September 2016 Vol 60
Chief Editor : Deepika Kachhal Joint Director (Production) : V.K. Meena YOJANA Senior Editor : Shyamala M. Iyer Cover Design : Gajanan P. Dhope E-mail (Editorial) : [email protected] Sub Editor : Vatica Chandra E-mail (Circulation) : [email protected] Website : www.yojana.gov.in Facebook : https://www.facebook.com/pages/Yojana-Journal
Let noble thoughts come to us from all sides Rig Veda
CONTENTS
Women’s Empowerment in the Indian Context INDIA HEALTH REPORT: NUTRITION 2015...... 39 Kamla Bhasin...... 7 From Sati to Mary Kom : Empowerment of Women: A Fight for Right in Progress Government Perspective Geeta Luthra...... 40 Leena Nair...... 13
Women’s Economic Empowerment Development Roadmap...... 49 Ela R. Bhatt...... 18 NORTH EAST DIARY ...... 51 Women’s Multiple Roles: The Need for Social Infrastructure Growing Violence Against Women Devaki Jain...... 22 Ranjana Kumari...... 53 Adverse Child Sex Ratio: A 'Mindset' Issue Gender context of school education: Mary E. John...... 26 Progress and Challenges Women in Indian freedom struggle Shalender Sharma, Shashiranjan Jha...... 57 Jyoti Atwal...... 31 Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Appraisal Special Segment on Independence Day Subhash Sharma...... 64 do you know? ...... 36
Our Representatives : Ahmedabad: Amita Maru, Bengaluru: Punita, Chennai: A. Elangovan, Guwahati: Anupoma Das, Hyderabad: Vijayakumar Vedagiri, Kolkata: Rama Mandal Mumbai: Umesh Sadashivarao Ujgare: Thiruvananthapuram: Dhanya Sanyal K., Jalandhar: Gagandeep Kaur Devgan, Bhubaneshwar Girish Chander Das. YOJANA seeks to provide a vibrant platform for discussion on problems of social and economic development of the country through in-depth analysis of these issues in the wider context of government policies. Although published by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Yojana is not restricted to expressing the official point of view. Yojana is published in Assamese, Bengali, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Chief Editor's Office : Room No. 660, Soochna Bhawan,CGO Complex, Lodi Road New Delhi 110 003 Ph: 24362971. Yojana (English): Room No. 647, Soochna Bhavan, C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi - 110 003. Business Manager (Hqs.) : Ph :24367260, 24365609, 24365610 Correspondence address of journals unit for new subscriptions, renewals, enquiries has changed. Please contact : Business Manager (Circulation & Advt.), Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Room No. 48-53, Soochna Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road New Delhi 110 003(Ph: 011 24367453).Sales Emporia : Publications Division: *Soochna Bhavan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi -110003 (Ph 24365610) *Hall No.196, Old Secretariat, Delhi 110054(Ph 23890205) * 701, B Wing, 7th Floor, Kendriya Sadan, Belapur, Navi Mumbai 400614 (Ph 27570686)*8, Esplanade East, Kolkata-700069 (Ph 22488030) *’A’ Wing, Rajaji Bhawan, Basant Nagar, Chennai-600090 (Ph 24917673) *Press road, Near Govt. Press, Thiruvananthapuram-695001 (Ph 2330650) *205 II Floor CGO Towers, Kavadiguda, Secundrabad-500080 (Ph 27546312)*1st Floor, ‘F’ Wing, Kendriya Sadan, Koramangala, Bengaluru-560034 (Ph 25537244) *Bihar State Co-operative Bank Building, Ashoka Rajpath, Patna-800004 (Ph 2683407) *Hall No 1, 2nd floor, Kendriya Bhawan, Sector-H, Aliganj, Lucknow-226024(Ph 2325455) *Ambica Complex, 1st Floor, above UCO Bank, Paldi, Ahmedabad-380007 (Ph 26588669) *KKB Road, New Colony, House No.7, Chenikuthi, Guwahati 781003 (Ph 2665090) *Sco 103, Puda Market, New Bus Stand, Jalandhar. (Ph 2224243) SUBSCRIPTION : 1 year ` 230, 2 years ` 430, 3 years ` 610. For subscriptions abroad the same rates plus Air Mail charges as prescribed by India post from time to time, as applicable for concerned countries. No. of Pages 72 Disclaimer : l The views expressed in various articles are those of the authors’ and not necessarily of the government. The views expressed in the articles are of the author and they don't represent the views of their organisation. l Maps/flags used in the articles are only indicative. They don't reflect the political map or legal representation of the flag of India/any other country. l The readers are requested to verify the claims made in the advertisements regarding career guidance books/institutions. Yojana does not own responsibility regarding the contents of the advertisements.
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4 YOJANA September 2016 YOJANA
'women led' development
“ here is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women”...no other statement could have described the abilities of women more aptly. There is not much that women T have not achieved – either in the traditional or in more modern roles. As mothers, they have been bearing the responsibility of carrying, giving birth and rearing the future citizens of the world with elan ever since time immemorial. As daughters, sisters, and wives they have supported to man in various ways. In the more modern roles they have been educators, managers, political leaders, et al. They have even dared to break the gender barriers of late, and become mountaineers, pilots, also seen in the armed forces in combat roles. However, this wasn’t always so for women. In ancient times woman was considered nothing without a man – she could only be a daughter, wife or mother. She could not take the leadership – always existing under the domination of the ‘man’ in her life – a father, son or husband. She was not allowed decision making roles. This perception existed in even the western societies where women’s suffrage was granted very late. In India also, almost a century long struggle has brought women the property rights, voting rights, equality in civil rights before the law in matters of marriage and employment. After independence of India, the constitution makers and the national leaders recognized the equal social position of women with men. Several measures were taken by the successive Governments to assign equal status to women in the economic, political and social fields. More avenues were opened to them to show their talents and have a sense of participation in national activities. The passage of several Acts by the Parliament and introduction of various Schemes by the central well as state governments during the last few decades have done much for women’s emancipation both legally, politically and socially. Education has empowered woman to a large extent and where women are educated, empowerment has happened the fastest. It has enabled women to take decisions about marriage, parenthood and careers. Education has also created awareness about opportunities outside of marriage, giving her financial independence and reducing her dependence on ‘the man in her life’ be it father or husband. She now no longer needs to tolerate domestic violence or mental abuse at home. It has also enabled her to make her choice regarding pregnancy and the right of abortion of an unwanted child. Health is another area where the woman suffers. Most women have neither the time nor the mind set or facilities to go in for health care. Rural women, specially, have no access to even such a basic health care facility as a toilet in their homes. Women’s health is, therefore, a priority for government policies, with governments initiating programmes like ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ and ‘Janani Shushu Suraksha Karyakaram etc. Social stigma related to single women whether widows, divorcees or unmarried women have also been one of factors for the lowly status of women in India. A single woman is always regarded as an object of ridicule, or as a social outcaste. All this however is now seeing a change though slow. Today’s woman has truly come a long way from the ancient times. She has broken the glass ceiling in many areas. Some of the most powerful people today are women – to name a few, Arunadhati Bhattacharya, Indira Nooyi, Kiran Mazumdar Shawa and Chanda Kochhar. Bhawana Kanth, Avani Chatuvedi and Mohana Singh were commissioned in the Indian Air Force recently and for the first time in the history of Independent India, an all-women contingent from the three forces — Army, Air Force and Navy — marched down the majestic Rajpath during the Republic Day, 2015. That is what woman power can achieve. These women symbolize Prime Ministers vision to think beyond “women development,” and move towards “women-led development.” With women population being around 50 per cent of the total population of the world, they have every right to be treated equally with men in every sphere of life. The inclusion of “Women Empowerment’ as one of the prime goals in the eight Millennium Development Goals underscores the relevance of this fact. Swami Vivekananda’s quote that, “There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing” beautifully sums up the essence of power of women in leading not just their families but also the nation and the world. q
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6 YOJANA September 2016 towards egalitarian mindset units of changing Women’s Empowerment in the Indian Context
Kamla Bhasin
o s t c o u n t r i e s Women: Bottom of All Hierarchies today c o n s i d e r It is indeed difficult to generalise gender equality about women in India because of the a n d w o m e n ’ s vast differences between them. They empowerment to belong to different classes, castes, be essential for M religions, communities. Yet, one the development and well-being of can say that most women suffer from families, communities and nations. No patriarchal structures and ideologies; nation, society, and family can flourish they experience gender inequalities and be happy if fifty per cent of its and subordination. Women lag behind population, i.e. women and girls, are their men in all indicators of social not respected, free and happy. The methodology of and human development. India Not just in India, but in most has the most adverse sex-ratios for women’s education has to countries of the world, women have women in the world. Life expectancy be participatory and non- been discriminated against, excluded for women is lower than that of men, hierarchical. Women must from decision making at all levels, women’s health, nutritional and marginalised and disempowered. This educational levels are significantly be involved in setting their is so because of the prevalence of lower than that of men. Women are own agenda and priorities, patriarchy, a social system in which concentrated in low skilled and low their own pace of learning. men are considered to be superior paid jobs, they get lower wages and lower income than men and they The educational process to women and in which, men have more control over resources, decision hardly own and/or control property should make them feel making and ideology. In patriarchy, and means of production. The number good about themselves, violence against women is a part of the of female headed households has been increasing and they are amongst build their confidence and system. Women are controlled through violence or the threat of violence. the poorest in our countries. The self-respect, unleash their According to the UN, one out of every participation of women in political and creativity, make them feel three women experiences violence. social decision-making is abysmally energetic and joyous; in one This means over one billion women low. Women’s participation in the and girls experience violence. This is Parliament has never been higher than word - Empower them the biggest war going on in the world 10 per cent . They are excluded from and what is most painful is that most jural authority. They have little say in of it takes place within the family. the formulation of social, economic, The author has been actively engaged with issues related to development, gender, education and media since 1970. Currently, she works with Sangat – A Feminist Network as Adviser as well as JAGORI, a Women’s Resource and Training Centre and Jagori Rural Charitable Trust as an active member. She is the South Asia Coordinator of One Billion Rising, a global campaign to end violence against women and girls. Prior to this, she worked with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for 27 years. She has written extensively on gender, women’s empowerment, participatory and sustainable development, participatory training, media and communication.
YOJANA September 2016 7 legal, political rules which govern their gender which is disempowered, power to achieve inner growth leading lives and keep them subjugated. i.e., women and girls. One needs to wisdom and compassion. to understand POWER in order Women’s empowerment is a Not in all, but in large parts of India, to empower anyone. Power is the process, which is both on-going and girls live with disadvantages, burdens capacity or ability to take actions dynamic and which enhances women’s and fears. They carry the burden of freely and independently, it is the ability to change those structures neglect, of discrimination, the burden capacity to control or influence others. and ideologies which keep them of household work, the burden of Power means autonomy, freedom, looking after siblings, the burden of subordinate. This process enables making your own choices, having a them to gain more access to and work outside the home. Girls live with voice. fears - fear of being aborted, fear of control over resources and decision- being poisoned, fear of being neglected In human societies, power is making; gain more control over their and allowed to die, fear of not getting derived from control over resources own lives, gain more autonomy. It adequate affection, care, nourishment, and ideology. People who control is a process which enables women to medical attention, education. Our resources and ideology (people’s have self-respect and dignity, which daughters also live with the fear of thinking, belief systems etc.) become improves their self image and social image. sexual abuse ranging from playful the decision makers and controllers of manhandling to rape. Even after the families, communities and countries. The process of empowerment is passing of stricter and better laws, the a political process, because it aims at Women’s empowerment, therefore, number of brutal gang rapes has been changing existing power relationships would require changing patriarchal increasing. After marriage, they face between women and men. the fear of loneliness, maladjustment, thinking and structures, giving women mental and physical torture. control over resources (natural, human, The goal of women’s empowerment cannot and should not just be to change As a result of the pressure created hierarchical gender relations, but to by the women’s movement and actions Women’s empowerment is change all hierarchical relations in by governments and civil society not and cannot be separate society i.e., class, caste, race, ethnic, organizations, there have indeed been from the empowerment of and North-South relations. Because some positive changes for women, nature, empowerment of all gender relations do not operate in a for example - there is growing gender vacuum, because they are related to awareness as a result of which, the marginalised people and and influenced by all other economic, women’s subordination is recognised countries. Women’s struggles social and political systems, one and the need to challenge it is accepted and movements therefore, need cannot change gender hierarchies without changing other systems and by all; violence against women is to be closely linked to peace recognised and condemned; women’s hierarchies. movements, ecology movements, participation in all decision making Women’s empowerment is not bodies is seen as important. There workers’ and peasants’ movements, and cannot be separate from the have been improvements in some human rights movements and empowerment of nature, empowerment legal provisions, in educational and movements for democratisation and of all the marginalised people and job opportunities for women, policy decentralisation of society. countries. Women’s struggles and statements have become more gender movements therefore, need to be sensitive. There is some increase in closely linked to peace movements, the number of women participating intellectual, financial, inner resources), ecology movements, workers’ and in government and non-government bringing them into decision making peasants’ movements, human rights development agencies and programmes roles etc. movements and movements for and women’s participation in Panchayti democratisation and decentralisation Raj Institutions has increased. Our According to me, empowerment of of society. These different movements governments have set-up women’s women will improve our lives only if are different aspects of the same bureaus, commissions, departments our notion of power is different from struggle, different segments of the and/or ministries to look into gender the present notion of power. same dream; therefore, there need to issues. However, we still have a long Empowerment for us cannot mean be strong connections and alliances between them. way to go to achieve gender equality. power over others, power to control Empowerment: Dynamic and more than our share; it should mean I believe that while talking of Political Process power to be, power to control one’s empowerment of women, we must own greed, avarice, violence; power also talk about empowerment of In order to move towards gender to nurture, heal, care for others; power feminist thinking and ideology, equality, we have to empower that to fight for justice, ethics, morality; empowerment of principles like
8 YOJANA September 2016 equality, justice, democracy and that women, in addition to being community and national affairs. sustainability. This means, we do deliverers of children and home- Enhancing women’s political not support all women irrespective makers, are farmers, labourers, participation at all levels. of what they stand for. We do not artisans, professionals, etc. they l Facilitating awareness amongst empower women dictators, women have always been involved in women and men about girls and patriarchs, women who promote caste production, and their contribution women’s genuine needs, their status and patriarchy, just because they are to GDP has always been major. within and outside the family, their women. We recognize that women can They are producers of life itself, rights and responsibilities. also be patriarchal and dominating managers of natural resources and that some men can be and are etc. l Making facilities and resources our partners in fighting patriarchy available to women to meet their l Making women and society basic needs of food, clothing, and other hierarchical systems. Our recognize the knowledge, struggle is for certain principles and shelter and their special needs in capabilities and skills that women health and security. for a society where all men and women have had and still have, particularly have equal opportunities to live, to l in areas of agriculture, health, Helping women gain access to and grow, to participate. handicrafts, etc. control over means of production, property and other resources and Not just women, but women’s l Creating a social environment control over income. perspectives need to be empowered which gives women self-esteem because women are not just a separate and self-confidence. Issues Needing Special Attention sector. Women’s concerns, perspectives and Efforts and visions are necessary on every Empowerment of women has to issue - be it militarisation, human It is important to point out some rights or sustainable development. be done at all levels and in all areas which are crucial for women’s Every issue is a woman’s issue. sections if it is to become strong empowerment, but which have not and wide spread and make a been given adequate attention in the Empowerment of women has to be difference. Effective networking is past. These areas need to be looked at done at all levels and in all sections if very carefully and effective strategies it is to become strong and wide spread required between grass-root level have to be developed to deal with and make a difference. Effective women activists, intermediary level them. networking is required between activists, women in the government, grass-root level women activists, Women’s lack of control over intermediary level activists, women media women, women politicians, property and other productive in the government, media women, women academics, women artists, resources is an important reason for women politicians, women academics, women entrepreneurs, etc. We women’s inferior status. It is this which makes women feel insecure women artists, women entrepreneurs, need networking between those etc. We need networking between all the time. In her book “A Field of those working at the micro level, and working at the micro level, and One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights those working at the macro level. We those working at the macro in South Asia” Bina Agarwal has also need support from sympathetic level. We also need support from very convincingly argued that gender men at all levels. gap in the ownership and control sympathetic men at all levels. over property is the single most Empowerment of women is not important factor affecting women’s a one way process - in which some l Providing opportunities for girls economic well being, social status and activists can go and empower others. and women to realise their full empowerment. This issue needs to be It is a two way process in which we potential and to have choices addressed urgently at all levels. empower and get empowered. This is an ongoing journey for all of us. and not to be pushed into only Lack of access to gainful No one can become empowered for a few traditional roles and employment is another important good and then become an expert in occupations. Giving them an issue. While much stress is laid on empowering others. education which empowers rather who brings in the cash, women are than domesticates. denied opportunities of learning and Women’s empowerment has to l Enabling women to take decisions developing skills to bring in cash, and be multidimensional and integrative. about their own lives; whether, to be gainfully employed. Women’s This process may include some or all when and whom to marry, whether household work is not valued and if of the following: and when to have children, whether they do not bring in cash they are l Making women’s contribution and what to study. Also, to take devalued, considered a burden, a to society visible; i.e. showing decisions about family matters, liability. Research done by Professor
YOJANA September 2016 9 Amartya Sen and Professor Jean Dreze Religion is also a creator of master the three Rs., but to be masters has come to the conclusion that greater patriarchal ideology. Religious texts of their own lives and makers of their involvement with outside work and and mythologies, religious and cultural destinies. We need education which paid employment does tend to go with customs which preach and justify male will help women acquire the necessary less anti-female bias in intra family superiority also need to be challenged analytical skills to understand the fast distribution. Therefore, they suggest much more than we have done in the changing realities of life; which will that female participation in “gainful” past. This is indeed an area which we give them the confidence and strength economic activity is a material factor should tread cautiously. It is an area to refuse to submit to conditions of in combating the special deprivation which will not change overnight but indignity and inhumanity. If we are of women in many parts of the world. if we keep silent about it, it will never involved with women’s literacy then In India, we have talked a lot about change. Religions which justify caste, literacy classes for women should income generation activities for class, gender hierarchies cannot be become nuclei for consciousness women, but most of these have failed accepted uncritically in the present day raising. They should help women form to help women. They have increased and time. Religious laws and practices strong groups so that they can gain women’s work load without enhancing which go against our Constitution, more and more control over their lives, their income much. This issue needs a which deny women their fundamental help them break their silence, make careful consideration. them visible. These classes should We need education which will create an atmosphere which allows Sharing of household and child women more freedom, which gives rearing work is another area which help women not only to read and them more opportunities to realise needs to be looked into because that understand the word but to read, their full human potential. Education is where maximum subordination of understand and control our world; for women’s empowerment will have women is located. Women slog all the to be an ongoing process of collective time, have no leisure, no opportunity which will help women not only to master the three Rs but to be action and reflection. Our educational to study, to grow. This is a big hurdle efforts should be built on women’s in the path of women’s equality and masters of their own lives and existing knowledge and skills; they empowerment. Women’s drudgery makers of their destinies. should affirm women, bring out the can only be reduced if others in best in each one of them. the family share their work. Boys and men should share mothering, rights need to be challenged. What The methodology of women’s caring, nurturing activities to provide and how we do this very sensitive education has to be participatory and time to women to rest, to have time task needs to be discussed and planned non-hierarchical. Women must be for themselves, to develop other carefully to avoid hurting sentiments involved in setting their own agenda interests. and back lash. and priorities, their own pace of learning. The educational process Control over women’s sexuality Education for Women’s should make them feel good about is another area which needs to be Empowerment themselves, build their confidence and studied, understood and addressed. self-respect, unleash their creativity, Education of women is indeed Early marriages, purdah, restrictions make them feel energetic and joyous; the most important component on women’s mobility, which are in one word - EMPOWER them. all ways of controlling women’s and intervention for women’s sexuality, have drastic implications empowerment, provided both the We need education which will not for the freedom and autonomy of girls contents and methodology of this only help in the search and acquisition and women. education are pro-women. of new skills and knowledge, but also help the participants acquire and The other important area to be The Kind of Education we Need strengthen values like justice, equality, addressed is that of ideology which We have to strengthen and multiply honesty, truthfulness and solidarity justifies and perpetuates patriarchal amongst oppressed groups. It should structures, practices and behaviour those ongoing efforts to educate women, to acquire information and also create or release energies in patterns. Media are a powerful creator women to act with conviction and of ideology and we all know how knowledge which help them challenge patriarchal knowledge, norms, values, courage in their various struggles at sexist and anti-women most media different levels. have been and are. Considerable behaviour patterns. We need education amount of work has been done to which will help women not only to read We need education which will change media images of women and understand the word but to read, not lead to more competition and but unfortunately things have only understand and control our world; ambition, but which will create trust become worse. which will help women not only to and solidarity amongst women. It
10 YOJANA September 2016 should help them form associations and networks at different levels. It should help women develop an analytical and questioning mind and a scientific approach to understand the realities around them. It should help them see the connections between micro and macro realities, between micro realities 3UHFXP0DLQV and macro policies, between the local and the global. Just to reiterate, women’s empowerment must accompany the empowerment of human values. Only then there will be more equality, justice and peace around us. Women’s empowerment will take place at a rapid pace only when men understand that it will be good for men also 0385, and it will be good for families and nations. Let us remember *6,,3/86 that. q (E-mail: [email protected] [email protected])
Beneficiaries of Supplementary Nutrition LQ*6,,0DLQVZDVIURPRXU Programme under ICDS Increase &ODVV1RWHV 7HVWVHULHV The number of beneficiaries [children (6 months :K\MRLQ3XUL6LU·V&ODVVHV to 6 years) and pregnant and lactating mothers] for &RPSOHWHFRYHUDJHRIV\OODEXV 5HDOLW\QRW supplementary nutrition under ICDS scheme of Ministry of PHUHO\5KHWRULF Women and Child Development have increased from 956.12 lakh to 1030.14 lakh and Number of beneficiaries [children 1HZSDWWHUQGHPDQGVVSHFLDOL]HGIRFXV (3-6 years) for pre-school education increased from 353.29 $SSURDFK lakh to 354.05 lakh during the last four years. Similarly, 8QGHUVWDQGLQJRIWUHQGV LVVXHDQGQRWPHUHO\ Anganwadi Centres have also increased from 1338732 to HYHQWV IDFWV 1349091 during the same period. *RYHUQDQFHVSHFLILFYRFDEXODU\EXLOGLQJ Government of India approved the Restructuring and Strengthening of ICDS Scheme recently. The goals and $UWRIRSLQLRQEXLOGLQJVKDSLQJDVRSSRVHGWR target of restructured and strengthened ICDS are (i) to PHUHO\SODJLDUL]LQJRSLQLRQVRIRWKHUV prevent and reduce young child under nutrition by 10 per cent points in 0-3 years and enhance early development $UWRIZULWLQJ$QVZHUVZLWKSUHFLVLRQ EUHYLW\ and learning outcomes in all children below six years of &RXUVHFRYHUVQHDUO\UGRI*66\OODEXV age (ii) improved care and nutrition of girls and women and to reduce anaemia prevalence in young children, girls and women by 1/5th and (iii) achieve time bound goals and $'0,66,2123(1 outcomes with results based monitoring of indicators at different levels. Care & Nutrition counselling [including (i) Infant & Young Child Feeding (IYCF) Promotion and Counselling, (ii) Maternal Care and Counselling, (iii) Care, Nutrition, Health & Hygiene Education and (iv) Community based %\ care and management of underweight children] and Health ,Q*FOXGLQJ67RSLFVRI3,DSHU,,,36/$86LGG6LTXL Services [including (i) Immunization and micronutrient "&RYHUV+LVWRU\*HRJ+HULWDJH&XOWXUHDORQJZLWK supplementation, (ii) Health Check-up and (iii) Referral KROLVWLFFRYHUDJHRIHQYLURQPHQWDQG%LR'LYHUVLW\ Services] for children in the age group of 0-6 years and " $OVRIURP3DSHU,,, $JULFXOWXUH3'6,UULJDWLRQ Pregnant and Lactating mothers, have now been included 0DMRUFURSV&URSSLQJSDWWHUQ)RRG3URFHVVLQJ in the core package of ICDS services. Integrated Child Development Services [ICDS] Scheme $QG)ORRU2OG5DMHQGUD1DJDU is a centrally sponsored Scheme being implemented by the 1HDU%LNDQHU6ZHHW 1HZ'HOKL State Governments/UT Administrations.
