could never have been possible.

Place: Shirpur

Date:

Sunil Chunilal Gorane

CONTENTS

PAGE CHAPTER TITLE NO. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I-II LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IV-V LIST OF TABLES VI-VII LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS VIII-IX LIST OF APPENDICES X ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION XI 1 INTRODUCTION 1 – 17 ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY 2 18 – 37 AREA 3 SURFACE AND GROUND WATER RESOURCES 38 – 62 IMPACT OF GEOMORPHIC FACTERS ON WATER 4 63 – 98 RESOURCES IN DHULE DISTRICT 5 POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES 99 – 107 QUALITY, PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT OF 6 108 – 136 WATER RESOURCES 7 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 137 – 152 PHOTOGRAPHS 153 – 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 – 187 APPENDICES 188 – 213

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS / MAPS

Sr. No. Fig. No. Illustration /Map Page No. 1 2.1 Dhule District : Location 19 2 2.2 Dhule District : Physiography 21 3 2.3 Dhule District : Geology 23 4 2.4 Dhule District : Drainage 29 5 2.5 Dhule District : Soil Types 32 6 2.6 Dhule District : Land Use/ Land Cover 35 7 3.1 Dhule District : Medium Irrigation Projects 43 8 3.2 Dhule District : Tehsil wise Well Density 56 9 3.3 Flow Chart for Groundwater Potential Zone Map 59 10 3.4 Dhule District : Groundwater Potential Zones 60 11 4.1 Dhule District : Slope 66 12 4.2 Dhule District : Lineaments 67 13 4.3 Dhule District : Lineament Density 68 14 4.4 Dhule District : Geomorphology 73 15 4.5 Dhule District : Location of Observation Wells 76 16 4.6 Hydrogeomorphic Section-I Part 1/4 78 17 4.7 Hydrogeomorphic Section-I Part 2/4 79 18 4.8 Hydrogeomorphic Section-I Part 3/4 80 19 4.9 Hydrogeomorphic Section-I Part 4/4 81 20 4.10 Hydrogeomorphic Section-II Part 1/4 83 21 4.11 Hydrogeomorphic Section-II Part 2/4 84 22 4.12 Hydrogeomorphic Section-II Part 3/4 85 23 4.13 Hydrogeomorphic Section-II Part 4/4 86 24 4.14 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 1/5 88 25 4.15 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 2/5 89 26 4.16 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 3/5 90 27 4.17 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 4/5 91 28 4.18 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 5/5 92 29 4.19 Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV Part 1/2 95 30 4.20 Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV Part 2/2 96 31 4.21 Hydrogeomorphic Section-V 97 32 4.22 Hydrogeomorphic Section-VI 98 33 5.1 Dhule District : Morphological Classification 102 34 5.2 Flow Chart For Artificial Recharge Zones 104 35 5.3 Dhule District : Artificial Recharge Zones 107 36 6.1 Dhule District : P H 110 37 6.2 Dhule District : Electric Conductivity 111 38 6.3 Dhule District : Total Hardness 113 39 6.4 Dhule District : Fluoride 115 40 6.5 Dhule District : Sodium Absorption Ratio 117 41 6.6 Dhule District : Water Quality Index 120 42 6.7 Dhule District : Problems of Water Resources 125 43 6.8 Tehsil wise Frequency Curve of Annual Rainfall 128 44 6.9 River Linking No. 1 135 45 6.10 River Linking No. 2 135

LIST OF TABLES

Sr. Table Page Title of the Table No. No. No. Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum 3 2.1 25 Temperature at Dhule 4 2.2 Tehsil wise Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm) 26 5 2.3 Statistical Constants of Annual Rainfall 27 6 2.4 Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) at Dhule 28 7 2.5 Land use / Land Cover Pattern of Dhule District 35 8 3.1 Rivers at a glance – Dhule District 39 Salient Features of Medium Irrigation Projects in 9 3.2 42 Dhule District Tehsil wise distribution of Minor Irrigation Projects 10 3.3 45 in Dhule District 11 3.4 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall 48 12 3.5 Yield and Utilization of Water Resources 49 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule 13 3.6 51 District Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule 14 3.7 51 District 15 3.8 Agricultural water Requirement in Dhule District 52 Tehsil wise Live stock Water requirement in Dhule 16 3.9 54 District 17 3.10 Tehsil wise Distribution of wells 56 18 3.11 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps 58 19 3.12 Groundwater Potential Zones of Dhule District 61 20 3.13 Tehsil wise Groundwater Assessment 62 21 4.1 Area Under Slope in Dhule District 66 22 4.2 Hydrological Properties of Rocks and Sediments 71 23 4.3 Hydrogeomorphic Units of Dhule District 74 24 5.1 Area Under Morphological Zones in Dhule District 101 25 5.2 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps 105 26 5.3 Area Under Recharge Zones in Dhule District 106 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. S. I., I. 27 6.1 109 C. M. R. and W. H. O. Ground water classification based on Electric 28 6.2 111 Conductivity (EC) 29 6.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids 112 30 6.4 Distribution of Total Hardness 112 31 6.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate 113 Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride- 32 6.6 115 bearing Water 33 6.7 SAR Hazard of irrigation water 116 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO 34 6.8 119 Standards and Assigned Unit Weights Number of Villages in Different Water Quality 34 6.9 120 Index Classes 35 6.10 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water 122 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in 36 6.11 122 37 6.12 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years 127 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top 38 6.13 131 Rainwater Harvesting 39 6.14 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District 136

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS Photo Page Titles of the Photographs No. No. 1 Partially developed columnar joints near Louki, Shirpur Tehsil 153 2 Deeply weathered hill along NH3 in Shirpur Tehsil 153 Deeply weathered hill with angular fragmentation near Sangvi 3 153 village 4 Physical weathering through spheroidal exfoliation 154 5 Weathered parent rock along with sediment deposition. 154 Deposition of sand and yellow silt layers near 6 154 Karvand village in Shirpur tehsil. 7 Granular disintegration of Deccan basalt 155 Layers of Black cotton soil, deposition of fine sand and yellow 8 155 silt exposed during excavation for water conservation Red bole layer exposed due to conversion of NH-3 into four lane 9 155 highway in Shirpur tehsil. Very pale Red bole layer exposed in the bed of Panzara river near 10 156 Kudashi in Sakri tehsil. 11 Two tire Red bole layer in Satpura ranges along Bijasan ghat. 156 A thin layer of weathered rock with parent rock in dug well near 12 156 Kodid village in Shirpur tehsil. 13 A lined well with weathered rock material. 157 14 Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river. 157 Board showing command and area under Submergence of 15 157 Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river Lower Panzara medium irrigation project near Akkalpada village 16 158 in Dhule tehsil on the verge of completion. Aner medium irrigation project near Mahadeo Dondwada village 17 158 in Shirpur tehsil. 18 Kolhapur Type bund across Panzara river near Betavad 158 19 Loose boulder structure at Lamkani in Dhule tehsil 159 20 Cement bund constructed in Sakri tehsil. 159 Field pond constructed by Agriculture department in Dhule 21 159 tehsil 22 Field pond at Kundane village in Dhule tehsil 160 Continuous contour trenches constructed by Forest department in 23 160 Shirpur tehsil Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation 24 160 project conducted by Priyadarshani cotton mill in Shirpur tehsil. Well recharge at Bhatpura village under water conservation 25 project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, 161 Shirpur. Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation 26 project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, 162 Shirpur. A cement bund constructed across a stream under water 27 conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative 162 Cotton Mill, Shirpur. Gabion structure constructed by Priyadarshani Co-operative 28 163 Cotton Mill, Shirpur. Dissected agricultural land reclaimed during deepening and 29 163 widening of streams in Shirpur tehsil Lift irrigation from water conservation project constructed by 30 163 Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur. Joint forest management through Cooperative Society in 31 164 Lamkani village, Dhule tehsil. Deeping and widening of stream near Warul village in 32 164 Shindkheda tehsil. A Sign board showing details of water conservation work 33 164 completed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur. Continuous contour trenches for water conservation and 34 165 consequent vegetative growth in Lamkani, Dhule tehsil Rich forest growth due to soil and water conservation by efforts 35 165 of local people near Baripada, Sakri tehsil. Earthen bund and sediment deposition reclaimed for agriculture 36 165 in Baripada village, Sakri tehsil. A flex board displays details of conservation work and success 37 166 story of Baripada village, Sakri tehsil. Age old lined dug well dried up due to decreased water table near 38 166 Kurkhali village, Shirpur tehsil. A lined dug well became dry due to decreased water table in 39 166 Shirpur tehsil. 40 Percolation Tank , at Baripada. village, Sakri tehsil 167 41 A cement bund constructed at Baripada, Sakri tehsil. 167

LIST OF APPENDICES

Sr. Page Appendix No. Title of the Appendix No. No. Questionnaire 1 I 188 (Hydrogeomorphic Section of wells) 2 II Hydrogeomorphic Section-I 189 3 III Hydrogeomorphic Section-II 191 4 IV Hydrogeomorphic Section-III 193 5 V Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV 195 6 VI Hydrogeomorphic Section-V 196 7 VII Hydrogeomorphic Section-VI 197 8 VIII Results of Water Quality Analysis of Dhule Tehsil 198 9 IX Results of Water Quality Analysis of Sakri Tehsil 200 Results of Water Quality Analysis of Shindkheda 10 X 205 Tehsil Results of Water Quality Analysis of Shirpur 11 XI 208 Tehsil 12 XII Yield calculations for Dhule Tehsil 210 13 XIII Yield calculations for Sakri Tehsil 211 14 XIV Yield calculations for Shindkheda Tehsil 212 15 XV Yield calculations for Shirpur Tehsil 213

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1. µohm/cm Micron Ohm per Centimeter 2. b.g.l. Below Ground Level 3. BIS Bureau of Indian Standards 4. CCT Continuous Contour Trench 5. CGWB Central Ground Water Board 6. cum/day Cubic Meter per Day 7. DEM Digital Elevation Model 8. DRM District Resource Map 9. EC Electric Conductivity 10. GIS Geographical Information System 11. GPS Global Positioning System 12. GSDA Groundwater Survey Development Agency 13. GSI Geological Survey of Indian 14. ha. hector 15. ham. hector meter 16. ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research 17. IMD Meteorological Department 18. JFM Joint Forest Management 19. K. T. Weir Kolhapur Type Weir 20. Km. Kilometer 21. km/km 2 Kilometer per square Kilometer 22. Km 2 Square Kilometer 23. Km 3 Cubic Kilometer 24. lit/hr Liter per Hour 25. lps. Liter per Second 26. m meter 27. M.C. ft. Million Cubic Feet 28. M. Cu. M. Million Cubic Meter 29. mg/l milligrams per liter 30. msl Mean Sea Level 31. oC Degree Centigrade 32. SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio 33. SOI Survey of India 34. sq. km. Square Kilometer 35. TCM Thousand Cubic Meter 36. TDS Total Dissolved Solids 37. TH Total Hardness 38. WALMI Water And Land Management Institute 39. WHO World Health Organization 40. WQI Water Quality Index

CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION: Water is overriding need of living beings of our planet. It also determines the socio- economic development of the society. Air and water are the most vital components of life and are the supportive systems of the world. There are several disciplines that deal with various aspects of water. Hydrology is one of them. ‘Hydrology is the branch of scientific and engineering discipline that deals with occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of water on the earth (Han, Davei, 2010). According to P. Nag (2003), the science dealing with the waters of the earth, their distribution on the surface and underground and the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, flow to the seas etc. is known as Hydrology. In the broad sense, it is the study of water in all phases and includes hydraulics, the physics and the chemistry of the water, meteorology and various other allied sciences. Another discipline Hydrogeomorphology has been defined as, ‘An interdisciplinary science that focuses on the interaction and linkage of hydrologic processes with landforms or earth materials and the interaction of geomorphic processes with surface and subsurface water in temporal and spatial dimensions (Sidle and Onda, 2004).’ Hydrogeology is one of the branches of the earth science dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media .

Due to the increased trend of specialization by the end of 20 th century, the branch like ‘Water Resource Geography’ has come up along with many other branches and sub branches. As a result of technical development, increased use of water in different forms has led to quantitative and qualitative deterioration of water resources (Gurjar and Jat, 2008). Keeping this in view, ‘Association of American Geographers’ (AAG) has included Water Resource Geography as an independent branch of Geography. Water Resource Geography is the study of nature, spatial distribution, utilization and conservation of water on the earth. It consists of all the phenomenon of hydrological cycle that passes through all the sphere hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere on the earth (Gurjar and Jat, 2008). H. J. De Blij and Peter Muller (1993) considered Water Resource Geography as developed from Hydrology and Physical Geography. Many Indian scholars such as Dakshinamoorti (1972), Nag and Kathpalia (1972), K. L.Rao (1968), Suraj Bhan, Lakshmi Shukla and D. P. Nag have contributed for the development of this branch. Due to the rapid changes and expansion of the branches, it has included new fields such as quantitative and qualitative aspects of water, water-borne problems, water management in flood and drought prone areas, study of watershed, water conservation and artificial recharge (Gurjar and Jat, 2008).

Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis , gravity , mechanical pressure or surface tension . Water potential has proved useful especially in understanding water movement within aquifers, soil , plants and animals . Utilization of an aquifer implies the removal of sizable volumes of groundwater and it changes the aquifer's natural recharge and discharge patterns. Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural , industrial , household , recreational , power generation, transportation and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water . Surface water is that which is available in rivers, lake s or fresh water wetland s. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans , evaporation , evapotranspiration and sub-surface seepage. Hence the total quantity of water available at any given time and space is an important consideration.

Water is an essential and vital component of biosphere. Usage of surface and groundwater resources is being increased for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes due to rapid growth of population, urbanization, industrialization and agriculture activities. Hence groundwater resources are under stress. India possesses diversity in its topography, geology and climate which forms the varied geo-hydrological settings. The depth and type of the aquifers determines the chemical composition of the groundwater. Quality of groundwater is also influenced by anthropogenic factors (CGWB, 2010). There is a growing concern on the deterioration of groundwater quality due to geogenic (natural) and anthropogenic activities. Quality of water refers to the characteristics of water that will influence its suitability for a specific use. Quality is defined by certain physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.

Drought is temporary, recurring natural disaster, which arises due to the lack of precipitation and can bring significant economic losses. Droughts are observed in all the climatic zones with different characteristics. It differs from aridity. Though, Maharashtra is one of India's most prosperous states, recurring drought has maimed the state's economy, agricultural, livelihoods of millions and death of livestock. Droughts have been a part of our environment since the beginning of recorded history and survival of humanity may be testimony only to its capacity to endure this climatic phenomenon. The earth is often referred as the "blue planet" because water is widely distributed on this planet as freshwater and salty water in the oceans and lithosphere. Hydrosphere includes the total amount of water present in lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. About 1,384,120,000 km 3. water is found in different forms in the hydrosphere of which, 97.39 % found in the oceans and 2.61 % is as fresh water. The fresh water on the planet is also distributed unevenly. Nearly 77.23 % fresh water on the earth’s surface is locked in the snow caps and glaciers, 0.353% in rivers and lakes and 0.4 % of it occurs in the atmosphere Groundwater up to depth 0 to 0.8 km. accounts 9.86 % freshwater and 12.35 % below 0.8 km. Soil moisture, aquatic minerals, atmosphere and living being account 1.67 %, 0.001, 0.04 and 0.003% of fresh water respectively.

1.2 SELECTION OF STUDY AREA: Dhule district is selected as a study area on the basis of following unique features. ° Dhule district is located to the south of the Satpura ranges and north of Dhanora – Galna hills, the offshoots of the Sahyadri ranges. ° Dhule district is the part of Deccan Trap and Tapi Valley which is filled with recent alluvium. ° The district receives 592 mm of average annual rainfall. Hence the district belongs to the drought prone area of Maharashtra. ° It has non-perennial rivers with discharge only during monsoon season. ° Depth of weathering varies from north to south and south to north i. e. from the crest of mountain ranges to the river basins. ° The study area is characterized by numerous dykes and lineaments, which act as carrier or barriers for groundwater. ° Agriculture is main occupation of the people and near about 70% of working population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT: The present project work deals with occurrence, potential, quality and problems of water resources in Dhule district. Objectives of the project work are as follows: ° To assess the potential of groundwater. ° To assess the quality of groundwater. ° To study the problems of scarcity of drinking water. ° To find out the relationship between geological and geomorphological processes and availability of groundwater. ° To aware the people regarding methods of artificial recharge. ° To suggest the potential areas for artificial recharge in the study area. ° To suggest different methods of artificial recharge.

1.4 SOURCES OF DATA: Any kind of research work requires numerical data from various origins, from which one may calculate, correlate various factors and draw conclusions. It is, therefore, essential to collect the data related to the study area on which the research work is to be carried out. Study of water resources in Dhule district requires two kinds of data i.e. primary and secondary. Primary data includes information regarding water tables in the different seasons, depth of wells, sources of drinking water, thickness of soil, alluvium, weathered profile and hard rock. Photographs related to the alluvial deposition, depth of weathering, irrigation projects, various measures of water conservation, tube wells and dug wells are taken to support the primary data. Samples of water from various places were collected for chemical analysis. Topographic maps of Survey of India (SOI) forms the base for study any region from geographic point of view. Most of the maps are prepared with the help of Topographic maps e.g. location, relief, drainage, vegetation etc. Geological map of the study area published by Geological Survey of India (GSI) is very useful for understanding geological formations, lineaments, dykes etc. Groundwater Survey and Development Agency (GSDA), Dhule also has provided valuable information and data regarding groundwater table, fluctuations of water table, location of observation wells, quality of groundwater. The salient features of medium, minor projects within the district were made available from various agencies such as Zilla Parishad, Department of Irrigation and GSDA Dhule etc. Intensive field work was carried out by the researcher in number of visits in the months of May and June 2009. During this field work 114 dug wells and tube wells were observed in six cross profile covering 493.3 km. distance. The research scholar has visited the sites of Artificial Recharge to collect data for the research work. These sites are Priydarshiini Sahkari Cotton Industry, Tande in Shirpur tehsil, Lamkani in Dhule tehsil and Baripada in Sakri tehsil. 1.5 METHODOLOGY: In order to attain the desired aims and objectives of the project works following methods were adopted.

1.5.1 Literature Review: It is necessary to take an overview of the research work related to the topic. The investigator visited Jaykar Library University of Pune, Water and Land Management Institute Aurangabad, Library of North Maharashtra University Jalgaon, Groundwater Survey and Development Agency Dhule, Library of Z. B. Patil College Dhule. The literature regarding irrigation and groundwater is made available in the libraries of Agriculture College, Dhule and Directorate, Groundwater Survey and Development Agency, Pune. The investigator has also gone through research journals, books, magazines, news papers and web sites for the study of project work. It also proves useful as the recent development in the concerned topic. While scanning the literature, the investigator has collected various kinds of secondary data regarding population, area under crops, and area under irrigation number of wells and tube wells, live stock population, salient features of various irrigation projects, water conservation structures and climatic data as follows: i. District Statistical Abstract ii. Census Handbook iii. Journals of well reputed research institutions iv. Standard reference books v. Reports published by Central and State Government Authorities vi. Websites related to the research topic vii. G.S.D.A., Dhule and Pune viii. Department of Forest, Govt. of Maharashtra ix. Dhule District Gazetteer x. Irrigation Department, Zilha Parishad, Dhule xi. Department of Agricultural, Govt. of Maharashtra xii. S.O.I. Toposheet, Land Sat Imageries xiii. India Meteorological Department, Pune xiv. Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI), Aurangabad. 1.5.2 Field Work: The pilot survey of the study area was performed in the month of October 2008 by the investigator. In order to get detailed information regarding water tables during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season as well as depth of weathering, alluvial deposition, depths of wells, intensive field work was carried out in number of visits. Total six cross profiles (Hydrogeomorphic Section) in the north south direction were selected from the ranges of the Satpura to the ranges of Dhanora and Galna across Tapi and Panzara rivers. In all 114 wells were observed in May 2007. The total length of these six sections is 493.3 km. The details of the cross profiles are given below as:

I. Hydrogeomorphic Section I : Nandale - Borkund – Junavane – Borvihir – Velhane – Anchale – Chinchkheda – Kalkheda – Ajang – Ambode – Navari – Mohadi – Kauthal – Kancharpur – Walkheda – Betavad – Padhavad – Manjrod – Holnanthe – Babhalaj – Taradi – Hisale – Mahadev Dondvade – Bhoiti – Khamkheda. II. Hydrogeomorphic Section II : Purmepada – Arvi – Avdhan – Dhule 1- Dhule 2 – Dhule 3 – Dhule 4- Dhule 5 – Nagaon – Dhandhane – Devbhane – Songir – Jamfal Lake – Pimparkhed – Nardana – Pimprad – Gavane – Varshi – Dabhashi – Savalda – Kurkhali – Shirpur 1- Shirpur 2 - Shirpur 3 - Dahivad 1- Dahivad 2 - Dahivad Suger Factory – Sule – Hadakhed – Sangavi – Panakhed – Palasaner 1 – Palasaner -2. III. Hydrogeomorphic Section III : Chougaon – Kusumba 1 – Kusumba 2 – Mehergaon – Chinchawar – Lamkani 1 – Lamkani 2 – Shewade – Degaon – Anjan vihire – Mandal – Dondaicha 1 – Dondaicha 2 – Dhawade – Vikharan – Jogshelu – Dalwade – Virdel – Amalthe – Varpade – Chandpuri – Arthe – Kuwa – Wadi 1 – Wadi 2 – Boradi – Budki – Waghpada - Gadhaddev. IV. Hydrogeomorphic Section IV : Chhadwel 1 –Chhadwel 2 - Nijampur 1 – Nijampur 2 - Jaitane – Raipur - Shewali fata – Shewali – Dhamnar – Behed – Vitai. V. Hydrogeomorphic Section V : Shelbari - Deshshirvade - Pimpalner – Samode – Ghodade 1 – Ghodade 2 – Dahivel 1 – Dahivel 2 – Bardipada. VI. Hydrogeomorphic Section VI : Shiwarimal – Jamkheli – Tembe – Kalikhet – Kudashi - Bopkhel. In addition to the field work, photographs of the weathering, alluvial deposition, various sites of artificial groundwater recharge and conservation of water have been taken into consideration. Several field visits to villages involving eco-developmental activities such as Baripada Sakri tehsil, Lamkani Dhule tehsil, Bharwade, Ahilyapur, Bhorkheda Shirpur tehsil helped me to understand various techniques used for artificial recharge and conservation of water and their quantitative aspect.

1.5.3 Laboratory Work : Laboratory work involves preparation of various maps. Various base maps are prepared from the Survey of India Toposheets such as location, physiography, drainage etc. The soil map is based on district planning map, while geology of the district collected from District Resource Map made available by Geological Survey of India (2001). The water samples were analyzed in the college laboratory and some results were available from GSDA. Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the data obtained from water quality analysis. The calculation of Water Quality Index was made using Weighed Arithmetic Index Method (Brown et al, 1972). In order to measure surface runoff Ingliss Formula (1930) is adopted. For Land use/Land cover map IRS-P3 FCC satellite image was used to collect the signatures as the input raster file. The Maximum Likelihood Parametric Rule Method was used to classify the pixel groups. It was performed by means of supervised classification with ERDAS Imagine 9.2. Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2,3,4 false color image and regenerated map data has been used for preparation of various thematic maps like base map, geology map, drainage map, geomorphology map, slope map, soil map, lineament, lineament density and land use/ land cover map of the study area. These thematic maps were integrated using weighted overlays extension in Arc GIS software to generate Groundwater Potential Zone map. Vector data of channel network, watershed boundary vector data, digital elevation model (DEM) and slope raster data were used in ARC-GIS raster calculator to separate the study area in runoff, recharge and storage zones. Lineaments were extracted from the District Resource map prepared by Geological Survey of India (2001). Kernel Density calculates the density of linear features in the neighborhood of each output raster cell. Artificial recharge zones in the study area ware delineated using various thematic maps such as base map, geology, geomorphology, soil, land use/land cover, lineament, drainage, slope and contour maps. They were generated through conventional field methods using the Survey of India (SOI) toposheets and IRS LISS-III imagery digital data. The thematic maps were converted into the vector format using digitization in Arc GIS and ERDAS software. The appropriate weightage and ranks were assigned to the themes and units depending upon their influence over recharge. Then these maps were integrated to delineate potential zones for artificial recharge using overlay technique in Geographic information system (GIS). The investigator has used the data of annual rainfall of four tehsils for rainfall analysis for 106 years (1901 TO 2006). Statistical constants were calculated using online Eassyfit Software. To procure Drought Probability, first of all, total data was classified into nine classes at the interval of 150 mm. Then Gamma distribution is applied to calculate probabilities and estimated frequencies of drought, normal, moderate and high rainfall years. The data collected during fieldwork was calculated and analysed, interpreted and represented in the form of tables, diagrams, maps with the help of various cartographic techniques. At the end, writing of the detailed reports was performed in the laboratory.