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YOJANA September 2016 11 YE-125/2016
12 YOJANA September 2016 government policy outcomes Empowerment of Women: Government Perspective
Leena Nair
he principle of gender population, particularly the poor and equality is enshrined in underprivileged, is a formidable task the Indian Constitution for the Indian Government. Since i n i t s p r e a m b l e , 2005, the National Rural Health fundamental rights, Mission (NRHM), now renamed as fundamental duties and the National Health Mission has led T directive principles. to improvement in health care service The Constitution not only grants delivery through better infrastructure, equality to women, but also empowers drugs, and equipment and availability the state to adopt measures in favour of of human resources in health facilities women. In keeping with this principle at different levels in rural areas. With the SDGs in of equality and inclusive growth, every effort is made to empower the Health being the pre requisite place, it would be women and nurture children, which for improvement of survival critical in realizing the together constitutes over 70 per cent indicators, priority continues to be of the total population of our country. objectives of a truly laid on increasing access to health Various legislations have been enacted services. Maternal under-nutrition inclusive, equitable, and amended, and plans, policies is a major challenge in India with and programmes formulated towards more than one third (35.6 per cent) people-centered and producing tangible outcomes that having low Body Mass Index (BMI). positively impact the lives of women. transformative post- Similarly, malnutrition continues to 2015 development As women’s empowerment is adversely affect majority of women a complex issue with a myriad of in India with the result, every third agenda with a gender indicators, the present paper focuses on woman is undernourished and every perspective. This would key interventions of the Government second woman is anaemic1. To that have been undertaken with the aim address the issue of maternal and be only possible through of women’s economic as well as social child malnutrition, the Integrated combined efforts and transformation. Empowerment, as an Child Development Services (ICDS) contribution of all enabling process will only be achieved scheme has been universalized and when an improvement in the condition strengthened. ICDS, one of the world’s relevant stakeholders, of women in terms of health, education, largest and most unique outreach including the civil safety and security including financial programme for early childhood security is achieved. care and development covers all the society and the private Health: districts and blocks in the country sector through 14 lakh Anganwadi Centres Providing quality and affordable and symbolizes India’s commitment to healthcare to the large Indian addressing the nutritional need of 1.9
The author is an IAS Officer of 1982 batch from Tamil Nadu Cadre, currently serving as the Secretary, Ministry of Women & Child Development, Government of India, dealing with various legislations, schemes and programmes for improving the lives of women & children, including their nutrition, health, safety and security. She is also a Hubert Humphrey fellow (1999-2000).
YOJANA September 2016 13 crore expectant and nursing mothers Education: Programme) is another initiative and 8.4 crore children under the age under SSA to enhance community Education is the most important of six.2 Village Health and Nutrition and private sector involvement in measure of women’s status and Days are conducted in rural areas as Government run elementary schools the benefits of education cannot be an outreach activity, for provision of across the country. This programme emphasized enough. To provide quality maternal and child health services. has been envisaged to bring together education and develop appropriate people willing to volunteer their To accelerate the pace of reduction skills, many programmes are being services at schools which really need Maternal Mortality Ratio3 (MMR) implemented by the Government them. in several interventions have been both in elementary and secondary made by the Government. Some of education and higher and technical Consequent to the developments the key steps include the promotion education. The Right to Education of SSA, there has been an increasing of institutional deliveries through the (RTE) Act 2009 was enacted in April demand for secondary education in Janani Suraksha Yojana, absolutely 2010 to make free and compulsory the country. To enhance access to free and no expense delivery, including elementary education a right for all secondary education for all children caesarean section under the Janani children and a flagship programme, in the age group of 14-18 years and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) to improve its quality, the Rashtriya Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram was rolled to universalize access Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (JSSK) for all pregnant women to education at primary and upper (RMSA) is under implementation delivering in public health institutions, primary levels. As a result, enrolment since 2009 onwards. The efforts are Mother and Child Protection Card of girls in schools, both in rural and visible in the increased female literacy to monitor service delivery for mothers urban areas across the country, has rate from 65.38 to 74.04 during 2001 and children, Mother and Child shown a steady increase over the years and 2011. The CBSE has also come out Tracking System to ensure antenatal, and dropout rates have come down. At with a special scheme called Udaan intra-natal and postnatal care along- the national level, the gender parity for girl students. It is a mentoring and with immunization services and index is 1.0 at the primary level and scholarship scheme which aims at Maternal Death Reviews (MDR) to addressing the lower enrolment ratio take corrective action at appropriate ...the provision of better care of girl students in engineering colleges levels and improve the quality of and also aims to enrich and enhance obstetric care.4 The implementation of facilities for women during teaching and learning of mathematics all such efforts has made an appreciable pregnancy and childbirth has and science at senior secondary progress and the Maternal Mortality contributed to the reduction of school level by providing free online Ratio declined from 212 to 178 per maternal deaths and improved resources for all.8 100,000 live births during 2007-09 and 2010-12 as per the latest report of child survival in India. More and While the Rashtriya Uchchattar the Registrar General of India, Sample more women now give birth in Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is Registration System (RGI-SRS). health care facilities and rates being implemented for the holistic development of higher education, According to the latest NFHS-4 have more than doubled in some Government has also launched a (2015-16) data released for the 13 States in the last decade. new web-based portal named as states,5 it has been established that Vidya Lakshmi (www.vidyalakshmi. the provision of better care facilities 0.95 at the upper primary level as per co.in) under Pradhan Mantri Vidya for women during pregnancy and DISE 2012-13. While the SSA has Lakshmi Karyakram to provide childbirth has contributed to the helped in universalization of primary educational loans for the students reduction of maternal deaths and education, a lot more needs to be seeking Higher Education. Vidya improved child survival in India. done to provide quality education.6 Lakshmi is a first of its kind portal More and more women now give A nationwide sub-programme to the providing single window for students birth in health care facilities and SSA called Padhe Bharat, Badhe to access information and make rates have more than doubled in some Bharat7 has been launched to ensure application for educational loans States in the last decade. The draft that learning levels of class I and II provided by banks as also government National Health Policy 2015 also students in reading, writing language scholarships. addresses women’s health needs in comprehension and mathematics is at Though women in India have been terms of meeting the specific needs par with the world. The campaign aims holding influential positions across of reproductive and child health. It to ensure that every school provides sectors and achieving new heights mentions the need to increase the teaching-learning for 200 school in higher education, gender bias still targets of male sterilization and working days, with 800 instructional exists. To make young boys and girls contraception utilization. hours. Vidyanjali (School Volunteer gender sensitive and create positive
14 YOJANA September 2016 social norms that value the girls Violence Act, 2005; for protection social counselling and temporary and their rights, provision has been of the rights of women who are the shelter to women affected by violence, made to engage Gender Champions victims of violence of any kind within Women Helpline for providing 24 in colleges across the country. The the family; the Prohibition of Child hour emergency and non-emergency University Grants Commission has Marriage Act, 2006, for prohibition of response, Investigative Units for Crime issued notification in this regard to solemnisation of child marriages; The against Women (IUCAW) in all police vice-chancellors of all universities and Protection of Children from Sexual districts of the country, installation colleges and issued the guidelines for Offences Act, 2012 to protect children of CCTV surveillance cameras in its implementation. from offences of sexual assault; The coaches to strengthen security on Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal trains, National Emergency Response Safety and Security: Diagnostic Techniques Act (PC & System, creation of Central Victim Ensuring gender equality, and PNDT), 1994 for prohibition of sex Compensation Fund (CVCF), Cyber combating discrimination and selection, before or after conception. Crime Prevention against Women & violence against women are integral The Juvenile Justice (Care and Children (CCPWC) and so on. Protection of Children) Act, 2015 to our national pursuit of forging The multi-sectoral Beti Bachao provides for proper care, protection inclusive society and development. Beti Padhao initiative also aims to and treatment to the child by catering The Government is determined to end to secure a bright future and welfare to their development needs, and by violence of all kinds against women of the girl child in India and address adopting a child friendly approach. and girls and has framed enabling the declining child sex ratio and The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) legislations. Supporting women victims related issues of disempowerment of Bill, 2016, passed in the Rajya Sabha and ensuring that the police and other women over a life-cycle continuum. which increased the maternity leave agencies have the right tools in place The BBBP programme has resulted for working women from 12 to 26 to protect the victims of violence is at in dozens of local level innovative weeks will definitely promote female the heart of Government’s approach. initiatives to promote the girl child. workforce participation in India. On rape and sexual violence, the Due to the encouraging results Government is making every effort to There has been an increasing and transformative potential of the ensure that the voices of the women emphasis on gender sensitivity programme, it has been extended to affected by violence are heard and that another 61 districts with low CSR they can access justice. of police force through training from the initial 100 districts. Other programmes, performance Some of the recent enabling programmes to support and provide legislations to address gender based appraisal, women police stations relief to women affected with violence violence to provide safe environment to tackle crime against women. are the Victim Compensation Scheme, for women to work and live and fulfill Swadhar and Short Stay Home Not only that, in order to have a Schemes for relief and rehabilitation their potential are, for example, The gender responsive police service, Criminal Law (Amendment), Act of women in difficult circumstances 2013 which has been enacted to make and expand community outreach including the victims of rape. the punishment more stringent for to integrate gender issues into To increase the visibility of offences like rape and has broadened policies, protocols and operational women in the police force, 33 per the definition of sexual assault and procedures a new scheme on a pilot cent reservation has been made for harassment. New offences like acid women in the police force, in UTs attack, sexual harassment, voyeurism basis has been initiated. and some States. There has been and stalking, disrobing a woman, an increasing emphasis on gender have been incorporated in the Indian For ensuring women’s safety sensitivity of police force through Penal Code. The Act has also made pertaining to the strategic areas training programmes, performance provisions for greater accountability of prevention, protection and appraisal, women police stations to of public officials including the rehabilitation, Government has tackle crime against women. Not health care providers for immediate established a Nirbhaya Fund only that, in order to have a gender relief to the woman affected by under which, the key programmatic responsive police service, and expand violence. The Sexual Harassment of interventions have been made and so far, community outreach to integrate Women at Workplace (Prevention, 15 proposals amounting to around Rs. gender issues into policies, protocols Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 2000 crores have been recommended and operational procedures, a new aims to provide a safe and secured under the Nirbhaya Fund. These scheme on a pilot basis has been environment for women to work. include the One Stop Centres for initiated. Mahila Police Volunteers These legislations are supplemented facilitating/providing medical aid, (MPVs) are in the process of being by other existing laws like The police assistance, legal counselling/ recruited at the state and UT level for Protection of Women from Domestic court case management, psycho- creating a link between women and
YOJANA September 2016 15 police, especially at the grassroots. to secure the financial future of the cyber spaces safe place for women, The broad mandate of MPVs is to girl child, a small savings scheme redistribution of gender roles for report incidences of violence against Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana has reducing unpaid care work, review women such as domestic violence, also been launched under the Beti of personal and customary laws in child marriage, dowry harassment etc Padhao Beti Bachao initiative. 87 lakh accordance with the Constitutional in the neighbourhood to the police. accounts have been opened upto June provisions, ensuring the rights of 2016 under SSY across the country. women adopting artificial reproductive Financial Security: techniques, recognizing the needs of Conclusion: Despite these challenges, millions single women and creating an enabling and millions of women in India are These are, no doubt, significant environment for women to participate breaking old barriers and charting their steps forward in such a large, plural, in entrepreneurial activities and is own destiny. The flagship programmes democracy. However, the patriarchal committed to address these challenges. like Mahatma Gandhi National mindset which results in denial of With the SDGs in place, it would be Rural Employment Guarantee critical in realizing the objectives of Scheme, National Rural Livelihoods Government acknowledges the a truly inclusive, equitable, people- Mission (NRLM) while providing centered and transformative post- emerging issues such as making 2015 development agenda with a livelihood security to thousands of cyber spaces safe place for women, rural women have also provided them gender perspective. This would be with economic security, empowered redistribution of gender roles for only possible through combined them and created rural assets reducing unpaid care work, review efforts and contribution of all relevant simultaneously. Another example of stakeholders, including the civil of personal and customary laws in society and the private sector. mainstreaming women in the economy accordance with the Constitutional is the Rashtriya Mahila Kosh Readings: (RMK), which is working exclusively provisions, ensuring the rights for poor women, providing them with of women adopting artificial 1 5NFHS-III (2005-06): “International Institute for Population Sciences regular funds and facilitating market reproductive techniques, recognizing (IIPS) and Macro International, linkages. To promote such women the needs of single women and 2007”, National Family Health Survey entrepreneurs and Self Help Groups, creating an enabling environment (NFHS-3), 2005-06: India, Vol I Mahila E-Haat has been launched (Mumbai: IIPS) as a start up initiative by the RMK for women to participate in 2 http://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/ for meeting the aspirations and needs entrepreneurial activities and AR2014-15.pdf, Annexure XII, of women entrepreneurs. This web is committed to address these p.180 based marketing, initiative under 3 Refers to the number of women who Digital India, will facilitate the access challenges. die as a result of complications of of women to the global market and pregnancy or childbearing in a given promote the development of relations equal opportunities to women in year per 100,000 live births in that between the business community various spheres such as nutrition, year and Maternal Mortality Rate is and women entrepreneurs. Financial education and employment and also defined as the number of maternal Inclusion is one of the top most result in violence against women deaths to women in the ages 15-49 per priorities of the government. Pradhan continues to be a challenge. The effort lakh of women in that age group Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana has given is to work towards consolidation 4 http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease. confidence to lakhs of women in of the processes already initiated. aspx?relid=123669 opening their first bank account and The strategy to empower women 5 http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease. a breakthrough to overcome the is an ongoing effort and has been aspx?relid=134608 vicious cycle of poverty and debt. proposed in the new National Policy According to the third annual survey for Women. Seven priority areas 6 http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2013-14/ echap-13.pdf by the Gates Foundation 47 per cent including health, education, economy, women now have a PMJDY bank governance and decision making, 7 http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ account”.9 Further, to promote skills violence against women, enabling mhrd/files/document-reports/Padhe- and employability of women, the environment in terms of housing and Bharat-Badhe-Bharat.pdf sectors which employ a large number infrastructure, safe drinking water and 8 http://cbseonline.nic.in/regn/udaan. of women have been identified under sanitation, mass media and sports, html the National Skill Development Policy social security and support services 9 http://indi atoday.intoday.in/ and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas etc. and environment and climate story/pmjdy-helped-more- Yojana (PMKVY) launched to help change have been outlined in the draft women-financially-empowered- them securing a decent employment to policy. Government acknowledges report/1/708404.html q move out of poverty. With a mission the emerging issues such as making (E-mail: [email protected])
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YOJANA September 2016 17 investing in better future winds of change Women’s Economic Empowerment
Ela R Bhatt
grew up in those human values – we were guided to years when India was build India’s economy. fighting for freedom Because the human being is central a n d b e c o m i n g a n in the thinking, we in SEWA gradually independent nation. understood the view of Development As young people, we as holistic and integrated. By had Ipledged to rebuild the nation, to understanding development, we call reconstruct our lives so that every it constructive work, in all aspects. Indian is able to enjoy freedom. we co-relate each of our activities Mahatma Gandhi had shown us the with the impact on our own self, on way. He would think of individual the society and the world and thus ...women are the key to cleanliness on the same level as become responsible world citizens. political freedom. To him, cleanliness rebuilding a community. Such linkages have been the basis of in lavatories and the village ponds, our SEWA and SEWA movement. Focus on women, and was as vital as spiritual salvation. you will find allies, who We had learnt to see the economy However, closest to my heart from the perspective of the masses. is WORK. I would put WORK as want a stable community. His thoughts have been the source of central to man’s life: ‘karma’. It is The woman wants guidance for me and for SEWA. the work, productive work that leads to Development and Growth. As we roots for her family. In One is simplicity because we have seen while working with poor woman, you get a worker, recognized that adding complexity women, that work is central to is not progress. The second is non- their lives. Work gives meaning to a provider, a caretaker, violence. Violence fundamentally their life. Work forges an individual’s an educator, a networker. is inconsistent with freedom. The identity. Work provides livelihoods third is dignity of labour, sanctity of that produce goods and services, and She is a forger of bonds— labour. Labour is the law of Nature, thus builds a society, a nation. But, in her, essentially, you and its violation is the central cause poverty breaks down the balance. We of the present economic muddle. see exploitation at every stage: of the have a creator and a And, the fourth is human values- individual, of the community and the preserver nothing that compromises a person’s environment, Nature. humanity is acceptable. On these four cornerstones of simplicity, In poverty, w e a s s u m e non-violence, sanctity of labour and discrimination at every stage either
The author is a Gandhian, and widely recognized as one of the world’s most remarkable pioneers and entrepreneurial forces in grassroots development. she founded the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), and SEWA Cooperative Bank. She was a Member of the Rajya sabha .She founded and served as Chair for Women’s World Banking, the International Alliance of Home-based Workers (HomeNet), Street Vendors (StreetNet) and Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing, Organizing (WIEGO). She has received several national and International awards, including Padma shree, Padma bhushan, the Ramon Magsaysay Award and Légion d’honneur by France, Member of the Council of The Elders brought together by Nelson Mandela (2007).She has also authored a number of books.