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW: The study of water resources in the present and future context is of great importance because of changes in the population, land-use and cropping pattern. Awareness amongst the geographers, planners and water resources scientists to study the potentiality, availability, development and management of water resources has been increasing in last two decades. Countless studies related to the different aspects of the water resources have been carried out in the country and abroad. There are several references in the ancient, medieval and modern literature regarding occurrence, quantity, quality, utilization, management and conservation of water resources. From last two decades of the previous century, issues related to water resources have been attracted economist, planners, hydrologist, geologist, geographers, Environmentalist and journalists too. Numbers of branches of knowledge are engaged in the study and research of various aspects of water. It is because the study of water resource is interdisciplinary in nature. The significant contribution of scholars from various branches is summarized under as follows: Such as Groundwater Potential, Remote Sensing and Water Resources, Geomorphic Factors, Geology and Water Resources, Water Quality, Water Quality Index, Utilization and Management of Water Resources, Water Conservation, Artificial Recharge, Problems of Water Resources. 1.6.1 Groundwater Potential: In order to search out water resources various techniques have been adopted by the scholars. Initially groundwater investigation depended on facts and figures collected during field survey, geomorphology, geology, geophysics and morphometric analysis of watershed. Such techniques were used by Deolankar(1980), Singhal (1997) , Panda and Ray (2000), Al- Daghastani (2003), Subhash Chandra et al (2006), Mishra (2006), Mishra and Kumra (2007), Foster et al (2007) , Ballukraya and Kalimuthu (2010). Vincent (1979) studied the occurrence of groundwater in the Satpura hill region of Central India and he concluded that topographical location and fractures are the predominant factors affecting well yields in all the rocks types. Joshi (1979) studied alluvium as natural store of water and he is of the opinion that alluvium is like a bank vault and water is stored up like money. According to Deolankar (1980) the Deccan traps are hydrogeologicaly anisotropic and heterogeneous in nature and the aquifers of limited extend suggest the localized the accumulation of groundwater. Singhal (1997) emphasized geophysical investigation; lithological mapping of different flow units, fractures trace and lineament mapping helped considerably in the success of water and well drilling in Deccan traps. Panda and Ray (2000) mentioned that since groundwater occurrence is a subsurface phenomenon, its assessment can be inferred from the hydrogeomorphological units. Al-Daghastani (2003) studied water harvesting using morphometric analysis and GIS techniques and reported that one of the purposes of fluvial morphometric analysis is to derive information in quantitative form about to Geometry of the fluvial system that can be co-related with hydrological information. Zade Mohan et al (2005) remarked that runoff is an indication of availability of water. Thus, in situ measurement of runoff is useful, however, in most cases such measurement is not possible at the desired time and location as conventional techniques of runoff measurement are expensive, time consuming and difficult. Therefore, runoff rainfall models are commonly used for computing runoff. Ravi Shankar and Mohan (2005) assessed groundwater potential and quality of Bhatsa and Kalu river basins of Western Deccan Volcanic Province. Mishra and Kumra (2007) reported that remote sensing data and aerial photographs are very significant sources for hydrogeomorphological mapping. Foster et al (2007) observed that there is one part Maharashtra State which possesses a major alluvial aquifer i. e. the Tapi Gurnial ‘Tectonic Graben’ which runs approximately west-east in the north eastern part of Maharashtra. He further adds that the total available storage of groundwater in hard rock aquifers is limited by their weathering characteristics and water bearing properties. Mondal et al (2008) carried out the study of complex terrains comprising fluvial, denudational and structural geomorphic units have intricate relation among the various terrain parameters controlling groundwater regimes, which is difficult to evaluate. He also reported that geomorphic information system has engaged as a powerful tool for analyzing and qualifying such multivariate aspects of groundwater occurrence. It is very helpful in delineation of groundwater prospect and deficit zones (Carver 1991, Goyal et al 1999) (Sankar, 2002). Mondal et al (2008) mentioned that presence of lineament acts as a conduit for groundwater movement which results in increased secondary porosity and therefore can serve as groundwater prospective zone. Similarly intersection of lineaments can also be probable site of groundwater accumulation. 1.6.2 Remote Sensing and Water Resources: The studies on water resources and its uses are undergoing significant changes. Use of Geographic Information System, Satellite Images, Remote Sensing Data and Aerial Photographs are playing crucial role in groundwater investigation. These techniques are proved more successful than the previous ones. Jothi Prakash et al (2003) have been delineated potential zones for artificial recharge using GIS. Bahuguna et al (2003) evaluated groundwater prospective zones in basaltic terrain using Remote Sensing technique. Mishra and Kumra (2007) have studied hydrogeomorphological features and their prospectus for groundwater exploration in Chandraprabha basin (UP) using remote sensing and GIS. Mondal et al (2008) mentioned that satellite images are increasingly used in groundwater exploration because their utility in identifying various ground features, which may serve as either direct or indirect indicators of presence of groundwater (Bahuguna et al 2003, Das et al 1997). Sargaonkar et al (2011) have been identified potential sites for artificial groundwater recharge using G.I.S. Pradeep Kumar et al (2010) delineated groundwater potential zones using remote sensing and GIS in Andhra Pradesh. 1.6.3 Geomorphic Factors, Geology and Water Resources: Initially morphometric analysis and geomorphic factors were used to target groundwater but now a days; the modern techniques like Remote Sensing, GIS and interpretation of aerial photographs are being used. Some of the scholars have examined and correlated various geomorphic factors to target groundwater resources. According to Deolankar S. B. (1980) the basaltic flow contains variable quantities of groundwater in vesicles, joints and weathered capping. On the basis of their structural and hydrological properties the Deccan basalt can be grouped in to five classes namely vesicular basalt, amygdaloidal basalt, fractured jointed basalt, compact basalts and weathered basalts. Larkin and Sharp (Jr.) (1992) studied relationship between river basin geomorphology, aquifer hydraulics and groundwater flow direction in alluvial aquifers. Pakhmode et al (2003) accounted that groundwater storage; its movement and recharge absolutely depend on hydrological characteristics of hard rock. Subhash Chandra (2006) stated that geomorphological expression alone cannot reveal the groundwater potential associated with lineament. He also studied characterization of lineament used to locate groundwater potential zones in hard rock region of Karnataka. Mishra (2006) observed regional geomorphic features and their significance in groundwater resources inventory using remote sensing and revealed that remote sensing data can be used as a powerful data base with co-junction of ground data and selective field checks for regional geomorphological investigation. Mishra and Kurma (2007) concluded that study of geomorphic features may provide better clues for groundwater exploration and as such it may be quite beneficial for the people of any region. Thapa et al (2008) has used study of morphotectonics and hydrology for groundwater prospecting using Remote Sensing and GIS Himachal Pradesh. Mondal et al (2008) evaluated groundwater prospectus based on hydrogeomorphological mapping using high Resolution Images in Uttarakhand. Ballukraya and Kalimuthu (2010) have been quantitatively correlated hydrogeomorphological and geomorphological parameters with groundwater availability. Nagarale (2010) demarcated groundwater potential zones using geomorphology. 1.6.4 Water Quality: Pattern of utilization is controlled by the quality of water resources. Numerous scholars have carried out studies in connection with water quality. According to Sinha (1998) water is being vulnerable to organic, toxic, bacteriological contamination in the developing societies such as ours. Water quality surveillance and monitoring have become highly imperative to prevent water borne diseases to control pollution. Domestic sewage, waste water disposal sites of industry, application of fertilizers and pesticides are chiefly responsible for groundwater pollution. It has been observed that properly treated industrial waste water and domestic sewage when applied rates over a long period is harmful to soil and crops. As per the news in ‘Statesman’ (23 rd November 2002) the Union Minister for Rural Development stated that 200000 villages have safe drinking water supply and though 217000 villages have supply of water but that is not fit for drinking in India . Palanisamy et al (2007) revealed that the quality of groundwater depends on various chemical constituents and their concentration, which are mostly derived from the geological data of the particular region. Subba Rao et al (2010) reported that in India only 12% of people get facility of good drinking water. Chidambaram et al (2010) accounted the impact of land-use pattern on the groundwater quality in and around Madurai. 1.6.5 Water Quality Index ( WQI ): Water Quality Index is the modern means and in brief way, it can express water quality. Sisodiya and Moundiotiya (2006) remarked that water quality indexes are among those affective ways to communicate the information on water quality trends to the general public or to the policy makers and water quality management. Garg and Hassan (2007) reported that water quality situation may be much warm from the point of view of the deteriorating ground and surface water. Asadi et al (2007) co-related water quality and the existing land use type to identify the problematic zones. According to Ashwini Kumar and Dua (2009), there are some limitations of water quality index, but there are more advantages of Water Quality Index than disadvantages. Yogendra and Puttaiah (2008) suggested that an application of water quality index techniques for the overall assessment of the water quality of a water body is useful tool. According to Kumar and Dua (2009) the objective of water quality index is to turn complex water quality data into information i.e. understandable and usable by the public. Subba Rao et al (2010) opined that water quality index indicates the quality of in terms of index number which represents overall quality of water. He defined it as the composite influence of different water quality parameters which were taken into consideration for the calculation of water quality index. He appealed that application of water quality index is a useful method in assessing the suitability of water for various beneficial uses. 1.6.6 Utilization of Water Resources: Consumption of considerable quantity of groundwater or surface water is referred as utilization. India receives 117 cm of rainfall annually. Though monsoon rainfall is uneven, uncertain and unreliable; water resources are available profusely in many areas. If aquifers are over exploited that leads to the realization that we must change our pattern of consumption. Panda and Ray (2000) reported that monsoon is non-uniform in both time and space. As a result of which in one part protective irrigation is necessary for the growth of agricultural during monsoon. Foster et al (2007) accounted that the drought prone interior of Maharashtra state is especially dependent on groundwater resources for both rural drinking supply and for subsistence as well as commercial irrigated agriculture. Garg and Hassan (2007) have reviewed and analyzed various studies on utilizable water flow from surface to groundwater. 1.6.7 Management of Water Resources: Water Resource Management aims at optimizing the available natural water flows, including surface water and groundwater to satisfy these competing needs. In many parts of the world the margin between water supply and demand is narrowing day by day. Scarcity and miss-use of fresh water are posing real threats for sustainable development and protection of environment. Hence, study of management of water resources is of utmost importance. Kamraju et al (1996) concluded that GIS with its capabilities of map overlying, reclassification, proximity analysis and other mathematical operations can help to carry out criteria based analysis and groundwater resources of an area can be more efficiently managed utilizing GIS techniques. Singhal (1997) suggested that the dug-cum-bore wells are more successful as they tap the deeper aquifers and therefore it can be a source of assured water supply in drought periods. Hanumanta Rao (2002) remarked that technology, public policy and institutions concerning water use hold key to raising water productivity by bridging the vast gap that now exists between knowledge and applications. Sreedevi et al (2005) is of view that watershed development and management plans are more important for harvesting surface water and groundwater resources in arid and semiarid regions. According to Sawant and Gaonkar (2007) the participation of people in the watershed development programme has no doubt, brought environmental awareness amongst community but also increased economic status of people. Chaudhary et al (2008) have prepared integrated water resource development plan for sustainable management using Remote Sensing and GIS. Saxena and Prasad (2008) have studied integrated land and water resources conservation and management development plan using Remote sensing and GIS of Chevella basin, Ranga Reddy district(AP). They stated water resource development plan has been prepared on the basis of integration of information on hydrogeomorphological characteristics, surface water availability, land use/ land cover, drainage, present status of groundwater utilization and needs of water in the study area. Subba Rao et al (2010) opined that inadequate management of water resources as directly or indirectly resulted in the degradation of hydrological environment (Karanth, 1989). 1.6.8 Water Conservation: Uneven distribution of ground and surface water, increasing demands, overuse, misuse and pollution has stimulated a serious problem of water scarcity. Water conservation is only solution of all problems of water resources. Water conservation is beneficial reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water quality. According to Joshi (1979) the scenario in our country looks pretty grim and Herculean efforts are needed on the part of individuals, society and government to tackle the problem. Singhal (1997) observed that recharge by percolation (infiltration) tanks is an ancient practice of water conservation in the hard rock formation of Central and South India. Pakhmode et al (2003) says that increasing groundwater recharge constitutes one of the principle objectives of water shed development programme because many parts of India face acute shortage of groundwater resources on which rural livelihood depends. Shankar et al (2004) with evidence from palaeo-climatology, archeological and historical records shows that man responds to scarcity of water in a variety of ways. This includes strategies of water conservation, rainwater harvesting and inevitable migration. Garg and Hassan (2007) have emphasized the necessity of an urgent shift in existing groundwater policy from further exploitation to augmentation. Das et al (2010) has discussed techniques of groundwater recharge for Deccan trap aquifer formation. 1.6.9 Artificial Recharge: The method which is particularly useful in augmenting drinking water availability is artificial recharge, especially in the rural areas. Brown and Signor (1974) stated that the objective of artificial recharge is to get the maximum quality of liquids injected with minimum expense and minimum impact on the environment. Ram Bilas (1980) has mentioned that precipitation is the main source of groundwater recharge in the area and occurs almost wholly during the rainy season when evapotranspiration losses are comparatively small and soil moisture is maintain more or less at field capacity. Singhal (1997) has studied artificial recharge of groundwater in hard rock’s with special reference to India. He added that the purpose of sub-surface dam is to check the overflow of groundwater from sub-basin there by raising the groundwater storage on the upstream sides. Saraf and Chaudhary (1998) have explored groundwater and identified artificial recharge sites. According to Pakhmode et al (2003) sites for recharge and runoff harvesting in watershed development programmes in India are selected on an ‘adhoc’ basis or based solely on topographic consideration. Recharge sites are particularly poorly sited either because the rock surface permeability of the substrate is not considered or because sites are often located in natural groundwater discharge areas. From his viewpoint drainage analysis values form useful tool in selecting such sites because they provided comparative indices of the rock surface in various part of drainage basin. Ravi Shankar and Mohan (2005) have identified sites specific artificial recharge techniques in the Deccan volcanic province based on hydro- geomorphology. Garg and Hassan (2007) suggested that water supplies must augment with traditional approaches of water conservation locally, in addition to big projects. Saxena and Prasad (2008) recommended that water harvesting should be given importance to avoid the wastage of runoff water. It will also increase the groundwater recharge bridge providing supplementary irrigation during rabbi. Bhalchandar et al (2010) observed that groundwater condition in hard rock terrain is multivariate due to the heterogeneous nature of aquifer owing to the varying composition. He also added that identification of artificial recharge sites is interdependent on various parameters like geomorphology, lithology, lineaments, density, slope, soil etc. 1.6.10 Problems Related to Water Resources: There are several problems which whip up due to seasonal availability, over withdrawal, flooding, quality of water, limited measures for conservation of available water and limited space in the aquifers within study area. Limaye and Limaye (1994) reported that the future risk to groundwater resources in the basalt of is likely to occur in sub-basin in which groundwater pumpage for irrigation use has increased considerably in the past two decades. Pakhmode et al (2003) concluded that land use intensification and population growth in India have resulted in increasing use of groundwater for various activities. Increase in water use has affected both surface and groundwater supplies with many areas of the countries clearly showing sign acute water crises. Shankar at el (2004) stated that issues related to water attracts considerable attention in all of spheres of life in India. He further stated that the problem of water resources is more acute today owing to the manifold increases in need for water over the last five decades. The green revolution in the 1960s led to another major increase in the use of water in growing the new hybrid crops. Bharat et al (2007) reported that water resources are extremely sensitive and once degraded would take hundreds and even thousands of years to revive. Foster et al (2007) stated that despite generally very limited potential, these recourses are very intensively exploited, but such development has encountered significant problem. Garg and Hassan (2007) concluded that almost all basins will become water deficit and it rises may be question upon the availability of water through inter-basin transfers. According to Limaye (2010) recently due to ever increasing number of dug wells and bore wells, the water table has been falling in several watersheds, especially in those lying in the semi-arid region of the Deccan traps, so that now the emphasis has shifted from development to management.

1.7 ARRANGEMENT OF TEXT: The entire project work has been divided into six chapters. The First chapter contains the introduction, the importance of water resources, selection of the study area, aims and objectives, hypothesis, methodology adopted, sources of data, review of the literature and arrangement of the text. The environmental profile of the study area influencing the hydrological regions, their effects on the run-off behavior and development of water resources have been taken into account in the Second chapter . The Third chapter depicts surface and groundwater resources within the study area. It also includes calculation of the yield of rainfall, utilization of water and groundwater abstract. In the Fourth chapter the investigator has worked out the impact of geomorphic factors on water resources of the Dhule district. In the Fifth chapter an efforts have been made to delineate Potential Zones for Artificial Recharge and Morphological classification of the study area. Quality of water, Problems and Management of Water Resources has been analyzed in Sixth chapter. Findings of the project work, discussions, conclusions and suggestions have been arranged in the concluding Seventh chapter . Bibliography, appendices, questionnaire, photographs and published research paper are appended at the end.

CHAPTER: - 2

ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

The known ancient name of this region was Rasika. Later it came to be called as Seunadesa after King Seunchandra of the Early Yadava dynasty, who ruled over it. This province became the part of the Mughal Empire in 1601, during the regime of Akbar. Its name was changed to Khandesh to suit the title Khan, which was given to the Faruqi Kings by Ahmad-I of . In the 18th century Dhule came under the Maratha regime and finally in 1818, taken over by the British. Subsequently, in 1906 the region was divided in to East and West Khandesh.

After Independence, in 1956 the Indian provinces were recognized, the district of West Khandesh became part of bilingual state of Bombay. Subsequently on 21 st October 1960 the West Khandesh district was renamed as Dhulia district with Dhulia as it’s headquarter. Thereafter, on 15 th August 1998 Dhulia district was divided into Dhule and Nandurbar districts respectively.

2.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT:

Dhule district is located in the north-western corner of the Maharashtra State. (Fig. No. 2.1) It extends between 20 038’ to 21 038’ north latitude and 74 052’ to 75 011’ east longitude. Dhule district covers an area of 8063.11 sq. km., which is 2.62% of the geographical area of the Maharashtra state. It stretches 108 km. from west to east and 112 km. from south to north direction. The area of the district is represented in Survey of India degree sheets No. 46K, 46L, 46O, 46G and 46H on the scale of 1:2,50,000. The study area is bordered by district of the to the north, to east, Nasik district to the south, to west and Dang district of Gujarat state touches the south-western corner. According to the 2001 census, Dhule district had 678 inhabited villages and 17, 07,947 souls were residing within the district. Percentage of the rural population was 73.89 % while 26.11% people were living in the urban areas.

2.3 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

Physiographically the study area is the part of the Deccan Plateau. It is located in the middle of Tapi basin. The study region represents unique topographical features and landforms. This region is characterized by mountain chain, hill ranges, valleys, dykes, lineaments, a belt of fertile alluvial deposits, pediment plain, eroded river banks etc. The highest point within the district is spot height 1291 m. from msl. (20 0 50’ 45” N latitude and 74 0 4’ 7” E longitude) west of Mangi Tungi peaks. While the lowest elevation is 109 m. from msl. (21 025’26”N latitude, 74 031’51”E longitude) along Tapi river near village Takarkheda in Shindkheda tehsil. The physical features of the district can be grouped under four broad divisions as follows:

2.3.1 Satpura Ranges:

The Satpura is a broad belt of mountain land stretching in a wall-like manner on the northern side of river Tapi. North and north-eastern part of the Shirpur tehsil is covered by the Satpura Ranges. Satpura hills are regarded as structural uplift or horst. They have flat tops and composed partly of Deccan lava and partly of granite (Mamoria, 1975). The Satpura is a chain of mountains with an average height of 600 m and width of 35 to 45 km within the study area. Babakuvar (811 m.) (21 035’34”N latitude, 74 054’48”E longitude) is the highest peak in Satpura ranges within the study area. Southern slopes of the Satpura ranges are characterized by the presence of pediment belt at the foothills, which is the result of denudational processes and subsequent recession of the outer range. Countless streams flow down to the Tapi river system and deposits fine and coarse material.

2.3.2 Alluvial Plain of Tapi River:

In the past Satpura hills were experienced much faulting and given rise to deep gorges or structural troughs like that of Tapi (Mamoria, 1975). This is a rift valley filled with the sediments brought by Tapi river and her tributaries. It has a narrow river valley with width about 12 to 16 km. and a length of 60 km. in the district. Spot height of 140 m. has learnt where Tapi river enters Dhule District and minimum height is 109 m. along the western boundary. Tapi valley accounts about 15% area of the district. The banks of Tapi river and its tributaries are severely eroded and so highly dissected. Hence it had lost its agricultural importance previously but now a days it is being reclaimed for agricultural purposes due to population pressure. On the other hand outer zone of alluvial belt is less eroded and therefore much intensively cultivated.

2.3.3 Dhanora and Galna Hills:

Sahyadri hills bound the district from south-west without any outstanding peak. Galna Hills are offshoots of the Sahyadri. They reach their maximum height of

1291m. and 1290 m. to the south of village Shenvad in Sakri tehsil. The height of these hills gradually decreases eastwards up to just 600 m. south of Dhule city. Here they are relatively more barren with flat plateau tops, which increase in extent eastwards. North to the Galna hills there are several minor spurs of the Sahyadri and these along with innumerable dykes which separate the valleys of different tributary streams of the Tapi.

2.3.4 Deccan Plateau / Upland Region:

Major part of the study area in Sakri, Shindkheda, Dhule and Shirpur tehsils is occupied by the Deccan plateau. This region is composed of several lava flows during Late Cretaceous to Lower Eocene Period. It exhibits rugged and undulating topography. Several dykes are observed running mostly in the east-west direction. Elevation of this zone varies from 250 m. to 650 m. in Shindkheda, Dhule and Sakri tehsils. North and north-eastern part of Shirpur tehsil is also composed of Deccan plateau with an altitude of 200 to 400 m. 2.4 GEOLOGY:

Two different geological formations have been discovered in the study area. Major part of the district is occupied by the ‘Deccan Basalt/Traps’ of the Late Cretaceous to Lower Eocene Period. (Fig. No. 2.3) W. H. Sykes used the term ‘Deccan Traps’ ( Trappa means stair in Swedish) in 1833 to designate step-like topography of the volcanic terrain of the Deccan Region (Kale and Gupta, 2002). And ‘Deccan’ or a sanskrit word ‘Dakshin’ means south or southern. It is the result of the voluminous outpouring of the lava flow over vast areas. The basaltic lava flows are ‘Pahoehoe’ and ‘aa’ types. Pahoehoe type of flow comprises vesicular part with pipe Amygdaloidal, middle massive part and top vesicular part with spherical vesicles. While ‘aa’ flows are massive with fragmentary top and impersistent clinkary base. The Basaltic lava flow in the study area to south and north of Tapi river is grouped under Sahyadri Group and Satpura Group. The Sahyadri Group consists of Salher, Lower Ratangarh and Upper Ratangarh formations. Salher formation is exposed around Sakri and Pimpalner along with Panzara river over distance of about 50 km. Satpura Group within district comprises 18 to 21 lava flows. The thickness of this lava flow ranges from15 to 40 m. The district is characterized by numerous dykes as a result of large scale intrusive activities (Geological Survey of India, 2001). Deccan Basalt formed of main minerals like plagioclase, feldspar, Labradorite, Pyroxene and Augite.

The Deccan volcanic province is associated with several continent-scale and smaller rift zones, namely, the west coast belt, the E–W-trending Narmada–Satpura–Tapi graben– horst–graben system, the Cambay and Kutch rifts. These rift basins run along major Precambrian tectonic trends in the ancient Indian shield and formed at different times during the Mesozoic period and are thus important Mesozoic marginal-marine basins (Seth, 1999). According to some geologist the two zones of thermal springs – one in Konkan and the other at the foot of the Satpura ranges are manifestation of tectonic activities in these areas (Kale and Gupta, 2002).

Second geological unit is the ‘Recent Alluvium’ which occurs along the course of Tapi river. The Tapi-Purna valley, an east-west furrow in the Deccan table land, extends over a distance of more than 300 km. It is filled with the sediments such as clay, silt, sand, pebbles brought by Tapi and its tributaries. (Photo Nos. 6 and 8) Height of this plain ranges between 150 m. to 300 m. from msl. This valley is asymmetrical in cross-profile and is filled with alluvium. In Tapi-Purna Valley the deposits are about 400 m. thick (Kale and Gupta, 2002). The thickness of alluvium at places is found to be more than 350 m. (Khanapurkar, 2010). It stands in sharp contrast to the barren Deccan plateau in the south and the Satpura hills in the north. It has narrow river valley with width of about 12 to 16 km. and a length of 60 km. within the district. The valley and large plains associated with it are drained by a number of parallel tributaries, which join the main river at right angles, though in a few cases a downstream bend close to the Tapi is observed. It shows structural control on drainage pattern.

Lineaments: Lineaments are linear, curvilinear or rectilinear feature of tectonic origin (Balachandar, 2010). The lineament map of Dhule district is based on District Resource Map of Geological Survey of India, 2001. Presence of numerous lineaments, faults, dykes and alluvial fills shows that the district is tectonically disturbed. It is observed that in the district lineaments have NE-SW trend which is major, followed by NW-SE. A few lineaments have N-S and E-W trend. The Tapi lineaments define the northern boundary of the Purna alluvium and cuts across the Deccan trap lava flows in the west. This lineament marks a pronounced fault that defines the southern margin of the Satpura Horst. These lineaments represent fractures in lava flow.

Red Bole: Red Bole is the most common layer and discovered in the Deccan trap formation. This layer is reddish brown in colour, consists of hydrothermally baked angular fragmented of weathered basalts. It separates two basaltic flows. Thickness of this layer ranges from 0.5 to 3 m. (Geological Survey of India, 1976). In the study area Red Boles are observed along the foot hills of Satpura ranges in Shirpur tehsil (Photo Nos. 9 and 11). and in Panzara river basin near village Kudashi of Sakri tehsil (Photo No. 10).

Dykes: The dykes are very common in Deccan Volcanic Province. West (1959), after wide survey of these dyke rocks, has come to the conclusions that they are found mainly to the western outcrops of Deccan Basalts and along the faulted Tapi and Narmada Valleys as well as in the Gondwana basins. Dyke is a fissure eruption of the cretaceous age. The Dykes are doleritic, basaltic and gabbroic in composition in the study area. The Dyke stands for a narrow elongated and linear ridges or sometimes valleys. Occurrence of the chain of the dykes is interesting feature within the district. These dykes are running WSW to ENE, N to S and NE to SW direction to the south of Tapi river. The dykes are very long in Dhule and Sakri tehsils. A very long dyke near about 80 km. in length runs parallel to the southern course of the Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsils.

2.5 CLIMATE:

Being a part of Indian Sub-continent, Dhule district experiences monsoon type of climate. The district as a whole remains dry except south-west monsoon season. As far as the study area is concerned, the year can be divided into four seasons as following:

1) March to May – The Hot Season 2) June to September – Monsoon Season 3) October to January– Winter Season 4) February to May – Summer Season Due to absence of meteorological observatory in the district, the climatic data is made available from Agricultural College, Dhule and other sources. Temperature, rainfall, humidity, evaporation and wind speed are important elements of the climate. 2.5.1 Temperature: The table No. 2.1 exhibits the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperature at Dhule station. October and November act as transitional period between monsoon and winter season. Due to October heat mean monthly maximum temperature touches the figure of 34.2 oC. Again it begins to decrease

Table No.2.1 Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature at Dhule

Temperature ( oC) Sr. No. Month Maximum Minimum Mean 1 January 30.1 11.8 21.0 2 February 32.4 13.4 22.9 3 March 37.1 18.4 27.4 4 April 40.5 22.7 31.6 5 May 41.6 26.0 33.8 6 June 37.2 25.4 31.3 7 July 32.8 24.1 28.5 8 August 31.2 23.3 27.3 9 September 32.7 22.5 27.6 10 October 34.2 19.9 27.1 11 November 32.2 15.2 23.7 12 December 30.1 12.1 21.1 Annual 34.3 19.6 27.0 Source: Agriculture College, Dhule. towards winter season. During winter season, January is the coldest month, with the mean daily minimum temperature of 11.8 oC and the mean daily maximum temperature of 30.1 oC. The minimum temperature may drop as low as 8.9 oC, when cold wave affects the northern part of India. Thereafter, temperature begins to rise from third week of February, till the end of May. The month of May is the hottest period of the year.

Mean daily maximum temperature of May is 40.7 oC. Sometimes temperature may rise up to 46 oC in the same month. Again with the advent of June, temperature commences to decrease and it decreases steadily with the onset of monsoon up to month of August. When mean daily maximum temperature reaches 31.2 oC.

2.5.2 Rainfall: Most of the rainfall is received by study region from south-west monsoon winds, from June to September. The average annual rainfall within the district is 592 mm. Hence, this district comes under Drought Prone Zone of the state. The average annual rainfall shows high variation from year to year. According to P. K. Das, 7 th June is the onset of the south-west monsoon in the study area.

Table No.2.2 Tehsil wise Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm)

Sr. District Month Dhule Sakri Shirpur Shindkheda No. Amount Percent 1 January 5.0 4.6 3.4 3.7 4.2 0.7 2 February 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 0.2 3 March 2.7 3.0 1.9 1.4 2.3 0.4 4 April 1.5 3.0 1.5 1.3 1.8 0.3 5 May 10.5 10.8 9.6 6.0 9.2 1.6 6 June 128.1 110.0 121.9 122.7 120.7 20.7 7 July 147.7 127.7 206.2 156.2 159.5 27.3 8 August 114.7 83.7 141.5 114.9 113.7 19.5 Septembe 9 127.6 103.6 121.2 98.6 112.8 19.3 r 10 October 41.2 40.9 34.7 33.5 37.6 6.4 Novembe 11 19.9 20.1 12.2 15.6 16.9 2.9 r Decembe 12 4.7 5.4 3.1 3.1 4.1 0.7 r Annual 605.1 514.1 658.3 558.3 583.9 100.0 Source: Agriculture College, Dhule.

On an average July receives 160 mm of rainfall, which is the highest among rainy months. Numbers of rainy days are less than 45 days. Shirpur tehsil records highest rainfall with an average of 665.12 mm per annum. Dhule tehsil stands second which record 605.1 mm and 558.3 mm annual rainfall recorded in Shindkheda tehsil. Although Sakri tehsil occupies western position within district, receives the lowest amount of rainfall i. e. 525.78 mm per annum. Amount of annual rainfall reaches the figure of 1000 mm in the regions of Western ghat and Satpura ranges.

South-West monsoon winds gives up to 88% of annual rainfall, while thunder storms during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period deliver remaining part of it. Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Maharashtra has divided the state into nine zones on the basis of rainfall, soils and vegetation. According to it the district falls in the Scarcity Zone. Hence droughts are common within the district.

Table No. 2.3 Statistical Constants of Annual Rainfall

Values Statistic Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District Sample Size 106 106 106 106 106 Range 1197.4 910.3 811.9 952.5 681.7 Mean 597.07 665.12 560.03 525.78 586.14 Std. Deviation 191.25 202.94 170.04 156.99 145.97 Coefficient 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.25 of Variation Std. Error 18.576 19.711 16.516 15.249 14.178 Skewness 1.1907 0.53488 0.40392 0.66981 0.44961 Excess 3.6959 0.02899 0.04863 1.8353 -0.0927 Kurtosis Percentile Values Minimum 199.1 268.2 197.1 74.5 237.5 10% 370.23 429.29 358.67 358.65 416.85 25% (Q1) 466.4 518.32 442.82 427.57 497.55 50% (Q2) 580.2 639.55 552.7 514.1 553.15 (Median) 75% (Q3) 700.4 772.72 643.2 613.85 676.72 90% 806.89 949.51 791.09 719.56 825.72 Maximum 1396.5 1178.5 1009 1127 919.2 Source: Data I. M. D., Constants Computed by Researcher.

Statistical constants of annual average rainfall for 106 years of four tehsils have been signified in Table No. 2.3. Average annual rainfall of Sakri tehsil is very low i. e. 525.78 mm and that of in Shirpur tehsil is 665.12 mm which is the highest within district. Range of rainfall of Dhule tehsil is high. It is 1197.4, while remaining tehsils show in between 811.9 to 952.5. Coefficient of variation exhibits the variation of annual rainfall in four tehsils. Coefficient of variation of Dhule tehsil is 32% which is slightly high in all the tehsils. Coefficient of skewness of all tehsils is + ve. It indicates that the distribution of rainfall is + vely skewed means number of years of high rainfall are relatively more. Values of rainfall are more scattered towards right side of mean rainfall. According to coefficient of kurtosis, the peakness of Dhule and Sakri is higher than that of Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. 2.5.3 Humidity: The study area possesses continental location; therefore air remains dry from October to May. During this lap of the year, winter month records 40 to 45% relative humidity. While it is low up to 30 to 40% in summer season due to very high temperature within study area. Rainy months are the wettest months in the year with relative humidity of above 70%. Table No. 2.4 shoes mean monthly relative humidity at Dhule station. Table No.2.4 Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) at Dhule Morning Evening Sr. No. Month Mean (08:30 am) (05:30 pm) 1) January 71 31 51.0 2) February 59 24 41.5 3) March 48 20 34.0 4) April 46 19 32.5 5) May 56 24 40.0 6) June 53 43 63.0 7) July 83 59 71.0 8) August 86 65 75.5 9) September 85 56 70.5 10) October 77 36 56.5 11) November 72 31 51.5 12) December 73 31 52.0 Annual 69 37 53.0 Source: Agriculture College, Dhule.

2.6 DRAINAGE:

The complete territory of the Dhule district is drained by the Tapi and her tributaries. As per Indian mythology Tapi is the daughter of the God Sun. Ptolemy named it Nanagouna . The Tapi has its name derived from ‘ tapa’ means ‘heat’ and according to local brahminas, it was created by the god Sun to protect himself from his own warmth (NIH). It is believed that Tapi rises from the sacred tank of Multai. The word ‘Multai’ is derived from ‘Mul Tapi’ means the source of Tapi. River Tapi is the second largest westward-draining inter-state river in India, after the mighty . It covers approximately 51,504 km 2 (79%) of Maharashtra state, 9804 km 2 (15%) of Madhya Pradesh and 3837 km 2 (5%) of Gujarat state. The basin finds its outlet in the Arabian Sea and is bounded on three sides by ranges of hills. River Tapi takes its source from the sacred tank of Multai in Baitul district of Madhya Pradesh at the height of 752 m. After completing the course of 724 km., it merges into the Gulf of Cambay around 20 km. west of Surat in Gujarat state. About 61.1 km course of it lies within the boundary of Dhule district. The most important tributary of the Tapi is the Panzara which originates from the Western Ghats. Other tributaries include the

Burai, the Bori, the Arunavati, the Aner, the Amravati and the Kan. The tributaries of the Tapi within the study area are broadly divided in to two groups: a) The Northern tributaries and b) The Southern tributaries.

2.6.1 The Northern Tributaries: In general the northern tributaries drain the southern slopes of Satpura. Most of them are non-perennial. They are short, swift and show a typical parallel drainage pattern particularly in the areas of Satpura ranges.

Aner: Aner is the major right bank tributary of the Tapi river within the district. It rises at an elevation of 800 m. near village Gajria Khera in Sendhava tehsil of Barwani district (M.P.). After its taking cource in the slopes of Satpura, it has long westerly course and turns to the south to form boundary between Jalgaon and Dhule districts. Length of this stream is 88 km. It joins Tapi river near village Piloda in Shirpur tehsil at an altitude of 136 m.

Arunavati: The fount of the Arunavati lies near Kanjya Falya in Khargone district (M.P.), at an elevation of 640 m. above msl from Satpura ranges. In general it flows in south-west direction. It drains for the total distance of 69 km. Arunavati meets Tapi river near village Vanaval of Shirpur tehsil about 127 m above msl. Jirbhavi, Ambad, Chondi, Chul, Kunjal etc. are tributaries of the Arunavati. With this Koradi nadi, Lendi Nala, Ambad Nala are being received by Tapi river from the north within the district.

2.6.2 The Southern Tributaries:

Eastern face of Sahyadri and southern slopes of its spurs are drained by streams of long easterly courses. In Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil one finds numerous dykes dominating local topography and guiding the local drainage lines.

Panzara: This is the paramount tributary of Tapi river that joins from the south of the study area. It arises at an altitude of 1058 m. near village Shenvad in Sakri tehsil from the offshoots of Sahyadri. Initially this river follows a very long path towards east due to the presence of long dykes. Thereafter, about 8 km. below Dhule city, it turns abruptly northward through the major gap in the dyke. Panzara merges into Tapi river near village Mudavad at an altitude of 131 m. Kan is the major left bank tributary of the Panzara. Kan is the tributary of Panzara in Sakri tehsil. Its course stretches for the distance of 136 km.

Burai: Burai river takes its source from Pinjarzadi village of Sakri Tehsil, north of Kondaibari at an altitude of 705 m. above msl. It joins the Tapi river from left side near village Sulvade in Shindkheda tehsil at an altitude of 129 m. The total length of this stream is 77 km. Pan is the major tributary of Burai river.