18 YOJANA September 2016 based on class, caste, colour, religion, At the global level, my sense Who will do it ? land ownership, gender, language. of Millennium Development Goal Consequently, we have vulnerability has been that it is alien to most In my experience, women are the of all kinds: economic, social, mental, communities, not as a vision, but key to rebuilding a community. Focus on women, and you will find allies, spiritual. People lose their faith as a way of communicating. The who want a stable community. The and they cling to misguided faith. development language I think we woman wants roots for her family. In Poverty is violence perpetuated with need is a different kind of language woman, you get a worker, a provider, a the consent of the society. Poverty for development goals to be part caretaker, an educator, a networker. She of the people. It is the language and loss of freedom are not separate. is a forger of bonds—in her, essentially, of power that does not address A country can enjoy freedom only you have a creator and a preserver. I powerlessness. Poverty is a form to the degree to which its poorest consider women’s participation and of powerlessness. It is a symptom citizen is able to exercise his or her representation an integral part of our of a people who have no control right. This is the conclusion based on peace process. Women will bring over decision making or access to my experience with poor, working constructive, creative and sustainable resources. The powerlessness of women. solutions to the table. poverty is redeemed by participation Therefore, in the leadership of or consultation only to a limited Moreover, if women are at the women, we see the breakthrough. extent. It is by actual control over life centre, woman’s productive work decisions. Once poverty is seen as a At SEWA, the women we work is the thread that weaves a society form of powerlessness, we see it as a together. When you have work, you with would be the most vulnerable, but method by which it can be resolved. have an incentive to maintain a stable for the strength of the collective. Power must return to communities, society. You not only think of the We meet on the basis of work and especially to women, to let them future, but you plan for the future. create networks. We build unions decide about work, livelihood, health, You can build assets that reduce your to meet our work needs, to stop education, urbanization, refugees, vulnerability. You can invest in the economic exploitation by traders, peace and the future. The missing next generation. Life is no longer just contractors, our governments, the term in such manifesto of nations about survival, but about investing in global community and the ‘system’ is community. Both economics and a better future. Work builds peace, and ‘structures’. In SEWA, we have the economy must be claimed by because work gives people roots, come together to build a Bank to the people. Otherwise development it builds communities and it gives meet our financial needs – to save, and livelihood become parallel and meaning and dignity to one’s life. contradictory forms of life. to borrow, to lend, to build assets, As I mentioned before, I would to tap resources, to improve the My plea is the following : one, to put my utmost emphasis on WORK. material quality of life. We have come put poor women in the centre of any By work we do not mean factory together to build cooperatives to get economic reform particularly in key jobs; we do not mean sweatshops integrated into the production process basic employment sectors, viz. food, of our country. We build a social water, clothing, housing, primary Digital Gender Atlas For security network for our maternity healthcare, education and primary Advancing Girl’s Education in needs, health and life insurance. We banking. Two, to recognize ‘work’ as India have been trying to forge bridges to central to any reform that addresses local and global markets through a poverty. Three, invest adequately • Developed with the support of trade facilitation network of women in those initiatives by the poor that UNICEF farmers and craftswomen across the have potential to grow to a viable • Identify low performing world. We create schools to build scale. Four, develop and spread geographic pockets for girls, our capacities, to manage our affairs holistic social security cover for the particularly from marginalised and make an impact in the world working poor. We need to realize groups. outside. that economic structure, in each A leap forward for Indian Women case, is closely connected with the in Skills, Job and Empowerment SEWA is not a project. It is not social structure. And, five, build the an institution. It is not even about grassroots self employed women’s • Highest ever participation of economics or money. It is about capacity to enter mainstream markets Women in MNREGA in 2015- restoring balance between the haves local and global. 16;55 per cent of them are and have-nots. It is about self reliance, women. My plea is for a gentler economy, individually and collectively_ • 7247 women trained by Central also I mean economy of nurturance. financially and taking decisions Institute of Plastics Engineering Nurturing of one’s self, the community individually and collectively. That’s and Technology in 2015-16 the path towards empowerment. and the Universe.
YOJANA September 2016 19 and indecent cheap labour that competition. With change in our is empowering. The feminine has a leaves a person a slave to a manager thoughts, we will also need to change different sense of time: the work of industry, and that is yet another our vocabulary. To my mind, SEWA may take whatever time is needed. kind of exploitation. By work, Bank is far more successful in its SEWA has taken 30 years to reach we mean the production of food mission if it reaches thousands of a million people. Woman looks at and access to water. It means the small savings and self-help groups the whole group or community and upgrading of existing and traditional as a district level bank than if it were tries to include the whole, waiting skills that people have possessed to become a national bank with large for those left behind, even if it means for thousands of years-agriculture, assets. delaying the group or the process. The animal husbandry, fishing, housing, I do see women making a feminine aims at: inclusion instead of textiles and clothing. This work breakthrough. Women’s leadership domination, at process more than feeds people and it restores man’s needs to be trusted, nurtured, since end-goal, group over individual, relationship with himself, with that is the only hope, if an inclusive integration over fragmentation. I fellow human beings, with the earth just society and a sustainable say what I have learned from my and the environment and with the environment are to be created. continued experience with sewa Great Spirit that created us all. sisters. Women have been so long used as The challenge before us today is resource, cheaply available, always Why is this relevant today? to look for business opportunities in available. But, NO. The world has uncharted assets. Let us find ways to The world today needs more to be made to realise that women are make tree plantation more profitable an asset to the world. Women are not feminine leadership, because we face than cutting down forests; and make permanent shock absorbers in good one of the most challenging tasks of recycling more profitable than new times and bad. Women must feature transformation of our times. And manufacturing. Let us encourage not as absorbers, but as partners. the feminine is needed not just in communal ownership of assets in the form of more women leaders, but addition to building private assets. In the women’s way, there are also in the form of men honouring the Given a fair chance, the spirit of goals but also there are values, the feminine within them. q cooperation is just as likely to lead process of unfolding and learning us to profit as a dose of healthy from the process. This process itself (E-mail: [email protected]) YE-122/2016
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YOJANA September 2016 21 building support systems focus Women’s Multiple Roles: The Need for Social Infrastructure
Devaki Jain
n this essay, we argue Much of the maintenance of such that policies that are households, whether it is basic needs considered social or like water, fuel, food and care is which are supposed provided by women. Further in most to give social support households women attempt to bring I in terms of health, in some where with all, whether it education and other needs to women is monetary or in kind. In deeply need to be seen in the context of what distressed situations like famine, poor women need as the basis for the when the drought hits areas that are social policies to have useful outcomes. farmlands, and the households do not Thus, the argument here is that amongst have any access to their normal supply Women community the least privileged, most economically of foods - it is women who will dig up leadership will need deprived far flung backward area, roots, pick berries and find ways of recognition of women as productive, feeding the household. to be identified and vital agents of family and environment This point about women’s critical included in committees should be a precondition for addressing role in the survival of families, their ‘social’ needs. that may be formed communities and society is a crucial Recognition of women as agents premise on which to build, what can under various sectors, to who bring about change in their be called, social support policy. Nobel ensure that women are own lives and in the lives of others, laureate Amartya Sen has this to say- even more than the men of their “We need a vision of mankind not included in planning families and communities, should be a as patients whose interests have to be for sectors other than crucial underpinning for social policy. looked after, but as agents who can do Social policies often presume that effective things – both individually social development, women are in some sense weaker and and jointly. We also have to go beyond such as infrastructure, needier of support, less able to fend for the role of human beings specifically themselves and generally subordinate as ‘consumers’ or as ‘people with use of common lands, to men and the outside world. But in needs’, and consider, more broadly, natural resources and reality, especially when we go down their general role as agents of change the economic scale of families or the who can – given the opportunity – employment households where the poor congregate think, assess, evaluate, resolve, inspire, and poverty predominates - reveals that agitate, and through these means, the situation is otherwise. reshape the world” 1.
The author is a Padma Bhushan awardee, a Gandhian, feminist, economist and writer on public affairs, with special focus on poverty removal. She was one of the Founders of Development Alternatives for Women for a new era [DAWN] – a third world network of women social scientists and Institute of Social Studies Trust [ISST] – a research centre. She is currently member of Board of GRI Chennai Council of Management, National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), Bengaluru. She has published many books as well as essays on Gender and Development in the contest of India and global spaces.
22 YOJANA September 2016 There are several impediments women especially amongst the landless the ‘Social Infrastructure’ or ‘Soft to women being given the kind of and the poor households contribute as Infrastructure’. social support or support by social much, if not more , to both economic development policies, as required. and social output than men. Hence, Soft Infrastructure would mean support services which are considered The first impediment is the way they improved collection of data is critical enabling for women in the poorest are perceived. Earlier in the decade of for the understanding as well as policy amongst the poorest, to participate in 1970s, household surveys which collect response to women. data, and which in turn forms policies, the community and the economy. For were designed such that women were Most standard employment example, one idea was to have a building put in the category of less able, that is, questionnaires, and specifically the complex where support systems like widows, destitute etc. It was considered Indian questionnaire, denote the activity water source, crèche, balvadi, toilets that they were basically in need of of each member of the households in a as well as bathing places, even a social welfare services. It took many format such that domestic activity traps kitchen and a clothes washing place decades of work by members of the the female and excludes her, even if she are all in one complex. This complex women’s movement to show that is engaged in part time ‘productive’ is built with all the existing funds that women were critical economic agents work. we have for providing these services. in every community and society and This can be put under Infrastructure as therefore cannot be treated only as Renana Jhabvala in her study also it would require investment in building, objects of welfare but needed to be echoes the same- electricity and other such services treated as those who are contributing to which are often given to large office “Women often remain invisible and buildings and complexes which are the economy and therefore apart from unrecognized as workers, both because recognition of their role, monetary they are women and because work in reward as well as economic and social the informal economy is often hidden. PM Calls for Women - Led support to make their work yield better The work and contributions of women Development - National returns, was crucial. to the economy, as well as in the Conference of Women Legislators Currently, there is a strong well family and community, are persistently documented demand worldwide that undervalued, particularly when women Prime Minister Narendra Modi women’s role of caring for children are home-based workers, paid domestic stressed the importance of women- and the aged, and house work should or care workers, or unpaid contributing led development and said a nation be not only recognized but monetized workers in family businesses or on was always empowered by its in order to ensure that the time they family farms. Focusing on their role women, while giving the valedictory spend on this, which often is almost all as workers rather than homemakers address at the National Conference the time, is rewarded monetarily. The or childcare providers serves to of Women Legislators recently. fact that they do this kind of work for underscore the fact that women are "Women are better in adopting a large part of the day deprives them economic agents who contribute to technologies than men. They are of the opportunity to go out and earn a their households and the economy specially gifted by the god in this wage as men do, hence the recognition and therefore should be considered a aspect," he said. is crucial. target of economic as well as social He called for thinking beyond policies.”2 Thus, recognition of women’s work “women development,” and move or broadening the definition of work in During the preparation of the 11th towards “women-led development”. order that the kind of work that women Five Year Plan (2007-2012)3, the “A country is always empowered by do is understood, counted and valued is Planning Commission instituted a group its women. It is she who in different one of the first steps that is necessary of women economists, Working Group roles — as a mother, a sister and a for women to be enabled to lead lives of Feminists Economists (WGFE)4, wife — nurtures citizens and these of good health and well being. to look at not only the drafting of empowered citizens then play a the ‘Women and Development’ role in building up an empowered Data collection on both individual as society and country,” said the Prime chapter, which is the conventional well as households needs to be improved Minister dramatically. Data collection systems procedure but also to look at the main have tended to see man as the principal chapters which cover infrastructure, Multi-tasking, which is considered bread winner of every household and industry, agriculture, etc. When these to be a very important element of women as supplementary bread winners chapters were scrutinized, one of the modern-day management, comes or only dependents. However, studies suggestions made by the group was that naturally to women, he opined.“In done both in India and abroad, not in the ‘Infrastructure Development’ the managerial world multi-tasking only use time, but also the economic chapter, which is one of the important is a speciality and our women are the contribution of women, even if it is ones in terms of budget allocation, best in handling numerous tasks at a non- monetized, have revealed that there should be something called given time,” he added.
YOJANA September 2016 23 meant for the middle and upper classes development, such as infrastructure, a study sponsored by ILO, Geneva. in cities. use of common lands, natural resources (Mimeo) and employment. Thus, a woman from the weaker l Jain, D. (2006) Women’s Economic Reasoning and Development sections in the society and trapped in Readings poverty, instead of leaving household Economics: A discussion on some work to her eldest daughter as it is often l Antonopoulos, R. (2009) The Unpaid intersections. done in these households of having to Care work- paid work connection Endnotes walk miles to bring fuel and water, has (working paper 86), Policy Integration access to it as a community building and Statistics Department, International 1. Sen, Amartya, ‘Transition to service. She can leave her child in Labour Office, Geneva Sustainability in the 21st Century’, the crèche, bake her chapattis in the l Bhattacharya, A. (2015) Care work, Keynote Address, at the Inter- common fuel source, wash her clothes Capitalist Structure and Violence Academy Panel called Sustainability and then go to work. Against Women- paper presented at and Freedom on International Issues, 15th May, 2000. One of the most startling statistics National Convention on Advocacy for that was brought to the attention of Care Work, New Delhi 2 Jhabvala, Renana, “ Poor Women the policy makers in the 1970s was l Ghosh, J. (2015) Wo m e n ’s Organizing themselves for Economic to show the convergence between Burden in Jain, D. and Sujaya, C.P. Justice”, - a paper which is based on her female mortality and female work (Eds.) Indian Women, Publication own experiences organizing informal participation rates. Women in the Division, Government of India. women workers and is an attempt to interpret those experiences in the age group 20-35 had the maximum l Ghosh, J. Women’s work in India in context of agency towards economic participation rate in the age specific the 21st Century. Please see: http:// justice. For this reason, most of the table of participation. However, it was www.sundarayya.org/sites/default/ paper refers to Indian experiences in this very age group that we noticed files/papers/jayati.pdf the highest mortality rates amongst although there is some evidence from women. This was particularly so l Ghosh, J. (2015) Care in the neo- international organizing. liberal economic model: International in the poorest areas of India where 3 Engendering Public Policy: A Report policies and their impact on Women’s there is a density of the population on the work of the Working Group and girls’ unpaid care- paper presented of the poor- what used to be called of Feminist Economists during the at the National Convention on the the BIMARU states- Bihar, Madhya preparation of the Eleventh Five 5 Advocacy for Care Work, New Delhi Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh . Year Plan (2007- 2012), May 2010, Such data shows the link between l Jain, Devaki (2001), “Through the Planning Commission Government women’s compulsion or pressure to looking glass of poverty”, paper of India. Please see: (http:// earn a living for their household which presented in New Hall, Cambridge. planningcommission.nic.in/reports/ makes them participate and the toll l Jain, Devaki (1985), “ The Household genrep/rep_engpub.pdf) which it has on their health as the other trap: Report on a Field Survey of services also have to be performed by India. Planning Commission, Female Activity Patterns” in Tranny them. Hence, this argument that social Government of India. Eleventh Five of the Household: Investigative Essays welfare and social policy services Year Plan 2007-2012. 2 Vols. New on Women’s Work , Edited by Jain,D. need to be linked deeply into women’s and Banerjee,N.,Shakti Books, Vikas Delhi: OUP, 2008. Also at http:// economic roles especially when we Publication Hose, India. planningcommission.nic.in/plans/ address the poorest sections of the planrel/11thf.htm population. l Jain, D. and Tsushima,R. (2008) Presentation on “Contextualizing Jain, D. and Hameed,S. (Assisted However, these measures can Women’s Work within the Current by Priyanka Mukherjee and Divya be taken to be effective only when Macro Economic Incentives in Alexander) (2009) Feminist special attention is given to women and India” Economists Engage with India’s disadvantaged groups so as to enable Eleventh Five Year Plan, Paper for l Jain, D. (1990) Development Theory them to take a lead in planning. For IAFFE Conference on Engendering and Practice: Insights Emerging from example, in surveys involved in the Economic policy, Boston. planning process, it needs to be ensured Women’s Experience, Economic and 4 http://www.feministeconomics.org/ that woman’s views are especially Political Weekly, 25(27) sought, including through focus group l Jain, Devaki (1979) Valuing Work: 5 BIMARU is an acronym formed from discussions. Women community Time as a Measure.Economic and the first letters of the names of the leadership will need to be identified Political Weekly, Vol. XXXI, No. states. It was coined by Ashish Bose and included in committees that may 43, October 26 1996, and Institute in the mid-1980s. BIMARU has a be formed under various sectors, to of Social Studies Trust, “Impact resemblance to a Hindi word “Bimar” ensure that women are included in on Women Workers - Maharashtra which means sick. q planning for sectors other than social Employment Guarantee Scheme,” (E-mail:[email protected])
24 YOJANA September 2016 YE-136/2016
YOJANA September 2016 25 Balancing Gender Gap selection Adverse Child Sex Ratio: A 'Mindset' Issue
Mary E John
n India, the issue of prevalence of a power nexus between the adverse sex ratio major clinics, medical practitioners, has been a part of our and state level monitoring bodies. history since at least Great zeal was required, visible only the colonial period. It among very few dedicated government re-emerged as a major servants and district collectors (in problemI in the 1970s. Whether it Faridabad, in Hyderabad, to give be British officials in the nineteenth a few examples) or by conducting century trying to figure out why Rajputs innovative sting operations by NGOs and Jats killed their baby daughters, or and media persons (in Rajasthan and demographers in post-colonial India in Beed district of Maharashtra) to ...campaigns and especially wondering why the total number of expose medical practitioners in the the policies of the state women is declining relative to men act of communicating the sex of the foetus, and so criminalising their have to recognise the even after independence, there has been no shortage of puzzles and differences practice. Some voices warned that consequences of their actions in approaching this issue. After the such advocacy could also turn into if they wish to make more 1980s, a shocking new dimension came an unintentional campaign against abortions per se. Abortion (which has into light, when it was discovered that headway in addressing the never been a fully fledged right for in major cities like Delhi, Amritsar and spread of sex selection. women in India, but rather tagged onto Mumbai, new technologies meant to our family planning programmes) was Creating awareness should, investigate foetal development could in the first place, go beyond in danger of becoming much harder become a means to detect the sex of to access for women who genuinely changing mindsets to the foetus followed by abortion if found needed it. changing the conditions in that the foetus is a girl. Rethinking Mindsets: our society that are creating Because of the misuse of this such mindsets. At the most technology by medical practitioners Among the most common beliefs to aid gender-biased sex selection, why people are said to be going for fundamental level, this India has criminalised the practice sex selection is the idea of a ‘mindset’. means a mode of development through the enactment of the Pre- How often does one hear that people’s that makes it less necessary Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostics mindset is the root cause of the problem for parents to think so Techniques (PC-PNDT) Act. There has and that what is therefore needed is been a significant and long drawn out a change of ‘mindset’! What exactly differently about their sons campaign to stop the practice of sex does the term mean? According to the and daughters – such as selection by catching erring doctors dictionary, the word ‘mindset’ refers employment prospects for and radiologists. It has been a hard won to “the established set of attitudes held by someone” and the example both women and men campaign which faced an up hill task in curbing the practice due to the common the dictionary helpfully provides is The author is Senior Fellow at the Centre for Women's Development Studies, New Delhi. She has written widely on topics relating to women and gender. Recent publications include Women's Studies in India: A Reader (Penguin 2008) and Gender Biased Sex Selection: History, Debates and Future Directions (UN Women and UNFPA, 2015).