Amaravati: Amaravati river has its source near Thanepada in Nandurbar District at an altitude of 480 m. Initially it follows north-easterly course and before merging on to the Tapi, flows northward. It has a short course of only 55 km. Bhogavati river, Kanori river and Madari nala are the tributaries of Amaravati river. It joins Tapi river near village Tavkhede old at an altitude of 114 m.

Bori: Source of Bori river occurs west of Chirai Bari near Chirai village at an altitude of 680 m from the southern slopes of the Galana Hills. Very small catchment of this river incorporated in the study region. Bori river follows eastward path in Dhule district. Total length of Bori river is 138 km. It merges in Tapi river near Bohara village in tehsil.

2.7 SOILS:

Black soil is the predominant soil type in the study area. Black soil is also known as Regur or Vertisols or Black cotton soil. It is mainly derived from basalt rock. The clay content of the black soil ranges 30 to 60 %. This soil swells when saturated and develops cracks in summer. Swelling index of this soil is 50 %. It is deficient in organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous. On the basis of depth black soils in Dhule district are divided in three types. They are as follows:

2.7.1 Shallow Black Soil:

Shallow black soil (depth < 50 cm.) is also known as coarse soil. It occurs at the foot hills of Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galana Hills and occupies about 60% area of the district. It encompasses northern portion of Shirpur tehsil as well as western part of Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Shallow Coarse soils are derived from the weathered material of Deccan Basalt. Soils are light loams to clay loams in texture with sub-angular blocky to angular blocky in structure in the lower zone. In general these are low in fertility and require judicious supply of manures and fertilizers. Due to varying degree of weathering, the depth, color, texture of this soil is dissimilar in different areas. It is coarse and consists of gravels. Water holding capacity of this soil is poor. Bajara, Kharip Jowar and Ground Nut are suitable crops for this soil.

2.7.2 Medium Black Soil:

Medium Black soil (depth 50 to 150 cm.) occupies considerable part and admeasuring 25% area of the district. The boundaries of the medium black soil are restricted to Tapi basin and its tributaries in the form of extensive patches in Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsil. It is granular to sub-granular and loamy to clayey in structure. It is fertile and suitable for irrigation. The soils in general are deficient in nitrogen, organic matter and phosphate contents and therefore require adequate doses of the fertilizers for better harvest.

2.7.3 Deep Black Cotton Soil:

Deep black soil (depth > 150 cm.) circumscribes along both the sides of Tapi river. It is about 15% of total study area. Part of Shirpur tehsil along the Tapi river is occupied by the deep black soil. It is derived from Deccan basalt. Hence, it is deep black in color. It contains high amount of clay which range from 30% to 60%. Proportion of organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus is low in this soil type. Average depth of the soil within district doesn’t exceed 3 m. Deep Black soil has a tendency to develop cracks during summer and tend to be waterlogged in the rainy season. It has high water holding capacity and it is highly fertile. This type of soil supports excellent growth of cotton. Therefore it is also called as ‘Black Cotton Soil’. Sugarcane is also cultivated in Deep Black soil extensively with the help of irrigation.

2.8 VEGETATION:

Tropical Dry Deciduous is the natural vegetation type is in the study area. It is mainly controlled by physiography and climate. Hence vegetation type varies with altitude and rainfall. It ranges from grasses, thorny bushes, trees to deciduous trees. Satpura ranges and Western Ghat sections are under the forest cover. About 2088.90 sq. km. area of the study area is under forest, which accounts 25.90% of the geographical area of the district. Large scale deforestation and grazing practices have destructed the major part of the forest cover in Satpura ranges as well as Western Ghat section. Now days forests can be observed in the form of small patches. In fact, only 6.59% area is under forest cover. Out of it 97 sq. km. and 377 sq. km. area is under moderate and open forest respectively. Shirpur and Sakri tehsils are mainly under forest covers. Teak ( Tectona grandis L.) is the predominant species. In general, the dominating plants from Satpura ranges in Dhule district are Anjan ( Hardwickia binata),Salai (Boswellia serrata) , Lal Khair (Acacia chundra) , Black Khair ( Acacia catechu), Sadada (Terminalia tomentosa), Beheda ( Terminalia belerica), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Chinch ( Tamarindus indica), Shisam (Dalbergia latifolia), Henkal (Gymnosporia Montana), Palas (Butea frondosa), Shevari (Salmalia malbaricum), Nim (Azadirachta indica), Bor (Zizyphus jujube), Dhavari (Woodfordia floribanda), Nirgidi ( Vitex negundo), Mahu (Madhuca indica), Amla (Phyllathus emblica), Bel (Eagle mormelos), Dhavada (Anogeissus latifolia), Karai (Sterculia urens), Jamum (Eugenia jambolana), Dahikudi (Holorrhoena antidysenterica, KalaKuda ( Wrightia tinctoria), Bambu (Bambusa bamboo), Tembur (Diospyros melanoxylon), Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), Shirish (Ablizzia lebbek), Bahava (Cassia fistula), Madbel (Combretum ovulifolium), Dead Umbar (Ficus heterophylla), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Moin (Lannea coromandelica) etc.

Scrub and grasses covers vast area of south and central parts of the study area, because it receives fever amount of rainfall. Flood plain of Tapi and valley fills of her tributaries are principally occupied by the agriculture. Nim, Pimple, Mango, Vad, Chinch, Hivar, Bor, Acacia are distributed sparsely in the cultivated areas.

2.9 CULTURAL FEATURES:

Paramount cultural features of the study area discussed below are population, land use/ land cover, agriculture and transportation.

2.9.1 Population:

As per 2001 Census population size of study area was 1707947. Dhule district covers 2.62 % geographical area and 1.8% population of Maharashtra State. The district has registered 15.93 % population growth during last decade (1991-2001). As district headquarter includes itself in tehsil, Dhule tehsil constitutes highest 42% of district population, while Shindkheda tehsil comprises only 17 % of district population. Population density of the district is 212 per sq. km. as compare to the state average 314 per sq. km. The total population of the district residing in rural is 74 % where as 26 % is in the urban area. The schedule caste and schedule tribe population of the district is 1.09 lakh (6.39%) and 4.44 lakh (25.97%) respectively. The district is having 71.06 % literacy in general, along with 81.4 % male and 61.4 % female literates. As per the census of 2001 the total working population is 40.01 %. About 70.5 % working population is engaged in agricultural activities. Out of these 2.9 % in trade and 26.6 % are working in secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic activities. There are 1.84 lakh families below poverty line. Per-capita income of the district is Rs.18, 560 as compare to Rs.29, 085 of the state.

2.9.2 Land Use/ Land cover:

In the strict sense land cover is used to describe vegetation and manmade features. Physical, cultural, social and economic factors have their collective repercussions on the land use/land cover pattern of the Dhule district. Fig. No. 2.6 shows land use/land cover as appeared in the IRS-P3 FCC satellite image. The land use/land cover of the district is divided in to eight sections. Table No. 2.5 exhibits Land use categories and the area occupied by them respectively. About 5258.37 sq. km. of land means 65.22 % of the study area is under agricultural use. It pervades the settlements lying in the river valleys, plains and foot hill zones of Satpura, Dhanora and Galna Ranges. In fact, actual forest is standing on only 5.22 % area. Barren land and rocky surface has been

Table No.2.5 Land Use/ Land Cover Pattern of Dhule District Sr. No. Land Use /Land Cover Type Area Sq. km. Area % 1 Built up Land 100.67 1.25 2 Agricultural Land 5258.37 65.22 3 Forest Deciduous 420.95 5.22 4 Forest Scrub 1334.06 16.55 5 Barren Land 686.86 8.52 6 Barren Rocky 82.72 1.03 7 Water Bodies Rivers/ Streams/ Canal 130.10 1.61 8 Water Bodies Reservoirs/ Lakes/ Ponds 49.36 0.61 Total Geographical Area 8063.11 100.00 Source: Computed by Researcher. observed over considerable area i. e. 686.86 and 82.72 sq. km. Water bodies appeared on 2.22 % area of the district.

2.9.3 Agriculture:

Agriculture is main occupation of the people in the district. In year 2008-09 total area available for cultivation was 4.59 lakh ha. It is 62.59% of total geographical area of the district but only 80% of cultivable area was under cultivation. The total net sown area in the district was 3.672 lakh ha. of which about 22984 ha. sown more than once. More than 80% area of the district exclusively comes under rain fed cropping. The total area under kharip crop is 356900 ha. while 32900 ha. of land is under rabbi crop. The area under summer crop is 8100 ha. According to Kharip cropping pattern of the district, the cotton occupies an area of 84364 ha. , which is 18.38% of total cropped area. Other major crops of the kharip season are Jowar 21169 ha, Bajara 26742 ha, maize 26211 ha, Cereals 45296 ha, Sugarcane 5747 ha, oil seeds 18766 ha. An area of 190947 ha has been brought under food grain crops. Rabbi Jowar, wheat, gram are some of the important crops grown in the rabbi season. The area under wheat was 11322 ha. followed by ground-nut 10438 ha, gram 4337 ha, rabbi Jowar 3483 ha.

Agriculture in the study area is supported by the various means of irrigation. Dug wells, tube wells and surface irrigation serve to irrigate total 57372 ha area. In 2009-10 an area of 53372 ha was irrigated by dug wells and tube wells while 4000 ha by surface irrigation. Cotton, sugarcane, gram, chilly, vegetables, fruits, onion, groundnut etc. are major crops that require irrigation facility.

2.9.4 Transportation: -

Various means of transport have been developed within the district to facilitate goods and passenger movement. It is served by roadways, railways and airways.

Roadways : Roads are the prominent means of transportation in the study area. About 95% villages are linked by tarred roads up to March 2009. Total length of roads within the district is 5548 km. up to 31 st March 2010. Mumbai-Agra National Highway (NH3) is the most important road passing through Dhule, Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil. About 107 km. part of it lies within district. This road is being converted into four lane highway. Surat-Nagpur National Highway (NH8), runs east-west and passes through Dhule and Sakri Tehsil. It connects the district with Gujarat state. Dhule, headquarter of the district is located at the crossing of these two national highways. Another Burhanpur-Ankaleshwar Highway passes through Shirpur tehsil. Two major state highways serve remaining part of the district. One of them connects Shirpur with Shahada and Chopada, while other joins Amalner, Betavad, Shindkheda, Dondaicha and Nandurbar.

Railways: The district has two rail routes. Surat- line of Western Railway passes through Shindkheda tehsil. Betavad, Nardana, Shindkheda and Dondaicha are important stations along this route. The electrification of this route is completed but conversion into double lane is in progress. Dhule - Railway was started on 15 th Aug 1900. Chalisgaon - Dhule broad gauge railway connects Dhule city with Mumbai-Bhusawal-Delhi route. It is a single lane about 57 km. long.

Airways: There are two aerodromes available in the district. One is located beside Gondur village, 5 km. west of Dhule city. It is owned by Maharashtra Government. Another is constructed by Shirpur Gold Refineries Limited. It is about 10 km. north-west of Shirpur, near Dahivad village. Both aerodromes are not provided by regular services. Only take off and landing facilities are available at both places.

Chapter: - 3

SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

3.1 SURFACE WATER RESOURCES:

Generally, treasures of the waters of any natural or administrative domain are divided into two forms – Surface and Groundwater. Availability of water resources primarily depends upon the amount of rainfall received by the study area. Secondly, soil type, lithology, slope, morphometry also specify the amount water through these resources. The surface water is feasible through rivers, streams, lakes, tanks and reservoirs. Of all the resources of fresh water, rivers and streams are the most important because their water is very quickly renewable and they are the most easily accessible largest source of water (Nag, 2003). From the ancient times, rivers have been the cradles of civilization. Most civilizations have sprung up in fertile river valleys, which provided freshwater, an essential requisite for the growth of settlements (Shankar et al, 2004).

3.1.1 Water Available in the River Basins: India is blessed with boons of many rivers. The Tapi river is second largest west flowing river of the peninsular India. The river Tapi takes its origin from Multai in Baitul district of Madhya Pradesh and trespasses into the Dhule district near Piloda village of Shirpur tehsil. It runs from east to west and apportioned the district into various physiographic and geohydrological units. About 61.1 km course of it lies within the boundary of Dhule district. Gradient of Tapi river within district is 1.04 m/km. Evidence of several floods occurs in the revenue records. Before 1986 Tapi river was perennial, but thereafter it became non-perennial because of groundwater level is declined and water supply for the domestic and lifting of water for irrigation purposes has increased tremendously. It becomes dry after monsoon season every year. The Tapi basin though extensively cultivated is one of the poorly irrigated tracts of the country (Rao, 1975). At present four barrages namely, Piloda, Sulawde, Sarangkheda and Prakasha are constructed across the Tapi river. Only Sulvade barrage lies within the study region while other are located in the downstream and upstream side. Table No.3.1 bespeaks the major tributaries of the Tapi river within the district (also refer Fig. No. 2.4). Almost the entire district is criss-crossed by rivers and streams. There are six main tributary river basins in the district which occupy about 83 % of total area of the district. Catchment of the Tapi river within study region can be Table No.3.1 Rivers at a glance – Dhule District

Source Mouth Total Total Sr. Source Gradient River Height Height Length Catchment No. Point m/km. m. m. km. sq.km. Multai 1 Tapi 752 (M.P.) 00 723 65,145 1.04 2 Bori 680 Chirai 139 138 2580 3.84 Gajria 3 Aner 800 136 88 1702 7.41 Khera (M.P.) 4 Panzara 1058 Shenavd 131 136 3257 6.71 5 Burai 705 Pinjarzadi 129 77 1419 7.33 6 Arunavati 640 Jirpan (M.P.) 127 69 738 7.26 7 Amravati 480 Thanepada 114 55 789 4.92 8 Kan 700 Hanvatpada 400 41 650 7.31 Source: - Computed by Author divided into two parts; tributaries drains from Satpura Ranges and tributaries drains from Sahyadri and its spurs.

A. Tributaries Draining from Satpura Ranges: This part of the catchment is located to the north of Tapi river. The catchment and the length of these tributaries are relatively smaller than the tributaries coming from the south. Aner and Arunavati are only major streams joining from the north. a) Aner River: Aner has its fountain head near Gajria Khera village of Barwani district in Madhya Pradesh on the slopes of Satpura. Initially it flows through Madhya Pradesh and then enters in Maharashtra forming border of Jalgaon and Dhule district. It drains for the total distance of 88 km. Gradient of Aner river is 7.41 m/km. The dam is constructed across the Aner river just inside the border of Maharashtra. It has proved its importance from the irrigation point of view to Shirpur tehsil. Aner river merges into Tapi river near village Piloda of Shirpur tehsil. b) Arunavati River: This is the most important tributary after Aner river from the northern catchment. Its major catchment part lies in the Shirpur tehsil. Arunavati river provides water for irrigation and domestic purposes to Shirpur tehsil. It has its source from the slopes of Satpura ranges at an elevation of 640 m. near Jirapan village in Barwani district of Madhya Pradesh. It flows for the distance of 69 km. and joins Tapi river near village Vanaval in Shirpur tehsil. Gradient of Arunavati river is 7.26 m/km. Ambad, Jirbhavi, Chondi, Chul, Kunjal, Lendi nala etc. are significant tributaries of the Arunavati river. Beside these Koradi nadi is minor stream that drains from the slopes of Satpura hills. B) Tributaries Drains from Sahyadri and Its Spurs: This part of the catchment lies to the south of Tapi river and covers about 75% area of the district. Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil comprise the southern catchment of the Tapi river in the Dhule district. The leading tributaries are Panzara, Burai, Amravati and Bori. a) Panzara: Panzara is the most important left bank tributary of the Tapi river within the district, with respect to length, catchment area and runoff. It begins from Sahyadri spurs near village Shenvad at an altitude of 1058 m. above msl. Akkalpada dam is under construction close to village Akkalpada in Dhule tehsil and will be completed very soon. Historical and very famous Phud System of Irrigation on the Panzara river irrigates thousands of acres of land in Sakri, Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils. It travels a distance of 136 km. before it merges into the Tapi river near Mudavad village in Shindkheda tehsil at the height of 131 m. above msl. Gradient of Panzara river is 6.71 m/km. b) Amravati: Amravati river rises in the vicinity of Thanepada village in Nandurbar district at an altitude of 480 m. It has a short course of only 55 km. and joins Tapi river near village Daul in Shindkheda tehsil. Gradient of Amaravati river is 4.92 m/km. c) Burai: Pinjarzadi is the village in Sakri tehsil from where Burai river takes its fountain at an altitude of 705 m. above msl. It meets Tapi river near Sulvade in Shindkheda tehsil. The total length of this stream is 77 km. Gradient of Burai river is 7.33 m/km. A medium project is constructed across the river at Phofade village in Sakri tehsil. d) Bori: Source of Bori river occurs west of Chirai Bari near Chirai village at an altitude of 680 m. It takes its source in Nasik district and then it enters in Dhule district for short length and again in Jalgaon district. Total length of this stream is 138 km. Gradient of Bori river is 3.84 m/km. Finally it joins Tapi river at Bohara village in Amalner tehsil. A medium project is constructed on this river near Tamaswadi village of Parola tehsil, Jalgaon district. Near about 30 villages of the Jalgaon and Dhule district depend on this project for drinking water purpose.

3.1.2 Medium Irrigation Projects:

There is no single major irrigation project within the study area, while 12 medium irrigation projects have been constructed across Tapi river, its tributaries and other streams (Fig. No. 3.1). The gross command area under all the irrigation projects is 77149.23 ha. and net irrigable area is around 57854 ha. Details of these projects have been discussed as below:

a) Kanoli Project: It is located near Nandale village in Dhule tehsil across Kanoli river. It was completed in year 1927. The height of this dam is 24.5 m. and having total storage capacity of 11.9 M. Cu. M. The gross command area of this project is 1619.17 ha. with 1363 ha. cultivable area. b) Panzara Project: This project is constructed near Pimpalner town of Sakri tehsil. It was completed in 1979 with total expenditure of Rs. 319.06 lakh. Height of the dam is 33.6 m. and canals of 28.20 km. have been completed. The project has storage capacity of 43.42 M. Cu. M. with gross command area of 6093.12 hectors and about 10708 hectors area is under irrigation. c) Malangaon Project: It is located near Malangaon village of Sakri tehsil across Kan river. It was completed in year 1969. Total cost of the project was Rs. 74.21 lakh. The height of the dam is 23.71 m.. The project is designed for the gross command area of 2877 hectors and serves 1587 hectors for irrigation. d) Burai Project: Village Phofade is the nearest settlement to Burai project in Sakri tehsil. It was ready to serve in year 1984 at the cost of Rs.884 lakh. The length and height of the dam is 888 m. and 30.6 m. respectively. The gross storage of the dam is 14.21 M. Cu. M. It irrigates net area of 2161 hectors. The length of canal is 16.4 km. e) Jamkhedi Project: This project is constructed across Jamkhedi Nala in Sakri tehsil at the cost of Rs. 3527.2 lakh. About 19.91 sq. km. area serves as catchment for the project and 281 hectors of land is occupied by the back water. Gross storage of the dam is 13.28 M. Cu. M. which irrigates 2750 hectors of land with the help of 18 km. long canal. f) Karvand Project: This project is located 9 km. north of Karvand village in Shirpur tehsil. It was materialized in year 1969 across Arunavati river. At that time the cost of the project was Rs.169 lakh. Height of the dam is 36.27 m. and length is 1.357 km. Gross command area is 8266 ha. while net irrigable area is4534 hectors. Total length of canals is 24.28 km.

Table No. 3.2 Salient Features of Medium Irrigation Projects in Dhule District.

Gross Length Catchment Area under Gross Net Name of Storage of Area sq. Submergence Command Irrigable Dam M.Cu. Canal km. ha. Area ha. Area ha. M. km. 1) Kanoli 603.96 11.9 178 1619 1363 14.80 (Dhule) 2) Panzara 215.14 43.42 558.72 16093 10708 28.20 (Sakri) 3) Malangaon 85.54 13.03 207.21 2877 1587 25.60 (Sakri) 4) Burai 3140.29 21.33 300.2 4520 2161 16.40 (Sakri) 5) Jamkhedi 90.91 13.28 281 7032 2750 18.00 (Sakri) 6) Karvand 158 21.12 563 8266 4534 24.28 (Shirpur) 7) Aner 12.39 103.56 793 8813 7180 20.00 (Shirpur) 8) Sonvad 128 17.52 467.3 3542 2147 7.60 (Shindkheda) 9) Sulwade 52149 65.06 1260 5833 7560 0.00 (Shindkheda) 10) Shewade 465.41 36.93 982.65 9536 7851 31.44 (Shindkheda) 11) Amaravati 341.76 27.78 553.4 40.94 32.92 14.50 (Shindkheda) 12) Lower 777.77 109.31 1406 12519 9980 30.00 Panzara (Sakri) Total --- 480.61 --- 77149.23 57854 --- Source: Irrigation Department and Zilla Parishad, Dhule.

g) Aner Project: This is the unique project located on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon district near Mahadeo Dondawada village of Shirpur tehsil. It was completed in 1979. The cost of the project was Rs.1328.22 lakh. The length and height of the dam are 2.125 km. and 49 m.. Gross storage of the dam is 103.45 M. Cu. M. which irrigates 7180 ha. of agricultural land through 20 km. long canal. (Photo No. 17) h) Sonvad Project: This is one of the recent medium irrigation projects of the district. It is located in Dhule tehsil near village Dongargaon. The cost of the project was Rs. 2880 lakh. The height and length of the Sonvad dam is 16.5 m. and 512.2 m. respectively. Gross storage of the dam is 17.52 M. Cu. M. Gross command area is 5833 ha. and net irrigable area is 756 hectors.

i) Sulvade Project: Sulvade project is actually barrages constructed across Tapi river near Sulvade village of Shindkheda tehsil. It is constructed in 2008 at cost of Rs. 694804 lakh. The height and length of the project is 133 m. and 500 m. respectively. Gross storage of the project is 6.506 M. Cu. M. It irrigates 20 villages of Shindkheda tehsil and 11 villages of Shirpur tehsil covering 7560 ha. of agricultural land. ( Photo Nos. 14 and 15) j) Shevade Project: It is under construction and likely to completed across Buari river. Shevade is the nearest settlement to the project in Shindkheda tehsil. Total expenditure of the project was Rs. 9843.71 lakh. The height of the dam is 28 m.. The length of proposed canals is 31.44 km. to serve 36.92 M. Cu. M. water to irrigate 7851 ha. of land. About 5980 ha. of land will be submerged due to the project. k) Amaravati Project: This dam is located in Shindkheda tehsil and completed in 2007. Total height of the dam is 17.90 m. and 25.68 M. Cu. M. of water is stored to irrigate 3292 ha. of agricultural land. This project is located in the most drought prone part of the district. l) Lower Panzara: Project: This project lies within the boundaries of Sakri tehsil. It was completed in 2008 at the cost of Rs. 13140.19 lakh. The height of the dam is 31.18 m. and 30 km. long canal to distribute 107.79 M. Cu. M. of water to 9980 hectors of agricultural land. Near about 6191 ha. of land is occupied by the back water of the project. (Photo No. 16) 3.1.3 Minor Irrigation Projects:

Origin of Minor irrigation schemes have found in Five-Year Plan after independence as a part of systematic development. It comprises all groundwater and surface water irrigation schemes having cultivable command area up to 2000 Ha. Such projects have been considerably contributed towards the rural development and employment even in hard rock areas. Sometimes available surface water cannot be used for irrigation through construction of flow irrigation schemes because of undulating physiography but surface water lift irrigation schemes providebetter solution. Minor irrigation schemes aim at groundwater development. In case of surface flow minor irrigation schemes, water reservoirs are created by constructing bunds across depressions in undulating terrains. These are provided with spillway for overflowing excessive rain water during rainy season and sluice gates for releasing controlled quantities of water to canals. The most important things to be considered before constructing minor irrigation scheme are the catchment area draining into the reservoir and the amount of rainfall in the catchment area.

I. Percolation Tank: Percolation tanks are generally earthen dams provided with masonry structure for spillway. These are the most common structures in India in order to augment the groundwater reservoir both in alluvial as well as hard rock aquifers. It is an artificial water body, constructed in highly permeable land and fractured and weathered rocks, so that surface runoff is made to percolate and enrich the groundwater storage. Second to third order streams are ideal for construction of Percolation tank. Total number of percolation tanks in Dhule district is 384 having total storage capacity of 15601.45 TCM.

Table No. 3.3 Tehsil wise distribution of Minor Irrigation Projects in Dhule District.

No. and Structure Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total Capacity No. 129 135 57 63 384 Storage Percolation 15601.45 19049.49 9793.00 9425.00 39827.94 (TCM) Tank Irrigation 4268.21 3780.00 1834.00 2352.00 12234.21 (ha) No. 8 5 5 4 22 Storage ------164 164 K. T. Weir (TCM) Irrigation 351 93 351 171 966 (ha) No. 200 452 94 67 813 Storage Storage 2637.79 6205.37 1499.19 781.5 1123.82 (TCM) Tank Irrigation 2080.82 3150.43 787.38 621.2 6639.80 (ha) No. 61 72 102 67 302 Storage Village 1782.52 2470.00 2061.43 199.00 6512.95 (TCM) Tank Irrigation 400.60 373.00 472.54 414.00 1660.14 (ha) Source: Irrigation Department, Zilla Parishad, Dhule.

It irrigates 4268.21 ha agricultural land. Distribution of the percolation tanks is uneven in the study area. Maximum number of percolation tanks is observed in Shindkheda tehsil i. e. 136. It serves to irrigate 19049.49 ha land. Dhule district stands on second position with 129 percolation tanks. It is used to irrigate 15601.45 ha land. Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil consists of 57 and 63 percolation tanks which irrigate 1834 ha and 2352 ha land respectively.

II. Kolhapur Type Weir (K. T. Weir): The Kolhapur type Weir ( K. T. weir) is popular in our country. It is a type of weir constructed across small streams to store water. It is provided with gates which are open during the monsoon and closed at the end of the monsoon season. In most cases weirs take the form of a barrier across the river that causes water to pool behind the structure, but allows water to flow over the top. Fever numbers of K. T. weirs are constructed in all tehsil of study area. In all 22 K. T. weirs are found which are useful to irrigate only 164 ha of land in Shirpur tehsil. (Photo No. 18) III. Storage and Village Tanks: Tanks are part of our ancient tradition and culture. After independence government has ignored the management and repairing to keep them in a good state. Nowadays village and storage tanks are mainly earthen structures. They are meant for harvesting and preserving rainfall and surface runoff for later use, mainly for agriculture and drinking water, but also for sacred bath and ritual. The village tanks are a major source of traditional irrigation for the poor living in the Deccan Plateau region of India (Ananda et al 2006). Almost all village tanks in the Deccan Plateau regions are due undulating terrain and the impervious hard rock, which has limitations for groundwater extraction for irrigation. The village tanks also maintain the groundwater level. From the economic point of view, the village and storage tanks contribute significantly in agriculture and inland fishery production. Numerous storage tank schemes have been completed in Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Both tehsils comprises 200 and 452 storage tanks respectively. Sizable agricultural land has been brought under irrigation due to these storage tanks, admeasured 208.82 ha in Dhule tehsil and 3150.43 ha in Sakri tehsil. While Shindkheda tehsil consist of 94 village tanks which is capable to store 1499.19 TMC water and irrigates 787.38 ha land. Shirpur tehsil has only 67 village tanks that irrigate 621.17 ha land. Total 302 storage tanks have been constructed in the study area with gross storage capacity of 6512.95 TCM and irrigates 1660.14 ha agricultural land. Shindkheda tehsil possesses 102 storage tanks, Sakri 72, Shirpur 67 while Dhule tehsil has only 62 storage tanks.

3.1.4 YIELD AND UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES:

The territory of the Dhule district receives input in the form of rainfall during June to September from south-west monsoon winds. The yield of rainfall is the total quantity of surface water available for utilization within given territory. Calculation of yield requires runoff. It is amount of water leftover after evaporation, infiltration, interception etc. flows through rivers and streams in the form of runoff. Runoff is defined as the portion of the rainfall appearing as river or stream flow (Todd, 2003). C. C. Ingliss and A. J. Disouza (1930) made a critical study of floods and run-off of catchments of the Bombay Deccan based on records of 25 years of river and rain gauges in the Bombay Presidency. The main rivers considered were Tapi, Narmada, Bhima, Nira, Godavari, Krishna, Ghatprabha and Vardha. They obtained two equations in connection with rainfall and run-off to calculate runoff of these rivers. They are as follows.

i. Ghat formula was derived for the large catchments having rainfall between 200” to 30”. Run-off = (0.85 x P) – 12”------(1)

ii. While Non-Ghat formula was designed for the catchments which are away from the hills

Run-off = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P ------(2)

As most rivers in the Bombay Presidency except Tapi and Narmada rises in Western ghat, non-ghat formula is employed to calculate run-off and yield of Tapi, Narmada rivers and their tributaries.

Yield Calculation of the study area is as follows:

Yield of rainfall = R × 2.3232 × Catchment Area ------(3)

Where R = Runoff in inches. It is calculated by using C. C. Inglis’s (1930) non-ghat formula (Tapi and Narmada Basin) for Bombay Catchment.

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P ------(2)

Where P = is average annual rainfall in inches.

Yield for Shirpur Tehsil considering 50% dependable rainfall can be calculated as following

First we will calculate runoff using equation (2)

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P

P = 633.55/25.4 = 25.18”

R = (25.18 – 7 )/100 x 25.18

R = 4.577”

Now yield is calculated using equation (1)

Yield = 4.577 × 2.3232 × 236453 / 1.61 × 1.61 × 100

Yield = 9699.75 M. C. ft.

Yield = 9699.75/35.314

Yield = 274.692 M. Cu. m.

Similarly considering 50% dependable rainfall of each four tehsils of Dhule district, the yield of rainfall is calculated as above.

Table No. 3.4 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall.

Yield in M. Cu. M. Sr. Yield in M. Cu. M. Name of (Based on 100 years No. (Based on 35 years average Tehsil average annual annual Rainfall) Rainfall) 1 Dhule 182.645 182.031 2 Sakri 179.101 164.328 3 Shindkheda 92.811 106.009 4 Shirpur 289.269 274.692 Total: 743.826 727.060 Source: Computed by Researcher The pattern of utilization of water is fast changing and the requirements are increasing due to changing lifestyle of people. (Jog et al, 2003). Since our water supplies are limited, though recurring from year to year, our income is fixed. It therefore, becomes imperative to study the present and future demands of water for various uses (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). India’s growing water shortage despite its being one of the wettest country in the world is worrisome (Sing, R. B. and Gandhi, N. 1999). Table No.3.5 Yield and Utilization of Water Resources.

Sr. Particulars Quantity of Water No. Total Yield Available in Dhule District (Based 1 743.826 M. Cu. M. on 35 years average annual rainfall) 2 Utilization for Irrigation 2326.155 M. Cu. M. 3 Water Supply (Domestic Use) 34.923 M. Cu. M. 4 Water Required for Livestock 11.240 M. Cu. M. 5 Industrial Use 5 percent of Total Yield 37.191 M. Cu. M. 6 Total Utilization 2409.509 M. Cu. M. 7 Total Yield –Total Utilization = –1665.687M. Cu. M. Source: Computed by Researcher Discussion of the water resources of any country conventionally begins with either a description of the size of population compared with the availability of amounts of land and water, or a description of population distribution and rainfall /water availability figures or an inventory of available water resources (Swain, 1998a, 1998b). The study area receives input in the form of rainfall and excess input flows through streams and main river channel and further flows out of the district in the form of runoff.

According to above calculation the calculated yield of rainfall for Dhule district is 743.826 M. Cu. M. (based on 35 years average annual rainfall) and 727.060 M. Cu. M. (based on 106 years average annual rainfall). Total utilization of water under major heads within the district is 2409.509 M. Cu. M. , which means that 1665.687 M. Cu. M. water is deficit in the district. Though there is deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water, some of the water may be received from upstream catchments of the rivers such as Aner, Arunavati and Tapi. Groundwater also contributes towards domestic and crop water requirement. Therefore proper management of water resources is necessary to utilize total water available through rainfall and runoff. Existing medium and small irrigation projects can be used to store excess flood water. Beside various methods of artificial recharge such as percolation tank, village pond, field pond, K. T. weir, recharge through dug and tube wells etc. can adopted to augment water resources. Utilization under Main Headings: Water is the primary need of the all living organisms. It is also necessary for various human activities. The quantity of the water required by a society depends upon the size of population and their economic activities (Borse, 2006). Amount of water utilized by the people also varies in accordance with level of economic development and standard of living of the people. The present and future use of water resources must be known and organize for better development and management. Hence data regarding the amount of water utilized in various sectors is collected for further analysis. Water requirements (WR) of the district can be grouped in following categories. i. Domestic Water Requirement ii. Agricultural Water Requirement iii. Water Required for Livestock iv. Industrial Water Requirement i. Domestic Water Requirement: Water supply to the population for drinking and domestic purposes is of paramount importance. In general people consume 5% of total volume available water for drinking and domestic purpose in given area. However demand for water is increasing day by day along with economic and urban growth. Many scholars and organizations have laid down the norms for water supply in rural and urban habitats. Water requirement is designated as 70 lit. / person / day for urban and 40 lit. / person / day for rural areas. Present and projected population has been used to calculate current and future domestic water requirement of the study area. In year 2001 total domestic requirement of water was 11.39 M. Cu. M. for 445885 urban populations. The urban population is estimated for the year 2010 is 522228 and projected annual water requirement will be 13.34 M. Cu. M. While in year 2025 and 2050 the total urban population will be 662361 and 982680 which will require 16.92 M. Cu. M. and 25.11 M. Cu. M. water respectively (Table No. 3.6).

Water requirement for rural population has been also calculated. In year 2001 the total rural population was 1262062 and the annual requirement was 18.43 M. Cu. M. The projected rural population of the district for the year 2010 is 1478151 persons which will require 21.58 M. Cu. M. of water per year. While the rural population of the district will reach up to 1874792 and 2781441 will utilize 27.37 M. Cu. M. and 2001. 40.61 M. Cu. M. in year 2025 and 2050 respectively (Table No. 3.7). Projected population of the Table No. 3.6 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule District. Water Requirement = 70 liters / person /day WR Population Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total M.Cu.M./yr 2001 61694 42436 0 341755 445885 ----- WR lit./day 4318580 2970520 0 23922850 31211950 11.39 2010 72257 49702 0 400269 522228 ----- WR lit./day 5057990 3479140 0 28018830 36555960 13.34 2025 91646 63038 0 507677 662361 ----- WR lit./day 6415220 4412660 0 35537390 46365270 16.92 2050 135967 93524 0 753189 982680 ----- WR lit./day 9517690 6546680 0 52723230 68787600 25.11 Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher

district for 2010 is 2000379; it needs 34.92 M. Cu. M. of water.As per international criterion for classification when availability of water is less than 1700 cu. m./capita/year is considered as water stressed. In India the water availability is 1000 cu. m./capita/year. This indicates that 70% of global area including large part of India will become water stressed by 2025.

Table No. 3.7 Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule District. Water Requirement = 40 liters / person /day

Population WR Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total Year M.Cu.M./yr 2001 275859 245081 363092 378030 1262062 ----- WR lit./day 10314360 9803240 14523680 15121200 49762480 18.43 2010 323091 287043 425260 442757 1478151 WR lit./day 12923640 11481720 17010400 17710280 59126040 21.58 2025 409788 364068 539373 561563 1874792 ----- WR lit./day 16391520 14562720 21574920 22462520 74991680 27.37 2050 607962 540130 800214 833135 2781441 ----- WR lit./day 24318480 21605200 32008560 33325400 111257640 40.61 Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher ii. Agricultural Water Requirement: Water is a prime need of mankind and constitutes the very base of agriculture Table No. 3.8 Agricultural Water Requirement in Dhule District. W. R. = Water Requirement of crops in Ha/cm.

Crops Area W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total Rice Ha. 100 0 0 12442 14 12456 12442 WR 000' cu.m. --- 0 0 140 124560 0 Wheat Ha. 45 1456 1370 6164 2331 11321 WR 000' cu.m. --- 6552 6165 27738 10490 50945 Kharip Ha. 12 2181 6058 4 12926 21169 Jawar WR 000' cu.m. --- 2617 7270 5 15511 25403 Rabi Ha. 18 1361 0 2122 0 3483 Jawar WR 000' cu.m. --- 2450 0 3820 0 6270 Bajara Ha. 12 3404 18283 1942 3112 26741 WR 000' cu.m. --- 4085 21940 2330 3734 32089 Maize Ha. 12 118 523 22369 3201 26211 WR 000' cu.m. --- 142 628 26843 3841 31453 Pulses Ha. 7 6286 13431 17049 8530 45296 WR 000' cu.m. --- 4400 9402 11934 5971 31707 Sugar- Ha. 149 1729 266 3545 207 5747 cane WR 000' cu.m. --- 25762 3963 52821 3084 85630 Onion Ha. 45 84 2231 3523 2225 8063 WR 000' cu.m. --- 378 10040 15854 10013 36284 Cotton Ha. 40 31311 45984 349892 40853 468040 WR 000' cu.m. --- 125244 183936 1399568 163412 1872160 Oil Ha. 14 2569 6850 6879 2468 18766 Seeds WR 000' cu.m. --- 3510 9590 9631 3455 26272 Chili Ha. 37 242 1099 1077 942 3360 WR 000' cu.m. --- 895 4066 3985 3485 12432 Total Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 2326.155 Source: Computed by Researcher

(Nasir, Z. A. 1999). It is the prime impute for agriculture. Agricultural water requirement is also termed as crop water requirement. Jawar, Bajara, Cotton, Sugarcane, Pulses, Banana, Oil seeds, Chilly etc. are major crops of the study area. Water requirement of these crops is determined by crop type and season. Sugarcane and banana consumes highest amount of water. Water utilized by various crops have been calculated and summarized in Table No. 3.8.

Total area under jawar is 24652 ha. grown in kharip and rabbi requires 31.673 M. Cu. M. water. About 32.089 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized by Bajara cultivated in 26741 ha. of land. Agricultural land occupied by Pulses is 45296 ha. which consume 31.707 M. Cu. M. water. Sugarcane is cultivated over 5747 ha. and requires about 85.630 M. Cu. M. During last few years area under cotton cultivation has been increased substantially due to illness of sugar factories. Hence cotton ranks first among cultivated crops in the Dhule district. About 468040 ha. of land is engaged in cotton cultivation. It requires 1872.160 M. Cu. M. of water which is 80.048% of the total crop water requirement. In all total 2326.155 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized for all crops during different seasons. iii. Water Requirement for Livestock: Table No.3.9 points out tehsil wise livestock population and its water requirement. Cows, buffalos, Sheeps, goats, horses and poultry are important domestic animals. Total population of cows is 297914 whose water requirement is 7.42 M. Cu. M. The total number of buffaloes is 6197 which require 0.156 M. Cu. M. water. The total population of sheeps and goats within the study area is 562188, which consume 2.79 M. Cu. M. of water. Houses, poultry and other animals are 10831, 523270 and 53801 which require 0.179 M. Cu. M. , 0.0592 M. Cu. M. and 0.964 M. Cu. M. In all total animals require 11.240 M. Cu. M. of water per year. iv. Industrial Water Requirement:

Almost all industries utilize water. Primarily it is necessary for cooling, washing, processing and disposal of waste material. It is also consumed by workers and staff for drinking and washing purpose. About 160 small and medium scale industries are located within district. Most of the industries are situated in M.I.D.C. Dhule campus. Cotton mill, oil mill, ginning and pressing mills and textile industries are located in Shirpur tehsil. Only one sugar factory, one cotton mill and two starch factory are in working condition within district while others are closed due to various reasons. There are several cold storages located at Dhule, Shirpur, Dondaicha and Sakri which require voluminous amount of water. All industries in the study area

Table No. 3.9 Tehsil wise Livestock Water Requirement in Dhule District. WR=Water Requirement lit/day

Animals W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total Cows 58334 43214 127240 69126 297914 WR 68.25 3981296 2949356 8684130 4717850 20332630 Buffalos 772 1251 257 3917 6197 WR 69.20 34740 56295 11565 176265 278865 Sheeps 4086 16195 148912 72289 241482 WR 13.60 55570 220252 2025203 983130 3284155 Goats 58300 73908 99780 88718 320706 WR 13.60 792880 1005149 1357008 1206565 4361602 Horses 213 489 3395 6734 10831 WR 45.50 9692 22250 154473 306397 492811 Donkey 57 148 159 168 532 WR 35.50 1995 5180 5565 5880 18620 Poultry 65209 80052 217224 160785 523270 WR 0.31 20215 24816 67340 49843 162214 Other 9466 11404 12856 20075 53801 WR 49.13 465065 560279 631615 986285 2643243 Water Requirement lit./day 31574140 Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 11.240 Livestock Data Source: District Statistical Abstract-2011 consume about 37.191 M. Cu. M. water per year. Therefore, sufficient and casual supply of water should be borne in mind before erection of industries. 3.2 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES:

Sub-surface or Groundwater occurs in pore spaces of the unconsolidated alluvial deposits and also in the pores, joints and fractures in the Basalt. Groundwater is commonly understood to mean water occupying all voids within a geological stratum (Rai, V. K., et al 2003). Groundwater is that water beneath the ground surface contained in void spaces (Han, Dawei, 2010). Dug and tube wells form the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Dhule district. Rural and urban population, irrigation, industries depends upon groundwater. Ecologically groundwater is also important because it sustains rivers, wetlands and lakes . Usually the significance of groundwater for ecosystems is often overlooked, even by biologists and ecologists.

Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource on the earth. However over-use or overdraft of groundwater causes problems to human users and to the environment also. The most evident problem is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. The water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive withdrawal of groundwater and increase in number of wells. The rate of depletion is accelerating day by day. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-related subsidence and saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. Total replenishable groundwater potential of the district has been estimated by Groundwater Survey and Development Agency as 126147 ham.

3.2.1 Wells:

Water well is an excavation or structure created in the crust by digging, boring or drilling in order to get groundwater . Wells forms chief source of water for domestic and irrigation purpose in the study area. There are71407 irrigation wells in the Dhule district and 123 other wells. The tube and dug wells both are used for irrigation in the study area. Tube wells are the means of water abstraction in alluvial formation while dug wells are used in areas of hard rocks. These wells are mostly unlined but also found lined as per the nature of the material. On an average the diameter of the dug wells varies from 3 to 5 m. Now a days dry and unused dug wells are reusing after making 125 to 200 mm drill hole at the their bottom. In Deccan Trap country yield of large dug wells varies from 18.2 to 66.1 cum/day. Dug wells yields even more which are locate along fracture zones, deeply weathered strata and low lying areas. Such wells are observed in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. The depth of dug wells range from 6 m. to 16.7 m. in the area under focus. Numerous lined dug wells are found in the alluvial plain along both banks of Tapi River in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. But these dug wells are dried up due to lowering of water table hence such wells are abandoned. Some of them are being reused after bore holes at their bottoms. The depth of such wells range from 25 to 50 m. below ground level.

Table No.3.10 Tehsil wise Distribution of Wells Area in Sq. No. of Sr. No. Tehsil Density per sq. km. Km. Wells 1) Dhule 1981.94 23695 11.95 2) Sakri 2416.11 21098 8.73 3) Shindkheda 1300.53 15162 11.66 4) Shirpur 2364.53 11452 4.85 Total 8063.11 71407 8.86 Source: M. S. E. D. Co. Dhule (2011).

Generally tube wells are suitable for alluvial areas. Tube wells are more used in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. These wells are located on north and south banks of Tapi river. It has been learnt that tube wells are successful and high yielding. Yield of these wells ranges from 45460 to 272460 lit/hr.

For the detail study of utilization of groundwater resources through dug wells and tube wells, tehsil wise distribution of wells and their density is taken into consideration. Table No. 3.10 represents area, number of wells and density of wells in the tehsils of study area. The distribution of wells is highly uneven in the study area. It is consequences of geological formation, properties of rocks, depth of weathering and availability of water. Dhule tehsil records 23695 wells and area is 1981.94 sq. km. so density of wells is also high i. e. 11.96 wells per sq. km. Number of wells in Shindkheda tehsil are 15162 hence it also registered high well density of 11.66 wells per sq. km. Sakri tehsil has medium density of 8.73. Total number of wells being used for irrigation and drinking water purpose are 21098 and area of the tehsil is the highest in district i. e. 2416.11 sq. km. At last Shirpur tehsil has lowest number of wells and subsequently low well density of 4.84. It is because most of north and north eastern part of the tehsil is hilly and under forest.

3.2.2 Groundwater Potential Zones:

A systematic planning of groundwater development using modern techniques is essential for the proper utilization and management of this precious but shrinking natural resource. With the advent of powerful and high speed personal computers, efficient techniques for water management have evolved, of which Remote Sensing and GIS are of great significance (Pradeep Kumar et al, 2010). Such techniques were employed by Mondal et al (20028), Dibi, B. et al (2010), Pradeep Kumar et al (2010), Nag. S. K. and Lahiri, Anindita (2011), Sitender and Rajeshwari (2011). Potential of groundwater resources in Dhule district has been evaluated using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. With the help of Survey of India toposheets and Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2,3,4 false color image, various thematic maps such as base map, geology map, drainage map, geomorphology map, slope map, soil map, drainage density map, lineament, lineament density and land use/ land cover map of the study area have been prepared using Arc GIS software. These thematic maps have been integrated and appropriate weightage have been assigned according to its importance to various factors controlling occurrence of groundwater (Fig. No. 3.3). The potential of groundwater is demonstrated in five categories ranging from Very High to Very Low (Fig. No. 3.4).

Table No.3.11 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps Groundwater Weight Thematic Layer Class Prospect Assigned River Alluvium Very Good 7 Geology Deccan Trap Moderate 3 0 – 1 Good 5 Drainage 1 – 2 Good 4 Density 2 – 3 Moderate 2 3 - 4 Poor 1 Deep Black Soil Poor 1 Soil Medium Black Soil Poor 2 Shallow Black Soil Good 3 Level to Nearly Level (0–1%) Very good 6 Slope Very Gently Sloping (1–3%) Good 5 Gently Sloping (3–5%) Moderate 3 Moderately Sloping (5–10%) Poor 2 Moderate Steeply Sloping (10 –30%) Poor 1 Surface Water < 75 m. Good 4 Body > 75 m. Poor 2 Valley fill Very good 7 Alluvial Plain Good 6 Eroded Land Good 5 Geomorphology Highly Dissected Plateau Moderate 4 Medium Dissected Plateau Moderate 4 Un-dissected Plateau Poor 2 Western Ghat (Rocky Outcrop) Poor 1 Present Good 5 Lineament Absent Moderate 3 Agriculture Good 5 Scrub Land Good 4 Land Use/ Land Forest Very good 6 Cover Water Body Good 3 Settlement Moderate 2 Bare land Poor 1 0 – 0.40 – Low Poor 1 Lineament Density 0.40 – 0.80 – Medium Moderate 3 0.80 – 1.36 – High Good 5 Source: Compiled by researcher.

I. Very High Water Potential Zone: From Table No. 3.12 is clear that about 1430.77 sq. km. (17.74%) area of Dhule district has very high groundwater potential. Most portion of very high groundwater potential zone discovered along course of the Tapi river and lower reaches of its tributaries such as Aner, Arunavati, Burai, Panzara and Amaravati rivers. While remaining part of it occurs in the form of small patches in Sakri, Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils. Very high groundwater potential zones are coincides with alluvial plain and areas of valley fills which is composed of relatively younger alluvium. It consists of clay, silt, sand and boulders. This material of varying size increases the porosity of the region. This is the most fertile tract of the study area yielding ample water, hence intensively cultivated. Average yield of tube wells in this zone varies from 0.5 to 31.5 lps. (G.S.D.A.) / 1600 to 2100 cum/day (Borse, 2006). II. High Water Potential Zone: This zone constitutes about 28.76% area of the district. Leading part of this zone appears along the Panzara river and its tributary Kan river in Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Shirpur tehsil is also covered by the extensive patches of High potential zones. It is piedmont zone of Satpura ranges covered by the eroded material. This colluvial material is coarse, highly permeable and has high water potentiality. It is also observed along courses of rivers such as Arunavati, Amaravati, Bori and Panzara in Shirpur, Shindkheda, Dhule and Sakri tehsils respectively.

III. Moderate Water Potential Zone: Almost all tehsils exhibit moderate potential zones. This zone comprehensively accounts for about 34.72% part of the study area. South eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, south western part of Shindkheda tehsil and north eastern as well as south western part of Sakri tehsil possesse moderate groundwater potential. Moderate water potential zone can be observed in Shirpur tehsil in north and north eastern hilly area. Yield of the wells range from 60 to 125 cum/day. IV. Low Water Potential Zone: Groundwater potential along the southern part of Sakri and Dhule tehsil is found to be low, which occupies 833.76 sq. km. area. Dhanora and Galna hills in Sakri and Dhule tehsils have low groundwater potential. Small patches of low water potential zones are scattered in Shindkheda tehsil. This is because of elevated area with steep slopes and a veneer of weathered profile. In this zone basaltic rocks are not subjected to erosion and weathering due to fever joints and cracks. Dug wells of this zone yield 75 -95 cum/day (C. G. W. B.). Table No. 3.12 Groundwater Potential Zones of Dhule District.

Sr. No. Category Area in sq. km. Area in percent 1 Very High Water Potential Zone 1430.77 17.74 2 High Water Potential Zone 2318.83 28.76 3 Moderate Water Potential Zone 2799.75 34.72 4 Low Water Potential Zone 833.76 10.34 5 Very Low Water Potential Zone 680.00 8.43 Total: - 8063.11 100.00 Source: Computed by Author.

V. Very Low Water Potential Zone: Western Ghat section in Sakri tehsil possesses very low groundwater potential. This is because Western Ghat section is the most elevated, the least weathered and highly dissected part of the study area. The hard basaltic rocks are exposed at many places, which adversely affect porosity and provide very limited space for groundwater. It is only 8.43% in areal extent of the district. Predominantly massive Basalt of the Western Ghat yields 60 – 75 cum/day and dry up after rainy season. 3.2.3 Groundwater Resources Abstract: Assessment of groundwater resources of the district has been gathered from GSDA (Table No. 3.13). It provides tehsil wise data regarding groundwater recharge, draft, discharge, development, development status, allocation etc. It has been observed that Sakri tehsil has maximum About 196767 ha. area of suitable for groundwater recharge which is the highest among all four tehsils. It is followed by Dhule 192626 ha, Shindkheda 131960 ha and Shirpur 131960 ha. Total annual groundwater recharge of the district was 126147 ham. Sakri and Dhule tehsils were contributed 39125 ham. and 38658 ham. of water to recharge aquifer. The district as a whole discharge is 7546 ham. water annually. It is only 6 % of recharge. Hence net 118601 ham. groundwater is available for various uses. Out of net balance 57821 ham. is being utilized for agriculture, domestic, industrial and other purposes. It means that 60780 ham. groundwater is balance. Therefore, stage of groundwater development within district is 47 %. It is fortunate that the all four tehsils fall in the ‘safe’ category form groundwater development point of view. Overall trend of groundwater table during pre- monsoon period is falling while it is rising in post-monsoon time. As per GSDA 3575 ham. groundwater is allocated for industries and domestic purposes while 57203 ham. is proposed for the agricultural use. Table No. 3.13 Tehsil-wise Groundwater Assessment (2008-09) Sr. Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District No. Area Suitable for GW 1 182626 196767 131960 130779 642132 Recharge (ha) Total Annual GW Recharge 2 38658 39125 20710 27654 126147 (ham.) 3 Natural Discharge (ham.) 2089 2698 1156 1003 7546 Net Annual GW Availability 4 36569 36427 19554 26051 118601 (ham.) 5 Gross Draft 22799 18924 8293 7805 57821 6 Net GW Balance 13770 17503 11261 18246 60780 7 Stage of Development % 62 52 42 30 47 Water 8 Pre-monsoon Falling Falling Falling Falling Falling Table

Trend Post-monsoon Rising Rising Rising Rising Rising 9 Category of Tehsil Safe Safe Safe Safe Safe For Year Allocation 836 1031 823 858 3575 2025 10 Domestic Requirements 836 1031 823 858 3575 +Industrial Net GW available for 11 12923 16387 10533 17360 57203 Irrigation (ham.) Source: - G. S. D. A.

Chapter: - 4

IMPACT OF GEOMORPHIC FACTORS ON WATER RESOURCES

Physiography, climate, geology and geomorphology play a key role in the evaluation of the potential of water resources. In order to get veracious knowledge about the availability of water resources, it is immense important to study the impact of these factors. Large part of the study area is encompassed by Deccan basalt, while alluvium formation occupies the central position. Nature of the aquifers is controlled by process of weathering, fracture, faults and lineaments. Surface and sub-surface hydrological features such as geological structures, lineaments, rock types, drainage density, water bodies and thickness of overburden weathered material play an important role in groundwater occurrence in different geological formation or aquifers. Following geomorphic factors are considered to perceive water resources within the district:

4.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

Potential of water resources are restrained by physical features. Physiography refers to the arrangement or portrait of the landforms of given area in a broad sense. Dhule district exhibits varied physiographical features ranging from mountain ranges, hills, valleys, flood plain, plateau etc. The area which is under focus can be divided into following physiographic units:

4.1.1 Satpura, Dhanora and Galna Ranges: Dhule district is bounded by Satpura ranges from the north while Danora and Galna hills from south. Aner, Arunavati, Ambad, Kordi rivers have their fountain-head from southern slopes of Satpura ranges and flows southward to join Tapi river. While Dhanora and Galna hills forms the source regions of Panzara, Burai, Amaravati, Kan, Bori etc. Hence these ranges are assumed as donor zone, these areas are poor in groundwater, because of steep slope, thin layer of weathered material, absence of soil cover and degraded vegetation.

4.1.2 Flood Plain: Flood plain occupies southern part of Shirpur tehsil and northern part of Shindkheda tehsil. This formation is composed of the material deposited by Tapi and her tributaries. It comprises clay, silt, sand, pebbles etc. This zone is nothing but a thick layer of alluvium. Flood plain receives water from piedmont zone. So Tapi flood plain possesses a good deal of groundwater resources. In general flood plain is suitable for percolation of water. But impervious layer of yellow soil and hard pan of calcareous concretions are prevalent at many places which affect vertical infiltration (Khanapurkar, 2010).

4.1.3 The Piedmont Zone / Talus and Scree Deposits: Satpura Mountain consists of talus and scree. Locally it is also known as Bazada. Thickness of this zones reaches up to 50 m. at many places. This formation comprises mainly boulders, pebbles, coarse and fine sand as well as clay, which is poorly sorted and unconsolidated. Hence it is highly porous and normally yields copious groundwater. At present the dug wells and shallow tube wells are dry up (Khanapurkar, 2010).

4.1.4 The Deccan Plateau or Upland Region: Considerable part of the Dhule district that lies to the south of Tapi river is suffused by Deccan plateau. It is the part of Maharashtra plateau covered by lava flows. It is rugged and undulating in nature. Deccan basalt is exposed at many places. This region is traversed by streams and rivers such as Panzara, Burai, Amaravati, Bori, Kan etc. Numerous dykes are learnt in this region. Upland region holds low to moderate groundwater depending upon depth of weathering. Residual Hills are basically the hard rock left behind after erosion has occurred. Subba Rao (2001) has also opined that residual hills are not suitable for groundwater exploration because of their poor water storage capacity.

4.2 WEATHERING:

Weathering is decay and disintegration of solid rocks in situ. According to C. D. Olliver (1969) weathering is the breakdown and alteration of minerals near the earth’s surface to produce that are more in equilibrium with newly imposed physico-chemical conditions (Savindra Sing, 1999). The process of weathering is of three types: (1) Physical or Mechanical Weathering, (2) Chemical Weathering and (3) Biological Weathering. Whenever hard rock such as Deccan Basalt matters, weathering processes have immense impact over water resources. Large scale groundwater storage is provided by weathered rock volume, the network of joints on accounts of cooling process, fractures and fissures that develop due to earth movements that occurred from time to time as well those due to denudational processes (Jagtap, 1984). The weathered and fractured zones forms groundwater potential zones (Pradeep Kumar, 2010). In order to get detailed information regarding water tables during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season as well as depth of weathering, alluvial deposition, depths of wells, intensive field work was carried out comprising 114 observation wells. From present research work it is revealed that Deccan basalt is subjected to weathering at various degrees. The thickness of weathered material varies from 0.5 m. to 12.6 m. within study area. Weathered profile is almost not found in Tapi valley because of excessive alluvial deposition. A thin veneer of weathered material is learnt in hilly area, but as distance from the mountain crest increases the depth of weathering increases. Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12m.), Chinchwar (10.25 m.), Deshshirvade (12.6 m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.) are the prominent examples of deep weathering. Weathered profile of near about half of observation wells is less than 3 m. (Photo Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7)

4.3 SLOPE:

Slope is the degree or amount of inclination of ground surface. Slope is one of the indicators for groundwater prospects. It controls the infiltration of water into subsurface. In the gentle slope area, the surface runoff is slow allowing more time for rainwater to percolate, whereas steep slope facilitates high runoff allowing less residence time for rainwater and hence comparatively less infiltration (Pradeep Kumar et al, 2010).

Slopes which are convex tends to spread the over land and thus favors infiltration where as slope which are concave promotes concentration of flow and linear runoff (Kirby, 1978). The high potential zones correspond to the fracture valleys, valley fills, pediments and denudational slope, which coincide with the low slope and high lineaments density areas. In other words it is a measure of change in elevation. Topography determines the speed with which the runoff will reach to the river. Rain that falls over steep mountainous areas will certainly reach the river faster than the flat or gentle sloping areas.

In the present study, the area under focus is grouped into five classes according to the degree of slope (Fig. 4.1). The areas having slope less than 5 0 are designated as nearly level ground or very gentle slope. About 86.86% surface of the district is characterized by very gentle slope which favors groundwater infiltration (Table No. 4.1). While 6.5% area lies in between 5 0 to 10 0 which is known as moderate slope. Moderate steep and steep slope are very small in areal extent in the study area. It is confined to the Satpura ranges in the north and north eastern part and Dhanora, Galna Hills to the south. The degree of the slope also plays an important role in the infiltration. As far as groundwater is concerned, flat areas are capable of holding surface runoff, which in turn facilitates recharge. Whereas in the elevated areas, where the slope amount is high, there is be high run-off and low infiltration.

Table No. 4.1 Area Under Slope in Dhule District.

Sr. No. Category of Slope Area sq. km. Area Percent

1 00-50 Very Gentle Slope 7003.640 86.860

2 50-10 0 Gentle Slope 527.165 6.538

3 10 0-15 0 Moderate Slope 235.190 2.917

4 15 0-20 0 Moderate Steep Slope 160.993 1.997

5 > 20 0 Steep Slope 136.122 1.688

Total 8063.110 100.000

Source: Computed by the researcher. Hence, due to flat or rolling topography there are better chances of groundwater percolation in the study area.

4.4 LINEAMENTS:

A lineament may be a fault, fracture; master joint, a long and linear geological formation, the straight course of streams, vegetation alignment or topographic linearity. It is a straight or gently curved, lengthy topographic feature expressed as depressions or lines of depressions (O’Leary et al., 1976). It is itself an expression of the underlying structural features. Lineaments are fractures and faults that play an important role in groundwater studies particularly in hard rock regions. They are linear or curvilinear features can play a major role in identifying suitable sites for groundwater abstraction because they reflect rock structures fractures and faults through which water can travel up to several kilometers. They are the area of zones of

increased porosity and permeability in hard rock areas. Many groundwater potential zones are located along fracture zones hence identification of lineament is important in groundwater studies. Lineaments provide the pathway for groundwater movement and are hydrogeologically very important. The lineament intersection areas are considered as the groundwater potential zones. At last their presence should be confirmed with ground truth verification (Borse, 2006).

Although lineaments have been identified throughout the area, the lineaments in the pediplain or valley fill area are considering significant from groundwater occurrences point of view (Pradeep Kumar, 2010). Lineaments like joints, fractures etc. are developed generally due to tectonic stress and tension provide important clues on surface feature and are responsible for infiltration surface runoff in to the surface and also for development and storage groundwater (Subba Rao el at, 2001).

Remote sensing data provides useful information to identify structural features and lineaments. Lineaments are the linear features of tectonic origin that are identified as long, narrow and relatively straight total alignments visible in satellite image. District Resource Map of Dhule District (GSI, 2001) and the satellite image have been visually interpreted to identify the lineaments of the study area. The data has been checked by field visits and study. Identified lineaments are of varying dimension with different orientation.

The prominent directions of lineaments are NE-SW, E-W and N-S as shown in lineament map (Fig. 4.2). Lineaments with considerable length are observed in south and south-eastern part of the study area which extends for 80 to 100 km. They are parallel to the Dhanora and Galna Hills. Few N-S trending lineaments are marked in the same region. Some of the lineaments present in north which are varied in directions. The mapped structural lineaments are analyzed using the lineament density param.s. The lineament density map of the study area (Fig. 4.3) shows that lineament density, range from 0.0 to 1.36 km/sq. km. The high lineament density areas are found in patches all over the district except north eastern and central part of eastern territory. It indicates the areas of high groundwater potential. Lineament density of 0.8 to 1.36 km/sq. km. is discovered in east and central Shirpur tehsil, central part of Sakri tehsil from north to south and central part of Dhule tehsil from east to west. The region of medium density (0.4 to 0.8 km/sq. km.) can be noticed around areas of high density. Areas of medium density take up more space in Sakri and Dhule tehsil along Panzara river. A large part of the Panzara basin is occupied by low density indicating a poor groundwater potential. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest density. Based on the lineament density it is inferred that the groundwater prospects are poor in a large part of the study area.