26 YOJANA September 2016 “the region seems stuck in a medieval economic growth that India witnessed such as Apni Beti Apni Dhan had been mindset”. I think both the definition since the 1990s. Though enormous created to address early marriage, and the example convey very well how economic expansion and transformation to encourage families below the this notion is being used in the context followed, the fact remains that the of understanding and opposing the benefits of such growth have been very "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao" practice of sex selection. We believe unequal and is not creating enough new programme that families guilty of this practice are jobs to replace older ones. In all this, suffering from having fixed views about women have been the biggest sufferers. The National Programme "Beti sons and daughters and how to value Families not in dire poverty, striving to Bachao, Beti Padhao." was launched them. Their views are ‘stuck’ because improve their economic situation by by Prime Minister Shri Narendra it stems from age-old traditions that having fewer children in whom they Modi on 22nd January, 2015 at devalue daughters. This also means can ‘invest’, are the most susceptible to Panipat, Haryana. Speaking on the that when we say people should change practicing sex selection. Though many occasion, the Prime Minister had their mindset, we want them to become of them say that they would like to have said he "comes as a bhikshuk to beg less traditional and more modern in one boy and one girl, what this actually for the lives of daughters". Stating their views. translates into is having ‘at least one that we have no right to call ourselves son and at the most one daughter’. 21st century citizens as long as we Based on our research on the Moreover, such families are quite have an 18th century mindset, the adverse child sex ratio, I believe that ‘modern’ in wanting their children Prime Minister had called for an end this is a very inadequate understanding to the discrimination between sons of the problem. When we think in this to have sufficient care and nutrition, good education, and to successfully and daughters, saying this was the way, we assume that the thoughts of key to ending female foeticide. such people are not in sync with the settle down in adulthood—a reliable times they are living in. But let us job for the boy and a stable married The Prime Minister had declared look more carefully at what families life for the girl. But this is easier said that each one had a collective today think when they decide about than done and has been creating an responsibility towards ending the having a son or not having a daughter. enormous sense of burden and anxiety, practice of female foeticide. We Families are planning their future especially when it comes to bringing up would not only be harming the based not just on age-old ideas, but on a daughter in an economic and cultural current generation, but also inviting their expectations about what kind of milieu filled with so much uncertainty. a "terrible crisis" for the future resources they will be able to muster So, to cut a long story short, families generations, he warned. in order to realise their hopes. So, yes, are displaying evidence of having a ‘mindset’ that is very much in sync with In a hard-hitting message to we are dealing with people’s attitudes doctors who contributed to female and views, but these are views that have the time they are in when they ‘choose’ not to have a daughter. foeticide, the Prime Minister had been shaped in the contemporary social reminded them that their medical and economic context within which Critical Role of Government education had been for the purpose we live. In other words, families in the Schemes: of saving lives, and not killing present times are struggling between daughters. the idea of having children and being In this situation, the government able to find the means to support them. must use the means at its disposal, The Prime Minister quoted the This is a very dynamic and complex such as schemes at the state and eminent Urdu scholar from Panipat, relationship in which families are central level to send out the right Altaf Hussain Haali "O Sisters, pervasively and deeply influenced signals to families. As discussed mothers, daughters - you are the by their modern surroundings. (For a above, it is families who are beyond ornaments of the world, you are detailed study, see John et al 2008; UN the pale of poverty and yet must the life of nations, the dignity of Women 2015) struggle to match their resources with civilizations." He also quoted from plans for their children, who are most other ancient scriptures to highlight This also means that we have to susceptible to go in for sex selection the importance given to the girl ask questions like: Apart from the to ensure that they get as close as child. availability of new technologies from possible to the ‘perfect’ family – one the 1980s, what other developments of He also recalled the astronaut boy, one girl. After the Census of the last few decades may have played Kalpana Chawla, as an example of 2001 showed widespread drops in how girls could excel and make a a role in influencing decision-making? 0-6 year child sex ratios in several What kinds of families are particularly name for themselves. He said girls states, a number of schemes were were today doing well in sports, in susceptible? floated, especially at the state level, education and health sectors, and or existing schemes were modified First of all, it may be noted that the had a very significant contribution, to address the low value given to the period of the plunging child sex ratio even in agriculture. also coincides with the huge spurt in ‘girl child’. Many of these schemes,
YOJANA September 2016 27 poverty line to keep their girls in school and not marry them before the age of 18 years. These took the form of conditional cash transfer schemes in a number of states such as Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Madhya Pradesh. As the name suggests, schemes like Ladli, Dhanalakshmi and so on were adopted to encourage AAIAAI Academy Pvt. Ltd. families to have a daughter, and offered payments to be ALOK S. JHA An Initiative of EXPERT BRAINS 2007 AMIT SINHA put in a bank account in her name at various stages from birth, immunisation, and stages of schooling and where a lumpsum would finally be available for the girl once she AFTER reached 18 and had not married yet. The idea behind these MAIN schemes was to compensate, as it were, in financial terms, PT for the ‘burden’ of an unwanted girl, but these schemes were also saddled with many conditionalities which hampered TEST SERIES RESULT their functioning. There have been various studies of these India's No.1 Test Series schemes (ICRW 2014; Sekher 2012) – some have shown fgUnh/English Total 12 Test Both Medium that there was a marginal improvement in school retention among beneficiary families compared to eligible children GSFlexible Dates | Discussion | Evaluation by Faculties/Bureaucrats who had not been entered into this scheme. Others pointed Online/ Offline/ Postal Test Series Available out that the many conditionalities were a major obstacle; especially its targetting of BPL families meant that it did not reach many families above poverty who were far more GS MODULES likely to resort to sex selection. Still others criticised these schemes for reinforcing public perceptions that a daughter WORLD INTERNATIONAL is nothing but a burden on the family. Two years ago, a new scheme was launched by the central HISTORY RELATIONS government Beti bachao beti padhao with much fanfare, with an overall budget of 100 crores. In states like Haryana, which has had a long standing low child sex ratio in several districts, SEPTEMBER OCTOBER this scheme is very visible in the form of huge hoardings 1 13 Our Successful Students across towns and on main highways, on the backs of buses, and in frequent pronouncements by state functionaries. However well intentioned, this scheme represents a set back from the conditional cash transfer schemes, with all their limitations. This is because all the money is being utilised as a communication campaign, as though the problem were Rank- simply and primarily one of the wrong ‘mindset’ of the KHUMANTHEN DIANA24 DEVI people who are engaging in sex determination testing or Rank- not educating their daughters sufficiently. But, as argued KHUMANTHEN DIANA24 DEVI earlier in this essay, people are not suffering from traditional mindsets in the first place. What makes the situation worse is that major government schemes such as the flagship Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) for pre school children, and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which has been the Rank- Healthcare for women: Caring for Ashish Dahiya53 Those Who Nurture Rank- Ashish Dahiya53 • Mission Indradhanush: Under this, more than 42lakh pregnant women have been immunized. Course Directors • Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus eliminated: Schemes auch as Janani Suraksha Yojana and Janani Shishu ALOK S. JHA & AMIT SINHA Suraksha Karyakram have strategies to ensure clean (Both Having Teaching Experience of 9 years & the trendsetters of delivery. GS Test Series started with "EXPERT BRAINS" since 2007. “we are now not associated with any other institute.” • India Newborn Action Plan (INAP): which targets www.aaiias.com | Email ID: [email protected] to achieve Single Digit Neonatal Mortality Rate and rd OLD RAJENDRA NAGAR: 70, III Floor, Bada Bazar (Near Canara Bank) New Delhi-60 Still Birth Rate by 2030 st YE-124/2016 MUKHERJEE NAGAR: I Floor, M1-M2, A-20, Indraprastha Tower, Near Batra Cinema, Delhi-09
28 YOJANA September 2016 011-27654743, 9911156808, 8826957185 backbone for implementing the Right that are creating such mindsets. At the Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, to Education (RTE) have then in these most fundamental level, this means Punjab and Haryana. (Books for Change last two years, witnessed major cuts in a mode of development that makes 2008) budget allocations. These are the very it less necessary for parents to think International Council for Research on schemes that are crucial for ensuring so differently about their sons and Women (ICRW), Qualitative Case Study: basic nutrition and early child care, daughters – such as employment Recent Trends in Gender, Education and as well as universal schooling, and prospects for both women and men. It Marriage of Girls in Haryana, Delhi, therefore critical for improving the also calls for addressing the escalating 2014. lives of all children, girls included. fears among parents about the sexual Sekher, T.V. ‘Ladlis and Lakshmis: safety of their daughters. The youth Impressions on Financial Incentive Schemes More generally, campaigns and of today need to have good reasons to for the Girl Child in India” Economic and especially the policies of the state believe that they can build a brighter Political Weekly, 47(34) 2012. have to recognise the consequences future for themselves even outside of of their actions if they wish to make family support. UN Women, Sex Ratios and Gender more headway in addressing the Biased Sex Selection: History, Debates and spread of sex selection. Creating Readings Future Directions (New Delhi, UNWomen awareness should, in the first place, John, Mary E., et al Planning Families, and UNFPA, 2015) q go beyond changing mindsets to Planning Gender: The Adverse Child Sex changing the conditions in our society Ratio in Selected Districts of Rajasthan, (E-mail: [email protected])
SwadharGreh Scheme Swadhar Scheme was launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development in 2002 for rehabilitation of women in difficult circumstances. The scheme provides primary need of shelter, food, clothing and care to the marginalized women/ girls who are in need. The beneficiaries include widows deserted by their families and relatives, women prisoners released from jail and without family support, women survivors of natural disasters, women victims of terrorist /extremist violence and similarly placed women in difficult circumstances, who do not have any family support and without any economic means of survival. The Short Stay Home Scheme for women and girls was introduced in 1969. Under this scheme, residential temporary accommodation and maintenance and rehabilitative services are provided to women and girls rendered homeless due to family discord, crime, violence, mental stress and social ostracism. The scheme is being implemented by the Central Social Welfare Board. The two schemes have been merged as SwadharGreh with an objective to set up SwadharGreh in each district with a capacity of 30 women. The capacity can be extended from 50 to 100 on the basis of need based assessment. The financial norms of the SwadharGreh have also been enhanced w.e.f 1.1.2016. The SwadharGreh depending on the location / classification of the city for the purpose, shall be eligible for a grant of rupees 14.54 lakhs to Rs 18.38 lakhs per annum. This SwadharGreh can be implemented by State Govt/Central or state autonomous bodies/Municipal bodies/ Cantonment Boards/ Panchayati Raj institutions and cooperative institutions/ public trusts/ civil society organizations. As a special case, this Ministry is also constructing a SwadharGreh Home for 1000 widows at Vrindavan. The construction has begun and will be completed soon.
Amendments to the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
Amendments to the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 have been approved by the Cabinet by introducing the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Bill, 2016 in Parliament. The maternity benefit Act 1961 protects the employment of women during the time of her maternity and entitles her of a 'maternity benefit' - i.e. full paid absence from work - to take care for her child. The act is applicable to all establishments employing 10 or more persons. The amendments will help 1.8 million (approx.) women workforce in organised sector. The amendments to Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 are as follows: • Increase Maternity Benefit from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for two surviving children and 12 weeks for more than two children. • 12 weeks Maternity Benefit to a 'Commissioning mother' and 'Adopting mother'. • Facilitate 'Work from home'. • Mandatory provision of Creche in respect of establishment having 50 or more employees.
YOJANA September 2016 29 REGISTRATION OPEN
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30 YOJANA September 2016 special segment on independence day in memory Women in Indian freedom struggle
Jyoti Atwal
he course of the Indian simultaneously being addressed by National Movement is Gandhi and local reformers. It seemed marked by multifaceted as if the ‘modern’ of the ‘would be’ and complex stages. Indian nation had already germinated The question of social in the nationalist imagination. The late reform remained alive in 19th century educational reforms and T the nationalist debates in social changes produced a new variety the public sphere from late 19th century of reading and writing public, where till 1947. women’s consciousness the women’s proportion was scanty. around social and the national questions Education and political awareness ...the image and grew simultaneously. The demand through newspapers influenced the for legal reforms and inclusion of educated. 19th century women’s own magnitude of participation Indians into the imperial legislative organisations mushroomed all over of the Indian women councils constituted the early phases India. In 1908, Rokeya Sakhawat of the Indian national movement. within the national Hussain, an educationalist and story Both Indian men and women were writer from Bengal wrote Sultana’s movement was drawn leading the social reform movements Dream. This short story introduced since the 1880s. In various women’s from the multilayered the reader to the idea of women’s own autobiographies and writings from all governance system. In Bengal, more nations of Mother India over India, particularly Maharashtra radical groups of women appeared. and Bengal, the slogan that ‘personal and Victorian morality. Sarala Debi Chaudhurani (Rabindranath is political’ was being raised. The Tagore’s niece), organised Bharat Stree The women who led the fact of women entering the male nationalist campaigns dominated arena of social reform was Mahamandal in 1910. She combined Hindu revivalism with political protest. were mostly upper tantamount to making a break with the past (Kosambi,2007). She modified the Hindu festival of middle class. yet in the ashtmi as birashtmi so as to celebrate The Gandhian movement for Indian the victorious heroes from the past. recent years, Dalit and freedom in the 1920s incorporated tribal women have been women in large numbers. Gandhi Around the turn of the century, claiming participation in had skillfully managed to evolve his Bombay emerged as the centre of discourse on the position of women all political activities of the Indian the nation’s history. Many both within and outside the domain National Congress. Bengal mostly had such histories are waiting of home. The freedom movement secret societies. Women got support to be written had acquired a social base by the from their families to carry on the late 1920s. Issues such as child Swadeshi campaign. This mostly marriage and widow remarriage were included boycott of foreign cloth The author is Associate Professor of Modern Indian History at the Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University. She specialises in issues pertaining to Indian women in the reformist, nationalist and contemporary perspectives. She also teaches Indian and Irish women's history. She has recently published a book entitled Real and Imagined Widows: Gender Relations in Colonial North India, Delhi: Primus, 2016. She is a member of the executive team of the India Studies Centre Cork at University College Cork, Ireland and a member of the editorial board of Women’s History Review (UK, Routledge).
YOJANA September 2016 31 and picketing of liquor shops. A These peaceful protestors, numbering not turn substantial widows into nationalistic cult around Bharat mata over a thousand were shot at and participants, he upheld the idea of (mother India) began emerging in massacred. This instance of colonial widowhood. It is this politicized and Bengal. In 1882, Bankim Chandra violence paved the way for the next idealized Hindu widowhood which Chattopadhyaya (1838-1894) wrote stage of Non Cooperation movement was used by Gandhi to motivate public Anandamath, describing the Indian in the years 1920-22. The programme consciousness towards a pacific but revolutionaries who laid down their was focused on boycotting law courts consistent struggle. It was, therefore, lives for the Motherland. His popular and schools, which went ahead of the inevitable that in post-colonial India, hymn ‘Bande Mataram’ became the agenda of the Swadeshi. Independent a struggling widowed mother became song of the anti-colonial Indians and bodies of women such as the Rashtriya an embodiment of its anti-colonial associations for all times to come. Stree Sanghas were fused with the past and prosperous future nation District Congress Committees. The (Atwal,2016). In the second phase of women’s Non Cooperation movement spread participation, idea of Home Rule and beyond Bengal and incorporated Gandhi celebrated the renunciatory constitutionalism became dominant. women from all over India. The spirit of these widows as he had Some Western women played a Movement also became symbolic of transformed his own sexuality to significant role in it. An half Irish and Hindu Muslim unity. At Ahmedabad, spiritual power in the years following half English Annie Besant (1847-1933) Bi Amma, the mother of Ali brothers his vow to celibacy. became the first woman president of addressed 6000 women to join the men The next stage of the national the Indian National Congress in 1917. in picketing. Gandhi also appealed to A theosophist and a socialist, Besant movement saw mounted levels of scale and space of the women’s participation. was a trained campaigner from London. Independent bodies of women such She launched the campaign for Home In this politically volatile ambience of Rule based on the Irish model. Her as the Rashtriya Stree Sanghas post 1920s, a book called Mother India associate Margaret Cousins (1878- were fused with the District was published by Katherine Mayo, 1954), an Irish suffragette drafted an American who had visited India Congress Committees. The Non for two years. She had penned down the Indian women’s voting rights bill Cooperation movement spread and launched the Women’s Indian a scathing critique of the Hindu men Association. Sarojini Naidu (1879- beyond Bengal and incorporated and slave like condition of women 1949) emerged as a prominent women from all over India. The within the family. The book was set to nationalist around 1917. She was the become what has been has termed as a Movement also became symbolic of future ‘global public event’ (Mrinalini second woman to become the president Hindu Muslim unity. At Ahmedabad, of the Indian National Congress in Sinha,2006). What was most crucial 1925. Naidu joined the Indian national Bi Amma, the mother of Ali about these events was that since the movement during the protest against brothers addressed 6000 women to nineteenth century, the space of the ‘Hindu family’ had been opened to the partition of Bengal in 1905. join the men in picketing. Gandhi During 1915–1918, she travelled to public scrutiny. Nationalist campaigns different regions in India delivering also appealed to the women from led by nationalists and reformers were lectures on women’s empowerment secluded/marginalised sections of compelled to focus on families and and nationalism. She was also closely the society. making the domestic space non- associated with the formation of violent. Strong disapproving responses Women’s Indian Association and came from across the country on the the women from secluded/marginalised book. It bound Indian men and women accompanied the women’s voting sections of the society. In Andhra rights delegation to London. together to national honour. Another Pradesh, a vibrant Durgabai collected major development of the 1930s was In the third phase, the end of over a thousand devdasis (traditionally the launch of the Civil Disobedience World War I and the Jallian Wala considered temple prostitutes) to hear Movement. This was primarily a Bagh massacre of 1919 changed the Gandhi’s speech. The team collected response to taxes on locally produced mood of the nation and united the Rs 20,000 by donations in the form salt. It involved a 24 day long march people across India on the question of jewellery. Next, a vast section of starting along the river Sabarmati. The of independence. In the beginning the Hindu widows appealed to him. women volunteers were now being of 1919, the British had passed the They were the category of women physically trained to lead marches, Rowlatt Act. against public gatherings/ who did not require any training in boycotts and prabhat pheries (early protest and suspended civil liberties. satyagraha and represented the ideal morning patriotic singing). On 13th April, when Gandhi gave a call freedom fighters for Gandhi. They for peaceful resistance or Satyagraha, were the most suitable participants. Women formed patriotic groups and Non Cooperation, the people at A widow’s personal renunciation within their associations. These were Amritsar (Punjab) joined in large could be transformed into a political called Desh Sevika Sanghs. Women numbers for a peaceful demonstration. ideology. Although Gandhi could courted arrests and led peaceful
32 YOJANA September 2016 marches of passive resistance, but some Once the women’s nationalist I n 1 9 3 0 s K a m a l a d e v i individual women joined radical groups consciousness was awakened in Chattopadhyay (1903 – 1988) emerged and/or assisted the revolutionaries in varying degrees, they began exploring as the major leader of the Gandhian carrying on assassinations of individual different methodologies of achieving movement, particularly the Salt British officers. political freedom. Satyagarha. Later in independent India, she became increasingly interested Some of the most noted women Another important patriotic body- in promoting Indian handicrafts, who filled up the jail in 1930s were the Hindustan Socialist Republican handlooms, and theatre. Kamaladevi Sarojini Naidu, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Association saw contribution by never became a key player in Congress Margaret Cousins and Kamladevi Durgavati Devi or Durga Bhabhi decisions as she was caught up by Chattopadyaya. (1907 – 1999). She and her husband, the “triangular relationship” between Bhagwati Charan Vohra were members Gandhi, Nehru, and the Socialists. ‘From liberal homes and of the HSRA . She accompanied Bhagat The Government of India conferred conservative families, urban centres Singh on the train journey in which he on her the Padma Bhushan in 1955 and and rural districts, women – single and made his escape in disguise after the later the second highest civilian award, married, young and old- came forward Saunders killing. the Padma Vibhushan in 1987, which and joined the struggle against colonial are among the highest civilian awards of rule’ (Forbes, 2005). Another instance of revolutionary participation comes from the the Republic of India. She also received In the event of men’s arrest, the Chittagong armoury raid case of the Ramon Magsaysay Award (1966) women’s associations took on the task 1930s. Kalpana Dutt (1913-1995) for Community Leadership. She was of carrying on civil disobedience and joined the Indian Republican Army, awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi organising meetings. In addition to Chattagram branch, which was the Fellowship, Ratna Sadsya, the highest this, they carried on with the Gandhian armed resistance group led by Surya award of Sangeet Natak Akademi, constructive programme of spinning Sen in May 1931. She joined Pritilata India’s National Academy of Music, cloth and offering passive resistance Dance and Drama, given for lifetime by way of fasting. There are several In the event of men’s arrest, achievement in 1974. accounts and memoirs of women which the women’s associations took Sarojini Naidu on the other hand, relate to 1930s. Some of them were on the task of carrying on civil was given more political space. called sevikas or scouts. For instance, In 1925, Naidu presided over the around the 1930s, the Congress in disobedience and organising annual session of the Indian National Lucknow had been declared illegal meetings. In addition to this, they Congress at Kanpur. In 1929, she by the government. In her memoir, carried on with the Gandhian presided over the East African Indian Shivrani Devi, the famous Hindi constructive programme of Congress in South Africa. She was novelist Premchand’s wife, writes awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal by that as women sat inside the police spinning cloth and offering passive the British government for her work lorry, they hailed Mahatma Gandhi resistance by way of fasting. during the plague epidemic in India. and ‘bharat mata ki jai’ (hail mother There are several accounts and In 1930 during the salt satyagraha, India). There were seven of them, one memoirs of women which relate to inspector, and seven constables. All she was one of the women protesters women kept singing the national song. 1930s. Some of them were called at the Dharsana salt works, Gujarat. when the inspector got down, they sevikas or scouts. Satyagrahis were beaten by soldiers saw tears in the eyes of the constables under British command at Dharasana. sitting next to them. Prior to Shivrani’s In 1931, she participated in the Round table conference with Gandhi arrest, the inspector had arrested about Waddedar in 1931 in attacking the and Madan Mohan Malaviya. She 50 women and had not taken them to European Club in Chittagong. A week played a leading role during the Civil jail; they were dropped at a strange before the attack, she was arrested Disobedience Movement and was jailed place away from the city. At a public while carrying out reconnaissance along with Gandhi and other leaders. meeting of the Mahila Ashram with of the area. She went underground Again in 1942, she was arrested during a gathering of over 12,000 people, after her release on bail. On 17 February 1933, the police encircled the “Quit India” movement. Later Shivrani had delivered a very fiery their hiding place and Surya Sen Naidu became the first lady governor speech, knowing well that she could was arrested but Kalpana was able to of the United Provinces of Agra and be arrested. In November 1931 again, escape. In the second supplementary Oudh from 1947 to 1949. Shivrani was arrested along with seven trial of the Chittagong armoury women for picketing foreign cloth Another national leader, Aruna raid case, Kalpana was sentenced (Atwal 2007). She had participated Asaf Ali (1909 – 1996), earned a to transportation for life. She was in the non cooperation movement as very respectable position within the released in 1939. well. Congress and outside it. She is widely
YOJANA September 2016 33 remembered for hoisting the Indian hunger strike. Her efforts resulted Women’s Rights, 1800–1990, Delhi: Kali National Congress flag at the Gowalia in an improvement of conditions in for Women, 1993 Tank maidan in Bombay during the Tihar Jail but she was moved Meera Kosambi, Crossing Thresholds: the Quit India Movement, 1942. she to Ambala and was subjected to solitary Feminist Essays in Social History, Delhi: was appointed as Delhi’s first mayor in confinement. She was politically not Permanent Black, 2007. 1958. She was posthumously decorated very active after her release. On 8 Geraldine Forbes, ‘The Politics of with India’s highest civilian award, August 1942, the All India Congress Respectability: Indian Women and the the Bharat Ratna, in 1997. She had Committee passed the Quit India Indian National Congress’, in Women became an active member of the resolution at the Bombay session. in Colonial India: Essays in Politics, Congress Party after marrying Asaf Ali To sum up, the image and magnitude Medicine and Historiography, Delhi: and participated in public processions of participation of the Indian women Chronicle Books, 2005,pp. 11–62. during the Salt Satyagraha. She was within the national movement was Mrinalini Sinha, Specters of Mother arrested on the charge that she was drawn from the multilayered nations a vagrant and hence not released in 1931 India, Durham and London: Duke of Mother India and Victorian morality. University Press, 2006. under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact which The women who led the nationalist stipulated release of all political campaigns were mostly upper middle Jyoti Atwal, ‘Revisiting Premchand: prisoners. Other women co-prisoners class. yet in the recent years, Dalit Shivrani Devi on Companionship, refused to leave the premises unless and tribal women have been claiming Reformism and Nation’, Economic and she was also released and gave in only participation in the nation’s history. Political Weekly, vol. 42, no. 8, May 5–11 after Mohandas K. Gandhi intervened. Many such histories are waiting to be 2007, pp. 1631–7. A public agitation secured her release. written. ------Real and Imagined In 1932, she was held prisoner at Widows: Gender Relations in Colonial the Tihar Jail where she protested Readings North India, Delhi:Primus,2016. q against the indifferent treatment of Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: political prisoners by launching a An Illustrated Account of Movements for (E-mail: [email protected])
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34 YOJANA September 2016 YOJANA September 2016 35 Special Segment on Independence Day
do you know? Some Women Martyrs of Indian Freedom Struggle: A Brief Account
Ar u n a As a f Al i She was born in 1909 in to a Bengali family. She took her first step into freedom struggle through Salt Satyagrah in 1930.She was arrested by the Chief Commissioner after some months post Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Again in 1941, she was arrested for Individual Satyagrah. After all the major leaders were arrested on August 8, she was the first person to hoist the tricolor at Gowalia Tank Maidan on th9 August. 1942. On 26th September , 1942, all her property and belongings were confiscated and she was asked to surrender in order to get it back. When she refused , all her belongings were sold off. She, along with Dr Ram Manohar Lohiya brought out ‘Inqalab Patra’, that created mass awareness, after which, many government servants and thousands of students quit their colleges, to join and lead the freedom movement. She was also called ‘Rani Jhansi of 1942’. She became the first Lady Mayor of Delhi Municipal Corporation .She also brought out journals called Link and Patriot, which earned her great recognition for her work. She was also given a number of national and international awards.