4.5 ROCK PROPERTIES:

Precipitation is the primary source of groundwater. Precipitated water must percolate down through the vadose zone or soil to reach the zone of saturation. The rate of infiltration is a function of soil type, rock type, antecedent water and time. Movement of groundwater depends on rock and sediment properties and the groundwater’s flow potential. Porosity, permeability, specific yield and specific retention are important properties of groundwater flow.

4.5.1 Aquifer: In Latin language ‘Aqua’ means ‘water’ and ‘ferre’ means ‘produce’ or ‘bear’. Thus Aquifer is composed of these two words. An aquifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated material to yield significant quantity of water to wells and springs (Todd, 1980). These are unconsolidated rocks composed of sand and gravel with an ability to store and transmit water. Aquifers should be permeable and porous in nature. An impermeable layer of rock is present beneath the permeable strata so as to store water. An aquifer may extend over an extensive area in horizontal as well as vertical direction.

Two types of aquifers have been noticed in Dhule district, namely Basaltic and Alluvial aquifers. About 85% part of the district is suffused by Deccan Basalt. Deccan traps of India are comparatively older in age, and less permeable. This is due to the fact that the primary porosity in Deccan traps is much less and also because the vesicles are filled with secondary minerals. Secondary porosity is developed due to jointing and weathering (Singhal, 1997). In highly weathered rock as well as contact between two flows embedded with gravel or exfoliated pebbles, boulder and gravel is the most favorable area for huge storage of groundwater (Sarbhukan, 2001). Groundwater occurs in semi-confined and confined conditions in most of the Deccan trap areas.

Alluvial is another aquifer of the study area. It is formed due to the accumulation of sediments in Tapi rift valley by Tapi her tributaries. It is composed of unconsolidated material like pebbles, gravel, sand and silt hence highly porous. Alluvial aquifer possesses ample quantity of water. Groundwater in Tapi and Purna alluvial area occurs under water table and unconfined conditions. Alluvium acts as natural store of water (Joshi, 1979).

4.5.2 Porosity:

Diversity in the material results in the spaces during the rock formation. These spaces are called as pore spaces, voids or interstices. They are filled with groundwater. Groundwater dwells in these pore spaces. The porosity of soil or a geologic material is the ratio of the volume of pore space in a unit of material to the total volume of material. Porosity is often expressed as a percentage. The shape and arrangement of soil particles help to determine porosity. Infiltration, groundwater movement and storage occur in these void spaces. Therefore pore spaces are noteworthy in the study of groundwater. The interstices come into existence during geological processes. Particles exist in many shapes and these shapes pack in a variety of ways that may increase or decrease porosity. Generally, a mixture of grain sizes and shapes, results in lower porosity. Primary porosity is the space that remains between solid grains or crystals immediately after sediments accumulation or rock formation. The primary porosity of the Deccan traps is due to cooling cracks, joints, fissures and open flow junctions, fractures and occasionally due to porous lava flows. Deccan traps of India are comparatively older in age, and less permeable. This is due to the fact that the primary porosity in Deccan traps is much less and also because the vesicles are filled with secondary minerals (Singhal, 1997).

Because of dissolution or stress the interstices that appear in a rock formation, after it has formed, is known as Secondary porosity. The secondary porosity is developed due to jointing and weathering. The various flow units have also been

Table No. 4.2 Hydrological Properties of Rocks and Sediments

Permeability Hydraulic Conductivity Sr. No. Material Porosity 3 (m 3/day) (m /day)

1 Soils 0.3-0.5 ------

2 Weathered Rock 0.01-0.5 ------

3 Clay 0.45-0.55 <0.01 0.0002 4 Silt 0.4-0.50 0.0001-1.0 0.08 5 Fine Sand 0.30-0.52 0.01-10.0 2.5 6 Medium Sand 0.30-0.40 10-3000 12 7 Coarse Sand 0.30-0.40 10-3000 45 8 Sandy Gravel 0.20-0.30 0.3-10.0 150 9 Gravel 0.25-0.40 1000-10000 450 10 Conglomerate 0.50-0.25 0.3-3.0 0.2 11 Tuff 0.10-0.80 0.0003-3.0 0.2 12 Lavas (Basalt) 0.01-0.30 0.0003-3.0 0.01

13 Weathered 0.01-0.10 >0.0003 0.1-1.4 Rocks Source: Dunne and Leopold, 1978.

weathered to varying extent giving rise to murum, a lateritic type of soil which represents a potential aquifer horizon tapped by dug wells (Singhal, 1997). Near the ground surface, the porosity is further accentuated by weathered rock, river or stream alluvium or the lateritic cap over hard basalt; usually contain the phreatic water body. In the fissures, fractures and flow junctions within the underlying hard basalt, groundwater occurs under semi-confined state. Circulation of water is most confined to about 100 m depth below ground surface (Limaye, 1994). Porosity of deep black soil is 0.60 %. Porosity and Permeability of different formations are given in the Table No. 4.2.

4.5.3 Permeability:

Permeability is a measure of a soil's or rock's ability to transmit a fluid, usually water. It is an expression of the connectedness of the pores. The size of pore space and interconnectivity of the spaces help to determine permeability, so shape and arrangement of grains play a key role. Water can permeate between granular void or pore space and fractures between rocks. Larger the pore space, more permeable the material. However the more poorly sorted a sample or mixed grain sizes lower the permeability because the smaller grains fill the openings created by the larger grains. Water and air move more rapidly in strongly aggregated soils. On the other hand, clay and silt has low permeability due to small grain sizes with large surface areas, which results in increased friction. These pore spaces are also not well connected. Deep black soil consists of high clay and silt, therefore they are poorly permeable. Infiltration rates are low with massive loss of soil via erosion (Krishna, 2010). Permeability of this soil is 10 -10 cm/sec. Constant infiltration rate of deep black soil is 1.2 cm/hr. and 1.6 cm/hr. in compact and ploughed conditions. Fractures in the hard rock also help to determine permeability.

4.6 HYDROGEOMORPHOLOGY:

Hydrogeomorphology has been defined as an interdisciplinary science that focuses on the interaction and linkage of hydrologic processes with landforms or earth materials and the interaction of geomorphic processes with surface and subsurface water in temporal and spatial dimensions (Sidle and Onda, 2004). The concept of Hydrogeomorphology is useful to describe the link between water and geomorphic conditions. Hydrogeomorphological mapping is an integrated, applied geo-scientific approach for groundwater prospecting zonation. The location of groundwater potential and infiltration areas becomes perceptible by using this type of hydrogeomorphological zoning.

The hydrogeomorphological map of Dhule district (Fig. No. 4.4) represents the result of combination of geological, hydrogeological and geomorphological factors. In the present study hydrogeomorphological map has been prepared using visual interpretation of satellite image and hydrogeomorphological map provided by GSDA, Dhule. The area under the study is classified in different hydrogeomorphological zones such as alluvial plain, valley fills, eroded land, un-dissected plateau, medium dissected plateau, highly dissected plateau and Western Ghat section.

4.6.1 Alluvial Plain: Alluvial plain and flood plain constitute the main landforms of fluvial origin. Gently sloping plains on the banks of Tapi river and lower reaches of Panzara, Burai and Arunavati rivers are clearly marked in the study area. The contour of 150 m. clearly demarcates the alluvium plan both to the sides of Tapi river. Alluvial deposition occurs along both banks of Tapi river and its tributaries in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. This formation accounts 384.47 sq. km. area means 4.77% territory of the district. The alluvium comprises clay, silt, sand, gravel, pebbles and

occasionally boulders. The study reveals that paleo-channels and alluvial plain are the geomorphological features with excellent potential for groundwater occurrence. The groundwater can be tapped through shallow and deep tube wells in alluvial plains and flood plains. The wells tapping the flood plains generally give high yield with good quality of water.

4.6.2 Valley Fill: It is described as the deposition of unconsolidated materials in the narrow fluvial valley. These are the features formed by depositional processes. They are composed of loose sediments such as pebbles, gravel, sand and silt. Valley fills are located along the Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsil and along Burai river in Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil. Valley fill captures very limited area in Shirpur tehsil. Due to coarser materials it has high permeability. They have covered an area of 506.8 sq. km. which is about 6.28 % of the district. The groundwater prospect of this area is expected to be good depending upon the thickness of the fill material (Pradeep Kumar, 2010).

Table No. 4.3 Hydrogeomorphic Units of Dhule District.

Sr. No. Hydrogeomorphic Unit Area in Sq. Km. Area in Percent 1 Valley Fill 506.80 6.28 2 Alluvial Plain 384.47 4.77 3 Eroded Land 692.41 8.58 4 Highly Dissected Plateau 535.04 6.65 5 Medium Dissected Plateau 3061.01 37.96 6 Un-Dissected Plateau 2609.70 32.37 7 Western Ghat Section 273.59 3.29 Total 8063.11 100.00 Source: Computed by Researcher.

4.6.3 Eroded Land: The eroded land is the outcome of erosional processes. The small streams have cut the land and it is converted in to eroded land. Such features are located mainly along Tapi river in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsil, while strips of land are eroded along Panzara and Aner rivers in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils respectively. About 692.41 sq. km. area is eroded which comprises 8.59% of the total area of the district.

4.6.4 Un-dissected Plateau: Most of the Southern part of the district along Panzara and Bori rivers is covered by un-dissected plateau. It also extends up to lower reaches of Panzara and Burai rivers. It occurs almost in all tehsils of the study area. South and south-western part of Shirpur tehsil has also un-dissected plateau. It exactly coincides with the High Water Potential Zone (Fig No. 4.4). Un-dissected plateau has good weathered profile and hence high potential of groundwater is found. Un-dissected plateau is spread over 2609.7 sq. km. It is 32.37 % of the study area.

4.6.5 Medium Dissected Plateau: Major part of the study area is subjected to erosion process and weathering, so it is called medium dissected plateau. Most of the north- eastern and eastern part of Sakri tehsil is occupied by medium dissected plateau. Near about half of Shindkheda tehsil is formed of medium dissected plateau. This feature is also spread over more than half of Shirpur tehsil. It occupies 3061.1 sq. km. area of Dhule district which is 37.97% of the study area. Medium Dissected Plateau nearly corresponds with area of Moderate Water Potential Zone. Here, prospectus of groundwater occurrence is moderate.

4.6.6 Highly dissected plateau: It is located in the most southern part of Sakri tehsil. A very small patch of highly dissected plateau is observed in middle-east part of Shirpur tehsil. It covers an area of 535.4 sq. km. and comprises 6.65% of the study area. It has low potential of groundwater.

4.6.7 Western Ghat Section: A small area of Sakri tehsil in the west is covered by Western Ghat section. It occupies 273.59 sq. km. and 3.39% of the total area of the district. It is also poor with respect of groundwater potential.

4.7 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTIONS:

Delineation of groundwater resources is of paramount importance. In the view of present day’s vast and ever increasing demand of water in various sectors, it is crucial to know the potentials of groundwater to planners, administrator and researchers. Since the assessment of groundwater resources is related to mainly indirect evidences, it is difficult task.

In order to study groundwater resources of Dhule district a simple and conventional approach is adopted. Study of occurrence of groundwater is multivariate in nature. The wells are the important tools or means which gives us an important information regarding occurrence of water, nature of aquifers, properties of material, water table levels and water quality aspects. Therefore major thrust has been given on well inventory data (Borse, 2006). A questionnaire was formulated including major aspects of dug and tube wells to collect data regarding the occurrence of groundwater. Whole district is divided into six cross sections. These cross sections are framed from Satpura ranges in the north to Dhanora and Galna hills in the south across physiographic divisions and major rivers. Total 114 dug and tube wells are selected as a sample for present study. This was supplemented by the oral information from the farmers. The observation wells are selected along motorable road at an interval of near about 5 km. It is because the preference was given to cover major geomorphic units and geological formations. These north south running cross sections of the

study area gives an idea about subsurface geological formation, depth of weathering, occurrence of red and green bole. They also help us to understand the depth, width of alluvial deposition in Tapi rift valley at various places. Hydrogeomorphic sections of the study area are as following:

4.7.1 Hydrogeomorphic Section -I: Nandale – Borvihir – Ambode – Betavad – Manjrod – Hisale – Khamkheda:

The section that passes through villages Nandale - Borvihir – Ambode – Betavad – Manjrod – Hisale – Khamkheda, lies close and parallel to the eastern boundary of Dhule district with Jalgaon district. It covers a total distance of 132 km. Total 25 dug wells and tube wells were selected for the detailed research study (Fig. 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9). Village Nandale is the first point of the section located in the south-western corner of the district. The village is situated 396 m. above mean sea level. Two dug wells were observed within the boundaries of the village with the same depth of 6.75 m. Soil layer is very thin. Weathered zone is found just below the soil. Thickness of this layer is 3 m. and hard layer of 3.5 m. encountered. Lithology of the dug wells from Nandale to Mohadi (W1 to W12) is more or less the same. Development of the soil layer increases gradually from Nandale to Mohadi. Alluvium is absent in this part of the section. Productive weathered profile ranges from 3 to 3.5 m. Panzara river flows between Mohadi and Kauthal. This region shows higher alluvium deposition and absence of weathered profile as well as parent rock. Water table of this part increases from south.

Second lap of section lies between villages Padhavad (W17) to Taradi (W21). Tapi river flows between Padhavad and Manjrod. Maximum thickness of the soil is observed 7m. at Betavad. This part also shows maximum deposition of alluvium because it is the part of Tapi valley. Here the depth of tube wells ranges from 20 m. to 92 m. A tube well located near Taradi shows maximum thickness of alluvium i. e. 91.5 m. Here murum and hard rock is completely absent. Fluctuation of water table on the both banks of Tapi river is low as compared to other parts of the section. Remaining five dug wells are located in the foothills of Satpura Ranges. Taradi, Hisale, Mahadev, Bhoiti and Khamkheda villages show thin layer of soil and absence of alluvium. These wells show average thickness of 5 m. of weathered profile. Here depth of wells is restricted to 10 m. with higher fluctuation of pre-monsoon and post-monsoon water table.

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION

W-1 SECTION I, Part 1/4 396 W-2 W-1

392 6.8 1/4 2/4 3/4 4/4 400 W-2 W-3

388 6.8

350 W-4 W-5

384 W-6 W-8 300 W-7 W-23 W-9 W-11 W-24 W-25 380 W-10 250 W-12 W-13 W-19 W-20

376 W-14 W-21

H E I G HITR T H E EEN I G M 200 W-15 W-18 W-16 NANDALE-I 372 W-17 150 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130km. 368 NANDALE-II D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R 364

360 W-3 356 INDEX 352 Ground Level

7.9 Water Table - Summer 348 Water Table - Winter Soil

344 W-4 Alluvium Weathred Profile 340 Hard Rock

336 9.5 W-5 332 JUNAVANE 328 7.0 324

320

316 BORVIHIR 312 ANCHALE

308 VELHANE

304 W-6 KALKHEDA 300 CHINCHKHEDA

296 8.0 W-8 W-7

H E H II R E HG NT E ET M 292

288 7.7 284 8.0

280 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 km D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

Fig. No. 4.6 Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210 214 218 222 226 230 234 238 242 246 250 254 258 262 266 270 272 276 280 40 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D

AJANG W-9 45

11.0 SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC

50 AMBODE W-10 12.3 SECTION I, Part 2/4 Part I, SECTION

55 NAVARI W-11 10.3 06 70 65 60 MOHADI W-12 9.0 570 65 T E R E T Soil Hard Rock Hard Level Ground Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water INDEX KAUTHAL-I W-13 15.6

W-14 KAUTHAL-II 11.8 Fig. No. 4.7 Fig.No. 4.7 75 75

W-15 WALKHEDA 11.0 80

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source

H E I G H T I N M E T E R SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 102 106 110 114 118 122 126 130 134 138 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210 94 98 08 09 0 0 1 2 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D W-16 BETAWAD 3/4 Part I, SECTION 19.5

W-17 PADHAWAD 44.7

W-18 MANJROD 44.7

W-19 HOLNANTHE 68.0

T E R E T W-20 62.0 BABHALAJ Soil Hard Rock Hard Level Ground Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water INDEX

W-21 92.0 TARADI Fig. No. 4.8 Fig.No. 4.8 W-22 HISALE 60.5

ore aaCletdDrn ilwr ay-2007 M Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210 214 218 222 226 230 234 238 242 246 250 254 258 262 266 270 272 276 280 284 288 292 2 2 3 3 140 135 130 125 120 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D HYDRO G EO M O RPHIC SECTION RPHIC O M EO G HYDRO

MAHDEO DONDWADE W-23 6.0 SECTION I, Part 4/4 Part I, SECTION

BHOITI-I W-24 10.0

BHOITI-II W-25 10.0 145 T E R E T Soil Level round G H ard Rock ard H trTbe-WinterW - erTable m ater Sum - W Table ater W W eathred Profile eathred W Alluvium INDEX 150 Fig. No. 4.9 Fig.No. 4.9 155 160

4.7.2 Hydrogeomorphic Section - II: Palasaner – Shirpur – Nardana – Songir – Dhule – Arvi – Purmepada:

National Highway No.3 was selected for Cross Profile No. II. Major Villages and towns along with this profile are Palasaner - Shirpur – Nardana – Songir – Dhule – Arvi – Purmepada. Total length of this profile is 104 km. It includes 35 observations of wells. Lithologs of these wells are represented in Fig. 4.10, 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13. The salient features of this profile are as following-

According to geology and field survey observations, the observation wells can be divided in groups. First lap of the profile from Palasaner to Dahivad shows that soil layer varies from 0 to 1 m. and alluvium is absent. Due to exposed rock surface, weathered profile in this lap is thicker. Maximum thickness of weathered profile observed is 10 m. near village Hadakhed. This in turn registers high fluctuation of water table. In this part of the profile the wells are shallow and their depth is restricted to maximum 13 m.

Second segment of the profile is the Tapi valley proper. It comprises Shirpur, Kharde, Kurkhali, Savalde and Dabhashi. This leg of the profile exhibits maximum thickness of soil i. e. 2 to 3 m. Being a part of Tapi valley, it indicates great deposition of alluvium. Excessive deposition occurs near Shirpur. It is measured to 70 m. in thickness. Changes in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon water table of this leg are low and are 3 m. Here layers of weathered profile and hard rock are absent.

The last lap of this profile begins from Varshi (W40) up to village Purmepada (W55). This portion is underlined by Deccan basalt; hence it exhibits thin layer of soil and general absence of alluvium. Only one well is located in Dhule city (W53) in the vicinity of Panzara river which shows a layer of alluvium with the depth of 13 m. This segment shows varied profile of weathered material, which ranges from 1.5 to 12 m. Many dug wells represent weathered profile more than 5 m. in thickness. This area represents moderate to high weathered profile and hence have moderate to good potential of water.

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210 214 218 222 226 230 234 238 242 246 250 254 258 262 266 270 272 276 280 284 288 0 PALASANER-I 7.0 W-26 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D PALASANER-II W-27 8.0 5 PANKHED W-28 SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 10.0 10 H E I G H T I N M E T E R 130 150 200 250 300 350 SANGAVI W-29 400 11.0 1/4 Part II, SECTION 0 W-26 W-28 W-27 15 02 30 20 10

W-29 2/4 1/4 W-30 HADAKHED W-30 12.0 W-31

W-33 W-32 02 30 25 20 W-31 W-35 W-34

SULE R E T E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D W-36 11.0 W-37

050 40 W-38 W-39

T E R E T W-40 W-32 W-41 W-33 13.5 W-42 W-43 W-44 07 090 80 70 60 Hard Rock Hard Soil Level Ground W eathred Profile eathred W interW - Table ater W Summer - Table ater W 13.0 Alluvium W-45

SUGER INDEX DAHIVAD-I FACTORY W-46 W-47

W-48 4/4 3/4

W-49 W-50 Fig. No. 4.10 Fig. No. 4.10 W-51 W-52 35 W-53 W-54 W-55 W-56 W-57 W-58 100km. W-59

km W-60 40

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION SECTION II, Part 2/4 W-34 186

182 PIMPRAD 178 W-44 174 GAVANE W-43

170 NARDANA-I KHARDE

166 VARSHI KURKHALI 16.5 8.0 SAVALDE W-35 DABHASHI 162 W-36 W-42

158 W-37 W-38 154 W-41 W-39 W-40 150 12.0

146 12.0 80.5 142

138

134

130 56.5

126

122 71.5

118 71.0

114 67.0

110 79.1 80.9 106

102

98 INDEX 94 Ground Level Water Table - Summer 90 Water Table - Winter Soil

86 DAHIVAD-II Alluvium SHIRPUR-II Weathred Profile Hard Rock H E I G H T I N M E T E R H I H E E G TI T N E M 82

78

74 SHIRPUR-I 70 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 km D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

Fig. No. 4.11

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION SECTION II, Part 3/4

288 W-56 W-55 284

280 8.0

276 W-53 W-51 15.0

272 W-54 W-52

270 12.0 6.7 266 14.0 11.0 W-50 262 DHULE-V

258

254 DHULE-IV 15.0 W-49 250 DHULE-I NAGAON

246 DHULE-II DHULE-III W-48 242 W-47

238 15.9

234 8.7

230 DEOBHANE 21.5 226

222 PIMPARKHED

218

214 SONGIR-II W-46 JAMFALLAKE 210

206 8.0 NARDANA-II SONGIR-I 202 INDEX 198 Ground Level

W-45 Water Table - Summer 194 Water Table - Winter Soil 190 Alluvium Weathred Profile

H E I G H T I N M E T E R H EEI G T H I T N M E 186 Hard Rock

182

178

174 55 6065 70 75 80 85 90 95 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

Fig. No. 4.12

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 288 292 296 300 304 308 312 316 320 324 328 332 336 340 344 348 352 356 360 364 368 372 376 380 384 388 392 396 400 404 59 510151010125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC

W-57 AVADHAN LALING 6.5 W-58 6.0 SECTION II, Part 4/4 Part II, SECTION

ARVI W-59 11.3

PURMEPADA W-60 10.1 T E R E T Soil Hard Rock Hard Level Ground Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water INDEX Fig. No. 4.13 Fig.No. 4.13 130 km

4.7.3 Hydrogeomorphic Section -III: Chougaon – Kusumba – Lamkani – Shewade - Dondaicha – Virdel – Arthe – Boradi – Gadhaddev:

Total 29 dug wells and tube wells (W61 to W89) are considered along with this cross section as an observation wells on an average interval of 5 km. This profile passes through nearly center of the district. Total length of this profile is 138.7 km. This is the longest profile (Fig. No. 4.14, 4.15, 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18). This profile crosses Panzara, Burai, Amravati and Tapi rivers.

From Chougaon (W61) to Dondaicha (W72) soil layer is almost absent. Thick alluvium deposition is displayed in valleys of major streams such as Panzara (Kusumba- W- 62), Burai (Lamkani- W- 67), Amravati (Dondaicha-W-72) and Tapi (Virdel-W-78 to Wadi- I- 84). While some wells points out medium accumulation of sediments. This part of the section demonstrates deep weathered profile that ranges from 2.75 to 10.25 m. Hence dug wells of this lap denote low fluctuation of groundwater, which is less than 3 m.. Due to the considerable thickness of weathered profile, the layer of hard rock encountered is thin which ranges from 1.1 to 5 m. Average depth of dug wells is around 10 m.

After village Mandal (W-71) soil layer is discovered in all the dug and tube wells. Soil layer is thin at Dondaicha – 0.5 m., Dhavade-0.25 m. and Vikharan-0.5 m. Deposition of alluvium at Dondaicha is 5.5 m. It is due to the sediments brought by Amravati River. This part displays moderate weathering that ranges from 6 m. to 9 m. Parent rock found in these dug wells varies from 0 m. to 2.75 m. in thickness. In this region average fluctuation of groundwater level is 4 m. As we move towards Tapi river, the thickness of soil is increases up to 3 m. at Amalthe and 2 m. at other places. Soil of this part is Deep Black Cotton soil. Beneath soil, thickness of alluvium increases towards Tapi river. It is 28 m. at Virdel (W-78) and 68 m. at Wadi (W-84). It is, therefore, weathered profile and hard rock not be traced. The depth of tube wells was also increases towards Tapi valley. The depth of tube well at Virdel (W-78) is 30 m. and maximum depth is found near village Wadi (W-84). This part of the section shows moderate fluctuation in water table. The last lap of the section is the part of foothills of Satpura ranges. Here the layer of the soil is restricted to only 0.5 m. Except Budki all villages show alluvium with the thickness of 1 m. To 2 m. Depth of weathering is moderate and recorded up to 3 to 4 m. Hard rock layer is found in this region of 2 m. to 3 m. Dug wells show high groundwater fluctuation in spite of low depth.

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION Section III, Part 1/5

1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5 W-88 350 W-61 W-65 W-64 W-89 W-87 W-86 W-66 300 W-67 W-70 W-69 W-68 250 W-71 W-62 W-63 W-85 200 W-84 W-83 W-75 W-82 W-72 W-76 W-73 W-74 W-77 W-78 W-79 H E I E H R T H G I NTM E E W-80 150 W-81 130 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 km.

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

360

356

352 INDEX Ground Level 348 W-61 Water Table - Summer Water Table - Winter

344 W-65 Soil

W-64 Alluvium 340 Weathred Profile

11.0 Hard Rock 336 8.4 332 13.0 W-62 328 W-63 324

320 15.2 10.0

316 CHUAGAON CHINCHWAR-II 312 MEHERGAON

308 CHINCHWAR-I

304 W-66

H R E H I E TG N T E I M 300 8.5

296 KUSUMBA-I KUSUSMBA-II 292

288 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

Fig. No. 4.14

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 198 222 226 230 234 238 242 246 250 254 258 262 202 206 210 214 218 266 270 272 276 280 284 288 292 296 300 304 308 312 53 540 35 30 25 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC

LAMKANI W-67 11.1

SHEVADE W-68 Section III, Part 2/5 Part III, Section 9.5

DEGAON W-69 9.4 45

ANJANVIHIRE W-70 9.5 T E R E T 50 Soil Hard Rock Hard Level Ground MANDAL W-71 Profile Weathred Alluvium Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water INDEX 6.5 55

Fig. No. 4.15 Fig.No. 4.15 065 60

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 102 106 110 114 118 122 126 130 134 138 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 86 90 94 98 55 DONDAICHA-I W-72

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D 15.3 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 06 70 65 60

MODONDAICHA-II W-73 13.5 570 65 Section III, Part 3/5 Part III, Section DAHVADE W-74 10.4

VIKHARAN W-75 10.9 75 75

W-76 08 095 90 85 80 JOGSHEKU

T E R E T 15.0 Soil Level Ground Hard Rock Hard Weathred Profile Weathred Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water Alluvium VIRDEL-I W-77 INDEX 11.5

Fig. No. 4.16 Fig.No. 4.16 VIRDEL-II W-78 30.0

AMALTHE W-79 30.0

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 102 106 110 114 118 122 126 130 134 138 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 86 90 94 98 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 140 135 130 125 120 110 105 100 100 W-81 VARPADE

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D 32.5 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 0 1 2 2 3 3 140 135 130 125 120 110 105

W-81 CHANDPURI 54.0

ARHTE KHURD W-82 54.0 Section III, Part 4/5 Part III, Section

51.5 KUWE W-83 WADI-I W-84 69.0

WADI-II W-85 13.5 T E R E T Soil Level Ground Hard Rock Hard Water Table - Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium INDEX Fig. No. 4.17 Fig.No. 4.17 145

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION 386 Section III, Part 5/5 380

376 INDEX 372 Ground Level Water Table - Summer 368 Water Table - Winter Soil 364 Alluvium Weathred Profile 360 W-88 Hard Rock 356

352 8.5 348

344

340 W-89 336

332 WAGHPADA

328 10.5

324 W-87 320

316 5.5

312

308 W-86 GADHADDEV 304

300 BUDAKI

296 18.0 292

288

284

280

H EH R I G E T H I T N ME 276

272 BORADI

270

266 120125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

Fig. No. 4.18

4.7.4 Hydrogeomorphic Section -IV: Chhadvel – Nijampur – Jaitane – Shevali - Dhamnar –Behed – Vitai:

Fourth cross profile of the study area was planned across the Middle West part of the district. It is located in the offshoots of the Western ghat at considerable elevation. The observation wells located between 412 to 540 m. from msl. The length of the profile is 52 km. Total 11 sample wells (W-90 to W-100) were considered for the present study (Fig. No. 4.19 and 4.20). Lithology of these wells is represented in fig. no. 4.19 and 4.20. Four observation wells out of 11 shows soil layer of 0.5 to 1 m. in depth. While it is absent in remaining 7 wells. It means that development of the soil is poor or soil erosion exceeds process of soil formation. Except two (W-92 and W-98), all observation wells show moderate deposition of alluvium that varies from 1.3 to 8.5 m. The process of weathering seems to be slow in this area. Jaitane (W-92) and Raipur (W-95) have considerable weathered profile of 5.5 m. and 5.6 m. in depth. Other wells show a thin layer of weathering. Hence large part of hard rock has been encountered in most of wells. Thickness of hard rock in this section found between 2.5 m. to 10 m. Depth of wells is more and the variation in pre-monsoon and post- monsoon water table is also high. All the dug wells in this section bespeak 6.3 m. average changes in water table. High variation in water table indicates the low potential of aquifers and the area experiences scarcity of water.

4.7.5 Hydrogeomorphic Section -V: Shelbari – Pimpalner – Samode – Ghodade - Dahivel – Bardipada:

This section is short and measured only to 38.1 km. in length. The Wells considered for observation lie within boundaries of Shelbari, Pimpalner, Samode, Ghodade, Dahivel and Bardipada villages. It begins from Shelbari and runs northward up to Ghodade then it goes along with Nagpur-Surat Highway up to Bardipada. Total 8 wells are included in this section (Fig. No. 4.21). First dug well (W-101) located near Shelbari at the foot of Galna Hills. Thickness of soil is 1 m. and alluvium is absent at Shelbari. Weathered profile of this well is 4.5 m. in thickness and hard rock is just of 0.5 m. Fluctuation in water table is 5.5 m. In case of second dug well soil layer is 1.2 m. and alluvium deposition is absent. This well shows maximum thickness of weathered profile that is 12.6 m. Here hard rock encountered is 4 m. in thickness. Present dug well displays the highest variation in water table of 10 m. remaining wells of the profile represent a thin layer of soil that ranges between 0.25 m. to 2 m. Except Shelbari (W-101), Deshshirvade (W-102) and Samode (W – 104) dugwells show deposition of alluvium. Pimpalner, Ghodade and Dahivel show considerable amount of alluvium deposition. Depth of weathering is more where alluvium is thin and vice versa. A layer of hard rock found is very thick at Samode (W-104) and measured to 10.9 m. dug wells at Dahivel, Bardipada and Deshshirvade also exhibit considerable layer of hard rock. Average change in per-monsoon and post-monsoon groundwater table in this part is 6 m. Dug well at Deshshirvade points out the highest fluctuation in water table. It proves that the area under observation experiences shortage of water in post-monsoon period.