su c h e t a kr i p l a n i She was born in 1908 in Ambala. After her primary education in Lahore, she got her M.A. degree from Delhi University. Right from her childhood, she had dreamt of living in an independent India. In 1932, she entered public services and in 1939, she joined Politics. Impressed by her work for public to serve her nation, she was elected by Gandhi ji in 1940 for Individual Satyagrah, for which she even got arrested. In 1942-43, she went underground and continued her work and became the founder of All India Mahila Congress which served as a platform for her to spread inspirational messages to women to fight for their country. For this important work, she also founded an ‘Under Ground Volunteer Force’ in 1942 that trained women in drills, operating arms, first aid and self defense techniques. She was arrested after two years in 1944. After coming out of jail in 1945, she devoted most of her time in social services. She also provided refuge to women who were kidnapped at the time of Communal Riots in East Bengal in 1946 and Punjab riots in 1947.She was the Chief Minister of U.P. from March 1963 to March 1967, and the first women Chief Minister of Independent India.
ka l p a n a du t t a She was a student of higher education in Bengal who hated English rule and their language. She even wanted to change the pledge at her school from ‘to be loyal to God and King ‘to ‘to be loyal to God and Country’. After completing her education, she took admission in Calcutta University where she learnt to use different kinds of weapons. In 1929, she came in touch with the revolutionaries, but it was only after 1932 that she decided to be a part of their team and fight for freedom with her active participation. She usually dressed herself in man’s clothes, She was innovated in secretly conducted raids on the government buildings. Suspecting that she was a member of their group, the police started to keep an eye on her in order to arrest her but failed to gather any evidence against her. When Pahartali Club was raided,
36 YOJANA September 2016 Special Segment on Independence Day the police was convinced that she was a part of revolutionary’s team. She was booked under Section 109, but due to lack of evidence, she was granted bail after which she went absconding. However, she was caught after three months and booked under Chittagong Armory Raid case and was sentenced to life imprisonment. After she was freed from the jail in 1942, she joined the Communist Party and married Communist leader P.C.Joshi in 1943.
Ra n i Ga i d i n l i u She is known as ‘Lakshmi Bai of Nagaland’. At a tender age of 13, she had decided to fight against the British rule. She joined the struggle for freedom after her cousin was hanged to death by the British. She was only 16 years old at that time and fought with the help of only four armed Naga soldiers against the British. She was well versed with tactics of Guerilla War and Arm Operations. Being a very aggressive Naga leader against the British she was caught in 1932.After that ,she was sentenced to life imprisonment. She was 30 years when she got out of the jail after India’s Independence. She had been called ‘Rani’ by Pandit Nehru for her bravery and was awarded Padmabhushan for her role in freedom struggle.
Pr i t i l a t a Wa d d e d a r She was born in May 1911 in Chittagong. She was a bright student and after completing her schooling, she did her B.A. with distinction from Calcutta University. After this , she was trained at Leela Nag’s Dipali Sangh and Kalyan Das’s Student Union after which, she joined leader Suryasen’s Revolutionary party. he was a member of the group that raided the Chittagong Armory. After confrontation with the police, she had escaped along with her fellow members. To take revenge for the death of their members who were shot dead, she along with leader Suryasen hatched a conspiracy to attack a night club frequented by the British and Europeans. On September 24, 1932, Pritilata Waddedar, along with other members attacked the club and shot dead indiscriminately with pistols and bombs. When British tried to counter attack, one gun shot hit her and she got injured. She knew that she would succumb to her injury, so she rather preferred to kill herself by consuming a packet of Potassium Cyanide from her pocket as per their plan than succumbing to the gun shot by the British. (Translated from: Bharat Ki Veerangnayein and Krantikari Mahilayein, Publications Division) q (Compiled by Vatica Chandra, Sub Editor) (E-mail: [email protected])
I&B Minister launches Special Web Page on Festival of Independence A special webpage on Festival of Independence, 2016 was launched by the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. The webpage, developed by Press Information Bureau that can be accessed from PIB’s home page, pib.nic.in is designed as a platform to showcase all the events related to the Festival being celebrated throughout the country. The webpage showcases hundreds of archival photographs, audio and video clips, write-ups and features on leaders and events related to the freedom struggle. The Social Media section of the Webpage will show live feeds from Twitter and Facebook. The Tweets from the PIB twitter handle having the hashtags #70YearsOfIndependence and #Aazadi70Saaland Facebook posts on the PIB’s Home Page will be updated on the webpage in real-time. Several organizations have contributed to the rich content being showcased on the webpage. These include All India Radio, Doordarshan, Photo Division, Films Division, Directorate of Public Relations of Ministry of Defence and Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity.
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YOJANA September 2016 39 judicial intervention legal From Sati to Mary Kom : A Fight for Right in Progress
Geeta Luthra
s said by Margeret The biggest tool and the final end Thatcher:- “If you to achieve Women Empowerment is want something said, to ensure financial independence for ask a man; if you all women, both in cities and villages. want something done Financial independence is further A ask a woman.” dependant largely on, firstly, education A woman today expects herself— of the girl child and secondly, on and rightly so—to be treated as an providing equal opportunities at the individual, a living human being, workplace. The Government has been Women Empowerment is a entitled to the same dignity and status making a conscious effort to slowly realize the first leg of the War towards constant battle and it is not as her male counterparts. Women Empowerment by progressive a battle which can progress Although every charter of Human legislative policies. without co-operation from the Rights states that men and women society as a whole. What is are born equal and the same has been Judicial intervention coupled required is not only a change in quoted in Article 14 and 15 of the with legislative efforts is also a the mind-set. Women represent Indian Constitution, the same is far work in progress towards providing from true. The deep-rooted belief that equal and comprehensive workplace half the world’s population, and women deserve to be treated lesser opportunities and environment. The gender inequality exists in every than their male counterparts largely Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, The nation. Though alternative contributes to the rampant, continuous Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, The media can act as a platform or and unyielding violence against women Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, bridge to surpass the barrier of extending to unfair or lack of access 1956, The Maternity Benefit Act, essential communication and to education, health, employment, 1961,The Medical termination of information: education is a property and influence. Pregnancy Act, 1971,The Commission fundamental and pre- requisite Dependency promotes compromise of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987,The of all human beings. Until and is the main cause for a victim’s Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006,The Pre-Conception & Pre-Natal women are given the same inability to raise her voice against violence, disrespect and oppression. Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation opportunities that men are, and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994 entire societies will be destined The question of w o m e n and The Sexual Harassment of Women to perform way below their true empowerment can be answered in two at Work Place (Prevention, Protection potential words: Financial Independence. and) Act, 2013 are some of the
The author has been a Senior Special Counsel for the Union of India/Central Government in the Supreme Court as well as in the High Court and has a professional experience of over 35 years. She specializes in myriad faces of law including International and Commercial Arbitration, Constitutional Law, Conflict Law/Private International. She has defended the Union of India in many arbitration disputes under the Requisition and Acquisition of Immovable Property Act. She is an Arbitrator in several commercial and contractual disputes. She has several leading judgments to her credit.
40 YOJANA September 2016 legislations enforced with the aim to allowed a rapist to go scot-free merely by J.S.Verma. CJ, on behalf of Sujata empower women. because there were no marks of injury Manohar and B.N. Kirpal, JJ., in a on his penis- which the High Court writ petition entitled ‘Vishaka’ filed These proactive steps towards presumed was an indication of no by a non Governmental organization progressive legislative action have resistance. The most important facts working for gender equality by way ensured that at least women have a fair such as the age of the victim (being of Public Interest Litigation seeking chance to attempt becoming a part of seven years) and that she had suffered enforcement of fundamental rights the working population of this society, a ruptured hymen and the bite marks of working women under Article 21 a chance towards being independent. on her body were not considered by the of the Indian Constitution. It was It is not necessarily attaining equality High Court. Even the eye- witnesses, in 1997 in Vishaka Vs. State of from this deep-rooted bias of male who witnessed this ghastly act, could Rajasthan and others (JT 1997 (7) domination prevalent in the society, not sway the High Court’s judgment, SC 384), that for the first time sexual but at least it gives them the means so deep-rooted was the legal position harassment had been explicitly- legally to distance themselves from the treating a victim as an accomplice. defined as an unwelcome sexual violence that stems from the sense of gesture or behavior whether directly Another ghastly yet classic judicial inequality. or indirectly as:- pronouncement often quoted with “Crime is the outcome of a dismay, mirroring the prejudiced 1. Sexually colored remarks; diseased mind and jails must have an mindset of the society when it came 2. Physical contact and advances; environment of hospital for treatment to rape cases and other crimes against 3. Showing pornography; and cure- An eye for an eye would turn women is the case of State Of Rajasthan the whole world blind” - Mahatma And Ors. versus Smt. Bhanwari Devi 4. A demand or request for sexual Gandhi. wherein a judge remarked that the favors; victim could not have been raped 5. Any other unwelcome physical, The offence of rape is a sexual since she was a dalit while the accused verbal/non-verbal conduct being violation of a woman’s dignity and hailed from an upper caste- who sexual in nature. body and is yet another manifestation would not stoop to sexual relations of man’s attempt to abuse his position with a dalit. It was in this landmark case that the of dominance. It is in this context that sexual harassment was identified as a the Indian Parliament has enacted far The critical factor in sexual separate illegal behavior. The critical reaching amendments in this field. factor in sexual harassment is the un- harassment is the un-welcomeness welcomeness of the behavior. Thereby Envisaged by the crime of the behavior. Thereby making making the impact of such actions on against women in India the the impact of such actions on the the recipient more relevant rather than Criminal Law (Amendment) Act recipient more relevant rather intent of the perpetrator- which is to was passed in 2013. It is an Indian be considered. legislation passed by the Lok Sabha on than intent of the perpetrator- 19 March 2013, and by the Rajya Sabha which is to be considered. But, women were not yet on 21 March 2013, which provides for empowered. amendment of Indian Penal Code It took a Nirbhaya (State Vs Ram From a time as dark as the Bhanwari 1860, Indian Evidence Act 1872, and Singh and Ors, 2013) to break our false Devi Case, with the changing times Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 on pretences of being a society moving and development largely due to laws relating to sexual offences. towards a time where women were western influence and development, not mere objects existing for male In 1983, an amendment was made the Indian judiciary slowly moved gratification. Nirbhaya shook our sense and S. 376(2) i.e. Custodial rape, S. towards a more pragmatic era in of existence. A crime so cruel, for a 376(A) i.e. marital rape and S. 376(B a series of judgments including reason which was nothing less than a to D) i.e. Sexual Intercourse not Bharwada Bhoginbhai Hirjibhai Vs slap on every citizen that believed in amounting to rape were added to the State of Gujarat AIR 1983 SC 753 equality for their mothers, their wife, Indian Penal Code. wherein an attempt was made to categorize and define crimes against their sisters and their daughters. The Judicial Intervention women. perpetrators of this crime believed the victim is asking to be raped if There was a time when the Indian In another striking act of judicial she is outside her house after 9 pm. judiciary failed to see eye to eye with activism, the Supreme Court decided Nirbhaya was not just a crime of the facts of an open and shut case the case of Vishaka and others Vs passion, it was a crime against both of rape:- In Mohd. Habib Vs State, State Of Rajasthan(JT 1997 (7) SC men and women who believed in 1989 CriLJ 137, the Delhi High Court 384). The judgment was delivered change, it was an iron-rod that hit the
YOJANA September 2016 41 Government spiraling its machinery introduced the Prenatal Diagnostic 2. Amend rape laws into realizing the lacunae that existed Techniques (Regulation and Prevention in laws protecting women and their of Misuse) Act in 1994 later amended Rape of a minor should carry a rights. to Pre-Conception Pre-Natal minimum jail term of 10 years - Gang Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition rape should be defined in the Indian This case resulted in a significant Of Sex Selection) Amendment Act, Penal Code and be punishable by at impact on the manner in which 2003 which limits the use of prenatal least 20 years imprisonment - Death investigations were conducted by diagnosis to a list of selected congenital caused by rape should carry a minimum the Police. The police, for the very conditions and prohibits using these penalty of 20 years in jail - Make first time, used scientific means of marital rape a criminal offence. investigation like DNA sampling, techniques for sex determination of odontology test, Palm prints, which the foetus. These regulations, however, 3. Review security laws in conflict resulted in an investigation that was have not been strictly enforced. The zones more advanced and comprehensive basic purpose of the Act is three-fold, thereby more conclusive. with a focus on averting further decline Due to the number of reports of in the sex ratio: alleged sexual offences committed by Section 166A was added that the armed forces in India’s conflict provided for: l Regulation of Pre Natal Diagnostic areas such as Kashmir and the North Techniques only for legitimate East, the Armed Forces Special Powers 1) DNA evidence being used to uses as prescribed under the Act. Act (AFSPA) - a controversial law identify the sex offenders and to bring home the conviction; l Complete ban on misuse of that gives sweeping powers to and pre-conception diagnostic often confers immunity on security 2) The bus, in which the offence techniques(PCDT) and pre-natal forces - must be reviewed - Security had taken place, had been washed diagnostic techniques (PNDT) for forces must be brought under the after the incident to wipe out sex selection / determination. purview of ordinary criminal law evidence that could nail the rather than under army law - Special accused. However, police tore Absolute prohibition of selection commissioners for women’s security the flooring of the bus to find of sex of the foetus, both before and must be deployed in all areas of samples of blood, semen, hair, etc after conception, except for detecting conflict. Such commissioners will have that helped massively during the sex-linked diseases. powers to monitor and take action in trial. Taking cognizance of the link all cases of sexual violence against Besides DNA samples-generally between pre-natal sex determination women by armed personnel - Introduce used as evidence in rape cases-the tests and the declining sex ratio among “Breach of command responsibility” police got the “odontology test” children, the Supreme Court, in 2002, - making a senior officer of security of the accused. An odontology came down heavily on the Central and forces or police liable to a jail term of at test is a study of the structure, State governments for having failed to least seven years if his/her subordinate development, and abnormalities implement the Pre-Natal Diagnostic commits rape. of the teeth. The test was done Techniques (Regulation and Prevention 4. Monitor illegal, patriarchal to match the bite marks on the of Misuse) Act, 1994. village councils victim’s face with that of the accused’s teeth and the dimensions Justice Verma Committee Report Put in place measures to monitor were compared to ascertain the and its impact: illegal village councils known as perpetrators. “Khap Panchayats” that sanction so- Here is a list of the 10 key called “honour killings” and impose 3) Palm prints of the accused were recommendations put forward by the oppressive diktats such as banning girls also taken amongst other scientific Justice Verma Committee in its 630- and women from using mobile phones, tools that were employed in the page report: wearing western clothes or venturing investigation. Fortunately, the out unaccompanied CCTV cameras of the hotels 1. Make voyeurism, stalking and facing the road also captured intentional touching an offence 5. Review medical examination of clips of the bus while crossing the rape victims Make voyeurism an offence stretch of the road where the bus punishable by a maximum jail term of Put in place medico-legal moved where there was hardly any three years - Make stalking an offence guidelines on how to perform a physical movement at that time of medical examination of a victim of the night. punishable by a maximum jail term of three years - Intentional touching, using sexual assault - Scrap the so-called In order to address the practice of obscene language or gestures should be “two-finger” test - an outdated practice sex selection, the Indian government treated as a sexual assault offence. that examines the laxity of the vagina
42 YOJANA September 2016 to determine whether the victim is similar bills in South Africa and New atrocities faced by women. This “habituated to sex” Zealand. progressive step under the protection of Women under Domestic Violence 6. Police reforms The bill would set out the rights Act helps you create awareness and guaranteed to women, which would may also curb this malpractice and Institute a Police Complaints include the right to life, security, bodily Authority at district level to look into provide women with a physical sense integrity, democratic and civil rights of comfort and confidence that the complaints against police officers who and equality. do not register complaints of gender wife is not just a tool to satisfy the crimes. Police who fail to register 10. Human trafficking physical needs/ physical aspects of complaints or abort an investigation married life, by force and threat, should be punished. This will provide Define the offence of trafficking there shall always be a consent, in the Indian Penal Code - Trafficking more police accountability, said the willingness to consummate from should be punishable with a jail term of commission - All police stations both the spouses. It tells the wife no less than seven years and may extend should have CCTV to ensure proper that she has a choice. Marital Rape to life imprisonment - Employing a procedures are being followed refers to unwanted intercourse by a trafficked person, for example as a in handling, recording and filing man with his wife obtained by force, domestic servant, should carry a jail complaints - Provide appropriate threat of force, or physical violence, term of no less than three years. technical equipment and training to or when she is unable to give consent. Marital rape could be by the use police to ensure the highest standards Marital Rape of investigation of forensic evidence of force only, a battering rape or a for sexual assault crimes - Separate Rape is crime against society and sadistic/obsessive rape. It is a non- police investigating gender crimes independent of the relation that exists consensual act of violent perversion from law and order police to ensure between the criminal and the victim. by a husband against the wife where speedier investigation, better expertise Society cannot justify a crime if the she is physically and sexually abused. and improved rapport with the public - same is done behind closed doors In the present day, studies indicate that between 10 per cent to 14 per Increase the number of female police between a wife and a husband. A crime cent of married women are raped by on patrol and on duty in police stations their husbands: the incidents of marital so that women feel comfortable filing Rape is crime against society and rape soars to 1/3rd to ½ among clinical sexual assault complaints independent of the relation that samples of battered women. Sexual 7. Electoral reforms exists between the criminal and assault by one’s spouse accounts for the victim. Society cannot justify a approximately 25 per cent of rapes Lawmakers who have been charged committed. Women who became in a court of law with serious offences crime if the same is done behind prime targets for marital rape are those such as sexual offences or dowry crimes closed doors between a wife and a who attempt to flee. should be disqualified from contesting husband. A crime is a crime and if elections - Sitting parliamentarians Protection of Women From with criminal cases against them, the wife chooses to bear the shame Domestic Violence Act: including those of rape and other types and pain under duress and pressure of sexual assault, should voluntarily of her family, it does not remove “Controllers, abusers and vacate their seats - There should be a manipulative people don’t question the criminality of the act. themselves. They don’t ask themselves code of conduct for political parties, if the problem is them. They always instituting transparency in receiving is a crime and if the wife chooses to say the problem is someone else.” donations and declaring whether bear the shame and pain under streets parties had sanctioned people to run for and pressure of her family, it does not It is easier to fight with an elections who have criminal records remove the criminality of the act. unknown enemy, than fighting with a 8. Gender sensitisation through known friend. The struggle a woman education Women Empowerment is easier faces at her matrimonial house is said than done. Mere realization or not unknown. It is not just mental The formal curriculum in Indian mere acceptance of forcing oneself for trauma that a woman goes through, schools must be drastically revamped physical gratification onto the other but physical and emotional trauma and sex education must be made an spouse is a not a criminal offence in as well. The struggle of Kiranjit integral part of the curriculum. India though there has been much Ahluwalia(1989)in the case of Regina 9. Bill of rights debate on the issue. However, the V/s. Kiranjit Ahluwalia(1993) 96 Cr. same is civil misdemeanor under the Appl R. 133 who burnt her husband India should institute a “Bill of Protection of Women in Domestic to death in response to ten years of Rights” for women, along the lines of Violence Act to curb the inhuman physical, psychological and sexual
YOJANA September 2016 43 abuse, fictionalized in the movie “People were created to be loved. act, as of now, does not criminalize “Provoked” has raised awareness of Things were created to be used. The prostitution per se, but it intends to domestic violence and changed the reason why the world is in chaos is punish acts by third parties facilitating definition of the word provocation in because things are being loved and prostitution like brothel keeping, cases of battered women. The most people are being used.” living off earnings and procuring. significant change brought about by the Protection of Women from Trafficking in women and girl The government has taken active Domestic Violence Act was that it child steps for amendment of laws to curb this growing menace. Section provided even women who were in Women these days are being 370 of Indian Penal Code (IPC) has a so called live-in relationship to be bought and being sold, like household been substituted with new more entitled to maintenance, compensation, commodities. There is no limit to stringent provisions being:-, 370 and protection, right of residence and other satisfy a man’s physical need. India is 370A post the recent amendment in rights similar to a married woman. also a destination for women and girls the Criminal Law in 2013, which The Act came into force in October, from Nepal and Bangladesh trafficked deals with trafficking of person for 2006.It was being carved of common for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. If a person (a) recruits, (b) law principles and there was no exploitation. Nepali children are also transports, (c) harbors, (d) transfers, or statutory protection to keep ethos trafficked to India for forced labor (e) receives, a person, by using threats, of India in mind. This legislation in circus shows. Indian women are or force, or coercion, or abduction, was carved out of common law trafficked to the Middle East for or fraud, or deception, or by abuse of principles. Prior to its enactment, commercial sexual exploitation. Indian power, or inducement for exploitation there was no statutory protection migrants who migrate willingly every including prostitution, slavery, forced providing protection to women in year to the Middle East and Europe for organ removal, etc. will be punished the matrimonial home. the act is a work as domestic servants and low- with imprisonment ranging from at single window act to empower women skilled laborers may also end up part least 7 years to imprisonment for the who may be in terms of physical, of the human-trafficking industry. remainder of that person’s natural life verbal, sexual or economic abuse. depending on the number or category The enactment also protects women The law does not refer to the of persons trafficked. Employment of who are living in a relationship even a trafficked person will attract penal though they are not married, to their practice of selling one’s own provision as well. live in partner . In two judgements sexual service as “prostitution”. Amendments in Succession Laws Indra Sarma vs V.K.V. Sarma on 26 So the act, as of now, does not November, 2013 2013 STPL(Web) criminalize prostitution per se, but Prior to Hindu Succession 944 SC, and D. Velusamy v. D. it intends to punish acts by third (Amendment) Act, 2005, according Patchaiammal (2010) 10 SCC 469. to Section 6 of the HSA, in an parties facilitating prostitution HUF, the share in the coparcenary This concept has been explained like brothel keeping, living off property of a Hindu male dying and the protection has been given to intestate used to devolve upon his women who are living in a relationship earnings and procuring. sons (also known as coparceners) akin to marriage as distinguished from only and not upon his daughters. a concubine. Article 23 prohibits trafficking On 9 September 2005, Section 6 of The definition of matrimonial in human beings and forced labor. the HSA was amended by the Hindu home was too loosely defined in the Trafficking in human beings has been Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 Protection of Women from Domestic prevalent in India for a long time in the which removed this discrimination Violence Act in Sec 17 of Domestic form of prostitution and selling and by giving equal rights to daughters Violence Act where even a temporary purchasing of human beings. in the Hindu Mitakshara coparcenary property as that to a son. Pursuant to residence/visit could have been Almost 80 per cent of all worldwide interpreted to include matrimonial the said amendment, a daughter of a trafficking is for sexual exploitation, coparcener (i.e., her father) shall, by home. The concept has been narrowed with an estimated 1.2 million children down and Delhi High Court in three birth, (i) become a coparcener in the being bought and sold into sexual same manner as a son, (ii) be entitled land mark judgments of which I slavery every year, and India is the was the Counsel namely Shumita to the coparcenary property in the poisonous hub, for Asia and, some same manner as a son, (iii) be subject Didi Sandhu (2007) 96 DRJ 697, say, the world. Eveneet V. KavitaChoudhary(2012) to the same liabilities in respect of the 130 DRJ 83 (Del) and Barun Nahar The law does not refer to the coparcenary property as that of a son, Vs. ParulNahar2013 (2) AD (Delhi) practice of selling one’s own sexual and (iv) be responsible to discharge 517. service as “prostitution”. So the the debts of her father, grandfather or
44 YOJANA September 2016 great-grand father contracted by them retrograde amendment that sought to practices. It clearly states that freedom after the commencement of the Hindu restrict the right of Muslim women to of religion shall not limit the state from Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, maintenance by the enactment of the making any law “providing for social in the same manner as a son. Muslim women’s right to maintenance welfare and reform.” And then we have in divorce act. Although some of Article 14 of the Constitution, under The status of women is altered the provisions giving maintenance which every Indian has equal rights; radically by Hindu Succession to women like Hindu Adoption and no one under this doctrine of equality (Amendment) Act, 2005, Maintenance Act, 1956 and Section can be discriminated in the name of whereby daughters whether married or 125 of Cr.P.C had no provision on background, caste and creed. unmarried are coparcener and entitled interim maintenance, the same has to a share in the joint family properties. been read into the enactments to However, the progression of laws Wife and daughter can also ask for give succor to women for grant of in India, as far as empowerment of partition of her share. The amendment interim maintenance pending the final Muslim Women are concerned, is applies to agricultural property also. adjudication of the cases. almost stagnant if we compare it to the Amendment Act applies as from 9-9- global rate that exists. It is necessary 2005. However, transactions such The several enactments in a country and pertinent that we distance the tag as partition which is by a deed of where there are different personal laws of religion from the rights of women, partition duly registered or decree of of different religions with regards when it comes to enactment of laws. Court prior to 20-12-2004, will not be to maintenance, property rights, It is our responsibility as a more affected by the amendment. divorce rights, and marriage custody developed and progressive society to of children has brought in a growing take up the cause of the oppressed and Laws governing Muslim women demand for a uniform civil code. Also ensure that Muslim women are not left behind in this fight against bias because The case of Mohd. Ahmed Khan It is necessary and pertinent that of our inability to question religious versus Shah Bano Begum and Ors. practices. (1985 SCR (3) 844) 1985 AIR 945 we distance the tag of religion resulted as a milestone in the Muslim from the rights of women, when Uniform civil code is the proposal to women’s search for justice and the it comes to enactment of laws. replace the personal laws based on the beginning of the political battle over It is our responsibility as a more scriptures and customs of each major personal law. A 60-year-old woman religious community in India with a went to court asking maintenance developed and progressive society common set governing every citizen. from her husband who had divorced to take up the cause of the These laws are distinguished from her. The court ruled in her favour. Shah oppressed and ensure that Muslim public law and cover marriage, Bano was entitled to maintenance from women are not left behind in this divorce, inheritance, adoption and her ex-husband under Section 125 of maintenance. the Criminal Procedure Code (with fight against bias because of our an upper limit of Rs. 500 a month) inability to question religious Marriage Law’s (Amendment) Bill 2010 like any other Indian woman. The practices. judgment was not the first granting a “Beti beti hoti hai, bahu kabhi beti divorced Muslim woman maintenance the Supreme Court in Smt. Sarla nahi ban sakti.” Marriage is a sacred under Section 125. But a voluble Mudgal, President vs Union Of India relation between a husband and wife, orthodoxy deemed the verdict an & Ors on 10 May, 1995,1995 AIR and both are equally entitled for the attack on Islam. 1531, 1995 SCC (3) 635 case also benefits attained thereof. Separation of spouses doesn’t leave all the benefits Citing a slew of rulings in States voice this concern. The legal merits of property to the husband; the wife such as Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat for the desirability of a Uniform or is equally entitled for her share in the and Andhra Pradesh, wherein courts Common Civil Code for every Indian, property. have awarded sums as maintenance, irrespective of his or her religious and `reasonable and fair provisions’ identity, are unquestionable. In fact, it A bill called “Marriage Law’s in the form of a one-time lump sum is one of the directives to government (Amendment) Bill 2010″ was passed payment that Muslim women have that is enshrined in the Constitution of by the cabinet, which is pending for never received before. The 2001 India (Article 44). And this “directive” discussion in Rajya Sabha and some ruling of the full constitutional bench does not come in conflict with Article major changes in the women rights of the Supreme Court in the Daniel 25 of the Constitution of India that are suggested, on how the properties Latifi case, in effect, gave Muslim guarantees the freedom of religion, would be divided after divorce. As women a right to maintenance even because Clause 2 of this Article per “The Divorce Law,2012”, Wife’s after divorce under section 125Cr.P.C separates religion from secular laws share in property would be 50 per by narrowing and interpreting a that removes some regressive religious cent in all her husband’s residential
YOJANA September 2016 45 properties, no matter what and in “The law cannot compel a woman, 2008 seeks to reserve one-third other properties, her share will be who is emotionally and mentally of all seats for women in the Lok decided as per the court decision.“ unable to cope with a marriage, to Sabha and the state legislative remain bound in wedlock to her assemblies. The allocation of One of the major issues with the spouse even when it is established that amendment is as follows:- reserved seats shall be determined the marriage is dead. The compulsion by such authority as prescribed by This enactment is yet to see the upon wife to obtain the consent of the Parliament. light of day and in fact, an unfortunate husband to maintain and prosecute a feature is, since independence, the petition of divorce by mutual consent l One third of the total number representation of women in parliament is violative of the principles of gender of seats reserved for Scheduled in terms of percentage had been going justice and thereby of the Article 14 Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall down abysmally. A small beacon of and 21 of the Constitution,” It has be reserved for women of those light is that in the Panchayat elections, been observed that the parties who groups in the Lok Sabha and the such reservations have been introduced. have filed petition for mutual consent legislative assemblies. It is a small yet significant step towards suffer in case one of the parties a greater representation of women in abstains him or herself from court l Reserved seats may be allotted by decision making positions. proceedings and keeps the divorce rotation to different constituencies proceedings inconclusive. in the state or union territory. Recognition of “Irretrievable breakdown of marriage”. Women’s Reservation Bill [The l Reservation of seats for women Constitution (108th Amendment) shall cease to exist 15 years In the case of Chandralekha Bill, 2008 after the commencement of this Trivedi v. S.P. Trivedi (1993) DMC Amendment Act. 271 SC, JT 1993 (4) SC 644, the The 18 year-journey of the Women’s Supreme Court has not used the term Reservation Bill was marked by high Women Empowerment is a constant irretrievable breakdown of marriage but drama and hit roadblocks in each battle and it is not a battle which can has defined that the marriage is ‘dead’. of its outings in Parliament before progress without co-operation from the Husband initiated a divorce proceeding the historic measure cleared the first society as a whole. What is required on the ground of cruelty and also wife’s legislative hurdle in 2010. Commonly is not only a change in the mind-set. intimacy with young boys, after the known as the Women’s Reservation Women represent half the world’s nine years of marriage. Wife also made Bill, it seeks to reserve one-third of population, and gender inequality exists similar allegations against the husband. all seats for women in the Lok Sabha in every nation. Though alternative Their only daughter was already and the state legislative assemblies. it media can act as a platform or bridge married when High Court granted a also provides that one third of the total to surpass the barrier of essential divorce decree. On appeal, Supreme number of seats reserved for Scheduled communication and information: Court felt that it would be futile to Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall be education is a fundamental and decide the allegations and counter- reserved for women of those groups. pre- requisite of all human beings. allegations as the marriage has become Similar Bills have been introduced dead. thrice before in the late 90’s but lapsed Until women are given the same with the dissolution of their respective opportunities that men are, entire Section 13 C, D, E of the Lok Sabha’s. societies will be destined to perform Marriage Amendment Act 2010 way below their true potential. q does not violate Article 14, 15 l The Constitution (One Hundred 21 and 25 of Indian Constitution. and Eighth Amendment) Bill, (E-mail: [email protected])
Corrigendum In the article by Dr S. Banerjee (Yojana August 2016) titled 'Perception Management: A Big Challenge in the Growth of Nuclear Power', the text matter on pg 30 under the sub heading 'Fear of Radiation' should read as follows: Fear of Radiation: Ionizing radiation is present on this planet and all living beings including human population are constantly being exposed to the background ionizing radiation. Presence of radio nuclides in the earth’s crust and cosmic radiation from space contribute to the background radiation, which varies from place to place and depends on the food and water we consume and the air we breathe. The world wide average background radiation dose is 2400 micro-Sv per year. Some of the high background radiation areas in the world are Yaugziang in China (3500-5400 micro-Sv/year, population 100,000), Gurapari in Brazil (3000-35000 micro-Sv/year, population 70, 000), parts of Kolam district in Kerala (1000-45000 micro-Sv/year, population 400,000 ) and Ramsar, Iran (10000-260,000 µSv/year, population 2000). In some places excessive background radiation is due to radioactive radon-222 gas with half life of 3.8 days which forms from the decay of radium-226. In poorly ventilated dwellings in Kerala the background radiation can be as high as 50000 micro-Sv per year). Also, the caption in Figs 1 & 7 should read as follows: Fig. 1. Background radiation levels at different IERMON stations. Radiations levels at sites with nuclear facilities and those without any nuclear activities are indicated by green and red bars respective. Fig. 7. Comparison of installed capacity in MWe (left vertical axis) and electricity produced in million units (right vertical axis) for renewable and nuclear power The author's intro should read as follows: The author is Homi Bhabha Chair Professor at Bhabha Atomic resesrch Centre (BARC), Mumbai; Chancellor, Central University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Chancellor, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, Chairman, Board of Governors, IIT Kharagpur. The errors are regretted.
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48 YOJANA September 2016 Development Roadmap MAA programme to promote breast feeding MAA (Mothers Absolute Affection), a flagship programme to ensure adequate awareness is generated among masses, especially mothers, on the benefits of breast feeding was launched recently. “MAA- Mother’s Absolute Affection'’ is a nationwide programme launched in an attempt to bring undiluted focus on promotion of breast feeding and provision of counselling services for supporting breast feeding through health systems. The programme has been named ‘MAA’ to signify the support a lactating mother requires from family members and at health facilities to breast feed successfully. The chief components of the MAA Programme are community awareness generation, strengthening inter personal communication through ASHA, skilled support for breast feeding at Delivery points in Public health facilities, and Monitoring and Award/recognition. Rs 42 cr provided and 18215 benefited under the Ujjawala scheme during 2013-16 The Ujjawala scheme of Ministry of Women and Child Development has specific components for Prevention of Trafficking and for Rescue, Rehabilitation, Re-integration and Repatriation of victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. The Ministry has released a total amount of `42 Crores to States/UTs during 2013-16 under the scheme and nearly 18,215 have benefited over the same period. During 2016-17 (upto 30.06.2016), an amount of Rs 143.07 lakh has been released to States/UTs. The measures taken by the Government under the Ujjawala scheme to create awareness about trafficking of women and children include formation and functioning of Community Vigilance Groups, Social Mobilization & involvement of local communities, generate public discourse through Workshops/Seminars, Awareness through Mass Media And Development and Printing of Awareness Generation material such as Pamphlets, Leaflets and Posters. More than Rs. 800 Cr released and nearly 14.3 lakh benefited under IGMSY during the period 2013-16 The Ministry of Women and Child Development is implementing IGMSY, a centrally sponsored Conditional Maternity Benefit (CMB) scheme, under which, the maternity benefits of Rs.6,000/- per beneficiary is provided in two equal installments to pregnant and lactating mothers of 19 years and above, for first two live births, subject to fulfilment of certain conditions relating to maternal and child health. IGMSY aims to contribute better enabling environment to support the health and nutrition needs of pregnant and lactating women by providing cash incentives in their bank/post office accounts between the second trimester of pregnancy till the child attains the age of six months. A total amount of Rs. 808 Crores has been released by the Ministry to States/UTs during 2013-16 and around 14,32,411 number of people have benefited under the scheme during the same period. The IGMSY is being implemented in 53 selected districts across the country. The Ministry has revised the entitlement of the maternity benefit under IGMSY from Rs.4,000/- to Rs.6,000/- per beneficiary with effect from 5th July, 2013 in accordance with the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013. The budget provision for the current financial year of 2016-17 is Rs.400 crores. Government Schemes for equal opportunities and good working conditions for women Government has enacted the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 which provides for payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers for same work or work of similar nature in the matter of employment and also prohibits any discrimination against women in recruitment or any condition of service. The Act is being enforced by the Central and State Governments in their respective spheres to ensure compliance of provisions of the Act. Officers of appropriate Government notified as inspectors make inspections and prosecute those found violating the provision of the Act. The Act extends to the whole of India. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 has been enacted to provide safe working environment at workplace for women. The Ministry of Women and Child Development is administering the scheme of Working Women Hostels for ensuring safe accommodation for working women away from their place of residence and Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme for providing day care facilities to Children of Working Mothers. Apart from these, provisions of Maternity leave under the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, Child Care Leave and Paternity leave have been made for making employment policies more sensitive towards women employees.
YOJANA September 2016 49 YE-121/2016
50 YOJANA September 2016 NORTH EAST DIARY Khangchendzonga National Park India's First 'Mixed' Site on UNESCO World Heritage List hangchendzonga National Park (KNP), Sikkim has been inscribed as India’s first “Mixed World Heritage Site” on KUNESCO World Heritage List, by fulfilling the nomination criteria under both natural and cultural heritage. The approval was granted at the 40th Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee . The KNP exhibits one of the widest altitudinal ranges of any protected area worldwide. The Park has an extraordinary vertical sweep of over 7 kilometres (1,220m to 8,586m) within an area of only 178,400 ha and comprises a unique diversity of lowlands, steep- sided valleys and spectacular snow-clad mountains including the world’s third highest peak, Mt. Khangchendzonga. Numerous lakes and glaciers, including the 26 km long Zemu Glacier, dot the barren high altitudes. The KNP lies within the Himalaya global biodiversity hotspot and displays an unsurpassed range of sub-tropical to alpine ecosystems. The Himalayas are narrowest here, resulting in extremely steep terrain, which magnifies the distinction between the various eco-zones. The KNP is located within a mountain range of global biodiversity conservation significance and covers 25 per cent of the State of Sikkim, acknowledged as one of India’s most significant biodiversity concentrations. The KNP is home to a significant number of endemic, rare and threatened plant and animal species and has the highest number of plant and mammal species recorded in the Central/High Asian Mountains, except compared to the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, in China; and also has a high number of bird species. The cultural significance of KNP is portrayed by three main different facets: firstly, the notion of beyul or hidden sacred land, which extends to all of Sikkim, but has its heart in the territory of Khangchendzonga National Park, is important in Tibetan Buddhism, not only intrinsic to Sikkim, but in the neighbouring countries and beyond – that is to say, KNP is home to a sacred site of one of the world’s leading religious traditions; secondly, the multi-layered sacred landscape of Khangchendzonga and the cultural and religious relevance of the hidden land (beyul in Tibetan Buddhism and Mayel Lyang, in Lepcha tradition) is specific to Sikkim and is a unique example of co-existence and exchange between different religious traditions and people; and thirdly, the indigenous religious and cultural practices of the Lepcha with regard to the ecology and the specific properties of local plants, which stand as an outstanding example of traditional knowledge and environmental preservation. This is also the first nomination dossier in which the newly established UNESCO Category 2 Centre on ‘World Natural Heritage Management and Training for Asia-Pacific Region’ at Wildlife Institute of India had provided professional inputs. For the first time both IUCN and ICOMOS had given a clear and positive recommendation for inscription of a Natural/ Mixed Site from India.