4.7.6 Hydrogeomorphic Section -VI: Shivarimal – Jamkheli – Tembhe – Kalikhet - Kudashi – Bopkhel:

This is the shortest cross profile of the district and extends for 28.7 km. It is located in south west corner of Dhule district. Total 8 dug wells are treated as observation wells (Fig. No. 4.22). This is the most elevated part of the district which ranges between 590 to 640 m. from msl. Total 8 observation wells of this section show moderate to thin layer of soil. It ranges from 0.3 m. to 1.5 m. Deposition of alluvium is not seen in first seven wells but last dug well shows alluvial material of 6 m. thickness. The thickness of weathered profile is medium except one well. In spite of high elevation dug well at Shivarimal (W-109) displays weathering up depth of 10.5 m. Parent rock is observed in all dug wells. Depth of wells ranges from 5.5 m. to 15.4 m. Here almost all dug wells show high variation in groundwater. Well at Shivarimal (W-109) has highest variation of 10.6 m. Other wells show average fluctuation in groundwater of about 4 m.

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 500 504 508 512 516 400 404 408 416 420 424 428 432 436 440 444 448 452 456 460 464 468 472 476 480 484 488 492 496 412 0

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D CHADWEL-I W-90 10.2 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 5 CHADWEL-II W-91 12.0

H E I G H T I N M E T E R 01 02 30 25 20 15 10 500 510 520 530 540 550 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 410

W-92 NIJAMPUR-I 1/2 Part IV, SECTION 0 12.3 W-90

5 W-91 W-93 NIJAMPUR-II 10 16.7 W-92 15 W-93 1/2 02 30 25 20 JAITANE W-94 W-94 14.0

W-95 T E R E T

RAIPUR W-95 W-96 15.5

35 W-97 Soil Level Ground Hard Rock Hard Water Table - Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium INDEX

W-96 SHEVALI-I 40 11.3 W-98 45 2/2 Fig. No. 4.19 Fig.No. 4.19 W-99

35 W-97 SHEVALI-II

8.1 km 55 50 W-100 40

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 500 504 508 512 516 520 524 528 532 536 540 544 548 552 556 560 564 568 572 456 460 464 468 472 476 480 484 488 492 496 40

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D W-98 DHAMNAR 9.1

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 55 55 50 45 W-99 BEHED 12.5 520 530 540 550 500 510 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 410 SECTION IV, Part 2/2 Part IV, SECTION 0 VITAI W-100 13.7 5 10 15 60 km 60 1 02 30 25 20 T E R E T Soil Ground Level Ground Hard Rock Hard Weathred Profile Weathred Alluvium Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water 35 INDEX 40 45 2 Fig. No. 4.20 Fig.No. 4.20 50 55 km 55 50

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007 Fieldwork During Collected Data - Source H E I G H T I N M E T E R 500 504 508 512 516 520 524 528 532 536 540 544 548 552 556 560 564 568 572 576 580 584 588 592 472 480 484 488 492 496 476 0 SHELBARI W-101 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D 6.0 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION HYDROGEOMORPHIC 015 10 5 DESHHSIRWADE W-102 H E I G H T I N M E T E R 17.8 500 520 540 560 580 590 480 0

W-101 SECTION V SECTION 5 W-102 PIMPALNER W-103 R E T E M O L I K N I E C N A T S I D 10.1 01 02 30 25 20 15 10 Soil Level Ground Hard Rock Hard Weathred Profile Weathred Water Table - Winter - Table Water Summer - Table Water Alluvium INDEX

SAMODE W-104 02 30 25 20 13.9 W-103

W-104 GHODADE-I

T E R E T W-105 5.3

W-105 W-106 GHODADE-II 10.5

W-106 DAHIVEL W-107 9.5 Fig. No. 4.21 Fig.No. 4.21 W-107 35 35 km 35

BARDIPADA W-108 W-108 10.5

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION SECTION VI W-111 TEMBE 640

630

620 JAMKHELI W-110

610 KALIKHETW-112 KUDASHIW-113 SHIVARIMAL W-109 600 BOPKHELW-114 590

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 km 644 INDEX 640 Ground Level

636 5.5 Water Table - Summer W-111 TEMBE Water Table - Winter 632 Soil Alluvium 628 Weathred Profile Hard Rock 624

616

612

608 JAMKHELIW-110 W-112 604 KALIKHET SHIVARIMALW-109 KUDASHIW-113 600 6

596 7.4 7.2

592 13.5 BOPKHELW-114

588

584 H E I G H T I N M E T E R EH E T I G E TMH I N

580 15.4

576

572

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

SOURCE - DATA COLLECTED DURING FIELDWORK MAY-2007

Fig. No. 4.22

Chapter: - 5

POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES

Water has become a scarce source all over the world. Groundwater forms the main source for the domestic and irrigation purposes in India. Overexploitation of groundwater resources and as a consequence decline in water table are the causes of serious concern in some parts of Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab (Kaledhonkar, 2003). Ever increasing population and variety of anthropogenic activities has led to the mining of groundwater and extensive depletion of groundwater in the study area. The groundwater conditions in hard rock terrain are multivariate due to the heterogeneous nature of the aquifer owing to the varying composition, compaction and density of weathering (Balachander, 2010).

Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts of the district experiences dry spells of 2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due to delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district has been known for the droughts. Droughts of various intensities occur once in 4 to 6 years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce and the economy of the district as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001). Hence artificial recharge of groundwater has become pressing need as growing population requires more water and as more stores is needed to save water in times of surplus for use in time of shortage. Water conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the country's water resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. In order to make artificial recharge successful in the hard rock areas, it is of utmost important to identify suitability of the terrain for artificial recharge.

5.1 MAJOR GROUNDWATER PROVINCES OF DHULE DISTRICT:

Groundwater Province is an area characterized by a general similarity in the mode of occurrence of groundwater (Sarbhukan, 2001). Two groundwater provinces are noticed in the study area. They are as follows :

5.1.1 Deccan Trap Groundwater Province: The Deccan Trap comprises several flows of Basalt which are supposed to have extruded from fissure eruptions. It occupies 85 % of total area of Dhule district, which is a major groundwater province. The flows have been intruded by large number of dykes of doleritic composition. The dykes are trends in an ENE-WSW direction and a few are N-S or WNE-ESE trends. Basalt flows are of the “pahoehoe” and the “aa” types. The groundwater learnt in the surface layers down to the depth of 20 m. under unconfined conditions in the weathered zone, vesicular or amygdaloidal basalt, jointed and fractured massive basalt. The water bearing strata occurring below 30 m. depth, beneath the redbole and dense massive basalt, exhibit semi-confined to confined conditions. On the elevated plateau tops having good areal extent, local water table develops in top most layers and the well in such areas show rapid decline of water levels in post-monsoon season and becomes dry during summer. At the foot hill zone the water table is relatively shallow near the water courses and deep away from it and near the water divides. In the valleys and plains of river basin, the water table aquifer occurs at the shallow depth and the wells in such areas do not go dry and sustain perennial yield except in extreme summer or drought conditions.

The depth, water table and yield of wells hinges on the permeability of the lava flows. The average depth of wells in the study area ranges from 6 to 21.5 m. and depth of water table ranges between 1.25 to 13.5 m. The yield of the dug wells varies from 60 to 125 cu.m/day, whereas that of bore wells varies from 2 to > 20 cu.m /hr, however in most of the bore wells it ranges between 2 to 10 cu. m./hr. Thus geological and geomorphological formation of the Trap territory is accountable for the low availability of groundwater. Structure, jointing pattern and depth of weathering determines water holding capacity and the movement of groundwater within different lave flows.

5.1.2 Alluvial Groundwater Province:

Alluvial deposits of Tapi river valley occur in long narrow basin, which are probably caused by faulting. About 15% of the district is occupied by the alluvium. It consists of clay, silt, sand, gravels and boulders etc. The beds of sand and gravels are discontinuous and lenticular and pinch out laterally within short distance. They are mixed with large proportions of clayey material rendering delimiting of individuals granular horizons. As per groundwater exploration data alluvium is encountered down to 100 m. depth. Groundwater occurs under water table, semi-confined and confined conditions in inter granular pore spaces of gravel and sand. The average depths of tube wells in this part of study area are ranges from 30 to 90 m. and depth of water table ranges between 12.5 to 56.5 m. The yield of the dug wells varies between150 and 200 cum /day, whereas that of exploratory wells varies from 1.50 to 6.00 lit./sec. as per exploration data. The yielding of the tube wells drilled by GSDA ranges from 20 to 250 cum / hr.

5.2 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:

Morphology plays a significant role in influencing the hydrological conditions and behavior of groundwater reservoirs. According to morphological classification, watersheds have been classified in to three categories on the basis of their locations in river basin and physiographic consideration of the terrain (Maggirwar, 1990). Similarly the area under study is divided in to three morphological zones. They are as follows:

5.2.1 Runoff Zone:

Runoff zone refers to the area with minimum or no-infiltration which results in to the maximum runoff of rainwater. Runoff zone is situated in the upland area near water divide where rivers takes up their source. This zone is composed of highly dissected morphological conditions. It possesses steep, very steep slopes and undulating topography. It is characterized by barren hills, rocky outcrops, poorly weathered mantle and absence of vegetation. Hence it leads to poor or no infiltration and rapid runoff of rainfall. Hydrological conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of aquifer. Groundwater in the runoff zone occurs in limited and perched water table conditions (Maggirwar, 1990). In present research study area Satpura hills, Dhanora-Galna Hills and Western Ghat section act as runoff zone. It accounts about 1397.91 sq. km. area which is 17.34% of the study area. Dykes can be also including in this zone. (Table No. 5.1).

5.2.2 Recharge Zone: Recharge zone refers to the area which is favorable for infiltration and recharge of groundwater. Recharge zone is located in the middle course of the basin. Morphologically the area is moderately dissected and drained by streams of higher order. It possesses

Table No. 5.1 Area Under Morphological Zones in Dhule District.

Sr. No. Zone Category Area sq. Km. Area Percent

1 Runoff Zone 1397.91 17.34

2 Recharge Zone 3665.62 45.46

3 Storage Zone 2999.58 37.20

Total 8063.11 100.00

Source: Computed by researcher.

moderate relief, shallow soil cover. These conditions are favorable for moderate infiltration and recharge of groundwater. Hence the area has groundwater and is suitable for groundwater development. This is zone of active weathering. Recharge zone comprises the landforms like piedmont plain, moderately dissected plateau, un-dissected plateau. Well yield of recharge zone is seasonal and it can support only kharip and rabbi crops. Recharge zone occupies 3665.62 sq. km. area which is 45.46% of the study area. It is distributed all over the study area except alluvial plain of Tapi river.

5.2.3 Storage Zone: In general, storage zone is the area which is able to hold substantial quantity of water. Low lying areas and lower reaches of the river basins fall in this category. This area possesses nearly level slope, very gentle slope and gentle slope. It is characterized by poor drainage conditions. Thick soil cover is observed in storage zone. The obese soil cover of storage zone is either derived by deep weathering or by alluvial deposition. Due to high thickness of weathered profile and thick alluvial deposition in the Tapi rift valley, it holds substantial quantity of water. This zone is benefited by good recharge conditions and getting recharge by groundwater inflow from upland areas after rainy season. In this zone groundwater occurs under water table conditions. Hydrologically, storage zone is highly suitable for groundwater exploration. Storage zone is discovered in the alluvial plain and eroded land of the Tapi valley. It also covers valley fills of Arunavati, Amravati, Panzara, Bora, Burai, Aner, Kan rivers and their tributary streams. Storage is zone is admeasured 2999.58 sq. km. in the study area. It is 32.20 % of the district. Dug and tube wells are characterized by high yield 100 to 150 cu. m./day. Hence they support the crops all round the year. Storage zones are highly fertile and productive for good yield.

5.3 POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES:

Rainfall is the major source of groundwater recharge in the study area and occurs almost wholly during rainy season when evaporation losses are comparatively small. Water conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the country's water resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. There are rich traditions of community based water harvesting and budgeting in India, to meet the specific needs of environment (Banergee, 2003). The problem of water resources is much more acute today owing to the manifold increase in our need for water over the last few centuries, beginning with the Industrial Revolution; the Green Revolution in the 1960s led to another major increase in the use of water for growing the new hybrid crops. Coupled with the exponential growth in population, this has put available water resources under severe stress. Evidence from palaeoclimatology and archaeological and historical records shows that man responds to scarcity of water in a variety of ways which include strategies for water conservation, rainwater harvesting and when inevitable, migration (Shankar et al, 2004). It is important to note that the increase in pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling, whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).

In order to adopt various means of water conservation, it is of prime importance to know whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments, land use/ land cover etc. factors are favorable for recharge or not. Artificial recharge zones are delineated by integration of various thematic maps using GIS technique. Weightage to the each class of thematic layer is assigned according to its response to percolation or recharge of water (Fig. No. 5.2). Three artificial recharge zones are discovered in Dhule district namely, High, Moderate and Low favorable zones (Fig. No.5.3). They are as follows:

5.3.1 High Favorable Zone:

High favorable zone for artificial recharge takes up about 1785.16 sq. km. which is 22.14 % of the geographical area of Dhule district. Eastern and south-eastern part of the Shirpur tehsil is highly favorable for artificial recharge of groundwater. Eastern 1/3 rd portion of Shirpur tehsil surprisesingly falls in the High Favorable Zone, in spite of very steep slopes and undulating topography. It is characterized by hills, rocky outcrops, poorly weathered mantle and degraded vegetation cover. High favorable zone also occur in the form of patches along the Tapi river in Shirpur tehsil because it is composed of alluvial aquifer which is highly porous. Deep black soil is observed

Table No. 5.2 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps.

Thematic Layer Class Weight Assigned

Geology Alluvium 6

Deccan trap 2

Soil Deep black soil 2

Medium black soil 3

Shallow black soil 4

Slope Level to nearly level (0–1%) 7

Very gently sloping (1–3%) 5

Gently sloping (3–5%) 2

Moderately sloping (5–10%) 2

Moderate steeply sloping (10–30%) 1

Stream Present 4

Absent 1

Geomorphology Valley fill 7

Alluvial plain 7

Eroded land 5

Highly Dissected plateau 4

Medium Dissected plateau 3

Un-dissected plateau 2

Western ghat (Rocky outcrop) 1

Lineament Present 7

Absent 2 Land use Agriculture 5

Scrub land 4

Forest 5

Water Body 0

Settlement 2

Bare land 1

Lineament 0 – 0.40 2 Density

0.40 – 0.80 3

0.80 – 1.36 5

Source: Compiled by researcher. along Tapi river. Porosity of deep black soil is only 0.60 %. It consists of high clay and silt, therefore they are poorly permeable. Infiltration rates are low with massive loss of soil via erosion (Krishna, 2010). Whole course of Panzara river is also favorable for artificial recharge. It may be attributed to the fault zone along Panzara river. Area along the Tapi river and middle course of Burai river in Shindkheda tehsil are favorable for recharge

5.3.2 Moderate Favorable Zone:

This zone is spread all over district. Moderate favorable zone occupies extensive area admeasuring 5068.77 sq. km. of the district. It is about 62.86 % of the study area. Geomorphologically the area is moderately dissected. It is drained by streams of higher

. Table No. 5.3 Area Under Recharge Zones in Dhule District.

Sr. No. Recharge Zone Area sq. km. Area %

1 High Favorable zone 1785.16 22.14

2 Moderate Favorable zone 5068.77 62.86

3 Low Favorable zone 1209.18 15.00

Total 8061 100

Source: Computed by researcher. order. It possesses moderate relief, shallow soil cover. Moderately favorable zone is the zone of active weathering. The thickness of weathered material is more at various places. Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12 m.), Chinchwar (10.25 m.), Deshshirvade (12.6 m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.) are the prominent examples of deep weathering. Dhule, Shindkheda and Sakri tehsils relatively possess more Moderate Favorable zone as compare to Shirpur tehsil.

5.3.3 Low Favorable Zone:

Low Favorable Zone situated in the upland area near water divide, with highly dissected morphological conditions, steep slopes, and undulating topography. Upper course of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil, eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and southern part of Sakri tehsil, western Shindkheda tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of groundwater. Very little area of Shirpur tehsil is not favorable for recharge. This zone covers 1209.18 sq. km. means 15% area of the district. These areas are least favorable for groundwater recharge because they are upper courses of Panzara, Amaravati, Burai, Bori rivers which are highly dissected, barren, thin soil cover, thin layer of weathered rock material. It leads to poor infiltration and rapid runoff of rainfall. Therefore, it is necessary to think well before implanting any scheme or project for groundwater augmentation or recharge for the same area. Hydrological conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of aquifer. Groundwater in the Low Favorable Zone occurs in limited and perched water table conditions (Maggirwar, 1990).

Chapter: - 6

QUALITY, PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Quality, utilization, management and problems are important aspects of the study of water resources. Water quality refers to the physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological properties of water for any intended use. Water quality is concerned with the status of water with respect to its requirement for human being and biological species. Water Management of water resources refers to optimize the use of water in order to minimize its potential impacts on the environment. It is very difficult and many efforts are required to optimize the use of water all over the world. Management of water needs detail study of surface and groundwater potential of the given area, various uses for which it may be put, increasing demands, participation of people, government policy etc. Scarcity of water, floods, salinity, depletion of aquifers, waste water etc. are severe problems at local, regional and global level.

6.2 QUALITY OF WATER:

Water resource is a unique in nature and present in different forms. Groundwater is a main source for water for the domestic and agriculture purpose in Dhule district. Groundwater has become an essential resource over the past few decades due to the increase in its usage for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses etc. (Asadi et al, 2007). Hence water has become a scarce resource all over the world. The availability of potable water in adequate quantity for consumption has been one of the hot talks in recent past (Jog et al, 2003). Conceptually, water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use, i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Quality is defined by certain physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. In an ecological perspective, it can be defined as the aquatic system which can support life without breaking the food chain and food web of the system.

The geological nature of the soil determines the chemical composition of the groundwater. Water is constantly in contact with the ground in which it stagnates or circulates, so equilibrium develops between the composition of the soil and that of the water: e.g. water that circulates in a sandy or granitic substratum is acidic and has a few minerals. Water that circulates in limestone contains bicarbonates alkalinity. The quality of the water determines its use for various purposes. Thus, if quantity and quality is adequate, water is a blessing (Kayastha, 2003).

6.2.1 Chemical Analysis of Water: Chemical composition is a result of stage by stage transformation of chemical composition of water that fell as precipitation. Other transformations are controlled by climate, relief, lithology, intensity of water exchange, biological production of the landscape and geo-chemical situation. To ascertain suitability of water for consumption, it is necessary to undertake examination of quality of water. Physical properties of water include temperature, color, taste, and odor, turbidity, foam and froth, conductivity, dissolved solids.

Table No. 6.1 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. I. S., I. C. M. R. and

W. H. O.

B. I. S. I. C. M. R. W. H. O.

Element/ Parameter Highest Desirable Maximum Permissible Highest Desirable Maximum Permissible Highest Desirable Maximum Permissible Alkalinity 200 600 200 600 200 600

Calcium 75 - 75 200 75 -

Chloride 250 1000 200 1000 200 1000

Colour 10 - 5 25 - - (Hazen Unit)

Electric Conductivity No Standards Recommended

Fluoride 0.6- 0.6-1.2 - 1 1.5 0.8-1.7 0.9

Iron 0.3 - 0.3 1 0.3 -

Magnesium 30 - 50 150 50 -

Nitrates No 45 20 50 10 45 Relaxation PH 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2

Sodium 200

Sulphate 200 400 200 400 150 200

Total Dissolved 500 1500 500 1500 500 1500 Solids

Total Hardness 300 - 300 600 500 - CaCO 3

Dissolved oxygen, pH value, oil content, organic and inorganic compounds, total coliform counts determines chemical quality while biological quality depends on availability of nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), microbial density and total aquatic life in water as bacteria, algae, etc. Standard values of various water quality parameters laid down by Indian Council of Medical Research, Bureau of Indian Standards and World Health Organization are given in Table No. 6.1. Results of water quality analysis of samples in Dhule district have been discussed below.

i. PH: The P H of a solution at any given temperature represents the concentration hydrogen ion. Measurement of P H gives us very quick and easy way to obtain appraisal of acid-base equilibrium. It is important in environmental engineering in considering water supply, water softening, dis-infection and corrosion control. Low P H affects corrosion, high P H causes taste, soapy feel and P H < 8 is preferable for effective disinfection with chlorine (Maiti, 2004). Wetzel (1975) reported that the value of pH ranges from 8 to 9 units in Indian waters (Sisodia and Moundiotiya, 2006). Average pH of the groundwater in Dhule district is around 8. Out of 166 samples only 12 show high pH. Normally a groundwater of Dhule district is slightly alkaline (Fig. No. 6.1).

ii. Electric Conductivity: Electric conductivity (EC) is ability of water to carry electric - - - - - + + + + current. Ions such as Cl , SO 4 , CO 3 , HCO 3 , NO 3 , Ca , Mg , Na , and K are present in the water that dominates the electric conductivity. By multiplying conductivity with an empirical factor (which is obtained from samples of known dissolved solid concentration and conductivities) the total dissolved solids can be estimated (Abbasi, 1998). Table No. 6.2 Groundwater classification based on Electric Conductivity (EC)

Sr. Type E.C. S.A.R. Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District No. 1 Excellent < 250 <10 0 0 0 0 0 2 Good 250-750 10–18 3 6 59 9 77 3 Doubt 750-2250 18–26 17 29 22 11 79 4 full Unsuita >2250 > 26 3 6 1 0 10 *E.C. inble µ mhos/cm** S.A.R. in equivalent per mole. Source: Computed by Researcher

As per EC and SAR water of a single village does not belong to excellent category (Table No. 6.2). About 2/3 rd villages of Sakri tehsil and half of villages in Shirpur tehsil have good water (Table No. 5.2) . Groundwater of most of the villages in Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil is doubtful and not suitable for drinking purpose. iii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Uncountable solids are found in natural waters, such as carbonates, sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium, sulfates, bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates etc. In other words total dissolved solids is simply sum of the cations and anions concentration expressed in mg/l. Chlorine is a major inorganic constituent of natural waters (Maiti, 2004). Chlorine may take its source from soil, rocks, discharge of agricultural, industrial and domestic waste water. Solubility of gases and utility of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose may be reduced due to high concentration of dissolved solids. In general TDS values are average to high in the groundwater of the district (Table No. 6.3) . Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil have more villages with high TDS. Dhamane-I (2870) and Icchapur (2503) represents the highest TDS in the study area. Table No. 6.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids

Sr. Range Type Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District No.

1 < 300 Low 0 1 29 0 30 2 300-600 Average 4 10 38 14 66

3 > 600 High 19 30 15 6 70

Source: Computed by Researcher iv. Total Hardness (TH): All natural waters consist of dissolved cations and anions. Water dissolves many ions as it flows through different geological formations. Hardness of water is defined as the quantity of cations with a +2 or +3 charge. When water containing both carbonate and a calcium ion is heated, calcium carbonate can precipitate out on to the walls of pipes, boilers and utensils. It decreases the life of some such items. However, there are some evidences of beneficial health effects of hard water. Selenium, for example, may help prevent cancer. Soft water drinking supplies have been associated with an increased heart attack risk (www.lentech.com/ro/water_hardness). Waters of Dhule district is very hard. Out of 166, 145 sample villages fall into very hard and 15 in hard class (Table No. 6.4) . Table No. 6.4 Distribution of Total Hardness

Sr. Range Hardness Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District No. Rating mg/l 1 <60 Soft ------2 61–120 Moderately ------4 1 5 Hard 3 121– Hard --- 4 12 --- 16 4 ≥180181 Very hard 23 37 66 19 145 Source: Computed by Researcher

Khede (1024), Dhamane-I (1540), Nardana-I (1180), Vikhurle (1000), Bodhgaon (2725) and Icchapur (1180) are prominent villages with very high TH.

v. Total Hardness as CaCo3: Hardness is the ability of water to precipitate the soap. It is due to presence of divalent metallic cations like calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous, manganese ions etc. In general surface waters are softer than groundwater. Hardness of water bespeaks the geological formation in which it has been in contact. High level of carbonate hardness leads to scaling in boiler and pipes which causes considerable economic loss.

Hardness of water in terms of CO 3 is very to very high all Table No. 6.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate.

Sr. Range Hardness Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District No. Rating mg/l 1 < 75 Soft 2 4 0 0 6 2 75-150 Medium 12 17 4 1 34 3 150-300 hard Hard 6 13 12 0 31 4 > 300 Very Hard 3 7 66 19 95 Source: Computed by Researcher over district (Table No. 5.5) . Out of 166 villages, 95 have very hard, 31 and 34 have hard and medium hard waters respectively. Comparatively waters of Sakri tehsil are very hard. About 2/3 rd villages of very hard water belong to this tehsil.

vi. Calcium: Calcium is the common constituent and important contributor to the hardness of water hence it reduces utility of water for domestic use. Calcium is naturally present in water and gives water a better taste. It may dissolve from rocks such as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite and apatite. Ordinarily concentration of calcium in groundwater of the study area is within permissible limits. In Dhule, Shirpur and Sakri tehsils all villages show that amount of calcium in groundwater is low except seven villages. About 11 villages of Shindkheda have hard water in terms of calcium. vii. Magnesium: In general it is non-toxic to human beings at the concentration expected in water. Magnesium salts have a laxative and diuretic effect due to high doses. Magnesium is the other element that determines hardness of water. It is observed that the amount of magnesium is low in the premises of Dhule district, except 17 villages in Shindkheda tehsil. Mean of the magnesium concentration in groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil is 62 mg/l while it is 55 mg/l, 33 mg/l and 43 mg/l in Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils respectively. viii. Chlorides: Normally chloride is present at low concentration. Primarily chlorine is used to destroy harmful microorganisms in water and waste water. Amount of chloride in groundwater of many villages of the study area is within permissible limit. About 12 samples from Shindkheda tehsil exhibits very high proportion of chloride. e.g. Nardana (930) and Dondaicha (1030). ix. Sulfate: Industries that are making use of sulfuric acid and Iron and Steel industries release sulfate through effluents. As far as public water supply is concerned it is important because of its laxative effects upon humans due to excessive amount. High level of sulfate forms scales in boilers, heat exchangers. For the most of the Dhule district including Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils sulfate in groundwater is below highest desirable limit. Eleven samples from Shindkheda tehsil contain more sulfate than highest desirable limit and seven samples crosses maximum permissible limit such as Varul (1160), Dhamane-I (1020), Nardana-II (940) etc. x. Nitrate: The nitrate ions are the common form of combined nitrogen found in natural water. Igneous rocks, drainage, plant and animal decay forms the source nitrates to surface waters. While fertilizers may be significant source of it in rural and suburban areas. It is important plant nutrient and causes eutrophication in receiving water bodies. High concentration in drinking water may cause blue-baby disease (Maiti, 2004). Concentration of nitrate in all samples of the study area is below given limit. xi. Fluoride: Fluoride is more common in groundwater than surface water (Maiti, 2004). If the concentration of fluoride is less than or more than the given permissible limit adversely affects human health. Presence of fluoride in drinking water prevents

Table No. 6.6: Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride-bearing Water.

Sr. Range Health Impact Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District No. mg/l 1 Nil Limited growth ------and fertility 2 < 0.5 Dental caries 13 26 48 18 105 3 0.5–1.5 Promotes dental 10 15 34 2 61 health 4 1.5 – 4 Dental fluorosis ------5 4 – 10 Dental, skeletal ------fluorosis 6 >10 Crippling ------fluorosis Source: Dissanayake (1991). dental cavities in children and forms hard, strong and decay resistance teeth, while high concentration of fluoride causes dental damages, bone fluorosis and other skeletal abnormalities. Table No. 5.6 signifies that amount of fluoride in 105 sample villages is less than 0.5 mg/l, it may lead to the dental caries. While all the remaining samples are within standards prescribed by various authorities. It is good for health.

6.2.2 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):

SAR expresses the suitability of water to be used in agriculture for irrigation , as determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the water. It is a ratio of the sodium - detrimental element to the combination of calcium and magnesium -beneficial elements in order to known effects on soil. In other words SAR is proportion of sodium ions with other anions. High concentration of sodium ions in groundwater adversely affects the infiltration and permeability of soil. Plants shed their leaves when SAR is >15. Soil becomes hard and difficult to cultivate. Other problems to the crop caused by high proportion of sodium are temporary saturation of the surface soil, high pH, weeds, soil erosion, inadequate oxygen and availability of nutrient. Sometimes recycled water can be a source of surplus Na + in the soil as compared with other cations like Ca +, K + and Mg +. SAR is calculated using following formula:

[] SAR = /([ ][ ])

Where, sodium , calcium , and magnesium are in mill equivalents/liter.

Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation because mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively (Appendix No. VIII - XI). Maximum of SAR in these tehsils are found at Markhedi 4.89 and Boradi 3.32.

Table No.6.7: SAR Hazard of irrigation water.

Water Type SAR Notes

None < 3.0 • No restriction on the use of recycled or groundwater.

Slight to • From 3 to 6 cares should be taken to sensitive crops. 3 to 9 Moderate • From 6 to 8 gypsum should be used. • Soils should be tested every 1 or 2 years to determine whether the water is causing a sodium increase.

Acute > 9 • Severe damage. Unsuitable On other hand Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR. Five villages of Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane – 9.48, Darane-II – 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages show moderate values of SAR. Especially groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil possesses high salinity. The villages with high salinity in Shindkheda tehsil are located along southern bank of Tapi river. In this area groundwater cannot be used for irrigation. Table No. 6.7 may guide farmers with respect to irrigation, SAR, crop and field management.

6.2.3 Water Quality Index (WQI):

Water quality index provides a single number that expresses overall water quality at a certain location and time based on several water quality parameters. The objective of Water quality Index is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable and usable by the public (Yogendra, 2008, Kumar and Dua, 2009). The concept of indices to represent gradation in water quality was first proposed by Horton (1965). It indicates the quality by an index number, which represents the overall quality of water for any intended use. It is defined as a rating reflecting the composite influence of different water quality parameters on the overall quality of water (Deininger and Maciunas, 1971; Harkins, 1974; and Tiwari and Manzoor, 1988). The WQI has been calculated from the point of view of the suitability of lake water for human consumption. (Sisodia and Moundiotiya, 2006). There are some limitations of WQI. For instance, WQI may not carry enough information about the real quality situation of the water. Also many uses of water quality data cannot be met with an index. There are more advantages of WQI than disadvantages (Kumar and Dua, 2009).

WQI Calculation

For calculation of WQI, selection of parameters has great importance. Since selection of too many parameters might widen the water quality index and the importance of various parameters depends on the intended use of water. Eleven physicochemical parameters, namely pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness, Chloride, sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, sodium, magnesium, Calcium and alkalinity were used to calculate the WQI. The calculation of WQI was made using a weighted arithmetic index method given below (Brown et al., 1972) in the following steps.

Calculation of Water Quality Index

WQI is calculated by using following equation

= ./

Calculation of sub index of quality rating (qn)

Let there be n water quality parameters where the quality rating or sub index (qn) corresponding to the n th parameter is a number reflecting the relative value of this parameter in the polluted water with respect to its standard permissible value. The First of all value of qn is calculated using the following expression.

qn = 100[(Vn - Vio ) / (Sn - Vio )]------(1)

Where,

qn = quality rating for the nth water quality parameter. Vn = estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station.

Sn = standard permissible value of nth parameter.

Vio = ideal value of nth parameter in pure water.

All the ideal values (Vio ) are taken as zero for drinking water except for pH=7.0.

Calculation of quality rating for pH

For pH the ideal value is 7.0 ((for natural water) and a permissible value is

For pH the ideal value is 7.0 (for natural water) and a permissible value is 8.5 (for polluted water). Therefore, the quality rating for pH is calculated from the following relation: qpH = 100 [(VpH -7.0)/(8.5 -7.0)]------(2)

Where, VpH = observed value of pH during the study period.

Table No.6.8 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO Standards and Assigned Unit Weights.

Sr. No. Parameter Standard (Sn & Si) Unit Weight 1 pH 8.5 0.134118 2 Total Dissolved Solids 1000 0.001140 3 Total Hardness 300 0.003800 4 Calcium 75 0.015200 5 Magnesium 30 0.038000 6 Alkalinity 120 0.009500 7 Chloride 250 0.004560 8 Sodium 200 0.005700 9 Sulphate 250 0.004560 10 Nitrates 50 0.022800 11 Fluoride 1.5 0.760000 Source: Computed by Researcher Calculation of unit weight (Wn)

Calculation of unit weight (Wn) for various water quality parameters are inversely proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.

Wn =K/Sn------(3)

Where,

th Wn = unit weight for n parameters.

Sn = standard value for nth parameters.

K = constant for proportionality.

K, Proportionality constant is derived from,

------(4) = [1/(∑ 1/Si)]

Where, Sn and Si are the WHO / ICMR standard values of water quality parameters.

Table No.6.9 Number of Villages in Different Water Quality Index Classes.

Sr. No. W.Q.I. Class Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District

1 0-25 Excellent 01 28 5 03 37

2 26-50 Good 13 19 14 13 59

3 51-75 Poor 05 24 16 04 48

4 76-100 Very Poor 04 11 04 ---- 19

Unfit for 5 >100 ------02 ---- 02 Drinking

Total: 23 82 41 20 166 -

Source: Computed by Researcher

From Table No. 6.9, it has been proved that water quality of very few villages is excellent except Sakri tehsil, where people of 28 villages enjoy groundwater of the best quality. As far as WQI is concerned about 1/3 rd villages of the study area fall in good class. Again on an average 1/3 rd sample villages belong to poor category. Four villages each from Shindkheda and Dhule tehsil and 11 from Sakri tehsil have to adjust with very poor quality of drinking water. Groundwater of two villages of Shindkheda tehsil is not suitable for drinking purpose. They are Virdel-I and Virdel-II, situated on the bank of Tapi river. The quality of groundwater at all levels is generally good and potable with few exceptions.

6.3 PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES:

According to G. N. Pradeep Kumar (2006) water is the most valuable and vital resource for sustained of life and also for any development activities with the surface water source dwindling to meet the various demands, groundwater has become the only reliable resource. The indiscriminate use of the vital natural resource is creating groundwater mining problems in varies parts of the world (Todd, 2005). India’s growing water shortage despite its being one of the wettest country in the world is worrisome (Sing and Gandhi, 1999). Area under study experiences problems of various intensities like scarcity of water, salinity, droughts, floods and depletion of aquifers.

6.3.1 Scarcity of Drinking Water or Water Stress:

Scarcity is associated with concepts of ‘security’, a much-used term in global policy circles that not only means the provision of adequate water to households but, in water resource development and planning discussions, paints the picture of a bleak future that conveys a sense of urgency to deal with the ‘problem’. Globally, ‘water security’ is represented as a simplistic linkage between increasing populations, increased environmental scarcity, decreased economic activity/migration and weakening of states resulting in conflicts and violence. (Lahiri - Dutt, Kuntala, 2008).

According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it is a situation where enough water is not available for all uses i. e. agriculture, household, industrial etc. It is difficult to express the stress of water in terms of per capita availability of water. But it has been suggested that if annual availability of per capita water is less than 1700 cu. m., the region begin to experience water stress. And below 1000 cubic meters water scarcity impedes human health and overall economic development of the region. Table No. 6.11 shows the total availability, utilization, per head and per hector availability of the major river basins of Maharashtra. Tapi basin is only basin which experience scarcity of water because per head and per hector availability of water is the lowest in the state. Due to low, erratic and poorly distributed rainfall, the availability of water resources in Dhule district is low. Moreover major part of the district is covered by hard rock like Deccan basalt. It has low primary porosity. Hence the groundwater potential is dependent on the thickness of weathering. Deposition of alluvium is Table No. 6.10 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water. Sr. Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total No.

Total Inhibited Villages 168 225 141 147 681 1 Inhibited Pada 13 258 0 100 371

Villages with Perennial Water 2 162 216 141 131 650 Supply Pada with Perennial Water 11 258 0 32 324 Supply

Villages with Water Supply 157 216 135 131 639 Scheme 3 Pada with Water Supply 11 214 0 32 257 Scheme

Villages facing Water Scarcity 9 35 36 4 84 4 Pada facing Water Scarcity 0 1 0 34 35

Tanker fed Villages 9 33 32 4 78 5 Tanker fed Pada 0 1 0 34 35

6 No. of Tankers 4 13 12 4 33

Source: District Statistical Abstract, 2011

Table No. 6.11 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in Maharashtra.

Natural Present Availability Name of Availability Classification Average Utilization per head Basin per hectare For Planning Availability (1996) (1991)

Godavari 50880 12795 1756 4520 General Basin (1795) (451) -- --

Tapi 9118 2747 803 2444 Scarcity Basin (322) (97) -- --

Narmada 580 24 3602 9063 Abundant Basin (21) (1) -- --

Krishna 34032 6881 1827 6048 General Basin (1200) (243) -- --

West 69210 3076 3497 37130 Flowing More Than Rivers in (2441) (108) -- -- Abundant Konkan Maharashtra 163820 25523 2076 7267 General Region (5779) (900) -- --

• Water Availability and Utilization - M. Cu. M. Source: - Sarbhukan, 2001.

restricted to the both banks of Tapi river and the lower reaches of her tributaries. All above geographical, geological and climatic conditions are unfavorable for availability of surface and groundwater. Therefore, it is very difficult to fulfill the household, irrigation, industrial and livestock water needs of the study area. The rivers and streams become dry immediately after monsoon season. Dug wells hardly yield up to November to January and during summer season the situation becomes worst.

Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda experiences severe scarcity of drinking water. Table No. 6.10 depicts the scarcity of drinking water in the study area. 36 villages of Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and nine villages of Dhule tehsil are facing acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore, several villages of Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsils depend on tankers for drinking water (Fig. No. 6.7).

6.3.2 Salinity in Shindkheda Tehsil:

Problem of the salinity is very complex and there is uneven pattern of occurrence of saline water. Electrical conductivity (EC) measured in microsiemens per centimeter ( µS/cm) with reference to a temperature of 25 oC is known as Salinity. Salinity of groundwater can be a useful indicator for potential severity of land salinisation. It is important to monitor the groundwater salinity if the water is to be extracted for uses such as irrigation for agriculture, drinking water supplies etc. Salinisation of water resources is one the most widespread processes that degrades water-quality and endangers future water exploitation (Gaye, 2001). Therefore, monitoring and identifying the origin of the salinity are crucial for both water management and remediation. Especially, in arid and semiarid regions, salinity of water restricts use of water for household and agricultural purpose. This salinisation is often due to inflow of saline dense water during heavy withdrawals of fresh water from coastal aquifers and or mobilization of saline waters by over-exploitation of inland aquifer systems. Now a days salinity of water in certain places is also growing due to extensive irrigation and use of fertilizers and other pesticides. “Salinity” includes hundreds of different ions; however, relatively few make up most of the dissolved material in water bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, nitrate, magnesium, sodium and sulfate. Local concentrations of boron, bromide, iron and other trace ions may be important. A tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in Shindkheda tehsil (Fig. No. 6.7) is found to be Saline. This part of the study area does not produce irrigated crops because of saline groundwater. It does not permit well irrigation. From the observation in the field, it is noticed that the farmers do not use groundwater for irrigation purpose. Rather farmers cultivate the crops which tolerate saline water such as cotton.

According to the American standards the following limits for the safe use in irrigation were indicated:

• Chlorides – 100 ppm • Bi-carbonates – 450 ppm • Total Solids – 2000 ppm From the chemical analysis of the groundwater it is proved that above said elements are present in the groundwater of several villages in excessive quantity, which are not safe from the irrigation point of view (Appendix-I, II and III). Amount of chlorides in groundwater crosses the upper limit in several villages such as: Nirgudi - 710, Chimthane – 532, Melane – 470, Nardana I – 462, Nardana II – 930, Dondaicha – 1030, Patan – 618 and Rami – 589 etc. The concentration of sulfate is also very high in Dhamane – 1020, Varul – 1160, Shindkheda – 760, Nardana – 940, Dondaicha – 600. Likewise Total Solids in the groundwater of Dhamane - 2870, Melane – 1758, Nardana – 2330, Shindkheda – 1243, Dondaicha – 2850, Betawad – 1270, Salve – 1015, Chimthane – 1710, Virdel – 1260 and Bahmane – 1031 villages is beyond permissible limits.

6.3.3 Flood Affected Villages:

Tapi is the second largest west flowing river of India with the catchment area of 65145 sq. km. Dhule district which is located in the middle Tapi basin, where the gradient is only 0.41 m/km. as compare to the total gradient 1.04 m/km. The river has constructed several meanders in this section, so it becomes difficult to discharge a large volume of water during rainy season. Therefore, river Tapi experiences devastating floods submerging settlements and agricultural land. There were several records of severe floods in the study area in historical and current past such as 1930, 1944, 1945, 1959, 1968, 1978, 1979, 1989, 1994, 2004 and 2006.

Following are villages which are frequently hit by floods of Tapi and its tributaries (Fig. No. 6.7).

• Shirpur tehsil – Shirpur, Tonde, Holnanthe, Bhaver, Pilode, Japora, Savalde, Gidhade, Vanaval, Upparpind, Tekwade, Anturli. • Shindkheda tehsil – Dondaicha, Humbarde, Kamkheda, Sukvad, Sulwadw, Varpade, Ranjane, Betavad. • Dhule tehsil – Dhule, War, Kundane, Nakane, Khede, Akalad, Ner, Dhule, Morane, • Sakri tehsil – Tamaswadi, Datarti, Sakri, Malpur, Kasare, Varkhede, Japi, Shirdhane, Nyahlod,

6.3.4 Depletion of aquifers: The study area is well known for the cultivation of crops like cotton and sugarcane. The fertile alluvial soil, availability of assured irrigation has promoted the cultivation of the above crops in the district. The northern tehsils, including Shirpur and Shindkheda, are intensively cultivated by these water intensive crops for last 30 years. The cultivation of these crops has resulted in the lowering of water table and depletion of aquifer. The tube wells are going deeper and deeper. Dug wells have replaced by deep tube wells. It is important to note that the increase in pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling, whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).

Foster et al (2007) observed that despite generally very limited potential, these recourses are very intensively exploited, but such development has encountered significant problems. Dhule district has been suffering from depletion of aquifers due to increase in number of tube wells for irrigation and chronic water shortage for years. Around 1980s the water table was about 30 m. b.g.l. Thereafter number of tube wells and dug wells increased tremendously. Thousands of pumps of various capacities are currently extracting groundwater throughout the district. As many as 71407 dug wells and bore wells are presently in use within district for irrigation and water supply schemes. Hence this area has been experienced sinking of water table between 10 to 50 m. mainly in alluvial part of Tapi basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. Now water table is about 60 m b.g.l. Ever increasing population and land under agriculture, demand for water has been increasing day by day. It means that due to human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation water table is sinking. Future risk to groundwater resources in basalts or Deccan traps of western India is likely to occur in sub-basins in which groundwater pumpage for irrigational use has increased considerably in the past two decades. Such sub-basins occur in the high rainfall area as well as in the low rainfall area. The main threat is the declining yields from dug wells and bore wells (Limaye, 1994). The depletion of aquifer has become a problem and may increase in the near future. There is variety of impacts of depletion of aquifer. The first and most important impact is the loss of base flow. Secondly almost all the lined dug wells of this area have been dried up and abandoned. (Photos Nos. 38 and 39) The loss of base flow results into following adverse effects on various components of landscape.

• Increased cost of pumping and maintenance. • Loss of wetland vegetation. • Increased intensity and frequency of droughts. • Loss of wildlife and reduction in biodiversity. • Changes in channel morphology. • Accelerated erosion and gully formation.

6.3.5 Frequent Droughts: Drought is defined as a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period, usually a season or more, resulting in a water shortage causing adverse impacts on vegetation, animals and or people. Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts of the district experiences dry spells of 2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due to delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district has been known for the droughts. Droughts of various intensities occur once in 4 to 6 years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce and the economy of the district as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001).

Table No: 6.12 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years. Tehsil Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District Rainfall Climatic Years Years Years Years Years in mm Condition (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Acute <150 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) Drought

Severe 150-300 4 (4) 1 (1) 4 (4) 6 (6) 1 (1) Drought

300-450 Drought 21 (20) 14 (13) 25 (24) 31 (29) 19 (18)

Normal 450-600 34 (32) 29 (27) 37 (35) 39 (37) 42 (40) Rainfall

Moderate 600-750 27 (25) 30 (28) 26 (25) 22 (21) 31 (29) Rainfall

High 750-900 14 (13) 19 (18) 10 (9) 7 (7) 11 (10) Rainfall

Very High 900-1050 5 (5) 9 (8) 3 (3) 1 (1) 2 (2) Rainfall

Excess 1050-1200 0 (0) 3 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) Rainfall Excess >1200 1 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) Rainfall

Years 106 106 106 106 106

Mean 597 665 560 526 586

C. V. 32.03 30.51 30.36 29.86 24.90

Source: Computed by Researcher

Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for four tehsil is used to compute normal rain- fall and the departure of the yearly rainfall from the normal to study the recurrence of drought and to demarcate drought-prone area of the district. Gamma distribution is fitted to the frequency distribution of annual average rainfall. From Gamma probabilities we have calculated the estimated frequencies of each class and tehsil (Table No. 6.12). This table clearly indicates that drought and severe droughts will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106 coming years. On the other hand Sakri tehsil have to go through droughts for 37 out of 106 years. It is the highest probability of droughts within district. Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29 and 25 years of drought condition in forthcoming 106 years. The total probability of normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall is also in the favour of Shirpur tehsil. As far as rainfall is concerned, about 91 years will bring prosperity for Shirpur tehsil and these years can be described as normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall.

6.4 MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES:

Water is the fundamental resource of our planet. All the living organisms require water for their basic needs and man uses it for other purposes. Like other natural resources, water is unevenly distributed on the surface of the earth. Only 2.61% of global water is fresh. Hence it is of utmost important to manage water judiciously. Management of Water Resources is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. Management of water also includes to solve various problems of water resources such as scarcity, floods, salinity, droughts, overexploitation of aquifers, intrusion of saline water, water pollution, water logging etc. It is rarely possible in practice but can be achieved greatly through the participation of community.

6.4.1 Methods of water conservation:

There are two methods of water conservation. They are as follows:

I. Spreading Methods : It is the most widely used method for water conservation all over the world. The rate of infiltration is always slow than rainfall and surface runoff because of texture, structure, porosity, permeability, swelling index of soils, slope, depth of weathering etc. When water is allowed to be stagnant for long time, it gets sufficient time to percolate in to subsurface. Hence spreading methods have been proved successful at appropriate locations. K. T. Weir, Vanrai Bandhara, Farm Ponds, Continuous Contour Trenches, Check dams or Cement plugs or Nala Bunds, Gabion Structure, Gully plugging, Percolation Tank, Ditch and Furrow Method, village tank etc. are the most popular methods in which recharge takes place through surface spreading. Among these spreading methods percolation tanks, village or storage tanks, K T weirs and farm ponds are undertaken by the various government departments such as irrigation, agriculture, forest. While CCT, Gabion Structure, Nala Bunds, Loose Boulder Structure, Vanrai Bandhara are preferred by NGOs.

II. Direct Injection Method: Direct Injection Method is used to augment groundwater resources. There are very few measures available in Direct Injection Method such as Recharge Shaft, Recharge Pits and Tube well /Dug well Recharge. Tube well / Dug well Recharge is the easy, cheap and widely used method of Direct Injection. It is adopted by NGOs and individuals also.

III. ‘Angioplasty Technique’ Model of Shirpur Tehsil: The mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar, retired Senior Geologist. According to Mr. Khanapurkar due to over exploitation of groundwater resources, the groundwater levels have declined and all the dug wells in the Tapi alluvium dried up. Semi-pervious alternate layers of silt and sand transmit very little water. Hence the situation was becoming more critical day by day. However, the wells which are very close to canals from last 20 years also dried up. It very clearly shows that there is very little lateral and vertical percolation through yellow silt. Secondly, 85% area of the district is covered by the hard rock such as basalt. Heavy rainfall within short duration (36 rainy days) increases runoff while percolation is very little. Hence the dug and bore wells in basalt area hardly yielding water at the most up to December. There is scarcity of water for irrigation and only kharip crops were possible.

The project was initiated over 100 sq. km. non–command area of 16 villages in 2004 and covered 35 villages till today. To overcome these problems 14 small streams in the project area were widened up to 20 to 30 m and deepened up to 10 to 15 m from their origin in basalt and alluvial area. (Photo Nos. 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32 and 33) Total length of streams widened and deepened are about 30 km. In this way impervious layer of yellow soil in alluvium and hard massive basalt were removed and 91 cement plugs of appropriate dimensions without gates and waste ware were constructed. (Photo No. 27) Hence the Project is named as ‘Angioplasty Technique’ in Water Conservation. Storage capacity of these bunds range from 10 T.C.M. to 150 T.C.M. Along with this method, direct inject of surplus water is being carried out. Surplus water of Karwand and Aner dam is injected in to 59 dry dug wells having depth of 50 m. directly with proper filtration. (Photo No. 25) About 26 km long canals are constructed for the same. It was supported by three Field Ponds. Due to this watershed both in alluvium and basalt area water table has raised to a great extent. In basalt area even dry bore wells of 150 m. in depth attained water level at a depth of 6 m. below ground level and in alluvium area at a depth of 20 m. below ground level. Total expenditure of the total conservational work is around Rs. 15 crore to recharge 1019 crore liters (10.19 M. Cu. M.) of water. Area brought under irrigation due to this project is 1952 ha. in Shirpur tehsil. (Photo Nos. 34, 35 and 38) Cost benefit ratio of Direct recharge method is 1:71 while 1:15 for Cement bunds.

Visible results of the mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils which is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur are as follows:

• Water level in basalt area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 140 m. Now mean now water level is at 10 m. below ground level. • Water table in alluvium area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 110m. Now mean water level is at 40 m. below ground level. • Streams flow up to the month of March which previously dried in November • Area under irrigation has been increased and farmers are cultivating two or three crops in rain fed and non- command area. • Energy consumption has decreased due to reduction in suction height, means low HP pumps have been installed. • Fishery was started in cement plug reservoir in order to increase their income. • Water table increased up to 100 to 150 feet in two km on both sides and 1 km in downstream side of cement bund. 6.4.2 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting:

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. This method is suggested mostly for urban areas where cement concrete houses are constructed and sufficient roof top is available to catch rainwater.

Table No. 6.13 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

Rainfal 10 l 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 0 (mm)

Roof Top Area sq. m. / Harvested Water from Roof Top (cub. m.)

20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.4

30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4

40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2

50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64

60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8

70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6

80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102

90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 56.6 72 86.4 100.8 115

100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128

150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192

200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256

250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320

300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384

350 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512

400 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640

500 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280 Source: Ministry of water resources, Central ground water board, Faridabad It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days; however, the concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved and developed centuries ago. Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid urbanization, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground water resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the underground formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting." There are several types of systems to harvest rainwater, ranging from very simple home systems to complex industrial systems. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall (i.e., annual precipitation (mm per annum) x square meter of catchment area = liters per annum yield) ... a 200 square meter roof catchment catching 1,000 mm per annum yields 200 kilo liters per annum.

6.4.3 River Linking:

Sir Arthur Cotton, the British engineer, has suggested initially the idea of Inter Linking of Rivers in the 18 th century for inland water transport as an alternative to the roads in India. Thereafter K. L. Rao former Union Minister for Irrigation proposed the same idea of Inter linking of rivers in 1970. It is necessary for south India where people and crops are mainly depend on monsoon rainfall. The occurrence and distribution of monsoon rainfall is uncertain, unreliable, and uneven with limited rainy days. The prolonged dry spells, fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall posses serious problem of deficit of rainfall and frequent droughts in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu etc. while excess rainfall in Uttar Pardesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, West Bengal causes devastating floods. The best way to mitigate droughts and floods, to increase irrigation potential, consequent increase in food production and decrease regional imbalance in terms of availability of water, it is to transfer water from surplus river basins to deficit areas. It may also provide additional irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydel power generation, navigation facility etc.

River linking has a long history and following are the examples of river linking in our country and abroad:

∑ Water of was diverted in Sabarmati basin in Gujarat. ∑ Krishna river water carried to Pennar basin through Caddapah canal in Andhra Pradesh. ∑ - Bhakra canal. ∑ In 1952, drought Gomai river was diverted into Susari river in Shahada tehsil of Nandurbar district. ∑ In USA California Water Project 4 cu. km. water carried up to the south central California through 715 km. long canal. ∑ In the countries like Russia, China, Srilanka, Iraq, Mexico about sixty river linking projects are in progress. River linking has social, economic, political, climatic, environmental benefits to all. They are as follows:

i. Existing canals and other systems can be utilized to maximum capacity, minimum modification and expenditure for river linking. ii. In river linking short links can be constructed to divert higher discharge during monsoon floods. iii. Hope to solve the problem of drinking water of numerous villages in Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil. iv. Increase in area under irrigation. v. It helps to increase in water table and well recharge. vi. It proves life saver for standing crops. vii. Repair of old canals for river linking which further leads to reduce in seepage and other losses. viii. It improves economic and social status of farmers. ix. It decreases out migration of poor people in the search of jobs towards urban areas. x. This alternative saves the huge expenditure on Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS). xi. River linking causes no destruction of valuable forest. xii. River linking has the benefit as no submergence of valuable land, no land acquisition required hence positive attitude increased among people. xiii. Water conservation, climate change, percolation of water favorably affects the vegetation growth, wet lands and aquatic ecosystem. xiv. River linking has proved that the cost of big projects reduces which in turn reduces corruption. xv. Disputes between states, districts or region for share of water are marginalized. River Linking Project in Dhule district: Dhule district experiences diverse climate with respect to rainfall and temperature. District is facing endless cycle of droughts. River linking project on small scale was initiated in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District Collector, in August 2005. Dhule district was under drought situation in 2005. Therefore some the elder villagers suggested to divert water from the Girna canal (Malegaon tehsil of Nasik district) to the drought prone area of Dhule district during the village meeting on drought. As a result of the district collector implemented the idea of river linking very seriously and following river links came in existence. a) Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link: The left canal of Girna Dam namely Panzan canal passes from Dhule district boundary for Bhadgaon, Chalisgaon, and Parola tehsils of Jalgaon district. The excess water of Girna Dam and flood water is diverted in Kanoli and Bori rivers for Dhule district (Fig. No. 6.9). Panzan canal was cut off near Mordad and Khordad villages and it was diverted in Bori river through a small stream. Then the same Panzan canal was again cut off near Tarwade village and third time it was cut off near Pinjarpada village. In this way excess flow of Girna Dam diverted to the Bori river through three small streams. Using the same water, Tamaswadi Dam across Bori river located on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon districts is filled up and 13 villages are benefited of drinking water and 12,000 ha. land under irrigation in Rabbi season. b) Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli river link: With the success of Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link the people, engineers, administrators and politicians started to search out other options of river link. Another option Haranbari Project of Malegaon tehsil in Nasik district always gets full of water which was diverted in Mosam river and then into Girna river. In between Girna and Mosam rivers have Phud system bund; water accumulated in this bund diverted in Dahikute small irrigation project and then excess water was discharged into Kanoli river. A medium irrigation project is constructed across Kanoli river on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon district. About 13 villages benefited of drinking water and irrigation due to the water diverted in this Kanoli project.

c) Panzara – Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link: The engineers noticed Malngaon, Latipada and Jamkheli irrigation projects in Sakri tehsil were overflowed while at the same time Dedargaon, Nakane reservoirs were dried up. A phud system bund near Sayyadnagar in Sakri tehsil and 25 km long canal used to divert water from Panzara river to Iras nala, Waghada nala and in Nakane reservoir through Express canal (Fig. No. 6.10). It only required repairing of existing canal. 255 small ponds were filled with same diverted water. Table No. 6.14 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District. Volume of Cost Sr. water to be River Link (lakh No. diverted Rs.) M.C.Ft. 1 Panzan Left canal-Bori-Kundane-Anchale joint canal 780 5280 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal- 2 260 120 First Stage Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal- 3 380 2,437 Second Stage 4 Malangaon-Burai river link canal 780 5,245 5 Burai-Amaravati river link canal 260 763 6 Panzara river – Lendi nala to Varshi joint canal 260 780 Amaravati left canal-Chorzira-Dhavade Zirve joint 7 130 580 canal 8 Amaravati-Right canal- Madari nala river link canal 130 170 Purmepada left canal- Moghan-Dedargaon joint 9 260 900 canal Panzara to Sonvad canal-Hol-Shindkheda-Burai 10 730 1,500 river link canal 11 Lower Panzara left canal-Ghanegaon joint canal 50 900 Lower Panzara left canal-Kothare-Borsule joint 12 20 500 canal 13 Lower Panzara left canal-Kheda joint canal 150 500 14 Lower Panzara left canal-Gondur joint canal 40 130 15 Lower Panzara left canal-Devbhane joint canal 70 270 Source: - Zende, Sanjay (2007) d) Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad Project Link: There is phud system bund on Panzara river and about 14 km. long canal near Nyahlod village in Dhule tehsil. Water diverted into Bhat nala through the canal. It merges in to Sonvad Project. Same water is utilized to irrigate 2000 ha land and standing crops. Pnazara – Bhat nala – Sonavad Project river link solved the drinking water problem of 116 villages comprising 6, 50,000 population inclusive Dhule city. CHAPTER: - 7 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS The present project work deals with management of water resources which is very valuable for the survival of life. The management of any resource basically deals with the two aspects such as the availability and requirement of the same. Therefore, it is important to know the occurrence, quality and utilization of that resource. It is equally important to have a clear understanding of the factors which govern the availability and utilization of resource. As water is a finite resource, its overall management and the conservation are of utmost importance. It can be achieved by minimum utilization, recycling and rain water harvesting. The declining availability of water resource is a serious problem faced in the several parts of the country. It is a difficult task to provide pure drinking water to the huge population of the country. Therefore, only positive way to safeguard the resource for future use is to undertake soil and water conservation activities for recharge or augmentation. These activities involve a high degree of community acceptance and participation. It is, therefore, advisable to involve NGOs or Voluntary Agencies in the planning and execution of these activities and ensure popular support through them (Limaye, 1994).

The present study essentially deals with the role of geomorphologic factors related to the availability, potentials and utilization of water resources in the Dhule district of Maharashtra State. Within the study area, there is a moderate groundwater potential. The study region is well endowed with the drainage network of the river Tapi and its tributaries like river Panzara, Burai, Bori, Arunavati, Aner, Amravati and Kan. The district has no single major irrigation project. There are 12 medium irrigation projects with the total gross storage capacity of 480.61 M. Cu. M.