Yojana Web- Exclusives Yojana publishes articles on various topics in its 'Web-Exclusives' column for the benefit of its readers on the website of Yojana : www.yojana.gov.in. Announcements about the articles under the Web-Exclusives section are carried in the Yojana magazine of the month. We are carrying the following articles under the Web-Exclusives section of Yojana for September 2016.
l E-Governance: A Tool for Curbing Corruption in Higher Education System in India - Dr. Prateek Bhanti l Political Empowerment of Women And Panchayati Raj - P. Srivatsa Please send in your comments and suggestions to us on [email protected]
Yojana October (Special Issue) Forthcoming Issue Textiles
YOJANA September 2016 51 BEGINS ON 28TH AUGUST 2016. ESSAY PROGRAMME & MAIN EXAM TEST SERIES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, PSYCHOLOGY, COMMERCE, GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY & ANTHROPOLOGY BEGINS 3rd WEEK OF AUGUST 2016 ADMISSION FOR MAIN TEST SERIES OPEN FROM 10TH AUGUST, 2016
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52 YOJANA September 2016 women dehumanized crimes Growing Violence Against Women
Ranjana Kumari
s this article is being responsible to maintain law and written, we are in the order; Need to be more pro-active. month August 2016. The government, politicians and legal The month of July stakeholders also need to prioritize had been particularly gender issues and crimes committed in A harrowing due to high its purview. The society and the legal instances of rapes – ganged up and enforcement may have mental block otherwise. Most of the women’s that appears to create a tendency in violations are committed by people them to hold a woman responsible for known to the victim, barring gang the crime that has happened against rapes. although, the media reported her. crimes with the attempt at being as objective as possible, it has been In the light of recent crimes against Feminism and women a frenzy. There has been a pattern women, Rohtak district in Haryana has empowerment are in violation of human rights and had repeated reportage of rape followed women’s bodies. Crimes against the by brutal murders. It was the year 2015 misunderstood as Dalits and minorities in the public when a mentally challenged woman ‘women’s issues”, spaces and crimes against women was raped until she fell unconscious.. in general through social media, has The rapists told the police, “We did when in fact, these are been rampant. Some violations go not want to kill her. We just wanted to the actually the issues back to a history of several decades enjoy. We don’t know what happened and some have arrived recently. to us. We were not in our senses. We of men. The problem Sadly, there are only additions, not were drunk and the madness went on.” mitigations. This year, last month, Rohtak was again of gender inequality in in the news for gang raping a Dalit girl. India is the problem Justice delayed is justice denied. The rapists had committed the offence The effectiveness of law is missing a second time to the same victim with of male culture which because of lukewarm law enforcement, the intention of ‘teaching her a lesson’ affects women and dehumanized proceedings of crime for not only reporting the first instance against women and desensitized of rape to the police, but also refusing girls behavior of stakeholders who play a an out-of-court settlement for Rs. 50 crucial role when victims approach lakh. The rapists were released on them to seek justice. The police bail after being arrested for the first and state level institutions that are rape. They tracked down the girl and
The author is Director of Centre for Social Research as well as Chairperson of Women Power Connect. She has served as the Coordinator of the South Asia Network Against Trafficking (SANAT) in Persons and is a member of the Central Advisory Board on “Pre Conception and Pre Natal Diagnostic Tests Act, 2001”, the Central Advisory Committee for Prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children and the National Mission for Empowerment of Women by the Prime Minister of India. Currently, she is a member of Global Safety Advisory Board of Facebook. She also has a number of publications to her credit.
YOJANA September 2016 53 raped her for the second time. In the Surakshit Nari, Sashakt Nari same month of July, a 16 year old girl in Faridabad (Delhi), was raped by a Panic Button and Global Positioning System in Mobile phones Handset man who had eve-teased her often, Rules 2016 notified; Easier to send out a distress signal and identify current before abduction and rape. After location. committing the heinous act, the man 181-is the Universal Women Helpline Number which will be active 24*7 photographed the girl and threatened to go viral with it on social media. In Himmat App- to raise the SOS alert. The victim’s /caller’s location will July again, Bulandshahr district in be reported in real time at Police Control Room for instant help. Uttar Pradesh reported gang rape of 2 Mahila Battalions have been included in place of two male Battalions mother and daughter by a pack of 8 in CRPF sanctioned for 2015-16 and 2016-17 . dacoits. Days later, Bareilly district Ladies special trains and Ladies compartments to be escorted by security in the same state, reported gang-rape squads . of a 19 year old teacher. Apart from Security Helpline182 and Twitter account activated to provide assistance the instances of rapes, the activists during train travel. have also been undertaking cases of violation in the space of social media, CCTV Surveillance cameras in trains to be installed. Amritsar- a space that has witnessed darker side Delhi-Shaan-e-Punjab Express was the first train to install the surveillance of human psyche manifested through cameras. misogynist trolling. Middle Bay in trains reserved for women. Increased reservation quota of two lower berths to four per coach in As per the National Crime Records Sleeper Class for women and Senior citizens. Bureau for the year 2014, Rajasthan
Sakhi-One Stop Centre scheme • This scheme will support women affected from violence. • It will offer Medical aid, Police assistance, Legal Aid, Counselling and shelters. • 14 centres are already functional and 183 more centres will be set up by 2017. • These centres will be integrated and connected with 181 and other helplines 150 additional One Stop Centres 150 additional locations to cover more districts have been added on 31st May 2016, to the scheme of One Stop Centres to support women affected by violence, implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development . As on 30th June, 2016, 17 One Stop Centres are operational in Raipur (Chhattisgarh), Vijayawada City (Andhra Pradesh), Karnal (Haryana), Bhubaneshwar (Odisha), Jaipur (Rajasthan), Chandigarh, Puducherry, Bambolim (Goa), Udupi (Karnataka), Diu (Daman & Diu), Haridwar (Uttarakhand), Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Papumpare, (Arunachal Pradesh) Uttar Pradesh (Banda), Dimapur (Nagaland), Shillong (Meghalaya), Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala). The details of women assisted so far are as under:- Sl. No. State/UTs No of Women assisted Report period 1. Chhattisgarh 317 July 2015 - March, 2016 2. Odisha 55 October, 2015 - December, 2015 3. Goa 42 February, 2016 - March, 2016 4. Andhra Pradesh 151 January, 2016 - March, 2016 5. Chandigarh 16 October, 2015- December, 2015 6. Haryana 108 September, 2015-January, 2016 7. Meghalaya No cases have been registered December, 2015 Under the scheme, it has been envisaged to facilitate access to an integrated range of services including medical aid, police assistance, legal aid, psycho-social counselling etc. to the women affected by violence including sexual assault. The Budget Estimates (BE) for the scheme of One Stop Centre for the year 2016-17 is Rs. 75 crore.
54 YOJANA September 2016 (31,151) and Uttar Pradesh (38,467) had the highest incidences of reported crimes against women. This was followed by Maharashtra (26,893) and Madhya Pradesh (28,678). The lowest reported crime against women were &' & North Eastern states (Nagaland – 67, Arunachal – 351, Mizoram – 258, Manipur - 337) where the literacy levels are higher and the family structures are matriarchal with regard to gender interactions. The cultural genesis of crime against women is found ! in a family’s value system. What reflects outside as patriarchy, is nursed within the family’s core principles " and a lineage of filial violence; especially against women. In families which raise patriarchal and misogynist men; women are taught to be submissive, meek and subservient. Whereas, these men are taught to be aggressive, to display ownership and sense of bullish entitlement towards livelihood choices, general decision-making and creating a stifling pecking order within the family where people are only respected as humans, basis the subjective discretion of the patriarchy which creates the hierarchy. The men in such families are taught that their masculinity is directly proportionate to their display of violence in thoughts and actions. When the father is violent towards the mother, the ! son will invariably be violent towards his wife. It would take exceptional self-education and initiatives for self- ! sensitization for the son to not emulate his father. There "#$% has been prevalence of a culture where parents boast of treating their daughters as they would treat the sons. This strain of thought has patriarchal roots because it implies that women are supposed to be discriminated against. Not doing so is a privilege that is extended towards women by the family. It annihilates the concept of celebrating the feminine. On the contrary, it breeds the machismo culture in mindsets of both the genders. The time has long come for us to change the narrative. Feminism and women empowerment are misunderstood as ‘women’s issues”, when in fact, these are the actually the issues of men. The problem of gender inequality in India is the problem of male culture which affects women and girls. The answer to the question, “Why are men so violent?” lies in the irresponsible handling of power equations. Patriarchy entails power over the other gender and society at large, without acting out from the stand point of responsibility and accountability. There is also a brute force in patriarchy that overpowers women and those men with lesser brute force. This brute force muscles its way into an environment where the meeker lot submits. The malaise of crimes against women and the attitude with which we handle the same, lies in decayed power dynamics between the genders. q
(E-mail: [email protected]) YE-123/2016
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56 YOJANA September 2016 Educating a generation discussion Gender context of school education: Progress and Challenges Shalender Sharma Shashiranjan Jha
he idea of women Marginality in the true sense needs empo w e r m e n t to be verified with identity, dignity assumes a key position and contours of exclusion, which are i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l embedded in the opportunities that d i s c o u r s e s . T h e shapes women’s access to higher levels centrality of women of education. This, eventually, leads to empowermentT in developmental social separation for women in general discourses is closely linked with the and women belonging to socially pathways to equality of opportunities disadvantaged groups in particular. in the society. However, in practice, achieving women empowerment has The subordination of women in remained more or less an elusive the society and persistent stratification target. The evidences of women’s in education has resulted in bleating Role of education in marginalization are abundant, yet the about gender inequality at policy level. enhancing women policy intervention and measures to There have been normative moves overcome processes of marginalization around uplifting the status of women in empowerment can are flimsy. Fundamental duality of the education by means of voices in favour only be realized with development process is reflected in of reservation or opening of special the neglect of women’s participation institutions for women. However, strong efforts towards in societal decision making and there has hardly been substantive effort expanding equality of stereotyping them with the scriptures that could actually engage with ideas as idol. There is long standing history related not just to participation, but also opportunities. National that reminds us of the fact that such with identity, dignity and contours of and State governments duality is essentially a reflection of exclusion. Marginality of women in have initiated girls women being deprived of their rights education is effectively maintained, if and opportunities. not maximally. centric programmes Gender and Marginality have to There is a growing recognition of to foster gender parity be understood in the wider context of girls’ education in policy circles in the and uplift the status of social justice. While the economic country. For example, the Twelfth Five system of a society defines the nature Year Plan recognized that promoting women in the society and pattern of marginalization, the girl’s education is a critical issue. It not process and the existence of marginality only envisaged to enable girls to keep certainly goes beyond the organic pace with boys, but also reiterated that structure of the economic system. the girls’ education should be viewed
Shalender Sharma is currently Vice President - Education and Skills Development at IPE Global. He was earlier Chief Consultant (MIS) with the National Level Technical Support Group (TSG) for Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. He has extensive experience of working on several assignments with organisations like UNICEF, UNESCO, The World Bank and DFID. Shashiranjan Jha is Manager in the Education & Skills Development vertical at IPE Global. He has presented papers in international and national conferences and has publications in reputed national and international journal to his credit.
YOJANA September 2016 57 from the perspective as spelt out in the emphasised the equality in education. and National education programmes National Policy on Education 1986 particularly the National Policy on like Basic Education Programme, which states that education should be Education (NPE) 1986/1992 laid BEP, OBB, DPEP, SSA and RMSA. a transformative force, build women’s special emphasis on the removal of The Right of Children to Free and self-confidence and improve their disparities. Education should be used Compulsory Act, 2009 (RTE Act), position in society. However, during as an agent of basic change in the was a key milestone for elementary the 12th Plan Period, not much rigour status of woman. It was envisaged education in the country. has been observed. Interventions need that the policy would neutralise the to be so designed that the principle accumulated distortions of the past Challenges as per New Education of gender equality in education is through a well-conceived edge in Policy 2016 considered both a quality issue and favour of women. It would foster the The inputs for NEP 2016 recognizes an equity issue. Perhaps there is need development of new values through that the relatively higher gender gaps to do that ‘something extra’ than only redesigned curricula, textbooks, the in youth and adult literacy rates remain developing gender-sensitive curricula, training and orientation of teachers, a principal challenge. India continues pedagogical practices, teacher training decision-makers and administrators and to be characterised by higher level of and evaluation. the active involvement of educational gender gap (8.2 percentage points) institutions. The removal of women’s Policy fortitude Girls’ Education in youth literacy rate, with the youth illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their literacy rates for male and female Traditionally, all societies have access to, and retention, in elementary population (age 15-24) in 2011 being 90 given preferences to males over education will receive overriding per cent and 81.8 per cent respectively. females when it comes to educational India also continues to be the country opportunity, and disparities in “Educate one man, you educate with higher level of gender gap (19.5 educational attainment and literacy one person, but educate a percentage points) in adult literacy. It rates today reflect patterns which is clear that major efforts are needed have been shaped by the social and woman and you educate a to raise the literacy levels of girls and education policies and practices of the whole civilisation” women4. past. As a result, virtually all countries face gender disparities of some sort. Mahatma Gandhi girls participation in education Given the strong correlation that In order to expedite the process of exists between GDP and educational priority, through provision of special expansion of educational opportunities attainment, all countries have incentives support services, setting of time targets for females, Government of India to make the best possible use of all of and effective monitoring. The policy has initiated several programmes their human resources1. In discussing of non-discrimination will be pursued including National Programme for education and gender, it is useful to vigorously to eliminate sex stereo- Education of Girls in Elementary distinguish between ‘gender equity’ typing in vocational and professional Level (NPEGEL), the Mahila and ‘gender equality’2. courses and to promote women’s Samakhya (MS); Kasturba Gandhi participation in non-traditional National Policy on Education 1986 Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV). Most occupations, as well as in existing and recently, Government of India 3 Historically, since independence, emergent technologies . Following the included two major programmes various education policies have policy directives of NPE, several State SABLA and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao to the package. SABLA is a centrally sponsored programme of Government of India initiated on April 1, 2011 under Ministry of Women and Child Development. The program would cover adolescent girls 11–18 years old under all ICDS projects in selected 200 districts in all states/UTs in the country. The basic objectives of the scheme are to enable self-development and empowerment of adolescent girls, improvement in their health and nutrition status, spread awareness about health, hygiene,
58 YOJANA September 2016 an initial corpus of `100 crore (US$15 (a century) suggest that while Male New initiatives for Girls’ million). The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Literacy Rates have improved from Education by MHRD and next (BBBP) Scheme was introduced in 10.1 in 1911 to 82.1 in 2011 (increase steps October, 2014 to address the issue of of 71.5 percentage points), Female l Swachh Vidyalaya – for providing declining child sex ratio (CSR). This Literacy Rates have improved from separate toilets for boys and girls is implemented through a national 1.1 in 1911 to 65.5 in 2011 (increase l Bridging modules for girls who join campaign and focused multi-sector of 64.4 percentage points). In terms of KGBV action in 100 selected districts with difference between male and female l Involvement of SMCs and parents for monitoring of KGBVs low CSR, covering all States and UTs. literacy rate for the last century, the l Convergence with other Government It is a joint initiative of the Ministry of same has increased from 9.5 percentage schemes Women and Child Development, the points in 1911 to 16.6 percentage l Maintenance of student profile in Ministry of Health and Family Welfare points in 2011. Data disaggregated KGBVs and the Ministry of Human Resource by social category suggests that the Development. female literacy rates are 56.5 per cent and 49.4 per cent for SCs and STs nutrition, adolescent reproductive and recent achievements and respectively which is lower than the sexual health, family and child care. challenges overall female literacy rate (65.5 per The programme also aims at upgrading cent). As per Census 2011, Kerala has their home-based skills, life skills and India is home to more than one- vocational skills. The project will also third illiterates (287 million5) of the the largest literacy rate in the country include bringing back the out-of-school 774 million illiterate adults worldwide. with overall literacy rate of 94 (Male adolescent girls under the ambit of Out of total illiterates in the world, 96.1; Female 92.1) which is followed formal and non-formal education. The two-third are females. It is estimated by Lakshadweep, Mizoram, Goa and adolescent girls will also be guided that 50 per cent of illiterate are never Tripura. On the parameter of literacy about the existing public services, such enrolled and another 50 per cent are rate, among the top 10, there are 6 as primary health centres, post offices, late entrants and early dropouts from UTs and 4 States (Kerala, Mizoram, banks, police stations and others. the school. Goa and Tripura). The same 4 States top the chart among States for female Beti Bachao Beti Padhao aims to There has been significant literacy as well. On the other hand, generate awareness and improve the improvement in literacy rates Bihar has lowest female literacy efficiency of welfare services meant for both among males and females. A rate (51.5) followed by Rajasthan, women. The scheme was launched with comparison between 1911 and 2011 Jharkhand and Jammu and Kashmir. Among the ten States with lowest female literacy rates are a mix of SC dominated (Bihar, Rajasthan, UP), ST dominated (MP, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Arunachal Pradesh) and Muslim dominated State (J&K). Therefore, there is no peculiarity in the states with low literacy rates. Among the few positive signs, first is, during the past decade these State have made significant progress (mostly double digit) and secondly, India has added 217 million literates into the society during the last decade where females Figure 2: Literacy rate (India) (110 million) outnumbered males (107 100 million). 82.1 80 65.5 Out-of-School Girls 60 34.4 As per the recent study 40 commissioned by MHRD6 there are 20 9.8 10.6 13.0 more than 6.01 million out of school 0.6 1.1 0 children which is about 3 per cent of the total population. The percentage of Male Female out of school children was estimated
Figure 2: Literacy rate (India) 100YOJANA September 2016 59 82.1 80 65.5 60 40 34.4 20 9.8 10.6 13.0 0.6 1.1 0
Male Female cent females are school drop-outs. As Figure 3 % Girls in Govt and Private Schools (UDISE- 2014-15) per the report, the top five reasons for girls remaining out of school includes: 50.8 49.5 Poverty/Economic reason (23.9 per 50.4 48.7 cent), Child is not interested in studies 43.7 44.4 (17.5 per cent), Child to supplement 42.9 43.2 Household income (11.6 per cent), Child suffers from some disability or poor health (10.8 per cent) and Primary Upper Primary Secondary Higher Needed to help in domestic work (8.7 per cent). Secondary Government Schools Private Schools The average annual dropout rate calculated using the UDISE 2014-15 data suggests that there is not much to be about 7 per cent in 2006 and 4.2 the percentage of girls at higher grades deviation between boys' and girls' per cent in 2009 through the similar have increased substantially over the dropout rate at all levels. However, survey. The gender distribution of last decade. For example, percentage the overall dropout rate is found to be out of school children suggests that girls at class 8 levels have increased much higher at upper primary level there are more out of school girls from 45 per cent in 2005-06 to 49 per (boys 3.1 per cent, girls 4.5 per cent). (3.23 per cent) than boys (2.77 per cent in 2013-14. Probably, this is the level where the cent). Highest percentage of out of focus needs to be increased. This is the school girls are reported in the State of Dropouts stage where school distances increase7, Rajasthan (7.5 per cent) Uttarakhand Notwithstanding various girls undergo biological changes and (5.2 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (4.6 programmes and measure taken to social access to schooling facility also per cent). On the other hand, there are needs to be ensured. States like Mizoram and Kerala which improve girls’ participation in schools, have lower percentage of out of school the higher dropout rates are still cause Figure 5 provides some details girls than boys. Higher proportion for concern. Estimates from MHRD’s on the interplay between wealth and of the out-of-school girls are due to 2014 report on out-of-school children other key inequalities that persist, by reasons of need for help in domestic (OOSC) suggest that out of total OOSC showing NARs for these groups. Figure work or to take care of siblings, as about 36.5 per cent male and 37.5 per 5 shows that the ‘other’ caste group, outlined in the report. The pattern of percentage of out-of-school girls is not Figure 4: Average annual dropout rates (UDISE 2014-15) very different in rural (3.36 per cent) 27.4 27.0 and urban (2.86 per cent) areas. 30.0 25.0 17.9 17.8 19.0 18.3 20.0 Percentage of Girls in Schools 15.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.9 10.0 4.5 3.1 4.1 4.5 4.4 3.8 3.9 5.0 Consequent to various national 5.0 level programmes, the percentage of 0.0 Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls girls has increased substantially at all levels. Particularly during the Sarva Overall SC ST Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) the percentage Primary Upper Primary Secondary of girls at upper primary level increased substantially from 45.8 in 2005-06 to Figure 5: Net attendance ratio by gender, caste and wealth group-Secondary 48.2 per cent. 80 60 As per the UDISE 2014-15 data 40 20 there is a stark difference in parentage 0 of girls’ enrolment in government Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male and private schools. The difference can be noticed at all levels (Primary, scheduled tribe scheduled caste other backward caste others Upper Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary). However, the difference Q1 (Poorest) Q5 (Richest) decreases as well move to higher levels of education. It is pertinent to note that Source: Estimates based on 71st round unit level data