6.1 DISCUSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS:

The major findings and observations of the present study are:

6.1.1 Dhule district is situated in the north-western corner of Maharashtra State. It extends between 20 038’ to 21 038’ north latitude and 74 052’ to 75 011’ east longitude. The total geographical area of the district is 8063.11 sq. km.The district is divided into four tehsils for the administrative purposes namely Shirpur, Sakri, Dhule and Shindkheda. There are six towns and 678 inhabited villages. The population of the district was 17, 07,947 while the rural and urban population of the district was 73.89 % and 26.11% respectively (2001). 6.1.2 The territory of Dhule district exhibits four distinct physiographic divisions such as Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galna hills, Deccan plateau and Alluvial Plain of Tapi river. The Tapi river is flows through the central part of the district and through rift valley. This alluvial plain forms good aquifer which is known as the largest aquifer in the state. The highest point within the district is spot height 1291 m. from msl. west of Mangi Tungi peaks in Sakri tehsil. While the lowest elevation is 109 m. from msl. along Tapi river near village Takarkheda in Shindkheda tehsil. 6.1.3 Two geological formations are found in the district, one is Deccan trap and other is Recent Alluvium. About 85 % of the district is covered with basaltic terrain which is hard and massive. Some isolated pockets of deeply weathered basalt are located in the southern part of study area. The layers of red bole with varying thickness between few cm to 1.5 m. are observed near the villages Sangavi, Palasaner, Nimzari in Shirpur tehsil, Kudashi in Sakri tehsil and Songir in Dhule tehsil. A rare two tire layers of red bole are found near Bijasani Temple in Satpura ranges. Numerous dykes are found near Dhule, Sakri, Pimpalner, Lamkani, and Dondaicha. Several lineaments have been discovered in the southern part of the district and at foothills of Satpura ranges. The thickness of alluvium varies from few cm to 308 m. 6.1.4 Tapi is a major river of the study area with right bank tributaries such as Aner, Arunavati and left bank tributaries such as Panzara, Kan, Aru, Burai, Bori and Amaravati. The river Tapi is having its source from the sacred tank of Multai located Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. River Arunavati and Aner found their sources from southern slopes of Satpura ranges in Khargone district of Madhya Pradesh. The left bank tributaries such as Panzara, Burai, Bori and Amaravati take their sources from Dhanora and Galna Hills. The Tapi river is non-perennial in the study area. All other tributaries are seasonal. The Tapi river often experience floods. 6.1.5 Dhule district experiences monsoon type of climate. The minimum mean daily temperature during winter season is 12 oC while the maximum temperature during summer season rises up to 47 oC. The average annual rainfall within the district is 592 mm because the district belongs to the rain shadow region. Out of four tehsils Dhule, Shindkheda and Sakri belong to the drought-prone area. The climate of the study area is dry except in rainy season. Relative Humidity during winter months is 40 to 45 %, 20 to 25 % in summer and above 70 % in rainy season. 6.1.6 Black soil is the dominant soil type found in the study area. About 15 % area of it is covered with deep black cotton soil and older alluvium. The part of Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils adjoining Tapi river is occupied by the deep black soil. The soil is very fertile for agriculture and vegetative growth. Medium black soil occupies admeasuring 25% area in Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsil in the form of extensive patches. Shallow black soil occurs at the foot hills of Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galana hills. It is less fertile and occupies about 60% area of the district. 6.1.7 The land use / land cover of the district is divided in to eight sections. Near about 5258.37 sq. km. of land means 65.22 % of the study area is under agricultural use. It is observed in the river valleys, plains and foot hill zones of Satpura, Dhanora and Galna Ranges. Forest scrub and Deciduous Forest permeates 21.77 % area of the district. In fact, actual forest is standing on only 5.22 % area. The irrigated area is around 573.72 sq. km. and mostly from groundwater resources. About 8.52 % and 1.03 % land is barren and rocky. All the water bodies cover total 2.22 % land surface of study area. Settlements pervades on 1.25 % area of the district. 6.1.8 Tropical Dry Deciduous forest is the natural vegetation type in the study area. It ranges from grasses, thorny bushes, trees to deciduous trees. Satpura ranges and Western Ghat sections are under the forest cover. About 2088.90 sq. km. area of the study area is under forest, which accounts 25.90 % of the total geographical area of the district. Large scale deforestation and grazing practices have destructed the major part of the forest. In fact, only 6.59 % area is under forest cover in Dhule district. Teak ( Tectona grandis L.) is the predominant species in the study area. In general, the dominating plants from Satpura ranges are Anjan ,Salai, Lal Khair, Black Khair , Sadada , Beheda , Arjun , Chinch , Shisam , Palas , Nim , Bor , Mahu , Amla , Bel , Jamum etc. Scrub and grasses covers the vast area of south and central parts of the study area. Flood plain of Tapi and valley fills of her tributaries are principally occupied by the agriculture. Nim, Pimple, Mango, Vad, Chinch, Hivar, Bor, Acacia are distributed sparsely in the cultivated areas. 6.1.9 Dhule district is one of the important agricultural regions of Maharashtra. In the year 2008-09 total area available for cultivation was 4.59 lakh ha. It is 62.59% of total geographical area of the district but only 80% of cultivable area was under cultivation. The total net sown area in the district was 3.672 lakh ha. of which about 22984 ha. sown more than once. The area under summer crops was 8100 ha. According to kharip cropping pattern of the district, the cotton occupies the area of 84364 ha. , which is 18.38% of total cropped area. Other major crops of the kharip season are jowar 21169 ha., bajara 26742 ha., maize 26211 ha., cereals 45296 ha., sugarcane 5747 ha., oil seeds 18766 ha. The cash crops of the district are cotton, banana, sugarcane and vegetables. The trend to grow cash crops like cotton, sugarcane and vegetables is noticeable in the study area. 6.1.10 There are twelve medium irrigation projects and 71530 wells. The net irrigable area is 57372 ha. out of which 4000 ha. (7 %) is from surface water resources and 53372 ha. (93 %) from groundwater resource. Hence Dhule district is mainly irrigated by groundwater. 6.1.11 There is no single major project available in the Dhule district. There are 12 medium irrigation projects in the district. About 525.383 sq. km. area of the district serves as catchment area for 12 medium irrigation projects. Total storage capacity of all medium irrigation projects is 480.61 M. Cu. M. The gross commanded area is 771.45 sq. km. and net irrigable area is 578.54 sq. km. Besides 12 medium irrigation projects, minor irrigation projects such as percolation tanks, K. T. weirs, storage tanks, village tanks have been proved to be useful for irrigation, percolation and augmenting groundwater. There are 384 percolation tanks, 22 K. T. weirs, 813 storage tanks and 302 village tanks constructed by the various departments. Total storage capacity of all the minor irrigation projects is 47628.71 TCM and 21500.15 ha. of land has been brought under irrigation. 6.1.12 There are 71407 total irrigation wells in the district which play an important role in agriculture. Dhule tehsil comprises highest number of wells and well density. It is 23695 and 11.95 wells per sq. km. respectively. Sakri tehsil stood second with respect to total number of wells and third in density of wells. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest number of wells and density of wells. It is because of north and north eastern portion of the tehsil is occupied by Satpura hills. 6.1.13 Potential of groundwater resources in Dhule district has been evaluated using Survey of India toposheets, Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2, 3, 4 false color image, remote sensing and GIS techniques. The potential of groundwater is demonstrated in five categories. Near about 1430.77 sq. km. (17.74%) area of Dhule district has very high groundwater potential. Most portion of very high groundwater potential zone is discovered along the course of Tapi river and lower reaches of its tributaries. High groundwater potential zone constitutes about 28.76 % area of the district. Leading part of this zone appears along with the Panzara river and its tributary Kan river in Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Shirpur tehsil is also covered by the extensive patches of High potential zones. Moderate groundwater potential zone comprehensively accounts for about 34.72% part of the study area. South eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, south western part of Shindkheda tehsil and north eastern as well as south western part of Sakri tehsil possesses moderate groundwater potential. Groundwater potential along the southern part of Sakri and Dhule tehsil is found to be low, which occupies 833.76 sq. km. area. Western ghat section in Sakri tehsil possesses very low groundwater potential. It is only 8.43% in areal extent of the district. 6.1.14 It has been observed that 642132 ha. area is suitable for recharge which allows 126147 ham water to recharge within the district. Natural discharge is only 7546 ham. Net availability of groundwater is 118601 ham and 57821 ham is utilized hence 60780 ham water is available as balance for the district as a whole. Overall stage of groundwater development is 47 % hence there is further scope for the development of groundwater. Trend of water table is falling in pre-monsoon season while rising in post-monsoon season all over the district. Hence all the tehsils are safe with respect to groundwater availability. Net 57203 ham groundwater is available for agriculture. 6.1.15 Dhule district exhibits varied physiographical features ranging from mountain ranges, hills, valleys, flood plain, plateau etc. The area which is under focus can be divided into four divisions from physiographic point of view. The first physiographic division is Satpura, Dhanora and Galna hills in Dhule district. These hills are poor in groundwater because of steep slope, thin layer of weathered material, absence of soil cover and degraded vegetation. The second is Alluvial Plain of Tapi river which is suitable for percolation of water. Hence it possesses a good deal of groundwater resources. The third division is talus and scree. Thickness of this zones reaches up to 50 m. at many places. This formation comprises mainly boulders, pebbles, coarse and fine sand as well as clay, which is poorly sorted and unconsolidated. Hence it is highly porous and normally yields copious groundwater. At present the dug wells and shallow tube wells in this zone have dried up. Fourth physiographic unit is Deccan plateau or Upland region. It holds low to moderate groundwater depending upon depth of weathering. 6.1.16 About 85 % portion of the district is occupied by hard rock such as Deccan Basalt hence weathering processes have immense impact over water resources. The weathered and fractured zones form groundwater potential zones. The thickness of weathered material varies from 0.5 m. to 12.6 m. within study area. Weathered profile is almost absent in Tapi valley because of excessive alluvial deposition. A thin veneer of weathered material is learnt in hilly area, but as distance from the mountain crest increases the depth of weathering increases. The prominent examples of deep weathering are Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12m.), Chinchwar (10.25 m.), Deshshirvade (12.6 m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.). Weathered profile of near about half of observation wells is less than 3 m. 6.1.17 In the gentle slope area, the surface runoff is slow allowing more time for rainwater to percolate whereas steep slope facilitates high runoff. The area under focus is grouped into five classes according to the degree of slope. The areas having slope less than 5 0 are designated as very gentle slope. It accounts 86.86% surface of the district which favors groundwater infiltration. While 6.5% area lies in between 5 0 to 10 0 which is known as moderate slope. Moderate steep and steep slope are very small in areal extent in the study area. It is confined to the Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galna hills. Hence, it is inferred that due to flat or rolling topography there are better chances of groundwater percolation in the study area. 6.1.18 Lineaments with considerable length are observed in south and south-eastern part of the study area which extends for 80 to 100 km. They are parallel to the Dhanora and Galna Hills. Few north south trending lineaments are marked in the same region. Some of the lineaments present in north are varied in directions. High lineament density of 0.8 to 1.36 km/sq. km. is discovered in east and central Shirpur tehsil, central part of Sakri tehsil from north to south and central part of Dhule tehsil from east to west. Areas of medium lineament density take up more space in Sakri and Dhule tehsil along Panzara river. A large part of the Panzara basin is occupied by low density indicating a poor groundwater potential. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest density of lineaments. Based on the lineament density it is inferred that the groundwater prospects are poor in a large part of the study area. 6.1.19 Two types of aquifers have been noticed in Dhule district, namely Basaltic and Alluvial aquifers. About 85% part of the district is suffused by Deccan Basalt. It is less permeable because the primary porosity is much less and the vesicles are filled with secondary minerals. Secondary porosity is developed due to joints and weathering. Highly weathered rock and zones contact between two flows embedded with gravel, pebbles, boulder and gravel is the most favorable area for huge storage of groundwater. Groundwater occurs in semi-confined and confined conditions in most of the Deccan trap areas. Alluvial aquifer is formed due to the accumulation of sediments in Tapi rift valley. It is composed of unconsolidated material like pebbles, gravel, sand and silt, hence, it is highly porous. Alluvial aquifer possesses ample quantity of water. Groundwater in Tapi and Purna alluvial area occurs under water table and unconfined conditions. 6.1.20 Porosity of deep black soil is 0.60 %. Permeability is 10 -10 cm/sec. Free Swelling Index of this soil is > 50 %. It is poorly permeable because of high clay contain in study area. Due to high clay content and agricultural machinery it has low infiltration rate which is prone to runoff generation. In compact and ploughed conditions constant infiltration rate of deep black soil is 1.2 cm/hr. and 1.6 cm/hr. 6.1.21 Hydrogeomorphological map of the study area has been prepared using visual interpretation of satellite image and hydrogeomorphological map provided by GSDA, Dhule. The area under the study is classified in different hydrogeomorphological zones such as alluvial plain, valley fills, eroded land, un-dissected plateau, medium dissected plateau, highly dissected plateau and Western ghat section. First is Alluvial plain that occurs along both banks of Tapi river and its tributaries in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. This formation accounts 384.47 sq. km. area means 4.77% territory of the district. The study reveals that paleo-channels and alluvial plain are the geomorphological features with excellent potential for groundwater occurrence. Second zone is valley fill. It is deposition of unconsolidated materials in the narrow fluvial valley. They have covered an area of 506.8 sq. km. which is about 6.28 % of the district. Valley fills are located along the Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsil and along Burai river in Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil. Valley fill captures very limited area in Shirpur tehsil. They possesses high quantity of groundwater due to coarser material and high permeability. Third unit is Eroded land occurred mainly along Tapi river in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. It covers 692.41 sq. km. area. Un-dissected plateau has good weathered profile and hence high potential of groundwater is found. Un-dissected plateau is spread over 2609.7 sq. km. It is 32.37 % of the study area. It occurs almost in all tehsils of the study area. Fifth unit is Medium dissected plateau that occurs over 3061.1 sq. km. area of the district. Groundwater prospectus of this zone is moderate. Sakri and Shindkheda tehsils constitute medium dissected plateau. Sixth unit is Highly dissected plateau which covers an area of 535.4 sq. km. It is located in southern portion of Sakri tehsils and middle-east part of Shirpur tehsil. It has low potential of groundwater. Western Ghat section occupies 273.59 sq. km. with poor groundwater potential. 6.1.22 According to morphological classification study area has been classified in to three categories namely, Runoff zone, Recharge zone and Storage zone. Runoff zone is situated in the upland area near water divide with steep slopes and undulating topography. Hydrological conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of aquifer. It accounts about 1397.91 sq. km. Recharge zone is located in the middle course of the basin. It is moderately dissected with moderate relief, shallow soil cover. These conditions are favorable for moderate infiltration and recharge of groundwater. Hence it is suitable for groundwater development. Well yield of recharge zone is seasonal and it can support only kharip and rabbi crops. Recharge zone occupies 3665.62 sq. km. of the study area. It is distributed all over the study area except alluvial plain of Tapi river. Low lying areas and lower reaches of the river basins fall in the Storage zone. Thick soil cover of storage zone is either derived by deep weathering or by alluvial deposition. It holds substantial quantity of water. This zone is benefited by good recharge conditions and getting recharge by groundwater inflow from upland areas after rainy season. Hydrologically storage zone is highly suitable for groundwater exploration. Storage zone is discovered in the alluvial plain and eroded land of the Tapi valley. Storage zone is admeasured 2999.58 sq. km. in the study area. 6.1.23 The wells are significant tool which gives an important information regarding occurrence of water, nature of aquifers, properties of material, water table levels and water quality aspects. Dhule district is divided into six Hydrogeomorphic sections. These sections of the study area give an idea about depth, width of alluvial deposition at various places, subsurface geological formation, depth of weathering, occurrence of red bole etc. From this study it is revealed that the major deposition of alluvium occurs along Tapi river with the width of about 12 to 16 km. The thickness of the alluvium reaches up to 68 m., 70 m. and 91.5 m. at village Taradi, Shirpur and village Wadi respectively. Here the fluctuation of water table is less as compare to plateau region. It has been discovered that the thickness of weathered profile is maximum in between hill tops and valley floors such as Chinchkheda – 10.25 m, Kalkheda – 6.2 m, Dhule – 12 m, Hadakhed – 10 m, Hisale – 16 m, Dhavade – 7.4 m, Nardana – 8 m, Deshshirwade – 12.6 m and Shvarimal – 10.5 m. The fluctuation of water table is high where the thickness of weathered profile is more. The hill tops and steep slopes show absence of weathered rock layer. Both are characterized by shallow wells and low potentials of groundwater. These wells dry in summer season. 6.1.24 From the chemical analysis of water sample of the study area it is observed that the water quality in general is good for agricultural and domestic purposes except in the northern part of Shindkheda tehsil adjoining Tapi river. Groundwater of this pocket is saline and not suitable for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes. The pH, EC,

TH, TDS, Ca, Cl, Mg, and SO 4 values of the several samples from Shindkheda tehsil crosses the permissible limits. Nitrate and Fluoride values are within permissible limits. 6.1.25 Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation because mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively. On other hand, Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR e. g. five villages of Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane – 9.48, Darane-II – 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages show moderate values of SAR. Groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil possesses high SAR particularly the villages which are located along southern bank of Tapi river. In this area groundwater cannot be used for irrigation purpose. 6.1.26 Water quality index shows that groundwater out of 166 sample villages only 37 belong to excellent class. Out of 37 sample villages 28 villages are located in Sakri tehsil. Groundwater of good class has been observed in 59 sample villages of the study area. About 48 villages have been using groundwater of poor class. Shindkheda and Sakri tehsils comprise 16 and 24 sample villages of poor class respectively. Very poor quality of water is discovered in 19 villages and 11 of them are included in the boundaries of Sakri tehsil. Groundwater of only two villages of Shindkheda tehsil is unfit for drinking purpose. It can be inferred that groundwater quality in general is good for agricultural and domestic purposes except in the northern part of Shindkheda tehsil along the Tapi river. 6.1.28 According to C. C. Ingliss (1930) non-ghat formula (Tapi and Narmada Basin) for Bombay Catchment runoff of Dhule, Sakri, Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils are 3.631”, 2.921”, 2.812” and 4.820” respectively. The yield of rainfall is 182.645 M. Cu. M., 179.101 M. Cu. M., 92.811 M. Cu. M. and 289.269 for Dhule, Sakri, Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils respectively. Total yield of rainfall of Dhule district is 743.826 M. Cu. M. 6.1.29 Agriculture sector is the major consumer of the water resource for irrigation purpose. It utilizes 2326.155 M. Cu. M. to irrigate land in the study area. Rural and urban population requires 34.923 M. Cu. M. of water for drinking and domestic purposes per year. All the domestic animals such as cows, bullocks, buffaloes, sheeps, goats, horses, donkeys, poultry etc. requires 11.240 M. Cu. M. of water per year. Water requirement of the industries is considered 5 % of the total yield of the district. It is 37.191 M. Cu. M. Total calculated water requirement of the study area per year is 2409.509 M. Cu. M. while total yield of the rainfall is 743.826 M. Cu. M. hence there is deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water per year. This deficit of water may be fulfilled by groundwater abstraction and the water coming from upper or and other minor catchments. 6.1.30 The district experience considerable deficit in yield of rainfall and utilization of water under major headings. So it is pressing need to conserve and manage water resources to fulfill the ever increasing needs of population, agriculture, livestock and industry. Roof top rain water harvesting, well recharge, watershed management, irrigation projects are the prominent approaches towards the management of water resources. 6.1.31 In order to adopt various means of water conservation it is prime importance to know whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments, land use/ land cover etc. are favorable or not. Artificial recharge zones are delineated by integration of various thematic maps using GIS technique. As per artificial recharge zones about 1783.1 sq. km. is highly favorable zone in the district. Eastern and south-eastern part of the Shirpur tehsil and a narrow strip along Panzara river is the most favorable for recharge. Moderate favorable zone is spread all over district and occupies an area admeasuring 5068.75 sq. km. Upper course of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil, eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and southern part of Sakri tehsil, western Shindkheda tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of groundwater which covers 1209.15 sq. km. area. 6.1.32 The study area experiences dry spells, fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall, frequent droughts posses serious problem of scarcity of water while Girna river of adjoining Nasik district and Panzara river carries excess water during floods. The river linking project was initiated in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District Collector, in August 2005 when the district was under drought situation. Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link, Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli rivre link, Panzara – Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link and Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad Project Link are completed and working sucessfully. Fifteen more river link projects are suggested by the Irrigation Department, Zilla Parishd, Dhule. It may cost Rs. 20075 lakh and transfer 4300 M. C. Ft. River linking has numerous benefits. Moreover river linking on small scale is more beneficial than on large scale. In case of river linking on small scale water is diverted due to gravity while electricity is required to lift water at various stages on grand scale. 6.1.33 Few NGOs have done noteworthy work of water conservation through watershed management activities in Dhule district. Huge project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur, under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar (retired Senior Geologist). He has invented a new technique known as ‘Angioplasty Technique’ to augment groundwater resources. Widening and deepening of 14 streams for 30 km., construction of 91 cement bunds, 59 well recharge and three field ponds were carried out under this project. Main distinctive feature of this project is that it is implemented in non-command and rain fed portion of Dhule district. This work is being acknowledged at national and international level. As a result water table in Deccan basalt and alluvial plain increased considerably. Streams are flowing up to summer. About 1950 ha. area has brought under irrigation and farmers cultivating two to three crops. 6.1.34 Baripada represents a unique example of community participation in rural development through soil, water and forest conservation. Mr. Chaitram Pawar along with two NGOs initiated Rural development activities in the village Baripada. He mobilized the village community and urged them to act. The local ‘Forest Protection Committee’ was formed in 1993. The villagers have undertaken watershed programme. Gradually village Baripada became self-sufficient in terms of water, fuel wood, vegetables, food grains etc. The village Baripada participated in a competition on "Local Knowledge and Innovation of the Rural Poor" in the Asian region, organized by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, and SRISTI in 2003 and won 2 nd prize. 6.1.35 Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar, a social activist, along with villagers formed ‘Joint Forest Management Committee’ and undertook eco-developmental activities. Now the land which is treated with CCT is covered by dense grass. Livestock and milk production has been substantially increased in surrounding 20 to 25 villages. These activities minimized the intensity of drought in 2008. Main results of all water conservation activities are increased water table, vegetation, fodder and more wild animals. Now farmers are cultivating two to three crops in a year. Government of Maharashtra declared 1 st prize under the ‘Mahatma Phule Jal Abhiyan’ to Lamkani village in Dhule district. The village also received ‘Sant Tukaram Vangram’ Prize in the year 2007. 6.1.36 Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda tehsils experiences severe scarcity of drinking water. About 36 villages of Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and 9 villages of Dhule tehsil are facing acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore several villages of Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsils depended on tankers for drinking water. 6.1.37 Amount of chlorides, sodium and calcium in groundwater crosses the upper limit in several villages. Hence a tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in Shindkheda tehsil is found to be Saline. This part of the study area dose not produces irrigated crops because of saline groundwater. 6.1.38 River Tapi experiences devastating floods submerging settlements and agricultural land. There are several records of severe floods in the study area in historical and current past. Most of the villages located on the banks of Tapi river in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsil are prone to the floods. 6.1.39 Alluvial part of Tapi basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil has been experiencing depletion of aquifer. The water table has dropped between 10 to 50 m. Around 1980s The water table which was about 30 m. b.g.l. has dropped to 60 m. b.g.l. Water table is sinking due to both human consumption as well as irrigation purpose. Lined dug wells of 1980s of this area have been dried up and hence abandoned. Severe problem may arise due to depletion of aquifer in future.

6.1.40 Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall, dry spells of 2 to 10 weeks, delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon. Dhule district historically has been known for the droughts. Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for 4 tehsil analyzed using Gamma distribution. Frequency distribution of annual average rainfall indicates that drought and severe droughts will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106 coming years. While Sakri tehsil has to go through maximum years of droughts i. e. 37 out of 106 years. Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29 and 25 years of drought condition in forthcoming 106 years.

6.2 CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUBJECT:

Civil engineers, geographer, geologists are engaged in research related to the water resources. Geologist rather than geographer have contributed more in the field of Water Resources such as delineate groundwater potential areas, potential artificial recharge zones, conservation of water, artificial recharge, demarcation of watersheds, monitoring water table, chemical analysis of water etc. Geologists were using mainly geophysical methods to delineate groundwater potential areas. Nowadays recent techniques like Remote Sensing, GIS, GPS are being used by geologists, geographers and civil engineers. A geographer can play a crucial role in the study of water resources because geographic elements such as geomorphology, weathering, drainage network, slope, sedimentation etc. have been proved crucial in delineation of ground resources. Geographer can understand the role of these elements thoroughly while dealing with various aspects of water resources. In the present research impact of geomorphology, weathering, drainage network, slope, sedimentation has been examined to delineate groundwater potential zones and potential areas of artificial and it is proved successful.

6.3 CONTRIBUTION TO THE SOCIETY: Study of water resources consist of various aspects which are directly related to the various human activities. Such as WQI, SAR, groundwater potential zones, potential artificial recharge zones, calculating runoff, calculation of yield, probability of analysis of rainfall. Such studies of water resources within the study are area directly beneficial to the various elements of the society. Nowadays government of Maharashtra has decided to test water sources of each village. It is a welcome step towards availability of safe drinking water. But chemical analysis of water comprises several parameters and their standard values prescribed by BSI, ICMR and WHO. By using only test results and standard values it is very difficult to decide whether the water is safe or fit for drinking or not but the technique of WQI provides us a decision. If we use WQI it possible take decision regarding drinking water at village level. If source of drinking water is not suitable, administers or policy makers can decide policy for it. Part of Shindkheda tehsil to the south of Tapi river has been experiencing a problem of salinity. SAR is measure of salinity of water. It helps to guide farmers SAR of their own village, area and to cultivate the crops which tolerate salinity such as cotton. Tehsil wise probability analysis of annual rainfall has been calculated. It gives us probability of droughts, normal rainfall, excess rainfall etc. It may guide farmers in the farm management practices. It is also helpful for local administrative officers and disaster management cell.

Present study of water resources deals with calculation of surface runoff using Ingliss formula and yield of rainfall. It provides total availability of water in the study area while crop water requirement, water need of population and live stock has also been calculated. Above measurement reveals the total availability of water recourses and utilization through various ways for all purposes. If such calculations are performed at local, village and water shed level, people may be made aware of the availability and utilization of water resources. These activates also disclose not only the crops consuming high quantity of water but also over or miss-use of water. Finally people’s participation in the water management and conservation may be increased.

6.4 SUGGESTIONS:

The investigator has drawn the conclusions from the research work and suggests following suggestions:

6.4.1 Rejuvenation of traditional methods of artificial recharge instead of implementing new projects. It would be first step towards water conservation because traditional methods of artificial recharge are cost effective as they do not require electricity and special staff for their management. 6.4.2 To adopt scientific methods for targeting groundwater potential zones and suitable areas for artificial recharge such as Remote Sensing, GIS, GPS etc. to ensures the success. 6.4.3 It is advisable create awareness among women, children and people regarding importance of water, scarcity of water, methods of water conservation, optimum use of water which will be beneficial for the society. 6.4.4 A massive programme of a forestation should be undertaken on fallow land, waste land, deforested areas, mountain slopes with involvement of various elements of the society such as students, youths, workers, farmers, women, retired persons and so on. It would be a key to forest, water and soil conservation. 6.4.5 Rooftop Rainwater harvesting should be made compulsory for each household in urban as well as rural areas. It will certainly minimize the intensity of droughts and scarcity of drinking water. 6.4.6 In order to avoid continues cultivation of water intensive cash crops like cotton and sugarcane, instead of the suitable crops for drought prone area should be cultivated. 6.4.7 Agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water all over the world. Instead of traditional flood irrigation method drip, sprinkler, rain-gun method should be used. It may reduce consumption of water considerably. 6.4.8 Pavements like roads, use of pavement blocks, unnecessary surface covering concrete should be avoided because it reduces percolation and promotes surface runoff which results in flush floods. 6.4.9 By means of interlinking of rivers and streams it is possible to transfer the surplus water during peak runoff to ensure water supply in arid and semi-arid areas or to store excess runoff in dams or recharge aquifers for later use. 6.4.10 In order to avoid the problems like water logging, salinity, submergence of valuable land and forest, displacement of indigenous people instead of large projects small measures of artificial recharge should be employed. So that water conservation will take place in decentralized manner and more people will be benefited of it. 6.4.11 The problem of groundwater salinity can be minimized by means of well recharge using surface runoff every year. This is simple, cheap and the best remedy for saline tract of Shindkheda tehsil of the study area. 6.4.12 The ‘Mantra’ of 3 - R i. e. Reduce the use of water, Reuse water and Recycle water is necessary for houses, industries and so many sectors. 6.4.13 Dug and tube wells which are dried up and abounded can be utilized for groundwater recharging. 6.4.14 The district is underlined by hard rock, hence, percolation is small. Therefore Farm Pond shall prove the best measure to catch surface runoff in situ. 6.4.15 Horticultural is advised for drought prone areas instead of water intensive cash crops. 6.4.16 Regular de-silting of percolation tank, K. T. weir, storage tank, village tank must be undertaken. 6.4.17 Alluvial aquifer in Shirpur tehsil is overexploited hence restrictions should be imposed on new tube wells. 6.4.18 Recharge structures like percolation tanks should be constructed exactly along lineaments. 6.4.19 Restrictions should be imposed on new tube wells in overexploited ares and preference should be given to recharge groundwater. 6.4.20 Alluvial plain in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is favorable for groundwater augmentation. A massive program for groundwater recharge should be undertaken. 6.4.21 Moderate water potential zone is deeply weathered. It is also suitable for recharge purpose.

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1. http://dardel.info/IX/water_analysis.html 2. http://droughtreporter.unl.edu 3. http://ecorestoration.montana.edu/mineland/guide/analytical/chemical/solids/sar.htm 4. http://en.wikipedia.org 5. http://indg.in/rural-energy/technology 6. http://mahaagri.gov.in/CropWaether/AgroClimaticZone.html 7. http://mppcb.nic.in/RWH.htm 8. http://www.eolss 9. http://www.greensolutionsprovider.com 10. http://www.indg.in/agriculture/crop_production_techniques/tips-for-farmers/facts- about-drought-in-india 11. http://www.indiaagronet.com 12. http://www.jalvardhini.org 13. http://www.lenntech.com/groundwater/properties 14. http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/water/calcium/calcium 15. http://www.tarahaat.com/water_HarCon.aspx 16. http://www.wassan.org/watersheds/Technology.htm 17. http:// www.cwc.nic.in/regional/gandhinagar/organization.html 18. http://www.cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer 19. http://www.mahagsda.org/gsda 20. http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in 21. http://www.mahaagri.gov.in 22. http://www.cwc.nic.in 23. http://www.nih.ernet.in 24. http://www.usgs.gov.in 25. http://www.lentech.com/ro/water_hardness 26. http://www.mewa.com

Photo No. 1 Partially developed columnar joints in basalt rock near Louki, Shirpur Tehsil.

Photo No. 2 Deeply weathered hill Photo No. 3 Deeply weathered hill with along NH-3 in Shirpur Tehsil. angular fragmentation near Sangvi.

Photo No. 4 Physical weathering through spheroidal exfoliation.

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Photo No. 5 Weathered parent rock along with sediment deposition.

Photo No. 6 Deposition of sand and yellow silt layers near Karvand village in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 7 Granular disintegration of Deccan basalt.

Photo No. 8 Layers of Deep black soil, yellow silt and deposition of fine sand exposed during excavation for water conservation.

Photo No. 9 Red bole layer exposed due to conversion of NH-3 into four lane highway in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 10 Very pale Red bole layer exposed in the bed of Panzara river near Kudashi in Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 11 Two tire Red bole layer in Satpura ranges.

Photo No. 12 A thin layer of

weathered rock with parent rock in dug well near Kodid village in Shirpur

Photo No. 13 A lined well with weathered rock material.

Photo No. 14

Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river.

Photo No 15 Board showing command and area under Submergence of Sulawade medium irrigation project

across Tapi river.

Photo No. 16 Lower Panzara medium irrigation project near Akkalpada village in Dhule tehsil on the verge of completion.

Photo No. 17

Aner medium irrigation project near Mahadeo Dondwada village in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 18 Kolhapur Type weir across Panzara river near Betavad in Shindkheda tehsil .

Photo No. 19 Loose boulder structure at Lamkani in Dhule tehsil.

Photo No. 20 Cement bund constructed in Sakri tehsil.

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Photo No. 21 Field pond constructed by Agriculture department in Dhule tehsil.

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Photo No. 2 2 Field pond at Kundane village in Dhule tehsil.

Photo No. 23 Continuous

contour trenches constructed by Forest department

in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 24 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani cotton mill in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 2 5 Well recharge at Bhatpura village under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 26 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by

Priyadarshani Co- operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 27 A cement bund constructed across a stream under .water conservation

project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 28 Dissected agricultural

land reclaimed during deepening and widening of streams in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 29

Lift irrigation from water conservation project constructed by

Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 30 Joint forest

management through Cooperative

Society in Lamkani village, Dhule tehsil.

Photo No. 3 1 A Sign board showing . details of water conservation work completed by Priyadarshani Co- operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 3 2 Continuous contour trenches for water conservation and consequent vegetative growth in Lamkani, Dhule tehsil

Photo No. 33 Rich forest

growth due to soil and water

conservation by efforts of local

people near Baripada, Sakri

tehsil.

Photo No. 34

Earthen bund

and sediment deposition

reclaimed for agriculture in Baripada village,

Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 35 Age old lined dug well dried up due to decreased water table near Kurkhali village, Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No . 36 A lined dug well became dry due to decreased water table in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 37 Percolation Tank, at Baripada. village, Sakri tehsil.

Photo No 38 A cement bund constructed at Baripada, Sakri tehsil.