60 YOJANA September 2016 those not traditionally marginalised, for those aged 12-25 years in the much higher for females compared to are somewhat better off than the rest population in 2007 and 2014, by males when it is compared between of the categories. However, what the gender and wealth group. There poorest and the richest category. The figures show clearly is that the largest has been significant improvement difference in completion of primary difference, no matter the social group in the completion rates both at schooling between wealth groups for or areas of residence, is by poverty primary and upper primary level. male was observed to be 18 points, status, with those in the poorest The progress has been impressive whereas for females it was 27 points quintile always significantly worse for girls. The overall gender disparity in 2014. off than those in the richest quintile. in completion of primary schooling The inequality is not only limited This message is further indicated in declined from 10 percentage point to to completion rates of primary Table 1, through evidence that richest 5 percentage point between 2007 and and upper primary, this extends SC girls have a 20 percentage points 2014. The decline has been observed to secondary level as well. There higher net attendance ratio than to the across wealth groups. However, exists significant inter-state gender poorest girls belonging the ‘others’ the wealth difference (Q5-Q1) in base difference in the grade 10 (more privileged) caste category. completion of primary has remained pass percentage. Assam had the table 1 pres e n t s r a t e s o f quite significant at primary level. highest gender difference in pass completion of primary schooling The difference in completion is percentage of grade 10 among those
Table -1: Inequality in school completion Primary 2007 Primary 2014 Upper Primary 2007 Upper Primary 2014 Wealth M F Difference M F Difference M F Difference M F Difference Group (Male-Female) (Male-Fe- (Male- (Male- male) Female) Female) Q1 72 54 18 77 67 10 46 27 19 77 65 12 Q2 77 64 13 85 79 6 54 39 15 86 78 8 Q3 81 71 11 88 83 5 60 48 12 89 83 6 Q4 85 78 7 90 87 3 68 58 10 92 88 4 Q5 92 87 5 95 94 1 81 76 5 96 94 2 Overall 83 73 10 87 82 5 64 53 11 88 82 6 Differ- 20 33 18 27 35 49 19 29 ence (Q5-Q1)
Source: Calculation based on NSS 64th (2007) and 71st (2014) round unit level data
Figure 6: Inequality in Pass percentage: Grade 10 by gender and State
100 80 60 40 20 0 BIHAR BIHAR ASSAM ASSAM ORISSA ORISSA KERALA KERALA PUNJAB PUNJAB GUJARAT GUJARAT HARYANA HARYANA RAJASTHAN RAJASTHAN KARNATAKA KARNATAKA JHARKHAND JHARKHAND TELANGANA TELANGANA TAMIL NADU TAMIL TAMIL NADU TAMIL WEST BENGAL WEST WEST BENGAL WEST MAHARASHTRA MAHARASHTRA UTTAR PRADESH UTTAR UTTAR PRADESH UTTAR ANDHRA PRADESH ANDHRA ANDHRA PRADESH ANDHRA MADHYA PRADESH MADHYA PRADESH MADHYA JAMMU & KASHMIR & JAMMU JAMMU & KASHMIR & JAMMU HIMACHAL PRADESH HIMACHAL PRADESH HIMACHAL
State board Non-State Board
Male Female
Source: Calculation based on UDISE data 2014-15
YOJANA September 2016 61 who appeared from State board. This are usually with high opportunity school education. Opportunity cost result is significant for the reason that cost of schooling; of girl’s labour and early marriages girls have lower pass percentages in iii. presence of large number of underage continue to be serious challenges. States that have typical characteristics and overage girls at elementary This is aggravated by the fact of under development. level (caused by delayed/early entry of schools not being inclusive and safe spaces for girls. While There is encouraging evidence in in school and repetition) presents pedagogic challenges; schemes like KGBVs and NPEGEL relation to the academic achievement. have been successful, their reach iv. Despite improvements in the As per the latest National Achievement has been limited in numbers. The enrolment rates, the inequality in Survey of Class X students, conducted larger education delivery system completion of school education still by NCERT, girls’ learning achievement must respond to these barriers more is no inferior to boys. Overall mean remains a concern. These features effectively to retain the girls in the score for girls in English Language of elementary education in India schooling system, after enrolment8. is 252 as compared to boys’ 248. determine the profile of students Similarly, mean score in Modern Indian entering secondary education. Role of education in enhancing women Language (MIL) girls’ score is 254 and empowerment can only be realized The results presented in this boys’ score is 246. However, scores with strong efforts towards expanding are exactly equal (250 each) for boys paper suggest that disparity in the equality of opportunities. National and and girls in Mathematics, Science and participation measured in terms of State governments have initiated girls Social Science. net attendance ratio has remained centric programmes to foster gender quite high. The net attendance ratio of parity and uplift the status of women Conclusion and recommendations: girls has remained significantly lower in the society. The central message compared to that of boys. The pattern from the above analysis is that richest This paper has explored is quite stark with reference to the sections are the ones to get benefited participation in schooling in India, socially disadvantaged section of the first by the expansion, therefore, starting off with answering the society. The interaction between caste creating more pro-poor based policies question, what are the patterns of and economic status has resulted in the are much needed instrument to reduce literacy rates in India and how the persistence of inequality. The disparity gender disparity further. participation in school education in participation needs to be looked not in India and how have they been only by identifying difference between Endnotes changing? The analysis in this paper male and female participation but also 1. World Atlas of Gender Equality in has focused on identifying key issues compare participation of girls in the Education, 2012, UNESCO that represents gender context in socially disadvantaged group with education. As discussed in previous 2. Photo credit: http://interactioninstitute. participation of other caste group sections, India has made significant org/illustrating-equality-vs-equity/ girls. progress in improving basic education 3. National Policy on Education 1986 (as indicators over the last two decades. Moreover, inequality is observed modified in 1992) Average educational attainment of to have persisted with reference to 4. Some inputs for draft NEP 2016, the population is increasing, and location. It is observed that girls in MHRD demand for enrolments is gradually urban areas are somewhat better off 5. Source: Adult and Youth Literacy, shifting from the elementary to the than rural areas. Overall, it is observed National, regional and global trends, secondary level. However, there that, in most cases, girls are somewhat 1985-2015 remain substantial challenges, if the worse off than boys. Further, this is 6. National Sample Survey of Estimation goal of equal education opportunity is evident that richest SC girls have of Out-of-School Children in the Age to be achieved. It is important to note a 20 percentage point’s higher net 6-13 in India that in fact, almost universal gross attendance ratio than the poorest enrolment rates at elementary level girls belonging to the ‘others’ (more 7. Most States have defined neighborhood hide important following facts: privileged) caste category. norms as 1 KM for primary and 3KM for upper primary school under the RTE i. although there has been increase in The inequality in completion of Act. enrolment rates, girls are enrolled in different levels of education is also grades much lower than they should 8. Shalender Sharma, Crossing Barriers: observed to have persisted over the be given their age; Access to Education (Challenges), years. Girls continue to experience Yojana, January 2016 q ii. those who eventually complete the disparity when compared with elementary cycle have spent much males. Of greater concern is the (E-mail: [email protected] longer than they should, hence they wealth inequality in completion of [email protected])
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YOJANA September 2016 63 towards a safer future demographics Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Appraisal
Subhash Sharma
rench Revolution of 20 per cent to 50 per cent. Second, 1789 is considered this discrimination exists both in rural as the liberation of and urban areas though in urban areas mankind but it did not a both males and females get more liberate the women wages than in rural areas. Further, with F and slaves because its the increase in the level of education, declaration focused only on ‘Rights the wages of both men and women of Man and Citizen’, while women workers rise and the wage difference and slaves were not included in the between the two sexes narrows definition of ‘citizen’ and women down. There are three inter-related were not ‘men’. If we look at the processes: a) feminisation of poverty; Holistic and critical male-female interaction in biological, b) casualisation, informalisation and empowerment of women social-cultural, economic, political contractualisation of jobs, especially and spatial dimensions, we find for women, and c) sexual exploitation (being 48 per cent of various forms rang from difference, of women- increasing trend of total population) is the distance, discrimination, deprivation trafficking of girls/women, call girls need of the hour wherein to disempowerment, specially in the and prostitutes multiplying. context of rural Indian society. all stakeholders should The health situation of women is have synergy for concrete Male-female relationship is not still not satisfactory in India; maternal egalitarian in India in different arenas mortality rate declined from 301 action on the ground, of everyday life because males are per lakh in India in 2000 to 167 in especially for security, considered ‘be-all’ and ‘end-all’ 2013 due to better medical facilities. inclusion & development of family decisions. For instance, However, thousands of women still at national level, girls are lagging die in delivery complications due to and both women and men behind boys in school enrolment – following major causes: Haemorrhage will have to work together 95.4 per cent in 6-9 years, 93.7 per – 30 per cent, Anaemia – 19 per in supplementary and cent in 10-14 years and 83.8 per cent cent, Sepsis- 16 per cent, Obstructed collaborative partnership in 15-17 years age groups. Top five labour – 10 per cent, Toxaemia – 8 States in girls’ education are Kerala, per cent, Others – 17 per cent. This with each other. Maharashtra, Tamil nadu, Telangana, is due to poverty, unemployment, lack Undoubtedly women’s and Jammu & Kashmir, while five of awareness, and lack of medical emancipation should adapt bottom States are Rajasthan, Gujarat, facilities (less hospitals, beds, doctors, Odisha, M.P. & U.P. Despite Equal nurses, medicines etc.). Institutional a strategy of ‘think globally, Remuneration Act 1948, for the same deliveries, however, increased during act locally’ work, women (cutting across all 2006-2011 from 42 per cent to 84 per castes, regions and religions) are paid cent in India as a whole due to National lower wages than men ranging from Rural Health Mission. The author is Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor, Ministry of I&B. He has also authored a number of books and articles on environmental issues in national and international journals.
64 YOJANA September 2016 Next issue is the increasing crime Departments. Ministry of Women third goal is directly concerned with rate against women in India, especially and Child Development was made the women’s empowerment: eliminate rape, kidnapping, molesting, eve- Nodal Ministry to review its progress. gender disparity in primary and teasing, dowry deaths etc. In 2013, Highlights of Policy are: secondary education at all levels of 3.095 lakh total crimes were reported a) Advancement, development & education by 2015. But we could against women but conviction rate empowerment of women in all not achieve gender parity in school was unsatisfactory – 22 per cent in spheres of life; education by 2015, though there 2013, 21 per cent in 2012 and 27 is improvement in enrolment of per cent in 2011 (then there were b) More responsive judicial legal girls at all levels in all regions and 500 fast track courts in 2011 against systems sensitive to women’s communities in India. Again we could needs; 212 such courts only in 2013-14). not achieve the target of reducing During 2001-13, there were 2.63 c) Women’s equality in power- infant, child and maternal mortality lakh rape cases registered in India sharing and active participation though decline in these took place. and at every 20 minutes, one rape in decision-making; Similarly, women’s participation in case occurs in India. Unfortunately d) Mainstreaming a gender employment and decision-making is 65 per cent cases of rape occur while perspective in development not satisfactory though the champions women go to attend call of nature process; of liberalisation, privatisation and at night in India (still 50 per cent globalisation had boasted generating e) Strengthening & formation population goes for open defecation). of massive employment. In reality, Moreover, many such crimes are there has been a ‘jobless growth’ not reported to police stations due ...more resources, motivation for most of the sectors of Indian to lack of awareness, fear from the and consciousness-raising for economy, now manufacturing is accused/criminals, non-cooperation education and employment of improving. According to Tendulkar of the local police, fear of bad name Committee on poverty line, 29.8 in community etc. Further, there is women is the need of the hour by making education up to degree per cent of population (35 crores) an increase in gang rape cases and lived below poverty line in 2009-10. often accompanied with murder of level free, better school/college The situation seems to be more or the female victims-Nirbhaya’s gang infrastructure (buildings, toilets, less same despite relatively a high rape and murder in New Delhi on libraries, safe drinking water etc), growth rate of more than 7.5 per 16th December 2012 led the mass cent from 2002 to 2015. Sustainable participation in the protest and adequate trained teachers and Development Goals (by 2030) target ultimately, the accused were awarded organised drive for up-skilling, for bringing down MMR to 70, IMR death sentence except one adolescent re-skilling, and multi-skilling in to 12 and child mortality rate to 25 accused but their appeals are still all schools and colleges- including and universal health coverage to all, pending in Supreme Court. reorienting and reorganising inclusive and common education to National Policy for Industrial Training Institutes and all, to bring equality among men and Empowerment of Women (2001): Polytechnics for women in trades women, and to prevent all types of This policy envisages to create Gender violence against girls and women. Development Indices (GDI) for better demanded by the market, state planning, programme formulation and and civil society. Undoubtedly, educated/working adequate allocation of resources, and women prefer small family through late marriage, spacing, sterilisation collection of gender disaggregated of relevant institutional etc. Hence more resources, motivation data. National Council (headed by mechanism; Prime Minister) and State Council and consciousness-raising for f) Partnership with community – (headed by Chief Minister) was to education and employment of women based organisations and; be formed including representatives is the need of the hour by making of concerned Deptts/Ministries, g) Implementation of international education up to degree level free, National/State Commissions for obligations, commitments & better school/college infrastructure Women, Social Welfare Boards, cooperation at the international, (buildings, toilets, libraries, safe NGOs, women’s organisations, trade national and sub-regional levels, drinking water etc), adequate trained unions, corporate sector, financing especially CEDAW, CRC & teachers and organised drive for institutions, academics, experts etc. RCDD+5. up-skilling, re-skilling, and multi- skilling in all schools and colleges- Women’s Component Plan is to United Nations Development including reorienting and reorganising ensure 30 per cent of funds/ benefits Programme declared eight Millennium Industrial Training Institutes and flow to women from all Ministries/ Development Goals (MDG) and the
YOJANA September 2016 65 Polytechnics for women in trades HIV without support/deserted) was b) Access to decision-making demanded by the market, state and launched by central government in regarding children (with whom, civil society. A new Ministry of Skill 2001-2 for shelter, food, clothing if when and how many); Development and Entrepreneurship and care to the marginalised girls/ c) Access to sex education and has been created. women, to provide emotional information on sexuality; support for their rehabilitation, to Central Government’s Schemes arrange clinical & legal support, d) Access to (reproductive) health for Women: and to provide helpline to women care for parents and children; SABLA (Rajiv Gandhi Scheme in distress, Now, 311 Swadhar e) Access to alternative roles, other for Empowerment of Adolescent homes are functioning under the than motherhood / fatherhood; Girls) has been implemented in aegis of State government’s Women f) Access to economic resources. 205 selected districts of India Development Corporations or trusts However, these days publicity through ICDS- 100 per cent central etc. During 2013-14 against the of family welfare measures is not assistance for other than nutrition budgetary provision of 75 crores for Swadhar, total expenditure was prominent as earlier, hence to be (iron & folic acids, health check up Rs. 53.74 crore & during 2014-15, highlighted. & referral services, counselling on its budget was 115 crore. Fourth, family welfare, child care practices, Second, both Union and State Ujjwala is a scheme to combat life skill to 11-18 yrs old girls and governments should certainly ensure trafficking of women (since 2007), vocational training to 16-18 yrs 30 per cent funding for women at focusing on prevention, rescue, old girls) and 50 per cent central the grassroots. Emphasis on jobs rehabilitation, reintegration, and assistance for nutrition. During in organised sector should be given repatriation of trafficked victims. 2014-15 (up to 31.12.2014), 98.15 priority by all government agencies During 2014-15, 289 projects were lakh beneficiaries were covered and private sector should be more sanctioned (including 165 protective for nutrition and 0.42 lakh girls open to recruit women for ensuring and rehabilitative homes with were provided vocational training. genuine gender justice as corporate outlay of Rs. 16 crore. Fifth, STEP One success story relates to Kajal social responsibility. Self-help groups (support to training and employment Bhagat in English bazar in Malda have not succeeded due to non- programme) for women was launched district, West Bengal who refused cooperation of banks for financing. in 1986-87 as a central sector scheme to marry before 18 yrs and leave the to provide skills to women above 16 Third issue of women’s school education due to inspiration yrs of age. During 2013-14, Rs. 7 representation in decision-making from Angarwadi worker. Second, crores were released to different legislative bodies has not been Matritva Sahyog yojana was at States. Sixth, by December 31, 2014 realised so far though reservation first implemented in 53 selected there were 915 working women’s for women bill in both Lok Sabha districts in India through ICDS. hostels with 68631 working women and State Assemblies was passed in Pregnant women of 19 yrs of age residing there. During 2014-15, the 2010 by Rajya Sabha but not passed and above for first two live births get budgetary allocation for construction by Lok Sabha as yet. Maharashtra, Rs. 6000/- in two equal instalments of working women’s hostels was Rs. Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, M.P., per head during pregnancy and 25 crores, Finally, Six Stree Shakti and Rajasthan provide 50 per cent lactation (a central sponsored scheme Puraskars are given at national level reservation for women in panchayati since 2010-11). It was expanded to to individuals/organizations with a raj, other States provide 1/3rd 200 additional districts and in 2016- prize of Rs. 3 lakh each, one Rajya reservation. 17, it was extended to all districts. Mahila Samman (Rs. 40,000/-) for During 2015-16, its central share was each State and UT, and one Zila Fourth, thousands of widows Rs. 1497 crore as per provisions of Mahila Samman (Rs. 20,000/-) for in Vrindavan (U.P.) alone are National Food Security Act (2013). each district. Beti Bachao, Beti living a neglected and inhuman Third, Swadhar scheme for women Padhao (save daughter, educate life (begging for food, clothes and in difficult circumstances (deserted daughter) is a flagship Scheme of shelter, grabbing of Ashram lands widows, released women prisoners, the central government. by mafia builders resulting into homeless women surviving from shelterlessness, no old age/widow national disasters, trafficked women Recommendations: pension to all, sexual exploitation, rescued/runaway from brothels, having no voting identity cards, no Van Staveren rightly suggests women victims of terrorist/extremist ration cards and finally no adequate six entitlements to women related to violence without support/means, facility for last rites after death). reproductive freedom: mentally challenged women without Similarly, the condition of thirty support, and women with AIDS/ a) Access to contraceptives; lakhs of prostitutes is worse in red
66 YOJANA September 2016 Table 2 : Type of Approach in Different Plans in India
Approaches Processed Plans 1.Welfare Approach Stipends to girls for education, especially homescience, 1st to 5th plans (1951-1979) sewing, embroidery 2.Women in Development Removal of poverty, education & health 6th& 7th plans (1980-1990) 3.Women’s Empowerment To address women’s felt needs, gender perspective in 8th plan (1992-97) development process 4.Women as agents of change To help poor women through self-help groups- women’s 9th plan (1997-2002) component plan 5.Human Development monitorable targets for reduction in gender gaps in 10th& 11th plans (2002-2012) literacy, wage rates & maternal mortality rate 6.Gender Equity Inclusiveness of all categories of vulnerable women 12th plan (2012-17) light areas all over the country. 67 per cent in Bangladesh and by up such courts in time. Union Law They need to be rehabilitated with 66 per cent in Nepal, because India and Justice Ministry allocated funds alternative modes of livehood on spends only 1.3 per cent of GDP on up to a maximum of Rs. 80 crores priority basis. health while Britain spends 7.6 per annually on a matching basis from cent and US spends 8.1 per cent of States. Earlier in 2011 when Union Fifth, the situation of women GDP on health. Per head expenditure govt ran fast track courts fully, farmers and agricultural labourers on health is also unsatisfactory: there were 500 such courts in India. has also worsened mainly due to $ 61 in India, $ 102 in Sri Lanka, Therefore, there is a need for 80 per natural calamities like floods and $ 3598 in Britain and $ 9146 in cent funding from Govt. of India for drought, unequal terms of trade US. Health insurance in India is smooth functioning of such courts between agricultural produces/ only 18 per cent. Pradhan Mantri so that conviction rate for rape may artisans’ services and industrial Suraksha Bima Yojana and Pradhan substantially increase from merely products, high rate of inflation 22 per cent in 2013. U. P. govt. took (largely due to black marketing by Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Yojana are good a decision in August 2014 to open stockists, middlemen traders), low beginning in this regard. Similarly, one fast track court in every district. and unequal wages, poor health Mission Indradhanush with seven In 2012 in India, there were 8233 and sanitation etc. There were vaccinations for children is also a dowry deaths and during 2001-2012, 6000 maternal deaths in 2013-14 in step in the right direction. Swach there were 91202 dowry deaths in Bihar, but only 352 were reported Bharat is equally appreciable as total but the conviction rate in dowry by district officials, as admitted by spending one dollar on sanitation deaths is just 15 per cent because State Health Society of Bihar (Times saves 9 dollars on health, education the law enforcement machinery and of India, 31.08.2014). As anecdote and economic development. In goes, about 300 years ago, Mumtaj India, out of 640 districts, only 193 courts are not sincere. but there are Mahal, queen of Mughal emperor have medical colleges and hospitals many false cases of dowry also. (for tertiary health). In India 70- Shahjahan, died of child birth and Holistic and critical empowerment he built Taj Mahal at Agra in her 80, per cent of medical facilities of women (being 48 per cent of memory while almost at the same are provided by the private sector. total population) is the need of time, a Swedish queen had delivery Hence, the public sector expenditure the hour wherein all stakeholders complications and the king called should be increased to 2.5 - 3 per should have synergy for concrete French doctors to save her and later cent of GDP. action on the ground, especially for set up nursing schools to train rural We find different approach in security, inclusion & development women to attend delivery cases. focus in different plans (Table2 and both women and men will have At present, Sweden has the lowest below): to work together in supplementary MMR (8) and IMR (5) whereas and collaborative partnership with India has very high IMR (38 in 2014, Finally, only 16 States set up each other. Undoubtedly women’s while in Bangladesh 31 and in Nepal 212 fast track courts in the entire emancipation should adapt a strategy 29) and MMR 167 (in 2013). During country for trial of crime cases of ‘think globally, act locally’. q 1990-2012, IMR declined in India against women and surprisingly even by 50 per cent while it declined by U.P., Bihar and Gujarat did not set (E-mail: [email protected])
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